IIW/EWF Diploma -
Materials and their Behaviour (Advanced)
Contents
Section Subject
1 Crystalline Structure
1.1 Atomic structure
1.2 Chemical bonding
1.3 Crystal structures
1.4 Atomic structure and mechanical properties
1.5 Solidification of metals
1.6 Recrystallisation – solid state transformation
1.7 Crystal structure imperfections
1.8 Types of deformation
1.9 Strengthening mechanisms
2 Phase Diagrams
2.1 Alloying
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Using phase diagrams
2.4 The lever rule
2.5 Solidification and microstructure
2.6 Solidification and coring
2.7 Age hardening
2.8 Solid state transformations
2.9 Introducing the iron carbon phase diagrams
2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of phase diagrams
3 Manufacture of Steels
3.1 Modern steelmaking
3.2 Primary steelmaking
3.3 Secondary steelmaking
3.4 Casting
3.5 Steel processing
4 Material testing
4.1 Mechanical testing
4.2 Tensile testing
4.3 Cross-weld tensile testing
4.4 Validity of tensile data
4.5 Charpy impact testing
4.6 Crystallinity and lateral expansion
4.7 Fracture toughness testing
4.8 Bend testing
4.9 Fatigue testing
4.10 Creep testing
4.11 Corrosion testing
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10 Corrosion
10.1 Definition
10.2 Reactions during corrosion
10.3 Galvanic series
10.4 Types of corrosion
10.5 Common corrosion protection techniques
10.6 Pickling and passivation
10.7 Corrosion testing
11 Welding of Stainless Steels
11.1 Stainless steels
11.2 Predicting the phases in stainless steel
11.3 Constitution diagrams
11.4 Measuring ferrite content
11.5 Austenitic stainless steel
11.6 Duplex stainless steels
11.7 Pitting resistance
11.8 Welding duplex stainless steels
11.9 Weldability problems for stainless steels
11.10 Weld decay (sensitisation)
11.11 SIGMA (δ) phase formation
11.12 475oC embrittlement
11.13 Solidification cracking
11.14 Heat tint
12 Surfacing
12.1 Reasons for using overlays and coatings
12.2 Types of protective layers
12.3 Weld surfacing
12.4 Buttering
12.5 Arc welding surfacing techniques
12.6 Laser weld deposition
12.7 Explosive cladding
12.8 Clad pipes
12.9 Cutting clad or lined plates
12.10 Dilution in weld overlays
12.11 Sensitization of the substrate
12.12 Welding and NDT of clad steels
12.13 Consumable selection
12.14 Standards
12.15 Quality of control and weld overlays
12.16 Thermal spray coatings
13 Creep Resistant Steels
13.1 Creep resistance
13.2 Creep-resistant steels
13.3 Weldability of creep-resistant steels
13.4 Reheat cracking
13.5 Controlling reheat cracking
13.6 Temper embrittlement
13.7 Type IV cracking
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14 Cryogenic Steels
14.1 Cryogenic properties
14.2 Applications of cryogenic steels
14.3 Composition of cryogenic steels
14.4 Weldability of nickel steels
14.5 Weldability of austenitic stainless steels
15 Aluminium and Light Alloys
15.1 Background
15.2 Work hardening alloys
15.3 Heat treatable alloys
15.4 Classification and temper designation of aluminium alloys
15.5 Weldability of aluminium alloys
15.6 Choice of filler metal
15.7 Application of welding processes
15.8 Titanium alloys
15.9 Magnesium alloys
16 Joining dissimilar metals
16.1 Differences in physical properties
16.2 Metallurgical incompatibility
16.3 Recommendations for dissimilar welding
16.4 Welding two different ferritic steels
16.5 Welding ferritic steel to stainless steel
16.6 Welding two different stainless steels
16.7 NDT of dissimilar metal weldments
16.8 Using the schaeffler diagram
17 Welding other Alloys
17.1 Cast iron
17.2 Types of cast iron
17.3 Nickel and nickel alloys
17.4 Weldability problems
17.5 Copper and copper alloys
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Section 1
Crystalline Structure
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Crystalline Structure
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1 Crystalline Structure
1.1 Atomic structure
An atom is the smallest possible particle of a chemical element that retains
its chemical properties. An atom contains three main particles:
Protons.
Neutrons.
Electrons.
The protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of the atom and the
electrons orbit the nucleus.
