http://www.hhrights.

ca/wiki/HomePage&show_comments=0

CHAPTER. II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Introduction:

The present study is made on the health status of the working women in
Gulbarga district. As such information on the general health of women,
reproductive health of women, stress related ill health, fatigue due to heavy
work load, etc are essentially needed. The literature is not available covering
all the aspects. Hence the researcher searched the relevant literature on
certain keywords which are able to fulfill the information requirements of the
research project. To collect the relevant literature, the researcher searched
various Journals and other publications such as books in the Women’s
Studies, Sociology, Social Work and other related subject disciplines on the
following keywords:
 Health of Women;
 Health of Working Women;
 Reproductive Health of Women;
 Menstrual and Menopause Health Problems;
 Health of Elderly Women;
 Hereditary Diseases of Women.

The collected literature on the above said keywords is discussed and

reviewed as under to find out the research gap.

11
2.2. Review of Literature:

Many of the research papers published in journals proved to be

significant for the present study and only a few books are found useful for the
present study. The collected secondary literature is reviewed as under.

Sharma and Dhawan (1986) writes on “Health Problems of Rural

Women’ in ‘Health and Population: Perspectives and Issues’. The study
was conducted in two villages of Hisar district (Haryana) to determine the
nature and extent of health problems of rural women. The data were collected
from one hundred randomly selected rural ladies by interviewing them with
the help of an interview schedule developed for the purpose. The identified
health problems were classified. The findings of the study indicated the
prevalence of a number of health problems among rural women and a need
was felt for their education on health aspects. A sizeable number of them were
found to have suffered from bronchitis, coryza, indigestion, constipation,
diarrhea, conjunctivitis, dandruff, tartar deposits on teeth, skin diseases,
gynecological diseases and some other diseases like rheumatism, arthritis, etc.
The existence of a government hospital in village had no association of
significant level with the health problems of rural women. Majority of the
respondents perceived the treatment given in government hospital to be not
effective and several other constraints in availing of the treatment facilities.

Padmini Swaminathan (1997) published “Work and Reproductive

Health: A Hobson's Choice for Indian Women?” in ‘Economic & Political
Weekly’. The observed statistical correlation between increase in women's
outside employment and decrease in birth rates has catapulted the demand for

12
increasing women’s wage employment as a primary goal, not necessarily on
its own merits, but as part of the demographic drive to reduce fertility. At
what costs to women's welfare do such demographic outcomes occur? The
existing structural nature of women's work (domestic as well as non-domestic)
has severe built-in hazards for women's health (reproductive and otherwise)
which no amount of first rate quality of care and/or access to health services
alone can deal with. Focusing on Tamil Nadu, the author argues in addition
that a demographic model state need not necessarily be a reproductively safe
place.

Janzen (1998) in his book “Women, Gender and Health”, presents a

broad overview and synthesis of the recent research literature on the major
psychosocial influences on women’s health. Part 1 reviews the variability of
health among women, with a particular emphasis on diversities in health
according to women’s major social roles of partner, parent and worker. The
context within which social roles are carried out, particularly the
socio-economic context, is identified as a critical factor. While research
examining women’s health within the context of both social roles and material
circumstances have produced complex findings, the research reviewed in this
study clearly suggests that to appropriately document and understand the
variability of health among women, attention to the particular circumstances
of women’s lives is required. This point is further highlighted in sections
describing the health issues of older women, Aboriginal women, and
immigrant and refugee women. Part 2 begins with a review of the research on
differences between men and women on various indicators of health and
ill-health. Frequently mentioned throughout the literature is the apparent
paradox in women’s and men’s health: men’s higher rate of mortality and
women’s higher rate of morbidity. Recent evidence demonstrating the
complexity and variability of gender differences in health is reviewed,

13
suggesting that broad generalizations about health-related gender differences
are inappropriate. As a means of clarifying more fully the significance of
gender as a determinant of health, gender is examined as it interacts with other
social characteristics associated with health and disease, such as
socio-economic status, paid and unpaid work, exposure to stressors, and social
support. The research that attempts to explain gender related differences in
health also is examined, among which social role explanations dominate. The
possible reasons for the diminishing longevity advantage of women over men
in recent years also are discussed.

Nakkeeran (2003) published “Women’s Work, Status and Fertility

Land, Caste and Gender in a South Indian Village” published in
‘Economic & Political Weekly’. Women’s work plays a significant role in
reducing gender inequality and is also seen to affect levels of fertility and
child mortality. However, the relationship between female work participation
status and autonomy and demographic indicators has not been clearly
established. This paper attempts to bring out the conditions of women’s work,
status and their relationship with child mortality and fertility in a south Indian
village. The aim is to explore the comprehensiveness of the term ‘conditions
of women’s work’ and how it reflects the entire milieu of a woman’s situation.

Mehrotra (2004) published a paper “Women, Disability and Social

Support in Rural Haryana” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. Women
with disabilities in India face double discrimination due to prevalence of
traditional gender roles and expectations. This paper explores the nature and
form of disability afflicting the individual and social life of women in rural
Haryana, both in terms of physical and mental parameters. It describes
community and family strategies in supporting disabled women in negotiating
family, work, economy and society. It also highlights the social effects of

14
physical disability on various stages of their life cycle, explored through life
histories of women belonging to different age groups and those belonging to
different castes.

Preeti Singh and Anu Pandey (2005) published a paper “Women in

Call Centres” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. This study looks at
aspects of employment of women in call centres in India, based on a survey of
100 women employees. It examines the recent phenomenon of women
working in night shifts, as well as the impact of call centre employment on
women’s health, family life and decision-making powers. The study finds a
direct and adverse effect of night shift employment on the health of women.
But there is also a greater acceptance of such ‘non-traditional’ jobs by families
across a larger segment of society.

Taylor, et al (2005) conducted a study on “Women’s Health Care

Utilization and Expenditures” and the study examines women’s use of and
expenditures for medical care in the United States. In 2000, 91% of women
aged 18 years and older used any health care services. Overall 82% of adult
women reported an ambulatory care visit, while 11% had an inpatient hospital
stay. Mean expense per person with expense was $3219 for that year. We
examined use and expenditures by sociodemographic characteristics. The
most notable findings indicate that women with private insurance, and those
on Medicaid, are more likely to use health services than uninsured women.
White women, compared to Black and Hispanic women, are more likely to
have an ambulatory care visit, buy prescription drugs, and use preventive
health care services. In addition, white and Hispanic women pay a higher
proportion of medical care expenses out-of-pocket than do Black women.
Finally, nearly 30% of older women in fair or poor health spent 10% or more
of their income out-of-pocket on medical care. In order to reduce disparities

15
and improve the quality of health care for all women, it is important for policy
makers to understand the factors that influence their utilization and
expenditures for medical care.

Anandhi (2007) written “Women, Work and Abortion: A Case

Study from Tamil Nadu” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. Most of the
micro-level studies on abortion reach a misleading conclusion that abortions
are exclusively a method of family limitation or family planning. A study
conducted in four villages of Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu
contradicts this orthodoxy and opens up spaces for looking at the question of
reproductive rights anew. Women in the study villages consider abortion as a
necessity to negotiate the harsh realities in their work places and deal with
domestic violence and different social conditions and beliefs.

Kaila (2007) published “Women Managers in Indian

Organizations” in ‘Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied
Psychology’ and presented qualitative study of 140 female managers
interviewed in 81 organizations in order to review trend of problems faced by
women managers, the ways in which the problems affect them, and the coping
strategies used by them to overcome their problems. In-depth personal
interviews were conducted with the help of a structured questionnaire using
open-ended questions. The narratives of managers have provided a broad base
in understanding managerial life and profession of women. The implications
are underlined for better organizational health and performance.

