Structure

Definitions of structure in general

"A structure is a specific grouping of elements that can perform a task that none
of the elements can accomplish individually".
OR:
The whole is larger than the sum of the parts.
Examples:
An Arch
A wood frame house
A sentence

DEFINITION OF STRUCTURE
 A structure is an arrangement of elements that resists loads.
 A structure is an element or a set (group) of elements that withstand
(support) loads without breaking or distorting (disforming) excessively (too
much).

Requirement for an architectural structure.

 Strength: The ability to sustain load.

 Stiffness: Push per move; the ratio of deformation to associated load level.
 Stability: The ability of a structure to maintain position and geometry.
Instability involves collapse that is not initiated by material failure. External
stability concerns the ability of a structure's supports to keep the structure
in place; internal stability concerns a structure's ability to maintain its
shape.
Difference between human structure and architecture
structure.

We are completely enmeshed in structures of a most varied nature. Gravity nicely

holds us tied to the ground, while our own muscle power operates the levers of
our arms, legs, hands, feet and spine that, combined, allow us to move around.
Our ear has an ability to pick up vibrations in the air and our eyes can pick up
different frequencies of light, our nose can identify a myriad of smells, and our
brain can interpret all this information almost instantaneously. Our sense of
balance indicates automatically where we are with respect to the horizon, even
when we are moving. We inhale oxidants which we mix with our blood to power
ourselves, and we grow and can repair ourselves, we can reproduce, and we are
even aware of ourselves.... yes we are quite a structure

In comparison, what we ask from the architectural structures we design is very

simple: Stay where we put you, and resist the loads that are put on you, be they
compression or tension, shear or torsion or be they a combination of those
forces. Also we don't want our structures to burn, to decay, to deform or to
shake noticeably
Structure and materials.

 Unlike language, philosophy, religion and mathematics, architectural

structures only exist in physical materials. Hence knowing the properties of
materials is of the greatest importance to an architect.
 Basic material properties are only part of the problem. How to find and
extract, how to shape, how to connect, how to maintain, how to dispose of
materials are some of the aspects of the technology of materials science.
 Tools and methods are another aspect that greatly influences how
materials are turned into structures. For instance, the use of calculation
made very large structures possible in the 19th century, while the use of
computers in imaging and manufacturing is revolutionizing architecture and
engineering as we speak.
Some concepts.

 A force is a push or pull that tends to cause an object to change its

movement or shape
 A load is an external force which acts on a structure. (e.g. weight)
 An stress is an internal force which acts on a structure.

What does it mean to withstand a load?

 Structures withstand loads if they can support all the forces acting on them
without collapsing or breaking.
TYPES OF LOADS.

 a load is an external force which acts on a structure.

 Loads are classified in:
 Static (or Dead) load: is a permanent force, acting on a structure.
 This includes the weight of the structure itself and the non-moving parts it
supports.
 Dynamic (or Live) load: is a changing, or non-permanent force acting on a
structure.
 This includes the force of the wind and the weight of things that are in, or
on a structure.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES.

 We can classified them attending to their origin.

 Natural structures: exist in the Nature.
 Manufactured structures: are built by people.

NATURAL STRUCTURES.

 Are not made by people.

 Occur naturally in the environment.
 Examples:
 Skeleton
 Nest
 Egg shell
MANUFACTURED STRUCTURES.

Are built by people.

Are classified in:

Mass Structures.
Solid (mass): made almost entirely of matter.

Frame Structures.
Frame: made of separate members (usually thin pieces) put together.

Shell Structures.
Shell: encloses or contains its contents.

Types of Structural Systems in Architecture.

Many different structural systems are used in architecture. The type of system
used depends on the building's needs. The height of the building, its load bearing
capacity, the soil specifications and the building materials all dictate the proper
structural system needed for a building. In particular, structural systems have
evolved to focus on building up as undeveloped land has become scarce.
Within the context of the built environment, the term ‘structure’ refers to anything that is
constructed or built from interrelated parts with a fixed location on the ground. This
includes buildings, but can refer to any body that is designed to bear loads, even if it is
not intended to be occupied by people (engineers sometimes refer to these as 'non-
building' structures – such as bridges, tunnels, and so on).
Structures can be classified in a number of ways:

1: Rock and Stone.

2: Wood Frame.
3: Flat Plate System
4: Precast Concrete.
5: Reinforced Concrete.
6: Prestressed Concrete.
7: Shell.
8: Membrane.
9: Composite.
10: Tensile.
11: Steel Truss and Frame.

Structural System Elements

a) Beam and Column
b) Frame
c) Truss
d) Arch
e) Wall and Plate
f) Cylindrical Shell and Vault
g) Spherical Shell and Dome
h) Cable and Rod
i)Membrane Tent and Net
Wood Frame

A wood frame is a type of lightweight structural system. Wood frame

constructions are frequently used for office buildings, schools, government
buildings, retail buildings, apartments and homes. Buildings with wood-based
structural systems are strong and lightweight, which make them very stable in
areas that experience earthquakes. How strong the wood is depends on the
condition of the wood frame, any knots or splits in the wood, the moisture
content of the wood and the direction of the grain.