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Ionic compounds
Tend to have high melting points.
Become electrically conductive when melted or dissolved.
Are generally brittle.
Eg NaCl (salt).
Covalent compounds
Low melting points.
Poor electrical conductivity.
Interatomic (covalent) bonds are always stronger than intermolecular
bonds.
Eg CO2, H2O and N2.
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The arrangement of atoms inside the unit cell defines the crystalline
structure and there are many different types of crystal systems. Three
examples are body-centred cubic (bcc) crystal structure, face-centred
crystal (fcc) structure and hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal system.
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Body centred cubic is less closely packed than fcc, however it has six close-
packed planes (on cube diagonals) and two directions, therefore twelve slip
systems. Slip, however, is more difficult than for fcc. Hcp has one close-
packed plane and three slip directions giving three slip systems. Because of
the limited slip systems, hcp metals tend to be more brittle. The slip plane is
shown.
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Different metals have different crystal structures and the slip systems
available to each give them their mechanical properties.
1.4.1 Allotropes
If an element exists in more than one crystal form they are called allotropes.
Iron is an unusual metal in that it is allotropic, which means that it is able to
exist in more than one crystal form eg above 1400°C it is bcc delta iron (),
between 910-1400°C it is fcc austenite () and below 910°C it is bcc ferrite
().
The low temperature bcc phase of iron or steel exhibits a step change in the
toughness of structural steels, which is known as the ductile-brittle
transition, where the material is brittle at lower temperatures. Fcc materials
such as austenitic stainless steels and aluminium are used for storing
cryogenic liquids such as liquid nitrogen because they do not suffer from a
ductile-brittle transition.
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Grain boundaries have higher energies than the grain interiors, so a fine
grain structure with a large number of grain boundaries is far from the
energetic equilibrium. However, this structure has high toughness and yield
strength. During recrystallisation grain boundaries disappear and the overall
length of grain boundaries reduces, meaning a reduced energy, closer to
energetic equilibrium. This structure also has good conductivity due to a
greater amount of crystalline and less amorphous structure.
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Linear imperfections are also known as dislocations and there are two
types, depending on the geometry. Crystalline materials deform by
movement of dislocations along favourable crystal planes.
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ELASTIC PLASTIC
YIELD
POINT
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1.9.1 Alloying
Alloying with other elements eg adding C to Fe, or adding Si to Al is used to
increase the strength of the Fe and Al matrix, respectively. Depending on
the size of the atom being added, it can occupy an interstitial or
substitutional position in the matrix. Both can be effective in increasing
strength. Interstitial alloying elements are smaller atoms (compared to the
matrix atoms) and are able to fit into the spaces between the larger atoms
eg carbon or nitrogen in iron. Other common interstitial atoms in iron are
hydrogen and oxygen, although these are not effective in increasing the
strength of iron. Substitutional alloying elements are of similar size to the
lattice and replace atoms of the lattice eg chromium, manganese and nickel
in iron (and other atoms whose diameters are within 15% of each other).
Both substitutional and interstitial alloying elements act by deforming the
lattice, which makes it harder for dislocations to move and therefore
increase the strength of the alloy.
As the material is work hardened, it becomes stronger, but also loses some
of its ductility. For recovery of the ductility (at the expense of strength) the
material can be recovery annealed, normalised or full annealed.
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1.9.5 Quenching
Quenching is the rapid cooling of a material. This is used in Fe-C alloys and
steels to transform austenite to martensite. With rapid cooling from the
austenite phase field (face centred cubic), the austenite does not have time
to transform to ferrite and pearlite and instead the carbon atoms are trapped
in special locations (octahedral sites of the body centred cubic structure)
thus producing a new phase, martensite. The carbon deforms the lattice and
thus greatly increases the strength of the material. The strength and
hardness of martensite increase with increasing carbon content. Although
very hard microstructures are possible, fresh martensite is usually brittle and
has very low ductility (unless the carbon content is very low). To improve
toughness and increase ductility, quenched steels are tempered to relieve
stresses and allow carbon to move to reduce the lattice deformation.
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Revision Questions
1 What is the importance of dislocations? How can dislocations affect the strength
of materials?
2 List three types of lattice imperfection and explain how they affect the properties
of metals.
3 Describe three strengthening methods for alloys. Can these also be used for pure
metals?
