Unit 1

1. What is Research? What are the Research characteristics, Differentiate between methods and methodology?

Research is defined as a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or a problem using scientific
methods.
Research characteristics: -
A. A systematic approach is followed in research. Rules and procedures are an integral part of research that set
the objective of a research process. Researchers need to practice ethics and code of conduct while making
observations or drawing conclusions.
B. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
C. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time, actual observations in the natural settings.
D. There is an in-depth analysis of all the data collected from research so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
E. Research creates a path for generating new questions. More research opportunity can be generated from
existing research.
F. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in
inference.
G. Accuracy is one of the important character of research, the information that is obtained while conducting
the research should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, research conducted in a controlled
environment like a laboratory. Here accuracy is measured of instruments used, calibrations, and the final
result of the experiment.
H. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.
I. Research requires expertise.
J. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be helpful in
predicting future occurrences.
K. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.
L. Research demands accurate observation and description.
M. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new
purpose.
N. Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
O. Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.
P. Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures
employed the data collected and the conclusions reached.
Q. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
R. Research is carefully recorded and collected.
S. Research sometimes requires courage.

2. What are the different Research categories, Draw and explain the research process?
Types of Research:
There are varieties of ways through which we may classify it into different categories.
(A) On the basis of nature of information:
(i) Qualitative Research: When information is in the form of qualitative data.
(ii) Quantitative Research: When information is in the form of quantitative data.
(B) On the basis of utility of content or nature of subject matter of research:
(i) Basic/ Fundamental /pure or Theoretical Research: Its utility is universal.
(ii) Experimental or Applied Research: Its utility is limited.
(C) On the basis of approach of research:
(i) Longitudinal Research: Examples of this category are historical, Case study and Genetic research.
(ii) Cross-Sectional Research: Examples of this category are Experimental and Survey Research.
(D) On the basis of method of research :
(i) Philosophical Research: It is purely qualitative in nature and we are focusing on the vision of others on the
content of research.
(ii) Historical Research: It is both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature and deals with past events.
(iii) Survey Research: It deals with present events and is quantitative in nature. It may further be sub-divided
into; discretional, correlational and exploratory type of research.
(iv) Experimental Research: This is purely quantitative in nature and deals with future events.
(v) Case-Study Research: It deals with unusual events. It may be qualitative as well as quantitative in nature
depending upon the content.

3. How to get new research ideas, explain

o brainstorm for ideas
o choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature
o ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available
o make a list of key words
o be flexible
o define your topic as a focused research question
o research and read more about your topic
o formulate a thesis statement
 4. What is Need of research? What is a research problem? sources of the research problem, explain research
problem components.

Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards progress. Without systematic research there
would have been very little progress.
What is a research problem
To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each question and subordinate question to
be answered is to be specified, the limits of the investigation must be determined. Frequently, it is necessary to
review previous studies in order to determine just what is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to formulate the
point of view or educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If certain assumptions are made, they
must be explicitly noted.
sources of the research problem

1) The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are obvious sources.
2) Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new problems and
opportunities for research.
3) Record of previous research such specialized sources as the encyclopedias of educational, research
abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals of researches, dissertations and many similar
publications are rich sources of research problems.
4) Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers will suggest additional areas of
needed research.
5) Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with faculty members and fellow
scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to be solved, close professional relationships,
academic discussions and constructive academic climate are especially advantageous opportunities.
6) Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and research oriented academic
experience will effectively promote problem awareness.
7) The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and most experienced
persons of the field. They may suggest most significant problems of the area. He can discuss certain issues of
the area to emerge a problem
Components of the research problem include
1) the decision maker and the objectives
2) the environment of the problem
3) alternative courses of action
4) a set of consequences that relate to courses of action and the occurrence of events not under the control of
the decision maker
5) a state of doubt as to which course of action is best

5. What is a literature survey, Types of a literature survey, Sources of information

Literature survey is something when you look at a literature (publications) in a surface level, or an Ariel view. It
includes the survey of place people and publications is context of Research. It is a phase where the researcher tries to
know of what all the literature are related to one area of interest. And the relevant literatures are short-listed. And in
general, a literature survey guides or helps the researcher to define/find out/identify a problem

Once the problem is formulated the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals, published or unpublished bibliographies are the first
place to go to academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc. must be tapped depending
on the nature of the problem.