Sudha Narayanan (2008) in her paper “Employment Guarantee,

Women’s Work and Childcare” published in ‘Economic & Political
Weekly’, commented that, a social audit in Tamil Nadu finds that the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act has brought about major changes in the

16
lives of women. However, the act overlooks the fact that childcare is a
problem for many of the working women, especially for young mothers.

Ratna Sudarshan and Shrayana Bhattacharya (2009) published

“Through the Magnifying Glass: Women’s Work and Labour Force
Participation in Urban Delhi” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. A study
conducted in urban Delhi through a household survey between September and
November 2006 estimates a greater female workforce participation rate than
recorded in the National Sample Survey. It indicates undercounting and
reflects the informality that surrounds women’s work. This paper seeks to
explore the nature of women’s workforce participation and attempts to
identify key factors influencing women’s decision to work, the type of work
they do, the constraints they face, and the perceived benefits and costs of
engaging in paid work outside the home. In doing so, issues surrounding the
methodology and underestimation of women’s work within the urban context
are also tackled. The study also suggests the need to understand the familial
and household context within which labour market decisions are made. The
role of family and kinship structures to determine women’s work-life choices
emerge as an important area for further study.

Reetika Khera and Nandini Nayak (2009) published a paper

“Women Workers and Perceptions of the National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. The National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act, which entitles rural households to 100 days of
casual employment on public works at the statutory minimum wage, contains
special provisions to ensure full participation of women. This paper, based on
fieldwork in six states in 2008, examines the socio-economic consequences of
the NREGA for women workers. In spite of the drawbacks in the
implementation of the legislation, significant benefits have already started

17
accruing to women through better access to local employment, at minimum
wages, with relatively decent and safe work conditions. The paper also
discusses barriers to women’s participation.

Sengupta and Jena (2009) published a working paper “The Current

Trade Paradigm and Women's Health Concerns in India: With Special
Reference to the Proposed EU-India Free Trade Agreement” and
discussed that India is currently negotiating a Free Trade Agreement with the
European Union, which includes not only liberalization of commodity trading,
but also a wide range of chapters including deep services trade liberalization,
full investment liberalization, and stricter IPR conditions than the TRIPS
norms. As trade is an engine of growth and development, India’s trade policy
has many goals to meet. India shows high poverty level, increasing income
and social inequalities as well as deep seated gender inequalities. Health is an
area of special concern in the context of gender inequalities. Arguably, where
there is a constraint on health care access, whether due to education, income
or location, women experience a greater constraint compared to men. Since
the EU India FTA covers many areas which are known to have serious
implications for health, this needs detailed analysis. Liberalization of health
services coupled with investment liberalization, TRIPS plus provisions in the
IPR chapter are some concern areas and can affect the access to medicines and
treatment, as well as to food. In addition, the way deep trade liberalization
uses women’s labour and imposes adverse working conditions on them is
another aspect which must be taken into account. Domestic policy space at the
disposal of the Indian government to address gender inequalities and change
the social structure, can also be undermined the FTA. Therefore, an analysis
and evaluation of health impacts of this FTA on Indian women is necessary.
The need to indicate suitable policy interventions, both in the trade agreement
and in the domestic socio economic environment, to maintain and encourage

18
women’s access to health and healthcare, is undeniable. This study is an
attempt to provide such an analysis in simple terms.

Ajithkumar and Radhadevi (2010) in their paper “Health of Women

in Kerala: Current Status and Emerging Issues”, examines the health
status of females in the state of Kerala, India. The state is ranked at the top in
terms of human development index, social development index and gender
development index among the states in India. The state is often described as a
land of ‘good health at low cost’ and is reported to have the lowest rural-urban
inequalities in public health status. The paper attempts to travel along the life
of Kerala women picking up elements that are relevant to a health study. For
comparison, the national scenario is presented. Wherever possible, a
comparison is made with men. The indicators considered in this paper can be
broadly categorised as those reflecting the general health status, child health,
reproductive health and health of the elderly. Some environment related
variables have also been analysed. The paper also tries to identify data gaps
and made use of narratives/anecdotal evidences to highlight problems. The
paper finds that females in Kerala compare favourably against India in all
conventional health indicators and that the problems related to women’s
health in Kerala are different from those addressed at the national level.
Therefore, priorities, approaches and strategies set at the national level may
not be appropriate for Kerala. The paper also calls for an in-depth examination
of the health polices of the state to understand whether the state has been
responding with gender sensitivity to the varying health care needs of women
beyond and before the reproductive age. The state needs to work out strategies
specific to particular groups of people who are vulnerable in terms of health
and issues such as problems of old age of women and widows, over
medicalisation, increasing cost of healthcare and occupational health of
women.

19
 Ashokkumar and Khan (2010) published a paper “Health status of
women in India: Evidences from National Family Health Survey-3
(2005-06) and future outlook” in ‘Research and Practice in Social
Sciences”. India, in the millennium set goals to minimize women health
problems after the ICPD (International Conference on Population and
Development, 1994, Cairo). As far as women health is concerned, mainly in
the developing countries, including India, the situation is very depressing.
Women have disproportionately paid the price of fertility regulation. But have
they benefited in terms of better health? This paper, five key factors have been
identified in the principal focus of this study: reproductive health, violence
against women, nutritional status, unequal treatment of girls and boys, and
HIV/AIDS. Analysis shows that the wide variation in cultures, religions, and
levels of development among Indian states and union territories, it is not
unusual and startling that women’s health also varies immensely from state to
state. The study suggests that many of the health problems of Indian women
are related to or exacerbated by high levels of fertility.

Geeta Kumari, et al (2010) in their paper “Studies on Health

Problems of Software People: A Case Study of Faculty of GCE and
GIMT Gurgaon, India” published in ‘International Journal of Innovation,
Management and Technology’, the various health problems of the
employees working in GCE and GIMT Gurgaon has been studied on the basis
of answers received from the employees for the given questionnaire. Very few
employees frequently use laptop at home. Also most of employees use desktop
/ workstation as alternative to laptop. Almost all employees use desktop at
their workplace,. It can be concluded seeing the responses that still today there
is a need for wide advertisement in media about various problems generated

20
from working on computers and the companies must do something for the
better health of their employees.

Jamwal and Gupta (2010) in their paper entitled “Work

Participation of Females and Emerging Labour Laws in India” published
in “Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences”, stated that there have been
evidences of increase in work participation rate among women but still
women constitute one third of the total labour. Along with enhancement in
their work participation, which improves their overall status, there is increase
in the labour laws related to women. Various policies and programmes were
implemented to improve the conditions of working women and the policies
regarding the Indian women have been guided by the provisions of the
constitution. The framers of the Constitution bestowed sufficient thought on
the position of women in the Indian social order, which is quire evident from
the provisions of the Constitution. The paper attempted to trace out the
development of labour laws related to women and also to study their impact
on the increase in work participation rate. Although the working women have
been provided various benefits, concessions, protection and safeguards under
different labour legislations in order to provide security against various risk
peculiar to their nature which are likely to occur in their lives yet their work
participation is not up to mark. Many of the reasons are analyzed in the paper.

