In the concluding installment of this series, we discover the relationship between changing magnetic and electric fields. WILLIAM P, RICE PREVIOUSLY WE DISCUSSED STATIC electric and magnetic fields in empty space and in materials. This month we'll see some effects of changing fields and find out how the E field and B field are so closely related. ‘The changing electric field Recall that the divergence of a field that is the curl of another field is always zero since the curl describes apparent rotation rather than spreading out around a point. Ampere’ law VxH-=J, as developed so far, says that the free current density fs just such a field. Taking the divergence gives DAXH)=T <0 Because electric charge is always a conserved quantity, any net free charge diverging about a point must do so at the expense of the density of free charge at that point ¥ oat ‘This implies that -apyat=0 which says it is impossible to change the free-charge density; a conclusion easily disproven by experiment. Maxwell noted this and concluded that a term must be missing from Ampere’s law. ‘One way to obtain that term is to write wcwamn ed of Be Using Gauss’ law, plus the fact that differentiation is not depen- dent upon the special coordi- nates, the above term can be written within the divergence as eof 252] eoyor [22] Ampere’s law now reads 2 vans, 22 Ampere’ law. as stated above, says that a magnetic field with apparent rotation is present around a small region when el- ther an electric current or a changing electric field is present in that region. This is one of Max- well’ equations, ‘The changing magnetic field Experiments by Faraday showed that electric charges in a coll of wire were subjected to a force wheiever a B field enclosed by the coil changed. That force could be described by a vector equation and an associated field in a manner similar to static charge and constant current cases. However, that would be an unnecessary complication since. as it turns out, the Lorentz force aw Fegie+ (v6) completely describes the force on a charge. Faraday showed that the work per unit charge, called the elec- tromotive force E, in the coll was related to the time-rate of change of the magnetic flux & enclosed by the coil according todo, aie) 282 M8) e ts) where sis the area of the coil, and the current induced in the coil is “EMR, The negative sign is a re- sult of the standard use of the right hand rule and of ener conservation. Rather than apply the right hand rule directly, its easier to use Lenz's law to deter- mine the direction of the elec- tromotive force. Lenz’s law says that E, and hence I, will be in a direction in sucha way to produce a magnetic field that tends to oppose the change in flux. If the negative sign where not included. the equation would say that an in- crease in flux would inerease E, thus increasing the flux thus in- creasing E, and so on. giving an infinite amount of energy from an infinitely small change in &! The opposition is not complete since the induced current dies away rapidly due to the resis- tance once the driving flux is held stable. However, in superconduc- tors, R=0 and the induced cur- rent continues. E fs independent of the, cause of the flux change. Flux change can occur in two basic ways: 1. The source of B could be moved, or in some way, the direc tion or magnitude of B could be changed as in Fig. -a or ‘The coil could be moved, rotat- , or the area of the coil changed as'in Fig. 1-b. Aslong as the time-rate of change of the enclosed flux is the same, the same amount of elec: tromotive force results, ‘The fact that an E field is asso- ciated with the force on an elec- tric charge can be used to account for this force. The work per unit charge required to move the charge from pointa to pointb was discussed previously. Mov- ing the charge around the closed coil and relating this to Farady’s result gives jea-e- _ for) (vetts) ‘The charge doesn’t have to be confined to a conductive coil, the equation is valid for any closed path. The curl of E is found by taking the limit of the ratio of comma METER (a), the driving current is increased resulting in an increasing B fleldor luxinthe areas, Which induces an elecrie feld E. This current produces a magnetic field that tends to ‘Oppose the change in B In (b) the B field is held rea of the coll and thus the flux enclosed by the collis increased by moving the slidewire with velocity v. Achargeon the slide wire experiences aforce F-=qv > B resulting in current This current produces & ‘magnelie field that tende to oppose the Increase in enclosed flux. fE-dL to the area enclosed as and it has curl due to changing thecotl fs shrunkdown around magnetie feld ata point, If there a point is no charge there 1s no diver- ; nice; if there is no change inthe in (Je) Bifetd, there is nocur. it we place once im AE) E field test instruments (electric . charges q) near a point with a dafoenva] changing B field, the charges fn tend to circle around the point. In. ee any case, the force on a charge q ‘The summation by integration is given by the Lorentz force law over the surface [B-ds does not depend upon time, so thederiv- Inductance ative with respect