Narrative literature review critiques the literature and summarizes the body of a literature. Narrative review also draws
conclusions about the topic and identifies gaps or inconsistencies in a body of knowledge. You need to have a
sufficiently focused research question to conduct a narrative literature review.
Systematic literature review requires more rigorous and well-defined approach compared to most other types of
literature review. Systematic literature review is comprehensive and details the timeframe within which the literature
was selected. Systematic literature review can be divided into two categories: meta-analysis and meta-synthesis.
When you conduct meta-analysis, you take findings from several studies on the same subject and analyze these using
standardized statistical procedures. In meta-analysis patterns and relationships are detected and conclusions are drawn.
Meta-analysis is associated with deductive research approach. Meta-synthesis, on the other hand, is based on non-
statistical techniques. This technique integrates, evaluates and interprets findings of multiple qualitative research
studies. Meta-synthesis literature review is conducted usually when following inductive research approach.

Argumentative literature review, as the name implies, examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an
argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. It should be
noted that a potential for bias is a major shortcoming associated with argumentative literature review.

Integrative literature review reviews, critiques, and synthesizes secondary data about research topic in an integrated
way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. If your research does not involve primary
data collection and data analysis, then using integrative literature review will be your only option.

Theoretical literature review focuses on a pool of theory that has accumulated regarding an issue, concept, theory,
phenomena. Theoretical literature reviews play an instrumental role in establishing what theories already exist, the
relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new
hypotheses to be tested.
1) The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are obvious sources.
2) Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new problems and
opportunities for research.
3) Record of previous research such specialized sources as the encyclopedias of educational, research
abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals of researches, dissertations and many similar
publications are rich sources of research problems.
4) Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers will suggest additional areas of
needed research.
5) Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with faculty members and fellow
scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to be solved, close professional relationships,
academic discussions and constructive academic climate are especially advantageous opportunities.
6) Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and research oriented academic
experience will effectively promote problem awareness.
7) The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and most experienced
persons of the field. They may suggest most significant problems of the area. He can discuss certain issues of
the area to emerge a problem

6. What are the types of Types of technical papers, how to publish a paper?

Technical writing includes a wide range of documents. They include instructions, reviews, reports, newsletters,
presentations, web pages, brochures, proposals, letters, fliers, graphics, memos, press releases, handbooks,
specifications, style guides, agendas and so on. There are so many of them, that in order to understand the differences
between them, we need to break them up into categories. In this article, we will make an attempt to do that.
General Classification
One of the main requirements for a technical document is its orientation for the intended audience. According to the
target audience, technical documentation is divided into two main types:
Process Documents. These describe the development, testing, maintenance and improvement of systems. Process
documents are used by managers, engineers, testers, and marketing professionals. These documents contain technical
terms and industry-specific jargon. Examples of this type of documents include API, SDK and code documentation;
internal development documentation, etc.
User Documents. This type of documentation provides customers with the information they need in order to use the
product. User documents contain primarily instructional and explanatory materials. These documents use everyday
terms instead of technical jargon so that they are clear, concise and helpful even to novice readers. Step-by-step
walkthroughs, user guides, troubleshooting documentation may serve as examples.

7. Describe Research Ethics and Legal Issues

Unit 2

1. What is the research design? What are the research design parts, Describe.

The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of
the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”. Decisions regarding
what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute
a research design. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”1
In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an
outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to
the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the desing decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into
the following parts:
(a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study;
(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
(d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
 2. Compare Research Design for exploratory and Descriptive Research.