Kortum, et al (2010) in their paper “Psycho-social Risks and Work

Related Stress in Developing Countries: Health Impact, Priorities,
Barriers and Solutions” published in ‘International Journal of
Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health” explores experts’
perceptions of psychosocial risks and work-related stress in emerging
economies and developing countries. This paper focuses on knowledge of

21
potential health impact of psychosocial risks and preliminary priorities for
action, and discusses potential barriers and solutions to addressing
psychosocial risks and work-related stress in developing countries. This
research applied a mixed methodology including semi-structured interviews,
two rounds of an online Delphi survey, and four focus groups. Twenty nine
experts with expertise in occupational health were interviewed. Seventy four
experts responded to the first round of an online Delphi survey and 53
responded to the second round. Four groups of experts with a total of 37
active participants with specific or broader knowledge about developing
country contexts participated in focus group discussions. Results: High
concern was expressed for the need to address psychosocial risks and
work-related stress and their health impact. Developing country experts’
knowledge about these issues was comparable to knowledge from
industrialized countries, however, application of expert knowledge was
reported to be weak in developing countries. Socio-economic conditions were
regarded as important considerations. Priorities to be addressed were
identified, and barriers to implementing possible solutions were proposed. The
future research and action paradigms in relation to psychosocial risk
management will need to be broadened to include the larger social, political
and economic contexts in developing countries beyond issues focusing solely
on the working environment. Work-related psychosocial risks and the
emerging priority of work-related stress should urgently be included in the
research and political agendas and action frameworks of developing countries.

Papadopoulos, et al (2010) published a paper “Occupational and

public health and safety in a changing work environment: An integrated
approach for risk assessment and prevention” in ‘Safety Science’. During
recent years the work environment has undergone significant changes
regarding working time, years of employment, work organization, type of

22
employment contracts and working conditions. In this paper, consequences of
these changes on occupational and public health and safety are examined.
These include the disruption of human biological rhythms, the increase of
workers fatigue due to changes in patterns of working hours and years of
employment, job insecurity and occupational stress, which have a serious
impact on workers’ health and may result in an increase in occupational
accidents. Unsafe work practices related to workload and time pressure, the
impact of work changes on public safety and the deterioration of workers’
living conditions with respect to income, social-family life, health and
insurance benefits, are also described. In this context, difficulties that occur
due to the changing work environment in conducting effective occupational
risk assessments and implementing OSH measures are discussed (for example,
frequent changes between tasks and workplaces, underreporting of
occupational accidents and diseases, lack of methodological tools, etc.). A
fundamental criterion used while studying consequences on health and safety
and the relative preventive measures is that health and safety must be
approached as ‘the promotion and maintenance at the highest degree of the
physical, mental and social well-being of workers’ and not only as retention of
their work ability. The study limits in combining ‘‘flexibility” at work and
overall protection of occupational and public safety and health in a
competitive market are put forward for discussion.

Sahu and Saha (2010) in their paper “A trend in women’s health in

India – what has been achieved and what can be done” published in
‘Rural and Remote Health’, remarked that the health of Indian women is
intrinsically linked to their status in society. Research into Indian women’s
status has found that their family contributions are often overlooked and they
are likely to be regarded as an economic burden, especially in rural areas.
This attitude has a negative impact on their health status. Poor health has

23
repercussions not only for women, but also for their children and other family
members. This commentary focuses on the trend in five key women’s issues in
India: maternal and child health; violence against women; nutritional status;
unequal treatment of girls and boys; and care quality. The discussion is based
on data extracted from Indian National Family Health Surveys (NFHS-1,
NFHS-2 NFHS-3) spanning the period 1993-2006, and data from the Indian
Sample Registration System and National Crime Research Bureau.

Holeyannavar and Itagi (2011) published a paper “Relationship

Between Stress, Health Status and Emotional Competence of Primary
School Teachers and Housewives” in ‘Humanity and Social Sciences
Journal’. It is an ex-post-facto study on stress, health status and emotional
competence of 105 married female primary school teachers with at least 5
years of teaching experience was conducted in Dharwad city during 2008-09.
50 housewives belonging to the same age and income ranges were selected as
the comparison group. Stress Index Questionnaire developed by Ivancewich
and Matteson was used to assess the stress levels, emotional competence was
assessed using EC-Scale developed by Bharadwaj and Sharma and health
status by Post-Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGI)
Health Questionnaire N-2 developed by Wig and Verma. The results revealed
that majority of the teachers and housewives indicated average to competent
level of emotional competence (88-89.5%), high stress levels (66-74.3%) and
mildly affected health status (88.6-92.0%). Negative and significant
relationship was observed between emotional competence reduced the stress
levels and health problems (neurosis) significantly among primary school
teachers as well as housewives.

Jinky Leilanie Lu (2011) published an article “Occupational Health

and Safety of Women Workers: Viewed in the Light of Labor

24
Regulations” in ‘Journal of International Women’s Studies’. This article
is an analytic and discursive review of data and studies about women workers
in the manufacturing sector in the Philippines in the light of labor regulations.
The analyses focus on the following: occupational health and safety, health
and safety programs, provision of facilities at work, and labor issues
pertaining to women workers. Policy and advocacy work implications are
recommended based on the discursive analysis.

In their paper, “Social Support as Mental Health Improver for

Managerial Women in the Organizational Work Environment” published
in ‘Business Intelligence Journal’, Jocelyn Sackey and
Mohammed-Aminu Sanda (2011) assessed the relationship between social
support and mental health (depression, anxiety and somatic anxiety) relative to
its impact on managerial women in Ghana. The objective is to seek answers to
the question as to whether the availability of social support in the work
environment can help improve the mental health of women. This is because
the lack of spousal support for working women is found to have a direct
connection to diminished mental health. The findings show that spousal
support provided women with a sense of security and stability at home and
also reduced their possibility of being confronted with role conflict. It is thus,
concluded that the career progression of women managers can be greatly
enhanced when they receive spousal support, encouragement and guidance in
addition to those from superiors and co-workers.

Kaur and Kaur (2011) published a paper entitled “Psycho-social

Problems of Women Teachers Working in Schools and Colleges of
Punjab” in ‘Contemporary Research in India’. This paper is a study of
interactive effect of institution (school/college), area (rural/urban) and age
(<35 years and >35 years) on psycho-social problems of women teachers in

25
the state of Punjab. The sample of 1000 women teachers was taken, out of
which 500 (250 rural and 250 urban) were from schools and 500 (250 rural
and 250 urban) from colleges. The data was subject to statistical analysis and
the results revealed that there is no significant interactive effect of area
(Rural/Urban), institution (School/College) and age (<35 years/>35 years) on
the variable of psycho-social problems of women teachers.

Lakshmi Lingam and Vaidehi Yelamanchili (2011) in their paper

“Reproductive Rights and Exclusionary Wrongs: Maternity Benefits”
published in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’ remarked that, women
contribute to the economy with their unpaid labour as well as social
reproduction work but maternity protection in India is sector-specific and
employer-employee centric. It thus leaves out the large majority of women in
the unorganised sector. A new scheme such as the Indira Gandhi Matritva
Sahyog Yojana which is being piloted in 52 districts implicitly recognises the
need to compensate for wage loss due to maternity and provide support for the
mother and child’s nutrition. However, a series of exclusionary clauses mar
the objectives of the scheme. This paper attempts to demonstrate the
misguided “targeting” of this scheme. The Planning Commission is preparing
to scale it up at the national level in the Twelfth Plan, perhaps with the same
set of incentives and disincentives as are currently spelt out in the pilot phase
document. The data clearly shows that if these exclusionary clauses remain
they will “victimise the victim”.