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Section 2
Phase Diagrams
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Phase Diagrams
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2 Phase Diagrams
2.1 Alloying
Alloys are solutions of one or more metals or semi-metals (C and N are
examples of semi-metals) in another metal. Alloys are used to obtain
materials with superior properties, or to match requirements that cannot be
fulfilled by pure metals alone, eg higher strength, corrosion resistance, wear
resistance. The atoms of one element can dissolve in another metal to form
a solid solution either substitutionally (to form substitutional solid solution) or
interstitially (to form interstitial solid solution) depending on the relative sizes
of the atoms. Substitution solubility occurs when the atomic radii of the
solute and solvent atoms are within ±15% of each other (eg Ni in Cu).
Interstitial solubility occurs when the solute atoms are much smaller than the
solvent atom (eg C in Fe), so that the solute atoms can reside in the
interstitial sites in the solvent lattice.
2.2 Introduction
The various structures or phases present when two or more metals are
mixed may be represented by equilibrium phase diagrams, where the stable
phases with corresponding chemical compositions are plotted versus
temperature. These are called equilibrium phase diagrams as they only
apply to thermodynamic equilibrium condition of very slow cooling or
heating. Equilibrium phase diagrams can be thought of as a map giving the
phase or phases of the system at a given temperature and composition.
Alloy phase diagrams are useful to engineers in the development of new
alloys, definition of heat treatment temperatures, fabrication parameters and
evaluation of performance issues such as hot cracking, pitting corrosion and
so on.
There are three main types of binary alloy system phase diagrams:
The simplest kind of phase diagram is where the two elements form a solid
solution and there is complete solubility in the solid and the liquid phase (for
example the copper-nickel system). In such an alloy system, there is a
range of temperatures through which the alloy freezes, where both solid and
liquid are present as a mush before complete solidification occurs.
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Solidus is the phase boundary which limits the top of the solid phase in the
phase diagram. Liquidus is the phase boundary which limits the bottom of
the liquid phase field. In other words, the alloy is completely liquid above the
liquidus line and solid below the solidus line.
The second type of phase diagram, called eutectic, is where there is total
mixing in the liquid, but no mixing in the solid phase (eg the lead-antimony,
or bismuth-cadmium system).
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More commonly, there is total solubility in liquid phase and partial solubility
in solid phase (particularly where there is a high percentage of one of the
elements, with a small amount of solute atoms). An example is the copper
(Cu)-silver (Ag) system. Other examples include that of lead (Pb)-tin (Sn),
Pb-magnesium (Mg) alloy systems.
In the diagram (Cu-Ag system) the phases the regions with solid solubility of
Ag in Cu and Cu in Ag are represented by the Greek symbols and ,
respectively. The black lines (or the phase boundary) that represents the
limit of solid solubility is also called the solvus.
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1
0
0
︵ ︶
Therefore there is 66.7% solid at 1232oC. As the only other phase present
at 1232oC is liquid the amount of liquid present at this temperature is
100-66.7=33.3%. The exact same result is also obtained by using the lever
rule:
6 6
0 6
5 5
7 7
L
i
q
u
i
d
%
1
0
0
︵ ︶
Before any calculations can be made a line (called a tie line) is drawn on the
phase diagram to determine the percent weight of each element. This is
accomplished by drawing a straight line at the temperature of interest,
starting from the point of the overall composition of the alloy and extending it
to the phase boundaries at each side of this composition.
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In the example given here, the tie line is drawn at 1232°C and extends from
60% Cu and 40% Ni (overall composition) to the boundaries of the solidus
and liquidus lines. The percent weight of copper in the liquid at this
temperature is 66%, while the percent of copper in the solid is 57%. The
percent weight of solid and liquid can then be calculated using the following
lever rule equations:
A 66 60
% Solid * 100 * 100 % Solid 66.66%
C 66 57
60 57
% Liquid * 100 % Liquid 33.34%
66 57
In fact as the total necessarily has to be 100%, when two phases are
involved, the amount of a given phase is given by 100-% of other phase. In
the example above, % liquid is equal to 100-66.66, which is equal to the
33.34% calculated using the lever rule.
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Age hardening increases the hardness and tensile strength of the alloy. The
size of the precipitates become coarser as the ageing temperature is
increased and the ageing temperature can control the distribution of the
second phase as well as the precipitate size. Having many fine and
uniformly dispersed precipitates is more effective at increasing strength than
having a few coarse precipitates. If heating is too prolonged or excessive,
the alloy re-softens due to over-ageing of the precipitates, which become
too large to be effective.