3. Explain the Principals of Research design.

According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than once.
Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the statistical
accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two
varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one
part and the other variety in the other part. We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw
conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we
first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in
the remaining parts. We can then collect the data of yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by
comparing the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we
draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated
several times for better results. Conceptually replication does not present any difficulty, but
computationally it does. For example, if an experiment requiring a two-way analysis of variance is
replicated, it will then require a three-way analysis of variance since replication itself may be a
source of variation in the data. However, it should be remembered that replication is introduced in
order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the main
effects and interactions can be estimated.
The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against
the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we
should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors
can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.” For instance, if we grow one variety of
rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the other half, then it
is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in comparison to the other half. If
this is so, our results would not be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to
be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may
apply randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects of the extraneous factors (soil
fertility differences in the given case). As such, through the application of the principle of randomization,
we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.
The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it
the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a
range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the
experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total
variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to treatments (varieties of rice in our
case), the extraneous factor (soil fertility in our case) and experimental error.* In other words,
according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts,
known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments.
Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. Dividing the field into several
homogenous parts is known as ‘blocking’. In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an
extraneous factor fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the total variability of the data by
means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can
eliminate the variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error.
State different Steps in sampling Design and elaborate.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:
(i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the
set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or
infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe
the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of
items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples
of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio
programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.
(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.
(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list
is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative
of the population as possible.
(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should
neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is
one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also
an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to
be considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of
population must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of
interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample.
Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.
(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question
of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be
interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the population,
or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the
population. There may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to make estimates.
All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we
would accept.
(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In
fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several
sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher must
choose one for his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample
size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.
Steps in Sampling Process
An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:
• Defining the target population.
• Specifying the sampling frame.
• Specifying the sampling unit.
• Selection of the sampling method.
• Determination of sample size.
• Specifying the sampling plan.
• Selecting the sample.

1. Explain Different Types of Sample Design.

Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample. Non-probability
sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling. In
this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his choice concerning the items
remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the
particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out of a
huge one will be typical or representative of the whole. For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a state
are to be studied, a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle that they can
be representative of the entire state. Thus, the judgement of the organizers of the study plays an important part in this
sampling design.
Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling
design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in
which individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is
blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected. The results obtained from probability or
random sampling can be assured in terms of probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance
of results obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random sampling design over the
deliberate sampling design. Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on an average
the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and characteristics as the universe. This
is the reason why random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative sample. In such a
design, personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of the sample. The investigator may select a
sample which shall yield results favorable to his point of view and if that happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated.
Thus, there is always the danger of bias entering this type of sampling technique. But in the investigators are impartial,
work without bias and have the necessary experience to take sound judgement, the results obtained from an analysis of
deliberately selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a sampling, there is no assurance that every
element has some specifiable chance of being included. Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and
the element of bias, great or small, is always there. As such this sampling design in rarely adopted in large inquires of
importance. However, in small inquiries and researches by individuals, this design may be adopted because of the
relative advantage of time and money inherent in this method of sampling. Quota sampling is also an example of non-
probability sampling. Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different
strata, with some restrictions on how they are to be filled. In other words, the actual selection of the items for the
sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion. This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively inexpensive. But
the samples so selected certainly do not possess the characteristic of random samples. Quota samples are essentially
judgement samples and inferences drawn on their basis are not amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way.

Unit 3

1. What are the different Methods of data collection, what are the different Data types, and how data is collected?
a. RM book 91 page
i. Continues variable
ii. Discrete variable
iii. Dependent variable
iv. Independent variable
v. Controlled variable
vi. Cofounding variable
vii. Intervening variable
viii. Extraneous variable
ix. Organismic variable
2. What is data Processing, what are the different pre-processing operations?

Data processing is the conversion of data into usable and desired form. This conversion or “processing” is carried out
using a predefined sequence of operations either manually or automatically. Most of the data processing is done by
using computers and thus done automatically. The output or “processed” data can be obtained in different forms like
image, graph, table, vector file, audio, charts or any other desired format depending on the software or method of data
processing used.