According to Muhammad Shoaib, et al (2011) as stated in their paper

“Occupational Risk Factors Associated with Reproductive Health of
Working Women: A Case Study of University of Gujrat” published in
‘Academic Research International’, the occupational risk factors are those
factors which directly or indirectly influence the health and performance of

26
the workers. Present study aims at understanding the association between
occupational risk factors and reproductive health of married working women
in University of Gujrat (UoG), Pakistan. In Pakistan the opportunities for
working women is not appreciable as compared to developed countries.
Women are mostly secluded from such opportunities. So in this study
researchers try to highlight the importance of the issue in the context of the
Pakistan and more specifically working women in UoG. For the present study
110 married working women were sampled form University of Gujrat through
simple random sampling by using sample size determinant formula. The
results showed that there is a positive association between occupational risk
factors and reproductive health of married working women.

Nadeem Malik (2011) published a paper entitled “A study on

Occupational Stress experienced by Private and Public Banks Employees
in Quetta City” in ‘African Journal of Business Management’. Stress is a
universal element and persons from nearly every walk of life have to face
stress. Stress can have negative impacts on both the employee and the
organization. Actually, in this research paper it was checked that what the
impact occupational stress produced upon employees. The study describes the
occupational stress in public and private banks. A randomly selected sample
of 200 employees from private and public banks shows that occupational
stress is found higher among private bank employees compared to public bank
employees. Among different occupational stress variables role over load, role
authority, role conflict and lack of senior level support contribute more to the
occupational stress. Bank employees cannot afford the time to relax and "wind
down" when they are faced with work variety, discrimination, favoritism,
delegation and conflicting tasks.

27
 Sherly Thomas (2011) published her research paper “A Study on the
Health Problems of Women Working in a Textile Unit in Coimbatore” in
‘International Journal of Science and Technology’. The economic status of
women is now accepted as an indicator of a society‟s stage of development.
Textile industry is the only industry to have employed women workers since
long time. Women workers unlike the majority in the informal sector have
been exposed to rigorous work, discipline, fixed working hours, specific
production norms etc. In TamilNadu, the garment industry is female
dominated field. There are many health problems to which the women
workers in textile industry is exposed to. To examine the health problems of
women workers in the textile unit a study is undertaken. The data was
collected with the help of a questionnaire administered to 60 women. The
study found out that many of them suffered from backache, joint pains,
headache and general tiredness. The medical expenses were a big burden for
these women. The women do not give much importance to their health. They
try to work even when they are sick and weak, just to supplement the family
income. The health hazards of the women working in the textile industry are
much higher compared to their counter parts in other sectors. It is therefore an
urgent need on the part of the policy makers to take effective steps to better
the condition of women in textile industry.

Vasanthi (2011) in her paper “Addressing Paid Domestic Work: A

Public Policy Concern” published in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’
remarked that while domestic workers are covered by the legislative
framework in many countries, in India they stand excluded from national
legislations that deal with minimum wages, dispute settlement, conditions of
work, social security and workplace injuries. This study draws upon the
findings of a research project of the National Domestic Workers Movement
that was conducted between February 2010 and February 2011. It sets out the

28
definition of domestic work as a conceptual issue that is necessary for
understanding domestic work and explores the constitutional and employment
law framework and the challenges in legislating for this sector. It concludes
with exploring ways of reducing the gap between law and practice.

Akhtar and Shimul (2012) write an article “Working Hazards as

Indicator of Occupational Stress of Industrial Workers of Bangladesh” in
‘Asian Business Review’. The primary objective of the present study was to
find out the hazardous factors and to see whether those factors are responsible
for uplifting occupational stress in two industrial sectors of Bangladesh. And
the secondary objective was to see how far the Bangladeshi industries
implement the policies and rules set by Bangladesh Labor Code, 2006. To
serve the above mentioned objectives two types of industries were selected
purposively and following incidental sampling procedure 130 industrial
workers from tannery and garments were interviewed by a structured
questionnaire. Through interviewing at first the hazardous factors were
identified according to the severity of effect on their physical and
psychological health. Then occupational stress was identified through a
questionnaire and collected data were analyzed by independent sample t-test.
Results revealed that some of the hazardous factors had significant differential
effects on occupational stress. This study also revealed that these two types of
industries do not ensure the set working conditions with all safety and
hygienic arrangements according to “The Bangladesh Labor Code, 2006”.

Ashok Kumar and Sundar (2012) published a paper “Problems

Faced by Women Executives Working in Public Sector Banks in
Puducherry” in ‘International Journal of Marketing, Financial Services
& Management Research’. India is a country with diverse traditions and
customs. In all the religions, women hold a venerable position. Unfortunately,

29
since ages, the role of women was confined to household chores and limited to
domestic issues. In the male-dominated Indian society, women suffered to
extreme levels of exploitation. Some factors – like death of bread winner,
sudden fall in family income or inadequate family income – forced women to
seek employment in informal sector (small trader, artisan or field laborer on a
family farm) but yet, that did not result in women empowerment. The
participation of women as workers and women’s education was negligible.
Indian women is distinct from their western counter parts in that they do not
shed their conventional roles as mothers and house wives inspire of their
professional responsibilities. They are skilled at blending professional
excellence and traditional love for home harmoniously. The study is purely
exploratory in nature and seeks to identify the factors preventing women
employees from aspiring for higher post and problems faced by women
executives in public sector banks related to work performance. Further this
aims also at finding out the organizational support for women employees to
achieve higher post. Conclusion has been given.

Bano and Jha (2012) writes “Organizational Role Stress Among

Public and Private Sector Employees: A Comparative Study” in ‘The
Lahore Journal of Business’. The aim of this study is to explore the
differences in job-related stress, if any, between public and private sector
employees, based on ten role stressors. It also examines the role of
demographic variables on the stress levels of both public and private sector
groups. Our methodology entails a survey of 182 public and 120 private sector
employees in Uttar Pradesh, India, whose responses are measured according
to an occupational role stress scale. We also use secondary data provided by
the literature review. The sample was collected through convenience
sampling. On applying the t-test and ANOVA test to the data, we find that
both public and private sector employees face moderate levels of stress. While

30
there is no significant difference overall between public and private sector
employees in terms of total stress levels, certain individual stressors—such as
work experience and educational qualifications—do yield differences. The
major limitation of this study is that it was conducted in Uttar Pradesh alone,
while the work culture of organizations other than in Uttar Pradesh may be
different.

Dalmia (2012) in her paper “Strong Women, Weak Bodies, Muted

Voices Women Construction Workers in Delhi” published in ‘Economic &
Political Weekly’ argued that, if Delhi is building its way towards becoming
a “global city” through mammoth infrastructure and construction projects,
then what is the story of those people whose work helps put up its massive
structures? The role played by women who are employed in the construction
of Delhi’s megastructures is even more intriguing, for they not only become
workers-earners in a vast city but continue to fulfill the role of a
mother-wife-householder.

Hasnain, et al (2012) published “Work-Family Conflict and

Occupational Stress as Correlates of Life Satisfaction Among Male and
Female Managers” in ‘International Review of Business and Social
Sciences’. The study was designed to investigate the differences in
work-family and family-work conflicts, occupational stress and life
satisfaction of male and female managers. It also investigated the percentage
of variance counted by work-family conflict and occupational stress in life
satisfaction. The sample of the study consisted of a total of 70 middle level
managers from one of the leading thermal power corporations, Delhi (India).
Among them, there were 35 male and 35 female managers. The respondents
were taken on incidental basis and their age ranged from 47 to 59 years. Male
managers had significantly greater means on all the variables i.e., work-family

31
conflict, family-work conflict and life satisfaction than female managers. The
result also revealed significant differences in different dimensions of
occupational stress: role overload, role conflict and strenuous working
conditions, and in all the dimensions male managers had greater mean scores
than female managers. The regression analysis showed that work-family
conflict, family-work conflict and occupational stress together contributed
16% variance in the life satisfaction of male managers and 18% of female
managers.

