CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

On earth we live upon an island of "ordinary" matter. The different states of matter
generally found on earth are solid, liquid, and gas. Sir William Crookes, an English
physicist identified a fourth state of matter, now called plasma, in 1879. Plasma is by far
the most common form of matter. Plasma in the stars and in the tenuous space between
them makes up over 99% of the visible universe and perhaps most of that which is not
visible. Important to ASI's technology ,plasmas are conductive assemblies of charged and
neutral particles and fields that exhibit collective effects. Plasmas carry electrical currents
and generate magnetic fields. When the Plasma Antenna Research Laboratory at ANU
investigated the feasibility of plasma antennas as low radar cross-section radiating
elements, Red centre established a network between DSTO ANU researchers, CEA
Technologies, Cantec Australasia and Neolite Neon for further development and future
commercialization of this technology. The plasma antenna R & D project has proceeded
over the last year at the Australian National University in response to a DSTO (Defense
Science and Technology Organization )contract to develop a new antenna solution that
minimizes antenna detectability by radar. Since then, an investigation of the wider
technical issues of existing antenna systems has revealed areas where plasma antennas
might be useful. The project attracts the interest of the industrial groups involved in such
diverse areas as fluorescent lighting, telecommunications and radar. Plasma antennas
have a number of potential advantages for antenna design .When a plasma element is not
energized, it is difficult to detect by radar. Even when it is energized, it is transparent to
the transmissions above the plasma frequency, which falls in the microwave region.
Plasma elements can be energized and de–energized in seconds, which prevents signal
degradation. When a particular plasma element is not energized, its radiation does not
affect nearby elements. HF CDMA Plasma antennas will have low probability
of intercept (LP) and low probability of detection (LPD) in HF communications.

1
 CHAPTER 2

PLASMA ANTENNA TECHNOLOGY

Since the discovery of radio frequency ("RF") transmission, antenna design has been an
integral part of virtually every communication and radar application. Technology has
advanced to provide unique antenna designs for applications ranging from general
broadcast of radiofrequency signals for public use to complex weapon systems. In its
most common form, an antenna represents a conducting metal surface that is sized to
emit radiation at one or more selected frequencies. Antennas must be efficient so the
maximum amount of signal strength is expended in the propagated wave and not wasted
in antenna reflection.

Fig 1: Ionized gas plasma antenna

Plasma antenna technology employs ionized gas enclosed in a tube (or other enclosure)as
the conducting element of an antenna. This is a fundamental change from traditional

2
antenna design that generally employs solid metal wires as the conducting element.
Ionized gas is an efficient conducting element with a number of important advantages.
Since the gas is ionized only for the time of transmission or reception, "ringing" and
associated effects of solid wire antenna design are eliminated. The design allows for
extremely short pulses, important to many forms of digital communication and radars.
The design further provides the opportunity to construct an antenna that can be compact
and dynamically reconfigured for frequency, direction ,bandwidth , gain and beam width.
Plasma antenna technology will enable antennas to be designed that are efficient, low in
weight and smaller in size than traditional solid wire antennas .When gas is electrically
charged, or ionized to a plasma state it becomes conductive ,allowing radio frequency
(RF) signals to be transmitted or received. We employ ionized gas enclosed in a tube as
the conducting element of an antenna. When the gas is not ionized, the antenna element
ceases to exist. This is a fundamental change from traditional antenna design that
generally employs solid metal wires as the conducting element. We believe our plasma
antenna offers numerous advantages including stealth for military applications and higher
digital performance in commercial applications. We also believe our technology can
compete in many metal antenna applications. Our initial efforts have focused on military
markets. General Dynamics' Electric Boat Corporation sponsored over $160,000 of
development in 2000accounting for substantially all of our revenues .Initial studies have
concluded that a plasma antenna's performance is equal to a copper wire antenna in every
respect. Plasma antennas can be used for any transmission and/or modulation technique:
continuous wave (CW), phase modulation, impulse, AM, FM, chirp ,spread spectrum or
other digital techniques. And the plasma antenna can be used over a large frequency
range up to 20GHz and employ a wide variety of gases (for example neon, argon
,helium, krypton, mercury vapor and xenon). The same is true as to its value as a receive
antenna.