Data goes through a series of steps during preprocessing:

 •Data Cleaning: Data is cleansed through processes such as filling in missing values, smoothing the noisy
data, or resolving the inconsistencies in the data.
• Data Integration: Data with different representations are put together and conflicts within the data are
resolved.
• Data Transformation: Data is normalized, aggregated and generalized.
• Data Reduction: This step aims to present a reduced representation of the data in a data warehouse.
• Data Discretization: Involves the reduction of several values of a continuous attribute by dividing the range
of attribute intervals.
3. What are the different Types of Analysis? Explain statistics in Research.

Multiple regression analysis: This analysis is adopted when the researcher has one dependent variable which is
presumed to be a function of two or more independent variables. The objective of this analysis is to make a prediction
about the dependent variable based on its covariance with all the concerned independent variables.
Multiple discriminant analysis: This analysis is appropriate when the researcher has a single dependent variable that
cannot be measured, but can be classified into two or more groups on the basis of some attribute. The object of this
analysis happens to be to predict an entity’s possibility of belonging to a group based on several predictor variables.
Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA): This analysis is an extension of two-way ANOVA, wherein the ratio
of among group variance to within group variance is worked out on a set of variables.
Canonical analysis: This analysis can be used in case of both measurable and non-measurable variables for the purpose
of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent variables from their joint covariance with a set of independent
variables.
Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in
order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions. It
is also concerned with the estimation of population values. It is mainly on the basis of inferential
analysis that the task of interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and conclusions) is
performed.
STATISTICS IN RESEARCH
The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing research, analyzing its data and drawing
conclusions therefrom. Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be suitably reduced so
that the same can be read easily and can be used for further analysis. Clearly the science of statistics cannot be ignored
by any research worker, even though he may not have occasion to use statistical methods in all their details and
ramifications. Classification and tabulation, as stated earlier, achieve this objective to some extent, but we must go a
step further and develop certain indices or measures to summaries the collected/classified data. Only after this we can
adopt the process of generalization from small groups (i.e., samples) to population. If fact, there are two major areas of
statistics viz., descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics concern the development of certain
indices from the raw data, whereas inferential statistics concern with the process of generalization. Inferential statistics
are also known as sampling statistics and are mainly concerned with two major type of problems: (i) the estimation of
population parameters, and (ii) the testing of statistical hypotheses.
The important statistical measures* that are used to summaries’ the survey/research data are:
(1) measures of central tendency or statistical averages
(2) measures of dispersion
(3) measures of asymmetry (skewness)
(4) measures of relationship
(5) other measures.
Amongst the measures of central tendency, the three most important ones are the arithmetic
average or mean, median and mode. Geometric mean and harmonic mean are also sometimes used. From among the
measures of dispersion, variance, and its square root—the standard deviation are the most often used measures. Other
measures such as mean deviation, range, etc. are also used. For comparison purpose, we use mostly the coefficient of
standard deviation or the coefficient of variation.
In respect of the measures of skewness and kurtosis, we mostly use the first measure of skewness based on
mean and mode or on mean and median. Other measures of skewness, based on quartiles or on the methods of
moments, are also used sometimes. Kurtosis is also used to measure the peaked ness of the curve of the frequency
distribution.
Amongst the measures of relationship, Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is the frequently used measure in
case of statistics of variables, whereas Yule’s coefficient of association is used in case of statistics of attributes. Multiple
correlation coefficient, partial correlation coefficient, regression analysis, etc., are other important measures often used
by a researcher. Index numbers, analysis of time series, coefficient of contingency, etc., are other measures that may as
well be used by a researcher, depending upon the nature of the problem under study.