Holeyannavar and Itagi (2012) published a paper on “Stress and

Emotional Competence of Primary School Teachers” in ‘Journal of
Psychology’. It is an ex-post-facto study on stress and emotional competence
of 105 primary school teachers was conducted in Dharwad during 2008-09.
Stress was assessed using Stress Inventory for Teachers (SIT) and emotional
competence by EC Scale. Results revealed that most of the teachers (64.7%)
indicated average to high levels of stress and 35.2% with low stress. Majority
of them (89.5%) showed average to competent levels of emotional
competence, followed by 6.7% and 3.8% in incompetent and highly
competent levels respectively. The stress of teachers showed negative and
highly significant relationship with age and work experience whereas positive
and highly significant relationship with education. Age and work experience
were positively and significantly related with the emotional competence of
teachers. Negative and highly significant relationship was observed between
the stress and emotional competence of teachers. Thus, the study concluded
that increase in the emotional competence reduced the stress levels of the
primary teachers significantly.

In their paper “Occupational Stress in Relation to General Health

Among Information Technology (IT) Workers” published in

32
‘International Journal of Business and Management Tomorrow’,
Mangaiyarkarasi and Sellakumar (2012) assessed the level of occupational
stress and how stress is related to General Health among IT (Information and
Technology) workers in a selected company. A sample of 100 employees both
male and female was randomly selected from a selected IT industry.
Occupational Stress Scale and General Health Questionnaire were
administered individually to collect data. One-way ANOVA was used to
analyze the data to test the hypothesis. The result shows that there is a
significant difference found between high and low Occupational Stress on
General health. Hence it is concluded that increase of occupational stress
affects the general health of the IT workers.

Mariammal, et al (2012) published “Work influenced occupational

stress and cardiovascular risk among teachers and office workers” in
‘Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research’. School Teachers face
tremendous stress during teaching and handling children while it is less in
case of office workers. In order to assess the impact of working environment
on the study group, a standardized questionnaire was designed, covering all
the required data, served to the study group and a total of 600 respondents
turned up. Among the 600 respondents, 300 were teachers and 300 were
office workers including both sexes. The aim of the present study is to assess
the blood pressure, pulse rate of teachers and office workers of Thoothukudi
which is expected to be influenced by their working environment. There was a
significant increase in the mean arterial blood pressure, systolic and diastolic
pressure and of heart rate of the teachers and office workers were observed
when compared with the control populations. When the parameters of teachers
were compared with the office workers, there was a significant increase was
observed in teachers. In the anthropometric parameters measured such as
height and experience there was no significant change was observed among

33
the teachers and the office workers and when both compared with control. But
with regard to the age, weight and BMI of the teachers and office workers,
there was a significant increase noted than the control and this was considered
as one of the causative factor for the cardiovascular disorders. The study result
concluded that the working environment affected the teachers to a greater
extent resulted in increased blood pressure, pulse rate and pulse pressure
while the working environment of office workers affected their health to a
lesser extent than the teachers. But when both of them were compared with
the control population, both the workers are affected by their environment.

Muthu Velayutham and Chandru (2012) published a paper “An

Empirical study on Job Stress and its impact on health workers in
Private Hospitals at Tiruchirappalli, South India” in ‘Interdisciplinary
Journal of Contemporary Research in Business’. Stress may be referred to
as an unpleasant state of emotional and physiological arousal that people
experience in situations that they perceive as dangerous or threatening to their
well-being. In this study the researcher’s wants to know the various factors
that cause stress to health workers in private hospitals at Tiruchirappalli.
Primary data was collected by the researcher with the help of structured
questionnaire administered to the health workers in two leading private
hospitals at Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu. 128 employees from those
organizations constitute the sample size. Simple Random Sampling using
lottery method was adopted to select the respondents. The determinants of job
stress that have been examined under this study include, management role,
relationship with others, workload pressure, homework interface, role
ambiguity, and performance pressure. To test the reliability of the data
collected, the researcher used cronbach’s Alpha test and the value is 0.835
which shows that the data has satisfactory reliability and validity. Using
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) some of the relevant tests were

34
carried out like factor analysis and reliability test. Based on the test result
some of the major finding will be derived that will be significant and relevant
to identify the factors that causes stress among health workers and means to
overcome it.

As stated by Nur Aqilah and Juliana (2012) in their paper

“Association between Occupational Stress and Respiratory Symptoms
among Lecturers in Universiti Putra Malaysia” published in ‘Global
Journal of Health Science’, there was considerable evidence that a subject’s
psychological status may influence respiratory sensations and that some
subjects may experience respiratory symptoms regardless of the presence of a
respiratory disease. The objective of this study was to determine the
association between occupational stress and respiratory symptoms among
lecturers. This cross sectional study was conducted in Universiti Putra
Malaysia, involved 61 lecturers from various faculties. Job Content
Questionnaire (JCQ) and questionnaires based on American Thoracic Society
were used to collect the data on socio-demography, stress level and respiratory
symptoms. High level of occupational stress (high strain) was determined
among 16 of the respondents (26.2%). Breathlessness was the common
symptom experienced by the respondents. Female lecturers were significantly
experienced high stress level compared to male (p=0.035). They were also
significantly having more breathlessness symptom compared to male lecturer
(p=0.011). Study highlighted in study population, gender plays a significant
role that influenced level of occupational stress and also gender has role in
resulting occupational stress level and respiratory symptoms. There was no
significant association between occupational stress and respiratory symptoms.
It can be concluded that this group of lecturers of Universiti Putra Malaysia
did not experienced high occupational stress level. Occupational stress level

35
was not statistically significantly associated with all respiratory symptoms
being studied.

Pandit and Upadhyaya (2012) published a paper “Role Conflict and

its effect on Middle Class Working Women of India” in ‘IOSR Journal of
Business and Management’. Women of India have marked their significant
presence in the world in various fields. They have been given the status of
power and prestige in India. With the emergence of middle class, women of
this segment have developed to a great extent. They form the major female
work force of India. In various sectors and fields of work, these middle class
women have majorly been employed. Conflicts arise when one or the other
party is not able to reach to an agreement. It is the stage where disagreement
crops up. Role conflict is an outcome of conflicts in number of roles
performed by an individual. Middle working women are major victims of this
issue. They perform number of roles through their lives to an extent that they
fail to retain their own identity. A major problem of conflict and identity
crises crops up.

Shunmuga Sundaram and Jeya Kumaran (2012) published “A

Study on Occupational stress and Coping strategies among Police Head
Constables (Grade III)” in ‘Research Journal of Management Sciences’.
Occupation stress is a renowned problem in police personals. Police
department is the occupation that has been identified as high level of stress.
This study reveals the frequency of stressful events faced by the grade III
police constables and stress coping strategies used by them. A standard
questionnaire was used to find out the demographic profile, frequency of
stress and coping strategies. 150 grade III constables are taken into account
for this study. This study explores the most common coping strategies, in that
waiting for right time to do the job is the most used coping method, because

36
most of the police constables are having more than 16-20 years of experience
(40%), second most used coping strategies is think how best he can handle the
problems, because most of them are having UG level qualifications and very
good experience in handling crisis situations. And also seeing criminals going
free and lack of personal time are most stressful events faced by the
constables, In this study it shows that poor organizational policy is the major
stressor for grade III police constables.