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This table summarises the age hardening procedure for the example of an
aluminium alloy.
+ fine precipitates of
supersaturated
with secondary
Keep at room
temperature for long
time (natural ageing)
+ fine precipitates of
supersaturated
with secondary
Heat up to 500°C
(over ageing)
+coarse ppts of
supersaturated
with secondary
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Peritectic.
Eutectic.
Eutectoid reactions.
We are only interested in the iron end of the diagram so the compound
cementite (Fe3C) that has 6.67wt% C is used as the right hand edge of the
diagram.
Peritectic reaction
Is a three-phase reaction in which, upon cooling, a liquid and a solid phase
transform to give one different solid phase. In the Fe-C system this occurs at
high temperature and is characterized by the transformation of liquid plus
delta ferrite to austenite.
Eutectic reaction
Occurs in cast irons with more than 2.1 wt% carbon as with the peritectic,
the eutectic occurs at a single temperature. In the Fe-C system, the
peritectic occurs at 1148oC and is characterized by the transformation of
liquid to austenite plus cementite.
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The critical temperature lines A1 and A3 denote the critical temperatures for
formation of certain microstructures and heat treatments. The A1 line occurs
at T = 723°C and is the temperature below which austenite transforms into
the eutectoid of ferrite and pearlite. The A3 line is the slope between the
austenite () and ferrite/austenite (/) phase fields. The heating and cooling
rates can effectively raise or lower these lines respectively, as can certain
alloying elements (eg Cr, Mn).
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However, the phase diagram does not indicate the structural arrangement of
the phases ie lamellae, globules, films, nor does it indicate the structural
distribution of the secondary phases ie either distributed within grains or
deposited at grain boundaries. The phase diagram shows only the
equilibrium (slow cooling) state, which is not representative of some
production or welding thermal conditions.
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Revision Questions
1 Sketch a phase diagram for a binary alloy system showing partial solid solubility
and complete liquid solubility, eg the Cu/Ag phase diagram.
3 What phases are formed during the peritectic reaction in the iron-carbon phase
diagram?
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Section 3
Manufacture of Steels
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Manufacture of Steels
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3 Manufacture of Steels
3.1 Modern steelmaking
Steel is essentially an alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C) and is generally
produced in a two stage process known as primary steelmaking. The first
stage involves the extraction of raw iron (also referred to as pig iron) from
iron ore inside a vessel known as a blast furnace. In its raw form, pig iron
contains high levels of carbon, sulphur and phosphorus, making it very
brittle and severely limiting its usefulness as an engineering material. In the
second stage of primary steelmaking, the amount of carbon and other
unwanted elements in the molten pig iron is reduced using the Basic
Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) process. The resulting steel exhibits superior
toughness and ductility to the raw pig iron and can be used in a wide variety
of engineering applications. Engineering steel can also be produced from
scrap steel in an electric arc furnace. Further reductions in carbon content or
adjustments to the steel composition that may be required by the end user
necessitate additional processing steps such as ladle refining and vacuum
degassing and this is known as secondary steelmaking.
For more information about blast furnaces and steel manufacture see
Davies: Science and Practice of Welding vol. 1 pages 65-79.
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To extract the iron from the ore the oxygen needs to be removed in a
process called reduction. Molten iron is initially produced in a vessel known
as a blast furnace.
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The blast furnace is a large vertical stack, roughly 30m tall, lined with
refractory bricks. The temperatures within the blast furnace increase from
approximately 250°C at the top to over 1900°C at the bottom. Blast furnaces
tend to be operated continuously due to the cost and difficulty of stopping
the process once the furnace is up to temperature and often run for several
years at a time. The raw materials of iron ore, coke (which is almost pure
carbon) and a flux (typically limestone) are introduced continuously at the
top of the furnace adding to the furnace contents or burden. Hot air is
blasted in near the base of the furnace through water-cooled nozzles known
as tuyères. Blast furnace reactions begin at the base of the furnace where
the temperature is 1800ºC. The coke is burnt to form carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide.
CO2 + C → 2CO
At the top of the furnace between 500 and 800ºC the iron ore reduces to
iron oxide as it reacts with the carbon monoxide.
In the middle of the blast furnace at 1000ºC the iron oxide reduces to liquid
iron.