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 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

A 100-400 Watt radio frequency source (3.7 MHz to 32 MHz) is used to form an RF
discharge in various gases, in a 35cm long and 3 cm diameter glass tube. The glass tube
is connected to a combined system of rotary and diffusion pump. The system is evacuated
to a base pressure of 5 x 10-5 mbar, then filled with argon gas to various working
pressures. The discharge is initiated by a single capacitive coupler of length 3.5 cm
mounted at one end of the tube. This capacitive coupler is EM shielded. Plasma column
is also formed with different gases such as air ,nitrogen and oxygen. Experiments are
performed for different plasma conditions. Surface wave is driven by 5 MHz-32 MHz
frequency and 100- 400 watts input power by RF generator. Hence the column is called
the surface wave driven plasma column is shown in Fig.2.

Fig 2: Surface wave driven plasma column

This plasma column acts as antenna due to surface wave induced current. The experiment
is done for showing that plasma column act as antenna, which can be used for
communication.Fig.3 shows the block diagram of communication system with plasma

4
antenna. In this system plasma antenna is used for communication. Duplexer is connected
5cm above from the capacitive coupler because 5cm is the calculated minimum distance
where measurements are not4 affected by EM radiation by capacitive coupler. Duplexer
is the combination of Rx filter of insertion loss 0.2 dB for 49 MHz and 80 dB isolation
for 46 MHz and TX filter of insertion loss0.2 dB for 46 MHz and isolation 80 dB for 49
MHz. The speech or information signal of frequency 300 Hz to 3400 Hz is generated
through MIC. This signal is amplified and filtered by Audio amplifier and filter. The tone
signal of 6 KHz generated through decoders according to hand shaking signals from
singling circuit. The speech signal and handshaking signal are mixed and fed to variac
diode of X-tal oscillator for frequency modulation. Basic frequency is 49/4 MHz,
therefore oscillator frequency 12.25 MHz.

Fig 3: Block diagram of communication system

5
This signal is passed in frequency multiplier by 4. Therefore carrier frequency is 49 MHz
is amplified and fed TX filters of Duplexer. From plasma antenna, 46 MHz passes
through Rx filters of duplexer. This 46 MHz signal send to Mixer. Mixer is consists of
Lower oscillator (LO) which is 10.7 MHz higher than through Low Noise Amplifier
(LNA). Lower oscillator (LO) is10.7 MHz high than RF input and mixed. Lower
oscillator gives 10.7 MHz to Intermediate frequency (IF) filter and amplifier at 46 MHz,
10.7 MHz frequency is filtered and amplified and again it is given to second Mixer to get
455 KHz using Lower oscillator of (10.7 MHz + 544KHz = 11.155 MHz) 11.155 MHz
and IF of 455 KHz. Now 455 KHz IM carries information which is discriminated to get 6
KHz and 300 to 3400 Hz. Audio filter will block 6 KHz and allow 300 – 3400 Hz to go
to audio amplifier and amplified signal send to Loudspeaker. Notch filter will block all
other frequencies than 6 KHz to go to tone decoder to give signal for ring or ON/OFF or
Hook status.

6
 CHAPTER 4

MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS

4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASMA COLUMN:

The plasma column of different gases is characterized by using standard Langmuir probe
of length 5mm and radius 0.3mm. Plasma density and electron temperature is measured.
The probe is inserted from a end of the glass tube. The probe is manually biased
from minus 100 to +100volts. By evaluating the slope of the I-V characteristics, the
electron temperature is obtained. The measured value of the density is computed from
measured ion saturation current. Plasma density and electron temperature are typically
measured as 5.6 x 1010 per cc and 5.5 eV respectively. The plasma density and
temperature of all gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, air and argon are observed to be almost
same for same external parameters and probe position. Fig.4 shows that density profile
along the axis of the glass tube. It is measured by changing the position of the probe from
one end to the other. The plasma density decreases away from the RF exciter, placed at
one end. The plasma density is 8 x 1010 per c.c. at 5 cm and 4 x 1010 per c.c. at 30 cm,
away from the RF exciter.