Shyam Pingle (2012) write an article “Occupational Safety and

Health in India: Now and the Future” in ‘Industrial Health’. India, a
growing economy and world’s largest democracy, has population exceeding
1.2 billion. Out of this huge number, 63.6% form working age group. More
than 90% work in the informal economy, mainly agriculture and services.
Less than 10% work in the organized sector; mainly industry, mining and
some services. New service industries like Information Technology (IT),
Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) are increasing rapidly; so is the
proportion of females in the workforce. The Occupational Safety and Health
(OSH)scenario in India is complex. Unprecedented growth and progress go
hand in hand with challenges such as huge workforce in unorganized sector,
availability of cheap labour, meager public spending on health, inadequate
implementation of existing legislation, lack of reliable OSH data, shortage of
OSH professionals, multiplicity of statutory controls, apathy of stakeholders
and infrastructure problems. The national policy of OSH at workplace,
adopted by the government in 2009, is yet to be implemented. Some of the
major occupational risks are accidents, pneumoconiosis, musculoskeletal
injuries, chronic obstructive lung diseases; pesticide poisoning and noise
induced hearing loss. The three most important OSH needs are (1) legislation
to extent OSH coverage to all sectors of working life including the
unorganized sector; (2) spreading the awareness about OSH among

37
stakeholders; (3) development of OSH infrastructure and OSH professionals.
Other issues include integration of occupational health with primary health
care.

Somashekhar and Vinodh Kumar (2012) published “Occupational

Problems and Challenges of Women Bus Conductors in Road Transport
Industry: With Special Reference to BMTC” in ‘International Journal of
Humanities and Social Science Invention’. The transport industry is
traditionally a male dominated sector. Women workforces in India were away
from this sector till 1980s. From past two- three decades women have
gradually entered to this sector as bus conductors and different strata of
employment in road transport industry in different parts of the country. This
situation can also see in Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation
(BMTC) in Karnataka state. Even today if we have a closer look at the sex
balance in the transport employment, it shows that it is still male dominated.
This paper is to search that the transport sector is a gendered work space
dominated by masculine values and practices. Also seeks the reasons for
women who entering to transport sector in larger scale in recent days. The aim
of this paper is to focus on occupational problems, challenges of women bus
conductors and job satisfaction.

Sunny Jose (2012) writes a paper “Women’s Paid Work and

Well-being in Rajasthan” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’ and
questioned that does women’s participation in paid work lead to their better
well-being? This analysis, through a primary survey carried out on the
outskirts of Jaipur in Rajasthan, suggests a mixed picture. Participation in paid
work is likely to bring some benefits to women but beyond a point the benefits
are context-specific – whether women enter the labour force out of sheer
survival necessity or due to other reasons. These findings provide neither a

38
neat narrative that paid work is empowering women by providing them with
choices and freedom, nor do they convey that paid work is demeaning and
devoid of any important benefit. Instead, the findings call for considering a
context-specific view of the potential of paid work for women’s well-being
and underline the significance of public policy in enhancing the well-being of
poor women in India.

Vijayadurai and Venkatesh (2012) published a paper “A Study on

Stress Management among Women College Teachers in Tamilnadu,
India” in ‘Pacific Business Review International’. Stress at work can be a
real problem to the organization as well as for its workers. Good management
and good work organization are the best forms of stress prevention. If
employees are already stressed, their managers should be aware of it and
know to help. Work related stress is the response people may have when
present with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their
knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to cope. Stress
occurs in a wide range of work circumstances but is often made worse when
employees feel they have little support from supervisors and colleagues and
where they can cope with its demands and pressures. There is often confusion
between pressure or challenge and stress and sometimes it is used to excuse
bad management practice. In the workplace and at home, stress and other
difficult situation are at an all- time high. Factors such as job insecurity, long
hours, continuous change and unrealistic deadlines can cause serious problem
for workers. The aim and goal of the paper is to know the various factors to
stimulate stress level among women teachers in college level. Workplace
stress occurs when there is an imbalance the demands and perceived pressures
of the work environment and an individual ability to cope. An individual’s
experience of stress at work is to a large extent affected by the level of control
they have over their working condition / pressures, the degree of support they

39
receive from others in the workplace and the strategies they use to respond to
work pressures.

Aadya and Kiran (2013) published “Occupational Stress of Women

Workers in Unorganized Sector” in ‘International Journal of Scientific &
Engineering Research’. The study was carried out with an objective of
studying the occupational history and to compare and analyse the occupational
stress among the women workers involved in construction work, chikankari
work and sanitary work. The study was conducted in Lucknow city selecting
60 respondents from each type of work. A self structured interview schedule
and a rating scale was prepared to collect the information using interview
method. Significant differences in the level of occupational stress i.e.,
physical stress (X2=56.94**, p<0.001 & p<0.005) and biomechanical stress
(X2=17.81** p<0.001 & p<0.005) was found among various types of work
and it was also revealed that highest amount of stress is perceived by the
women involved in sanitary work. Among the three types of workers, sanitary
workers perceive high level of physical, physiological and biomechanical
stress. Regularized working patterns have to be implemented in unorganized
sector to improve the working conditions and in turn to minimize the stress for
women workers. Ergonomic interventions may also be made to improve the
quality of life of women involved in unorganized sector.

Darshan, et al (2013) writes on “A Study on Professional Stress,

Depression and Alcohol Use Among Indian IT Professionals” in ‘Indian
Journal of Psychiatry’. Stress has touched almost all professions posing
threat to mental and physical health. India being the Information Technology
(IT) hub with lakhs involved as IT professionals, there is a need to assess
prevalence of professional stress, depression and problem alcohol use and
understand their association. The present study is made to screen for the

40
prevalence of professional stress, risk for depression and harmful alcohol use
among software engineers and to study the association between professional
stress, risk for depression and harmful alcohol use. The results revealed that a
total of 129 subjects, participated in the study. 51.2% of the study sample was
found to be professionally stressed at the time of interview. 43.4% of the
study population was found to be at risk for developing depression. 68.2% of
those who were professionally stressed were at risk for developing depression
compared with only 17.5% of those who were not professionally stressed.
Odds ratio revealed that subjects who were professionally stressed had 10
times higher risk for developing depression compared to those who were not
professionally stressed. Subjects who were professionally stressed had 5.9
times higher prevalence of harmful alcohol use compared to those who were
not professionally stressed. Subjects who were at risk for developing
depression had 4.1 times higher prevalence of harmful alcohol use compared
with those who were not at risk for developing depression. Such higher rates
of professional stress, risk for developing depression and harmful alcohol use
among software engineers could hinder the progress of IT development and
also significantly increase the incidence of psychiatric disorders.

Divya Raju, et al (2013) written a paper “Influence of Occupational

Stress on Health Among the Medical Transcriptors” in ‘International
Journal of Pharmacology and Biological Sciences’. Occupational stress is
one of the major problem in our modern world and it leads to various stress
conditions..The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of
occupational stress on health among medical transcriptors. After initial
assessment of occupational stress,a module was given to provide information
on stress reduction. The study result showed that females have higher
occupational stress compared to males. It was also observed that the

41
symptoms including somatic symptoms and psychological symptoms are
higher in females compared to males.