to timecanbe _In the case of a static B field. taken inside the integral inductance was defined as L=/ 1. Fig. 2 shows a coil with chang- im fiers] ing current 1A voltage B wil be FEM ag So ae induced that tends to oppose the ‘The limiting value of the ratiois the time-rate of change of Bat the point so ‘ VxE= ait Vim@=Tis, ; ‘The @ symbolism stresses the fact That tie concern is only with the timetras of change of Band not How B changes romone point ‘space to another. This is Fara- day's law and is one of Maxwell's equations. It says that a chang ing magnetic held (a sanoctated Withanelectte Held whose ap. Parent Touaien about & point : : Proportional to the time-rate of sis ae eae Change of the magnetic field, 0,2 SUE NOUCTANGE OF 4 Cot, Since the curlisnotsero,anciee- siamesta!change ne megntcedt a .—rti—<“—™~—~—S—SrsseSNOC_CSCSN ee ee conservative. Ganenian oe Oppose | ae eas Gauss! law plus Faraday’ law Steeisineratoaftnechange furioan gives'a complete picture ofan anezisbetaing!techangeinfuroan Slctric fed, had a divergence fmmentmacrange i curent, t re dive fo electie charge at a point manera tae achange in I, and hence ®. For the case of changing current, the in- ductance is more properly de- fined as a measure of the ratio of the change in flux to an inf nitesimal change in current. So by Faraday’s result ‘To produce this current, the ex- ternal voltage across the coil must be V= ~E. therefore a vet In the case of two flux-linked cols (Fig. 1-a), the mutual induc- tance Mof the arrangement is de- fined by eau where Iy is the drive current in one coil and E is the elec- tromotive force or voltage mea- sured across the other coil. Roots of Einstein's relativity ‘Suppose the coils are station- ary and the B field is changed in suich a way that there is a certain time-rate of change of enclosed flux, as in case 1 described ear- er. The E field has some curl and the force on a stationary q is gE. Suppose instead that the coil. or some part of it, is moved in a B field, as in case 2, so that there is the same time-rate of change of enclosed flux. A charge q in the coil is moved with a ve- locity v, so it must be that q expe- riences a force F=qvxB. In either case, from the perspective of the coil, the physical effects on q are the same, implying that electric force and magnetic force are really manifestations of the ‘same underlying phenomenon— the electromagnetic force. That is an essential fact of electromag: netic theory that led to Einstein's theory of relativity: Towards a complete picture Faradey’s law relates an electric field to a changing magnetic field; Ampere's law relates a mag- netic field to a changing electric field. A changing electric field is accompanied by a changing mag- netic field and vice versa. The four Maxwells equations give a complete picture of the E and B fields. FIG. 3—AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE in empty ‘shown as solid arrows, and B-ield vectors, shown The simplest example is in Ea empty space where H= 1/j1oB, Web S F D=e,£ and there are no free charges 50 J;=0. Then and since V-B=0, the magneticB field {s completely characterized. Also by Faraday’ law FURTHER READING ‘There are many avaiable books on lecromagnetics. The folowing aro just a VxE= fw the author suggests: a 4. Gitins, David J, Inroduction To Elec : todynamics, Prentice Hall ine, 1981.An and Gauss'law V-B= p/¢,=0, the Undergraduate text with mary intuivei- electric E field is completely Sights nto vector calculus and elec- characterized. tromagnetic theory. Equations are in rallonalzed mks unis as Used her, 2. Jackson, J. D., Classical Elec. Electromagnetic waves Socimanten Ghai naandahe a ‘Maxwell found that because of Sidacguicmeiedensonne| the symmetry In the equations, ‘maltehonynahnies Equsors the combined electric aed mag: Sencuncancqunteyrcnnawce’ etl fields could propagate se rardven in shooretioal waves. It's not easy to see how 3,Sehey HM: DN GRAD, CURL and That Comes about without gen, ‘hort, mathematicaly informal text on ‘ting involved in heavy mathe- (coraiea nehdesilbeestie matics. An electromagnetic Soouudtuihepueedlvaeromr wave howeren een bs picteredes tons Thsbookaleodsewssesthe ol: the simultaneous variation of the TA el er B. Felis and Ee. _el€ctie-field vector and magnet- fee icfeld vector at each point in a fodielon, dom thier kote ieee. -‘Tegion of space through time. Rosai secronaprteheoy tom Fg S shows the changing Band Maswats equatons musts n com: _B ficids as the wave propagates in uatona agetra Liss silable demo empty space, Brogams that dsplay the evtuton ot “Maxwell calculated the velocity wee wel: Janes Cieth, A Teatse on of an electromagnetic wave and ‘andhegeotin Val tangver found it to be a constant in close iD Pibtcabonine Repwicatoncl agreement with the measured te tanga teat Ene. speedof ight, That along with 2 magratcoecs ae deccrbod by use rather large number of exper. Sl atenatcl aries ced iar. ents, notably those performed engandinerew decedieddlsioa. Dy Hera. led to. the Conclusion ecor fol anconptyapice Vests ee that visible light was but a small stra’ and reo prposoe range of wavelengths of elec- tromagnetic waves. Re