4. Explain regression Analysis with the help of one real time example.
Regression analysis is a quantitative research method which is used when the study involves modelling and
analyzing several variables, where the relationship includes a dependent variable and one or more independent
variables. In simple terms, regression analysis is a quantitative method used to test the nature of relationships between
a dependent variable and one or more independent variables.
The basic form of regression models includes unknown parameters (β), independent variables (X), and the dependent
variable (Y).
Regression model, basically, specifies the relation of dependent variable (Y) to a function combination of independent
variables (X) and unknown parameters (β)
Y ≈ f (X, β)
Regression equation can be used to predict the values of ‘y’, if the value of ‘x’ is given, and both ‘y’ and ‘x’ are the two
sets of measures of a sample size of ‘n’. The formulae for regression equation would be

Where,

Do not be intimidated by visual complexity of correlation and regression formulae above. You don’t have to apply the
formula manually, and correlation and regression analyses can be run with the application of popular analytical software
such as Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Access, SPSS and others.
Linear regression analysis is based on the following set of assumptions:
1. Assumption of linearity. There is a linear relationship between dependent and independent variables.
2. Assumption of homoscedasticity. Data values for dependent and independent variables have equal variances.
3. Assumption of absence of collinearity or multicollinearity. There is no correlation between two or more independent
variables.
4. Assumption of normal distribution. The data for the independent variables and dependent variable are normally
distributed

Example Creation:-
Count X Y XY X*X
1 10 8 80 100
2 12 9 108 144
3 13 10 130 169
4 14 10 140 196
5 14 10 140 196
6 15 10 150 225
7 16 11 176 256
8 18 13 234 324
9 20 15 300 400
10 20 15 300 400
Sum= 152 111 1758 2410
Sum of X = 152
Sum of Y = 111
Mean X = 15.2
Mean Y = 11.1
Sum of squares (SSX) = 99.6
Sum of products (SP) = 70.8
Regression Equation = ŷ = bX + a
b = SP/SSX = 70.8/99.6 = 0.71084
a = MY - bMX = 11.1 - (0.71*15.2) = 0.29518
ŷ = 0.71084X + 0.29518

Unit 4

1. What is the hypothesis, what are the Characteristics of hypothesis?

Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved or
disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal question that he intends to resolve. Thus a hypothesis may be
defined as a proposition or a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of
phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly
probable in the light of established facts. Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being
tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. For example, consider
statements like the following ones:
“Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving counselling”
Or “the automobile A is performing as well as automobile B.”

These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may conclude that a hypothesis states
what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity.
Characteristics of hypothesis: Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:
• Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis
cannot be taken as reliable.
• Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses, many a time the research
programmes have bogged down. Some prior study may be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis a
testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or
disproved by observation.”
• Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational hypothesis.
• Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses
are generally more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.
• Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is easily understandable by all
concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
• Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a substantial body of
established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accept as being the most likely.
• Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not use even an excellent
hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for one cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test
it.
• Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means that by using the
hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem
condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to explain; it should have empirical reference.

2. Explain the Null hypothesis and the Alternative Hypothesis.

BASIS FOR NULL HYPOTHESIS ALTERNATIVE

COMPARISON HYPOTHESIS
 Meaning A null hypothesis is a An alternative hypothesis is
statement, in which there statement in which there is
is no relationship between some statistical significance
two variables. between two measured
phenomenon.
Represents No observed effect Some observed effect
What is it? It is what the researcher It is what the researcher tries to
tries to disprove. prove.
Acceptance No changes in opinions or Changes in opinions or actions
actions
Testing Indirect and implicit Direct and explicit
Observations Result of chance Result of real effect
Denoted by H-zero H-one
Mathematical Equal sign Unequal sign
formulation

3. Describe Type I and Type II Errors,

BASIS FOR TYPE I ERROR TYPE II ERROR

COMPARISON
Meaning Type I error refers to non- Type II error is the
acceptance of hypothesis acceptance of hypothesis
which ought to be accepted. which ought to be rejected.
Equivalent to False positive False negative
What is it? It is incorrect rejection of true It is incorrect acceptance
null hypothesis. of false null hypothesis.
Represents A false hit A miss
Probability of Equals the level of Equals the power of test.
committing error significance.
Indicated by Greek letter 'α' Greek letter 'β'

4. Differentiate between One-tailed and two-tailed hypotheses.

5. Write short notes on z-test, t-test, chi-square test, F-test, ANOVA