Kakkar and Ahuja (2013) in their paper “Stress Among Women

Lecturers Working in Govt. and Private Colleges: A Comparative Study”
published in ‘Advanced International Research Journal of Teacher
Education’ attempted to study the effect of stress among women lecturers in
different colleges so that remedies could be find out to live a stress less life.
The questionnaire was used for assessing the level of stress and making a
comparison between the groups of women lecturers from Government and
Private Colleges. The difference in stress levels was found insignificant
retaining the null hypothesis formulated for the study. The Lecturers in the
groups have however suggested some measures for reduction of stress levels
to develop healthy attitudes for leading better lives and avoiding diseases on
this account.

The study “Impact of Occupational Stress on the Health Status of

Working Women in Anantnag District (J&K)” published in ‘International
Journal of Social Science Tomorrow’ was carried out by Uzma Rashid and
Nisar Ahmad Wani (2013) with the objectives of study the impact of
occupational stress on the health status of working women. The study was
conducted on a sample of 100 respondents. Data for research was collected
through pre structured questionnaire method. The research is exploratory as
well as descriptive in nature, because after an intensive study the project has
been completed. After analyzing the data it was found that the occupational
stress is having greater influence on the health status of working women.The
hypothesis pertains that occupational stress among women of age group 25-35
is higher than those of age group above 35 years. Another hypothesis pertains
that occupational stress among private employees is higher than government

42
employees. This is due the fact that there is tough competition in private
sector and each company wants its employees to be highly efficient and
hardworking giving least or no importance the working conditions. Another
hypothesis pertains that occupational stress among urban working women is
higher than those of rural. Another hypothesis pertains that health status is
directly affected by the stress. With the increase in stress level, health of
women is tremendously affected. Another hypothesis pertains that
occupational stress in married women is greater than those who are unmarried.
Married women have to work in two shifts i.e; for home and in office as well.
Managing both duties sometimes becomes unbearable as she is not able to
give time and relaxation for herself, which in turn increases her stress level
which directly causes health problems.

Rajasekhar and Sasikala (2013) written a paper “An Impact of

Stress Management on Employed Women” published in ‘Language in
India’. Today women are in a state of transition caught between the illusory
safety of traditional role on one hand and the challenge to realize their
potential outside on the other hand. Women, have a lot of balancing to do
between home and workplace, and balancing between social and personal
requirements. The major issues are maternity, menopause, parenthood, gender
roles, conditions at home and workplace, familial and social support, often
blight women’s lives in the long run. Stress is the reactions of people have to
excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them. A woman is
constantly under stress either at home or at work place. At work place coping
with demands, time management, and completion of tasks before the
deadlines are the problems which need to be handled skilfully. At home
maintaining relationships, making ends to meet are factors that can cause
stress. Stress is caused whenever any event, internal or external, is perceived
as making demands over and above the copy resources possessed by the

43
women’s. Stress make a person more susceptible to disease, which then
aggravates any existing illness or chronic condition such as heart disease,
depression, ulcers, irritable bowel disease, diabetics, the common cold,
urinary tract infections. Some people seek comfort from stress by engaging in
behaviours such as alcohol and drug abuse, smoking, or overeating, which
have negative physical and emotional health consequences of their own. A
recent survey showed that 70-90 percent of women feel stressed at work place
and outside. Depression, only one type of stress reaction, is predicted to be the
leading occupational disease of the 21st century, responsible for more days
lost than any other single factor. Globally, 23 percent of women executives
and professionals, say they feel “super stressed”. The aim of the field study
has been to find out the cause and effects of stress on the working women.
Causes of occupational stress and several specific techniques have been
suggested through stress management. To conclude, the effective management
of stress involves directing stress for productive purposes, preparing role
occupants to understand the nature of stress helping them to understand their
strength and usual styles and equipping them to develop approach strategies
for coping with stress.

2.3. References:

1. Aadya and Kiran (2013): Occupational Stress of Women Workers in

Unorganized Sector. International Journal of Scientific &
Engineering Research. Vol. 4. No. 3. March 2013. P. 2-13.
2. Ajithkumar, N and Radhadevi, D (2010): Health of Women in Kerala:
Current Status and Emerging Issues. Working Paper No. 23. Kochi:
Centre for Socio-economic and Environment Studies, January 2010.
3. Akhtar, Shayama and Shimul, Asheek Mohammad (2012): Working
Hazards as Indicator of Occupational Stress of Industrial Workers of
Bangladesh. Asian Business Review. Vol. 1. No.1. September 2012. P.
140-144.

44
4. Anandhi, S (2007): Women, Work and Abortion: A Case Study from
Tamil Nadu. Economic & Political Weekly. March 24, 2007. P.
1054-1060.
5. Ashokkumar and Khan, ME (2010): Health Status of Women in India:
Evidences from National Family Health Survey-3 (2005-06) and Future
Outlook. Research and Practice in Social Sciences. Vol. 6. No.2.
August 2010. P. 1-21.
6. Ashok Kumar and Sundar (2012): Problems Faced by Women
Executives Working in Public Sector Banks in Puducherry.
International Journal of Marketing, Financial Services &
Management Research. Vol. 1. No. 7. July 2012. P. 180-193.
7. Bano, Bushara and Jha, Rajiv Kumar (2012): Organizational Role
Stress Among Public and Private Sector Employees: A Comparative
Study. The Lahore Journal of Business. Vol. 1. No. 1. Summer 2012.
P. 23-36.
8. Dalmia, Aaradhana J (2012): Strong Women, Weak Bodies, Muted
Voices Women Construction Workers in Delhi. Economic & Political
Weekly. Vol. 47. No. 26 & 27. June 30, 2012. P. 249-256.
9. Darshan, MS, et al (2013): A Study on Professional Stress, Depression
and Alcohol Use Among Indian IT Professionals. Indian Journal of
Psychiatry. Vol. 55. No. 1. January-March 2013. P. 63-70.
10. Divya Raju, et al (2013): Influence of Occupational Stress on Health
Among the Medical Transcriptors. International Journal of Pharma
and Biological Sciences. Vol. 4. No. 1. January 2013. P. 1101-1106.
11. Geeta Kumari, et al (2010): Studies on Health Problems of Software
People: A Case Study of Faculty of GCE and GIMT Gurgaon, India.
International Journal of Innovation, Management and
Technology. Vol. 1. No. 4. October 2010. P. 388-397.
12. Hasnain, N, et al (2012): Work-Family Conflict and Occupational
Stress as Correlates of Life Satisfaction Among Male and Female
Managers. International Review of Business and Social Sciences.
Vol. 1. No. 9. August 2012. P. 1-10.
13. Holeyannavar, PG and Itagi, SK (2011): Relationship Between Stress,
Health Status and Emotional Competence of Primary School Teachers
and Housewives. Humanity and Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 6. No.
1. 2011. P. 59-65.
14. Holeyannavar, PG and Itagi, SK (2012): Stress and Emotional
Competence of Primary School Teachers. Journal of Psychology. Vol.
3. No. 1. 2012. P. 29-38.
15. Jamwal, Renu and Gupta, Deepti (2010): Work Participation of
Females and Emerging Labour Laws in India. Asia-Pacific Journal of
Social Sciences. Vol. 2. No. 1. January-June 2010. P. 161-172.