Fig 4: Axial density profile

7
4.2 SURFACE WAVE DRIVEN PLASMA COLUMN:
The plasma is formed by RF field ( 5 MHz to 32 MHz) at the capacitive coupler. Surface
wave excites at the interface of plasma and glass tube. There is no external magnetic
field. The plasma column of length of 35 cm is formed by surface wave discharge. This
surface wave is driven by 5 to 32 MHz frequency and 100 to 400 watts input power by
RF generator. Hence the column is called the surface wave driven plasma column. The
characterization of surface wave in our system is given below.
The length of plasma column depends on input power used to drive the surface wave.
Fig5 shows that the length of plasma column (0 cm to 35 cm) increases with input power
(0 to 40watt), at constant working pressure.

Fig 5: variation of length of plasma at various input powers

The length of plasma column also depends on working pressure (.02 mbar to .05 mbar) at
constant input power, which is shown in Fig.6. the field components of surface wave are
measured by standard dipole probe and loop probe on the surface of glass tube, that
magnitude of electric and magnetic field decreases along the axis of plasma column
which is shown in (Fig.7).

8
 Fig 6: variation in length of plasma with various power variations

Fig 7: Axial electric field profile on the surface of the plasma antenna

Azimuthal field pattern of the plasma column is measured by moving probe in the
horizontal plane around the plasma column in 15 degree increment from 0≤Ɵ≤3600 .at
different heights (5cm, 10cm, 15cm, 50cm) from the end of plasma column where the
source is situated. Fig.8 shows surface wave field intensity as a function of the azimuthal
angle ɸ. It is observed to be reasonably axis symmetric so azimuthal wave number is m=0
the power level of fundamental harmonic decays along the axis of plasma column. This

9
indicates damping or attenuation of the wave inside the dielectric, which is measured by
disc probe on the surface of glass tube using spectrum analyzer. Fig.9 shows that the
power level at 5 MHz decreases from 8dBm– 15dBm along the axis of the plasma
column. The above experimental results show that axis symmetric electromagnetic
surface wave is propagating along the interface of plasma and glass tube. It deposits wave
power to the plasma to form a 35 cm long plasma column.

Fig 8: Azimuthal field pattern of plasma antenna at different heights from the source

Fig 9: variation of power level of fundamental harmonic.

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4.3 PLASMA COLUMN AS MONOPOLE ANTENNA:
This surface wave driven plasma column acts as an antenna due to associated surface
current with surface wave. Surface current is distributed on the interface of plasma and
glass tube. The axial current distribution on the surface of plasma column is shown in
Fig.10, which is measured by using shielded and calibrated Rogowaski coil which is
mounted on the outer surface of the glass tube.

Fig 10: Current distribution on the surface of the plasma column at different pressures

The magnitude of surface current depends on the plasma electron density, which is
decreasing along the axis of plasma column. As fig.10, shows the surface current
decreases along the axis of plasma antenna. This surface current which is generated by 5
MHz driven frequency that generates electromagnetic field with several harmonics which
are shown in Fig.11.

11
 Fig 11: variation of power level at different harmonics
As seen clearly, higher order harmonics vanish away from the plasma antenna due to
decay of power into medium (Fig.12), measured by spectrum analyzer. There are 20
harmonics on the surface of plasma antenna having higher power than background power
level (-80dBm)but 60 cm away from the antenna, there are only 2 harmonics have higher
power than background power.

Fig 12: number of harmonics as a function of radial distance

12
 Fig 13: Elevation field pattern of plasma antenna at different Vertical planes

The elevation pattern (Fig.13) of our plasma antenna is measured by moving the probe in
an arc over the plasma Antenna Under Test (AUT) with 15-degree increment from 00 £q
£ 900at different vertical planes and having 15 degree increment in horizontal plane. The
azimuthal pattern (Fig.8) is also measured by moving the probe in horizontal plane by 15
degree from 00£q £ 3600 at different heights (5cm, 10cm, 15cm, 50cm) from source end
of the antenna. Both these patterns are also measured in similar way for SS304 and
copper metallic antenna of similar dimensions as the plasma antennae. Patterns are
similar for the three antennae .The Rayleigh criterion is usually taken as minimum
distance from the AUT to the far field where pattern measurements should be made. It is
usually taken to be greater then, 2L^2 where L is the largest AUT dimension. For our
largest effective antenna length (35 cm), this is about 4 mm for 5MHz harmonic so both
patters are measured in far field region. The system dimension is much less then
wavelength (a<<l, L<<l) where “a” is diameter (3 cm) and L is the length of plasma
antenna (35 cm). This plasma antenna will act as a monopole wire antenna.