Precast Concrete

Precast concrete can be used as part of a structural system or as a complete

structural system. A precast system uses precast columns, load bearing precast
walls, hollow core or double tee flooring and beams with cladding. Precast
systems offer several advantages because they are fast to construct. The precast
sections can be made as soon as the builder obtains the permits, and then the
building can be erected immediately. This fast construction makes it possible to
speedily enclose the building so interior tradesmen can start work sooner.
Steel and Concrete

Steel and concrete structural systems are a type of composite system. This type of
system can combine structural steel framing with concrete tubes or concrete
shear walls with a steel frame. This system is frequently used to construct tall
buildings, such as high-rises. The steel and concrete can resist stress from wind
and gravity.
Shear Frame

A shear frame structural system is one in which the joints are placed in orthogonal
directions. This helps the building resist wind force from any direction. The wind
resistance is due to bending of the frame columns and shears. Many times these
systems create grid-like surfaces, particularly when lightweight building material
is used. Ultimately, deeper frames mean less bending. This is because more force
is transferred to the bottom of the building. However, at some point the deepness
of the frame will interfere with other building components, such as ductwork and
HVAC systems.
Flat Plate System

The flat plate system was one of the first systems used in high-rise buildings. This
system uses shear heads or reinforced steel at the columns, and then flat plates
between the columns. These flat rate plates are typically made of concrete and
modern versions can be precast. The design uses bars that form concentric rings
that are then strengthened with orthogonal and diagonal bars between the
columns. The thickness of the plate is a main factor in determining the load
bearing of the frame.
Shell roof

Shell roofs are made from structural ‘skins’ where the shell material is thin
in section relative to the other dimensions of the roof and undergoes relatively
little deformation under load.
They are commonly used where a building interior needs to be free from
intermediate walls or columns that might support a more conventional flat
or pitched roof, such as; libraries, theatres, leisure
centres, airport and railway terminals, and so on.
Shell roofs can be ‘flat’, but are typically curved, assuming a cylindrical, domed,
paraboloid or ellipsoid shape. The curvature of shell structures benefits from the
same structural efficiency as arches, which are pure compression forms with no
tensile stresses. Because of their structural efficiency less material is generally
needed compared to more traditional roofs. However, a restraining structure such
as an edge beams is required to prevent the shell from ‘spreading’.
Membrane structures

Membrane structures are spatial structures made out of tensioned membranes. The
structural use of membranes can be divided into pneumatic structures, tensile
membrane structures, and cable domes. In these three kinds of structure, membranes
work together with cables, columns and other construction members to find a form.
Membranes are also used as non-structural cladding, as at the Beijing National
Stadium where the spaces between the massive steel structural members are infilled
with PTFE coated glass fiber fabric and ETFE foil. The other major building on the site,
built for the 2008 Summer Olympics, is the Beijing National Aquatics Center, also
known as the Water Cube. It is entirely clad in 100,000 square metres of inflated ETFE
foil cushions arranged as an apparently random cellular structure.

Tensile structures

Conventional structures tend to be stabilised by the action of gravity on their mass

holding them in compression.
A tensile structure is a structure that is stabilised by tension rather than
compression. For example, a piece of fabric pulled in opposite directions.
In practice, structures tend to carry both tension and compression, and it is the
degree to which a structure is intentionally tensioned to stabilise it that
determines whether it is considered a tensile structure.
Tensioning, is usually achieved with wire or cable, opposed by
compression elements such as masts, and held in place by foundations,
ring beams, ground anchors and so on. Tensioning can also be achieved
through inflation.
Structures with tension elements include:
 Fabrics structures.
 Cable net structures.
 Suspension bridges.
Composite Structures

A composite material is a combination of two or more

constituent materials which have improved characteristics when together than
they do apart. Composites are often composed of a 'matrix'
and reinforcement fibres.
The matrix is often a form of resin which keeps the reinforcement fibres in
position and bonding them together so that loads can be effectively transferred.
The properties of the composite can be influenced by cutting, aligning and placing
the reinforcement fibres in different ways.One of the main advantage of
using composites is that the reinforcement and matrix combination can be
altered according to the required properties
There are many different types of composites which can be used for a wide range
of construction and engineering purposes. Concrete is the most
common composite material, consisting of aggregate held with cement as the
matrix. Other common types of compositesinclude:
 Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP).
 Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP).
 Glass-fibre-reinforced plastic (GFRP).
 Aramid fibres, such as Kevlar, that are heat-resistant and strong synthetic
fibres often used in aerospace and the military applications.
 Bio-derived polymers or biocomposites.
 PVC polyestyer.
 PTFE glass.