FeO + CO → CO2 + Fe
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At the bottom of the furnace at 1500ºC further reduction to liquid iron occurs.
FeO + C → CO + Fe
The limestone decomposes and reacts with impurities to produce the slag.
For example:
The oxygen supplied in the hot air blast supports combustion of the coke
forming carbon monoxide (CO). The CO reduces the iron ore to molten iron
which seeps down through the furnace burden under the action of gravity
and collects at the bottom of the furnace in a structure known as the hearth.
The limestone decomposes in the heat of the furnace to calcium oxide
(CaO) which reacts with impurities in the ore such as silica to form a molten
slag. This slag also collects at the base of the furnace above the molten
iron. The molten pig iron and slag are extracted from the furnace through
tap holes, with the iron being transported to the next processing step in
ladles or refractory lined torpedo-shaped rail cars. As the molten iron travels
down through the furnace it picks up high levels of carbon (up to 4.5%) and
other impurities (approximately 1.5% silicon, 0.05% sulphur and 0.15%
phosphorus) from the burden. As a result solidified pig iron exhibits low
tensile strength, very low ductility and contains large amounts of dissolved
gases, severely limiting its usefulness as an engineering material. Typically
pig iron is converted into steel using the basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS)
processes, which reduces the amount of carbon, sulphur and phosphorus
dissolved in the molten metal. Prior to being transferred to the BOS vessel,
the molten pig iron is frequently pre-treated with powdered magnesium, iron
oxide and lime in order to reduce the levels of sulphur, silicon and
phosphorus respectively.
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Molten pig iron from the blast furnace is charged into the BOS vessel, which
is lined with a high temperature resistant refractory material. Scrap steel is
added to the BOS vessel prior to charging with molten pig iron in order to
cool the charge and protect the refractory lining. A water-cooled lance is
lowered into the converter and high purity oxygen is blown through the
molten metal, causing the combustion of carbon dissolved in the metal and
forming carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gasses which escape from the
top of the vessel, thereby reducing the carbon content of the steel. Other
unwanted elements such as silicon and phosphorus react to form acidic
oxides which combine with basic fluxes added to the BOS converter forming
a slag which mixes with the molten metal during blowing to form an
emulsion, thereby facilitating the refinement of the steel. After the process is
complete the slag separates from the steel and floats on its surface,
allowing the steel to be tapped into a ladle whilst leaving the slag in the BOS
converter to be tapped off separately. A typical steel chemistry produced by
the BOS process is as follows: 0.2%C, 0.2%Si, 0.8-1.0%Mn, 0.025%S and
0.020%P. While a carbon content in the region of 0.2% may be acceptable
to some end users, it is often necessary to reduce the carbon content further
and/or make compositional adjustments, thus requiring additional
processing steps.
A basic slag or lining containing lime (CaCO3) removes the Si, Mn, C, P and
S from the iron. Deoxidisers such as ferro-manganese, ferro-silicon or
aluminium are also required. An acidic slag or lining containing silica (SiO2)
removes Si, Mn and C by oxidation, but cannot remove S & P.
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The electric arc furnace offers an alternative route for the production of
engineering steels to the traditional (and resource-intensive) method of
reducing iron ore in the blast furnace followed by refinement in the BOS
converter. The structure of an electric arc furnace used for steelmaking
consists of a refractory-lined shell with a retractable roof, through which up
to three graphite electrodes protrude. The primary feedstock in the electric
arc steelmaking process is typically scrap steel, although some pig iron or
directly reduced iron may be used. The furnace charge is melted by a high
energy electric arc struck between the electrodes and the charge. Oxygen is
introduced to the molten steel through a lance in order to remove carbon
and other unwanted elements and flux is added to react with impurities in
the steel forming a slag which floats on the molten steel. The slag layer acts
as a thermal barrier, helping to prevent excessive heat-loss from the molten
bath, thus allowing greater thermal and electrical efficiency. The flux is
typically composed of burnt lime (calcium oxide) and dolomite (magnesium
oxide) and can either be charged with the scrap or blown into the furnace
during melting. Once the temperature and composition of the melt is correct,
the steel is tapped into a ladle by tilting the furnace. The slag remains in the
furnace to be tapped off separately. The principal advantage of the electric
arc steelmaking process is the fact that new steel can be produced entirely
from scrap. The process is also extremely flexible and unlike the blast
furnace, can be started and stopped to suit demand. While electric arc
furnaces represent a comparatively low capital investment the operating
costs can be high (power rating can be up to 150,000kW).