13
4.4 STRIATIONS IN PLASMA COLUMN:
By changing external operating parameters such as working pressure (.03 mbar to
0.3mbar), driven frequency (3.7 MHz to 32 MHz), input power (70 watt to 400 watt),
background pressure (10-3 mbar to 10-6 mbar) and length of glass tube (5 cm to 30 cm),
plasma column is transformed to finite number of cylindrical or spherical striations
(balls), helical plasma with rotation and plasma with spiral shape. These states are visibly
different and are shown in photographs (Fig.14, 15, 16). These different structures in
plasma column are transformed from a stable uniform inhomogeneous steady state
(plasma column) to unstable non-uniform inhomogeneous state.

Fig 14: planar array plasma antenna Fig 15: helical plasma antenna

Fig 16: spiral plasma antenna

14
4.5 STATIONARY STRIATIONS AS ARRAY PLASMA ANTENNA:
At critical value which is the combination of input power and working pressure (Fig.17)
these cylindrical striations are separated from each other. The separation between
striations will be vanished at lower and higher value then the critical value. Now each
cylindrical striation forms a short length plasma column having associated surface current
so each cylindrical plasma element of plasma column acts as a short antenna. These
segments or elements of plasma antenna are called antenna elements. The axial current
distribution on the antenna elements is shown in Fig.18. These different formations in the
plasma are visible at different pressures or power, keeping all other remaining parameters
constant.

Fig 17: Critical value of input power at various working pressures to form plasma
antenna elements.

15
 Fig 18: Current distribution on the surface of planar array plasma antenna.

The parameters of antenna elements can be controlled such that number and length
of elements vary by changing the working pressure, power, driven frequency and length
of glass tube. Fig.19 shows that the number of antenna elements increase with driven
frequency and input power. The numbers of elements vary from six to ten by operating at
5MHz, 100 watts of power to 32 MHz and 400 watts of power. Fig.20 shows that the
number of elements are increasing from one to six while the length of glass tube is varied
from 5 cm to 30 cm. The length of first antenna element varies with driven frequency. It
is 5 cm at 5 MHz and 2 cm at 32 MHz. The length of antenna elements decreases along
the antenna axis (Fig.21). This structure of plasma antenna acts as a planner array
antenna. Some other structures (Helical and Spiral) are also found in our experiment, are
shown in Fig.15 and 16. These structures of plasma act as antenna, which can be called
Helical plasma antenna and spiral plasma antenna.

16
Fig 19,20 : Variation in number of plasma antenna element with driven frequency &
along the length of the glass tube.

Fig 21: Variation in length of antenna elements as a function of number of antenna

elements at different working pressure.

17
4.6 EXPERIMENTS FOR VERSATILE PLASMA ANTENNA:
Qualitative observations have been confirmed that the plasma antenna can be used for
transmitting and receiving audio signals or TV (video) information. Two experiments,
given below to show that plasma structures act as receiving/transmitting antenna over the
range 10 to250 MHz for a range of RF power levels and hence different effective length
and structures for antenna.

(I)Jamming capabilities of EM waves of this antenna has been qualitatively tested with
standard FM radio receivers at 91.90 MHz. This FM channel could be received in the
absence of plasma column even though RF generator is kept ON. But the effective range
is measured as 170 cm away from plasma antenna when plasma is formed, the reception
of FM radio channel is cut off. This experiment is performed by all structures of plasma
antenna.
(II)The audio noise level is measured on the loudspeaker output terminal. The noise level
is measured with different structures of plasma antenna, which formed as working
pressure and without plasma in glass tube. The noise level is reduced from 15.2 mV to
8.7 mV, Fig.22 shows clearly, the noise level is reducing with pressure and plasma
antenna structure is also changing with pressure so the planner array antenna and helical
plasma antenna performs better than the monopole plasma antenna. This plasma antenna
acts as a receiver when audio frequency (300-3400 Hz) which is converted to carrier
frequency (46-49 MHz) frequency multiplier and RF amplifier so the plasma antenna
works as TX/RX antenna. Plasma antenna is used for communication. The
communication range of our monopole plasma antenna is measured to be45 meters,
which is increased up to 60 meters with varying pressure or different structure of plasma
antenna, In comparison the communication range with a similar metallic telescope
antenna is measured as 50 meters. The communication range increases with different
structures. All these structures of plasma act as antenna. Different type of antenna
structures is formed in a single system by changing the external parameters, so it can be
named as a versatile plasma antenna.