45
16. Janzen, BL (1998): Women, Gender and Health: A Review of Recent
Literature. Winnipeg: Prairie Women’s Health Centre for Excellence,
1998.
17. Jinky Leilanie Lu (2011): Occupational Health and Safety of Women
Workers: Viewed in the Light of Labor Regulations. Journal of
International Women’s Studies. Vol. 12. No. 1. 2011. P. 68-78.
18. Jocelyn Sackey and Mohammed-Aminu Sanda (2011): Social Support
as Mental Health Improver for Managerial Women in the
Organizational Work Environment. Business Intelligence Journal.
Vol. 4. No. 2. July 2011. P. 362-370.
19. Kaila, HL (2007): Women Managers in Indian Organizations. Journal
of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology. Vol. 33. No. 1.
January 2007. P. 93-102.
20. Kakkar, Nidhi and Ahuja, Jyoti (2013): Stress Among Women
Lecturers Working in Govt. and Private Colleges: A Comparative
Study. Advanced International Research Journal of Teacher
Education. Vol. 1. No. 1. March 2013. P. 113-117.
21. Kaur, Ravinder and Kaur, Naginder (2011): Psycho-social Problems of
Women Teachers Working in Schools and Colleges of Punjab.
Contemporary Research in India. Vol. 1. No. 3. September 2011. P.
185-190.
22. Kortum, Evelyn, et al (2010): Psycho-social Risks and Work Related
Stress in Developing Countries: Health Impact, Priorities, Barriers and
Solutions. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and
Environmental Health. Vol. 23. No. 3. 2010. P. 225-238.
23. Lakshmi Lingam and Vaidehi Yelamanchili (2011): Reproductive
Rights and Exclusionary Wrongs: Maternity Benefits. Economic &
Political Weekly. Vol. 46. No. 43. October 22, 2011. P. 94-103.
24. Mangaiyarkarasi, K and Sellakumar, GK (2012): Occupational Stress
in Relation to General Health Among Information Technology (IT)
Workers. International Journal of Business and Management
Tomorrow. Vol. 2. No. 5. May 2012. P. 1-6.
25. Mariammal, et al (2012): Work Influenced Occupational Stress and
Cardiovascular Risk among Teachers and Office Workers. Journal of
Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research. Vol. 4. No. 3. 2012. P.
1807-1811.
26. Mehrotra, Nilika (2004): Women, Disability and Social Support in
Rural Haryana. Economic & Political Weekly. December 25, 2004. P.
5640-5644.
27. Muhammad Shoaib, et al (2011): Occupational Risk Factors
Associated with Reproductive Health of Working Women: A Case
Study of University of Gujrat. Academic Research International.
Vol. 1. No. 2. September 2011. P. 292-301.

46
28. Muthu Velayutham and Chandru (2012): An Empirical study on Job
Stress and its impact on health workers in Private Hospitals at
Tiruchirappalli, South India. Interdisciplinary Journal of
Contemporary Research in Business. Vol. 4. No. 7. November 2012.
P. 367-376.
29. Nadeem Malik (2011): A study on Occupational Stress experienced by
Private and Public Banks Employees in Quetta City. African Journal
of Business Management. Vol. 5. No. 8. April 2011. P. 3063-3070.
30. Nakkeeran, N (2003): Women’s Work, Status and Fertility Land, Caste
and Gender in a South Indian Village. Economic & Political Weekly.
September 13, 2003. P. 3931-3939.
31. Nur Aqilah, MY and Juliana, J (2012): Association between
Occupational Stress and Respiratory Symptoms among Lecturers in
Universiti Putra Malaysia. Global Journal of Health Science. Vol. 4.
No. 6. 2012. P. 160-170.
32. Padmini Swaminathan (1997): Work and Reproductive Health: A
Hobson’s Choice for Indian Women? Economic & Political Weekly.
October 25, 1997. P. WS53-WS62.
33. Pandit, Somya and Upadhyaya, Shobha (2012): Role Conflict and its
effect on Middle Class Working Women of India. IOSR Journal of
Business and Management. Vol. 4. No. 1. September-October 2012.
P. 5-37.
34. Papadopoulos, Gerasimos, et al (2010): Occupational and public health
and safety in a changing work environment: An integrated approach for
risk assessment and prevention. Safety Science. Vol. 48. 2010. P.
943-949.
35. Preeti Singh and Anu Pandey (2005): Women in Call Centres.
Economic & Political Weekly. February 12, 2005. P. 684-689.
36. Rajasekhar, D and Sasikala, B (2013): An Impact of Stress
Management on Employed Women. Language in India. Vol. 13. No.
4. April 2013. P. 208-221.
37. Ratna Sudarshan and Shrayana Bhattacharya (2009): Through the
Magnifying Glass: Women’s Work and Labour Force Participation in
Urban Delhi. Economic & Political Weekly. November 28, 2009. P.
59-67.
38. Reetika Khera and Nandini Nayak (2009): Women Workers and
Perceptions of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.
Economic & Political Weekly. Vol. 44. No. 43. October 24, 2009. P.
49-58.
39. Sahu, UC and Saha, KB (2010): A Trend in Women’s Health in India –
What has been achieved and What can be done. Rural and Remote
Health. June 2010. P. 1-11.

47
40. Sengupta, Ranja and Jena, Narendra (2009): The Current Trade
Paradigm and Women’s Health Concerns in India: With Special
Reference to the Proposed EU-India Free Trade Agreement.
Consortium for Trade and Development, December 2009.
41. Sharma, RK and Dhawan, Saroj (1986): Health Problems of Rural
Women. Health and Population: Perspectives and Issues. Vol. 9.
No. 1. 1986. P. 18-25.
42. Sherly Thomas (2011): A Study on the Health Problems of Women
Working in a Textile Unit in Coimbatore. International Journal of
Science and Technology. Vol. 1. No. 5. November 2011. P. 200-203.
43. Shunmuga Sundaram and Jeya Kumaran (2012): A Study on
Occupational stress and Coping strategies among Police Head
Constables (Grade III). Research Journal of Management Sciences.
Vol. 1. No. 1. August 2012. P. 44-47.
44. Shyam Pingle (2012): Occupational Safety and Health in India: Now
and the Future. Industrial Health. Vol. 50. 2012. P. 167-171.
45. Somashekhar, N and Vinodh Kumar, GC (2012): Occupational
Problems and Challenges of Women Bus Conductors in Road
Transport Industry: With Special Reference to BMTC. International
Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention. Vol. 1. No. 1.
December 2012. P. 55-60.
46. Sudha Narayanan (2008): Employment Guarantee, Women’s Work and
Childcare. Economic & Political Weekly. March 1, 2008. P. 10-13.
47. Taylor, et al (2005): Women’s Health Care Utilization and
Expenditures. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Working
Paper No. 05014. June 2005.
48. Sunny Jose (2012): Women’s Paid Work and Well-being in Rajasthan.
Economic & Political Weekly. Vol. 47. No. 45. November 10, 2012.
P. 48-56.
49. Uzma Rashid and Nisar Ahmad Wani (2013): Impact of Occupational
Stress on the Health Status of Working Women in Anantnag District
(J&K). International Journal of Social Science Tomorrow. Vol. 2.
No. 4. April 2013. P. 1-7.
50. Vasanthi, Nimushakavi (2011): Addressing Paid Domestic Work: A
Public Policy Concern. Economic & Political Weekly. Vol. 46. No.
43. October 22, 2011. P. 85-93.
51. Vijayadurai, J and Venkatesh, S (2012): A Study on Stress
Management among Women College Teachers in Tamilnadu, India.
Pacific Business Review International. Vol. 5. No. 2. August 2012.
P. 50-62.

48