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P + O2 → P2O5
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3.4 Casting
Before the molten steel produced by the BOS or EAF processes can be
transformed into useful products it must be cast into ingots or slabs. Casting
involves the solidification of molten metal into a desired shape or profile
inside a mould.
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Gasses (such as oxygen) dissolved in the molten steel can give rise to
porosity or other casting defects as the material solidifies. Steels for ingot
casting are typically given one of three designations depending on the level
of deoxidisation they have been subjected to killed, semi-killed or un-killed.
Pipe defect
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The above designations are derived from the behaviour of the molten steel
when it is poured into the mould. The violent evolution of carbon monoxide
from solidifying un-killed steels contrasts with the passive solidification
behaviour of fully deoxidised steels hence the term killed.
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There is a risk of non-metallic inclusions along the centreline of the slab due
to low melting point products being trapped between solidifying sides.
Continuous casting represents the most cost and energy efficient method for
solidifying large volumes of metal into simple shapes for subsequent
processing. A high degree of automation is possible with continuous casting
and the process produces a product of high quality and uniformity in a range
of cross-sections.
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3.5.1 Rolling
Rolling involves the reduction in thickness of a metal feedstock by passing it
between a pair of rotating rolls. The gap between the rolls is less than the
starting thickness of the feedstock thus forcing the material to deform as it
passes between the rolls. Traditionally rolling was carried out in two stages
consisting of an initial stage which converted large cast ingots into slabs or
blooms followed by a secondary rolling stage which converted the blooms
and slabs into plates, sheets and other products. With the widespread
introduction of continuous casting, semi-finished slabs, blooms and billets
could be produced directly, thereby eliminating the requirement for the initial
rolling stage for volume steel production.
During cold rolling the as-cast grain structure is elongated and deformed or
cold worked leading to an increase in hardness. The deformed material is
typically subjected to an intermediate anneal at high temperature between
rolling operations in order to recrystallise the sheet, restoring the equiaxed
grain structure and increasing ductility. This softened product can then
undergo further rolling operations.
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During hot rolling, the steel is held above the recrystallisation temperature
(950-1000°C) throughout the process. After each rolling operation the
distorted grains spontaneously recrystallise and grain growth occurs before
subsequent rolling operations (see figure below). The result of hot rolling is
steel with a refined equiaxed grain structure. Steel is then usually heat
treated (normalised or possibly quenched and tempered) before being used.
Any inclusions in the steel will become elongated during rolling forming
features known as stringers (see micrograph overleaf) which are not altered
by annealing operations. Material containing stringers is considered to be
anisotropic. It is recognised that stringers can lead to lamellar tearing when
the material is welded and it is therefore desirable that they are avoided.
Where material properties in the through-thickness direction are required to
be guaranteed, the material is designated Z grade (where Z is the through-
thickness axis in XYZ coordinates). The X direction corresponds with the
rolling direction and generally exhibits the highest tensile strength, Charpy
impact toughness and ductility. The Y or transverse direction tends to exhibit
slightly poorer mechanical properties than the X direction, with the Z
direction often showing the lowest strength and toughness. It is therefore
important that the rolling direction of the parent material is considered when
designing and fabricating sheet steel components.
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The above diagram summarises the most common process route for
production of coils of hot rolled steel from molten metal. It can be seen that
the molten metal is initially cast into a long strand before being cut into
individual slabs which are heated or soaked in a re-heat furnace at a
temperature of approximately 1250°C prior to being rolled. The thickness of
the steel is progressively reduced by a series of rolling operations until the
thickness required by the end user is reached, upon which the steel sheet is
coiled ready for delivery.
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3.5.3 Forging
Forging is a manufacturing process that involves the deformation and
shaping of metals under localised compressive forces. Due to its strength
and resistance to deformation, steel is forged at high temperatures. This is
known as hot forging. Forging techniques can be generally divided into two
groups; open and closed die. Open-die forging is a basic technique for
producing simple shapes using a moveable ram or hammer and a static
anvil. Open-die forging is frequently used to roughly shape a component
prior to closed-die forging. The closed-die forging process uses a more
complex-shaped die that completely encloses the workpiece, forcing it into
the desired shape. The flash generated around the periphery of the
component is removed in subsequent finishing operations. Closed die
forging gives accurate component dimensions, however tooling and
maintenance costs can be high. Forged products typically exhibit forging
lines which are revealed by etching as shown in the figure below.