18
Fig 22: Variation in noise level with working pressure.

19
 CHAPTER 5

RADIATION PATTERN

The radiation pattern of the tube working as an antenna is measured by a standard

transmitter-receiver system `Signet Antenna Analyzing Equipment's (S-99R, S-99T, S-
99V)'.The schematic experimental set up for this purpose is shown in Figure 23. The
radiation pattern is measured in the H plane (perpendicular to the antenna).

Fig 23: picture of plasma antenna on the signet receiver

Fig 24: schematic picture showing the antenna with respect to the transmitting system in
the co-polar position.

A 3 element Yagi antenna is taken as the transmitter to radiate at 590 MHz. The plasma
antenna is mounted on the revolving machine and connected to the receiver. For each 1
degree, the receiver measures the power received by the plasma antenna in dB micro Volt
(dB¹V) and stores it in the internal array memory. Two such arrays (of 360 points each)
are provided. The observed pattern is shown in Figure 25 for frequency 590 MHz. Both
curves are polar plots, showing angular variation of the normalized received power. The

20
outer circle has a constant value 0 dB in this scale, and the inner circle has a value 10 dB.
The measurement, with reference to Figure 23, is done for one particular polarization of
the transmitter (or one particular transmitter) at a time, for a full rotation of 360 degree of
the receiver. First measurement is referred to as `Array 1', as shown on the upper left
panel of Figure 11. We can mark two cursors on the Array 1 curve that show the received
power in dB¹V at those particular angle values, as shown on the lower left panel of Figure
25. In our measurement, Array 1 curve, marked `A', is for co-polarization. The reset
cursor shows the maximum value of received power having a value73.4 dB at 193
degree, while the second cursor shows the minimum value of received power having a
value 59.0 dB at 24 degree. The second measurement referred to as `Array 2' is for across
polarization between the transmitter and plasma antenna, and this curve is marked `B'. No
cursors can be marked on this, as it has to be analyzed relative to the Array 1 results.
Also, it can be seen from Figure 25 that from angle 0 degree to 60 degree, the received
power values are approximately equal in both co- and cross-polarizations. This happens
due to scattering of fields from the coaxial cable because it comes in between the
transmitting and receiving antennas. This coaxial cable has been used for power supply to
the upper electrode of the fluorescent tube.

Fig 25: Radiation from the plasma antenna shows monopole patterns.

21
 CHAPTER 6

UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASMA ANTENNA

One fundamental distinguishing feature of a plasma antenna is that the gas ionizing
process can manipulate resistance. When demonized, the gas has infinite resistance and
does not interact with RF radiation. When demonized the gas antenna will not backscatter
radar waves (providing stealth) and will not absorb high-power microwave radiation
(reducing the effect of electronic warfare countermeasures). A second fundamental
distinguishing feature is that after sending a pulse the plasma antenna can be demonized,
eliminating the ringing associated with traditional metal elements. Ringing and the
associated noise of a metal antenna can severely limit capabilities in high frequency short
pulse transmissions. In these applications, metal antennas are often accompanied by
sophisticated computer signal processing. By reducing ringing and noise, we believe our
plasma antenna provides increased accuracy and reduces computer signal processing
requirements. These advantages are important in cutting edge applications for impulse
radar and high-speed digital communications. Based on the results of development to
date, plasma antenna technology has the following additional attributes:
 No antenna ringing provides an improved signal to noise ratio and reduces
multipath signal distortion.
 Reduced radar cross section provides stealth due to the non-metallic elements.
 Changes in the ion density can result in instantaneous changes in bandwidth over
wide dynamic ranges.
 After the gas is ionized, the plasma antenna has virtually no noise floor.
 While in operation, a plasma antenna with a low ionization level can be decoupled
from an adjacent high-frequency transmitter.
 A circular scan can be performed electronically with no moving parts at a higher
speed than traditional mechanical antenna structures.
 It has been mathematically illustrated that by selecting the gases and changing ion
density that the electrical aperture (or apparent footprint) of a plasma antenna can
be made to perform on par with a metal counterpart having a larger physical size.