Forging lines
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3.5.4 Extrusion
Extrusion is used to produce a length of material with a fixed cross-sectional
profile by forcing the material through a shaped die under high pressure. It is
possible to extrude steels however very high extrusion temperatures and
pressures are required (in excess of 1200°C and 100,000psi), with
correspondingly high tooling and maintenance costs. Glass powder is used
as a lubricant.
3.5.5 Drawing
Drawing is a process in which the cross-sectional profile of a wire or pipe is
reduced by pulling through a drawing die. Although similar in concept to
extrusion, drawing differs in that the material is pulled rather than pushed
through the die. Tube drawing necessitates the use of a mandrel which fits
inside the die to maintain the shape of the pipe as it is drawn.
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Revision Questions
1 When would the electric arc furnace be used to produce steel in preference to the
basic oxygen furnace?
4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of the continuous casting method?
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Section 4
Material Testing
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Material Testing
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4 Material Testing
4.1 Mechanical testing
Mechanical testing produces data that may be used for design purposes or
as part of a welding procedure or operator acceptance scheme. The most
important function may be providing design data, since it is essential that the
limiting values a structure can withstand without failure are known. The
materials properties that can be determined by mechanical testing include,
yield strength, UTS, ductility, notch (impact) toughness, fracture toughness,
crack arrest properties, hardness, corrosion, creep and fatigue resistance,
physical properties (density, thermal conductivity, etc). More information on
material testing can be found in TWIs Job Knowledge articles on its web
site.
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Both the load (stress) and the test piece extension (strain) are measured
and from these data an engineering stress/strain curve is constructed. From
this curve we can determine:
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Stress-strain curve with the proof stress for a fixed deformation indicated.
Schematic of a tensile specimen before and after testing showing the elongation of
the gauge length and necking of the gauge diameter.
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The size of a product can also influence the properties, as during heat
treatment the section thickness will affect the cooling rate, with slower
cooling rates and hence softer structures, at the centre of thicker sections.
This is dealt with in material standards by specifying what is known as the
limiting ruling section, the maximum diameter of bar at which the required
mechanical properties can be achieved at the centre. In addition to
variations of the properties due to the shape of the specimens and the
testing temperature, rate of loading will also affect the results; faster loading
can show apparently higher tensile strength.
The standard Charpy V specimen is 55mm long, 10mm square and has a
2mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25mm machined on one face. In
addition to a V notch, the Charpy specimen may be used with a keyhole or a
U notch. The keyhole and U notch are used for testing brittle materials such
as cast iron and for testing plastics.
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The CTOD test is used when some plastic deformation can occur prior to
failure, as it allows the tip of a crack to stretch and open, hence tip opening
displacement.
Unlike the inexpensive 10 x 10mm square Charpy-V test piece with a blunt
machined notch, the CTOD specimen may be the full thickness of the
material will contain a genuine crack and will be loaded at a rate more
representative of service conditions. Conventionally three tests are carried
out, to ensure consistency of results, at a single temperature, for example
the minimum design temperature. On occasions, testing may be carried out
over a range of temperatures to generate a transition curve.
The test piece itself is proportional with the length, depth and thickness of
each specimen inter-related so that, irrespective of material thickness, each
specimen has the same proportions. There are two basic forms namely a
square or a rectangular cross section specimen. If the specimen thickness is
defined as W, the depth will be either W or 2W with a standard minimum
length of 4.6W. A notch is machined at the centre and then extended by
generating a fatigue crack so that the total defect length is half the depth of
the test piece as shown below. For example a test on a 100mm thick weld
will require a specimen measuring 100mm wide, 200mm deep and
460mm long. This is an expensive operation, the validity of which can only
be determined once the test has been completed.
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The test is performed by loading the specimen in three points bending and
measuring the amount of crack opening. This is done by means of a strain
gauge attached to a clip placed between two accurately positioned knife
edges at the mouth of the machined notch (see below).
As bending proceeds, the crack tip plastically deforms until a critical point is
reached when the crack has opened sufficiently to extend by ductile tearing
or to initiate a cleavage crack (brittle fracture). This may lead to either partial
or complete failure of the specimen.
The values that are required for the calculation of fracture toughness are
firstly the load at which fracture occurs and secondly the amount by which
the crack has opened at the point of crack propagation (see below).