22
 Our plasma antenna can transmit and receive from the same aperture provided the
frequencies are widely separated.
 Plasma resonance, impedance and electron charge density are all dynamically
reconfigurable. Ionized gas antenna elements can be constructed and configured
into an array that is dynamically reconfigurable for frequency, beam width,
power, gain, polarization and directionality - on the fly.
 A single dynamic antenna structure can use time multiplexing so that many RF
subsystems can share one antenna resource reducing the number and size of
antenna structures.

23
 CHAPTER 7

ADVANTAGES

The advantage of a plasma antenna is that it can appear and disappear in a few millionths
of a second. This means that when the antenna is not required, it can be made to
disappear, leaving behind the gas filled column that has little effect on the
electromagnetic fields in the proximity of the tube. The same will be true for fiber glass
and plastic tubes, which are also under consideration. The other advantage of plasma
antenna is that even when they are ionized and in use at the lower end of the radio
spectrum, say HF communications, they are still near transparent to fields at microwave
frequencies. The same effect is observed with the use of ionosphere, which is plasma.
Every night amateur radio operators bounce their signals off the ionosphere to achieve
long distance communications, whilst microwave satellite communication signals pass
through the ionosphere.

24
 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

As part of a “blue skies” research program, DSTO has teamed up with the ANU’s
Plasma Research Laboratory to investigate the possibility of using plasmas like those
generated inflorescent ceiling lights, for antennas. The research may one day have far
reaching applications from robust military antennas through to greatly improved external
television aerials. Antennas constructed of metal can be big and bulky, and are normally
fixed in place. The fact that metal structures cannot be easily moved when not in use
limits some aspects of antenna array design. It can also pose problems when there is a
requirement to locate many antennas in a confined area.Weapons System Division has
been studying the concept of using plasma columns for antennas, and has begun working
in collaboration with ANU plasma physicists Professor Jeffrey Harris and Dr. Gerard
Borg. Work by the team has already led to a provisional patent and has generated much
scientific interest as it is so novel. It offers a paradigm shift in the way we look at
antennas and is already providing the opportunity to create many new and original
antenna designs .Plasma is an ionized gas and can be formed by subjecting a gas to strong
electric or magnetic fields. The yellow lights in streets are a good example of plasmas
though a better example is the fluorescent tubes commonly used for lighting in homes.
The type of plasma antenna under investigation is constructed using a hollow glass
column which is filled with an inert gas. This can be ionized by the application of a
strong RF field at the base of the column. Once energized, the plasma column can be
made to exhibit many of the same characteristics of a metal whip antenna of the type
mounted on most cars. The metal whips that may be considered for a plasma replacement
are anywhere from a few centimeters to several meters long. There are many potential
advantages of plasma antennas, and DSTO and ANU are now investigating the
commercialization of the technology. Plasma antenna technology offers the possibility of
building completely novel antenna arrays, as well as radiation pattern control and lobe
steering mechanisms that have not been possible before. To date, the research has
produced many novel antennas using standard fluorescent tubes and these have been
characterized and compare favorably with their metal equivalents. For example, a 160

25
MHz communications link was demonstrated using plasma antennas for both base and
mobile stations. Current research is working towards a robust plasma antenna for field
demonstration to Defense Force personnel.

26
 CHAPTER 9

FUTURE SCOPE

Plasma antennas offer distinct advantages and can compete with most metal antenna
applications. The plasma antenna's advantages over conventional metal elements are most
obvious in military applications where stealth and electronic warfare are primary
concerns. Other important military factors are weight, size and the ability to reconfigure.
Potential military applications include:
 Shipboard/submarine antenna replacements.
 Unmanned air vehicle sensor antennas.
 IFF ("identification friend or foe") land-based vehicle antennas.
 Stealth aircraft antenna replacements.
 Broad band jamming equipment including for spread-spectrum emitters.
 ECM (electronic counter-measure) antennas.
 Phased array element replacements.
 EMI/ECI mitigation
 Detection and tracking of ballistic missiles
Side and back lobe reduction Military antenna installations can be quite sophisticated and
just the antenna portion of a communications or radar installation on a ship or submarine
can cost in the millions of dollars. Plasma antenna technology has commercial
applications in telemetry, broad-band communications, ground penetrating radar,
navigation, weather radar, wind shear detection and collision avoidance, high-speed data
(for example Internet) communication spread spectrum communication, and cellular
radiation protection.

27
 CHAPTER 10

REFERENCES

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