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The location of the notch in the weld HAZ or parent metal is important, as an
incorrectly positioned fatigue crack will not sample the required region,
making the test invalid. To be certain that the crack tip is in the correct
region, polishing and etching followed by a metallurgical examination are
often carried out prior to machining the notch and fatigue cracking. This
enables the notch to be positioned very accurately. Similar examination
should be carried out after testing, as further confirmation of the validity of
the test results.
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The bend test uses a coupon that is deformed in three points bending to a
specified angle. In a guided bend test, the coupon is wrapped around a
former of specified diameter and is the type of test specified in the welding
procedure and welder qualification specifications. The former diameter is
related to material thickness and the angle of bend can be 90º, 120º or 180º.
The outside of the bend is extensively plastically deformed, so that any
defects in, or embrittlement of, the material will be revealed by the
premature failure of the coupon. A defect of 3mm or more is cause for
rejection.
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For more information on fatigue testing see TWIs Job Knowledge articles
78-80.
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Tight control of temperature is required during the test and this is usually
achieved with the use of a tubular furnace mounted onto the frame of the
test rig. The temperature is typically thermostatically controlled to within 2-
3C and monitored by a thermocouple attached to the gauge length of the
specimen.
The results of the test are plotted as strain versus time to give a creep
curve, from which it can be seen that creep occurs in three distinct phases.
In the region of primary or transient creep, the strain rate is initially high but
gradually reduces as the material work hardens to a constant rate in the
secondary or steady state creep regime. The rate of steady state or
secondary creep at a constant stress increases with temperature.
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The steady state or secondary creep frequently forms the bulk of the creep
life of a component, although at very low temperatures, only primary creep
occurs and at very high temperatures primary and tertiary creep merge.
At the end of the steady state region, the creep strain rate increases in an
unstable manner, this is the tertiary creep stage and eventually rupture
occurs. The onset of tertiary creep arises due to the formation of small
cavities/voids on grain boundaries or precipitates, or localised necking of the
material which, in turn, leads to an increase in the effective stress (due to a
reduction in the cross-sectional area) which increases the strain rate.
Growth and linkage of the creep cavities leads to the formation of cracks
and ultimately leads to creep rupture.
Typical creep curve of strain versus time showing the three stages of creep.
A more simplified creep test is the stress rupture test in which the time to
rupture at a specific temperature and stress is determined. In this case no
measurement of strain is required, negating the need for expensive
extensometry. Further cost savings can be achieved through the use of
multi-specimen strings within a single furnace, with the temperature of each
sample generally recorded separately via thermocouples. When a single
specimen breaks, the load on all samples is removed and in most cases the
equipment is designed such that failure of a specimen stops the clock and
switches off the furnace. The broken specimen would then be removed from
the string and the test re-started.
For more information on fatigue testing see TWIs job knowledge article 81.
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The Brinell test, which uses a ball indenter, is generally used for bulk metal
hardness measurements since the impression is larger than that of the
Vickers test, which uses a pyramid indenter. This is useful, as it averages
out any local heterogeneity and is less affected by surface roughness.
However, because of the large ball diameter, the test cannot be used to
determine the hardness variations associated with the different regions of a
welded joint, for which the Vickers test is preferred.
The hardness data generated for a material or for the different areas of a
weld joint can help to assess the resistance to brittle fracture, fabrication
hydrogen (cold) cracking and resistance to cracking in corrosive
environments, particularly those which contain hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
Test reports should give hardness value, material type, location of indents
(for welds), type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter and
details of the standard to which testing was performed.
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HV = 2F sin (136°/2)
d2
Where:
F = force (kgf)
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Ball indenter
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HR=E-e
Where:
E is a constant, 100 for a diamond cone indenter and 130 for a steel ball
indenter.
e is the permanent increase in the penetration depth due to the major load.
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1 Identify Take care when identifying where to cut the specimens from. Make
sure all pieces of material are identified using an engraving tool
(stamping may not be suitable for small samples).
2 Record All details of preparation to be recorded, eg in a laboratory notebook.
The record may include sketches or photographs mapping the
specimen removal. Use this record to file other data and test results
too.
3 Cut Must be performed mechanically, eg by band-saw or preferably by
slitting wheel.
4 Mount It is usually important to mount the specimen to polish it. Large
samples may be mounted in Araldite resin, smaller ones in a hot
press in Bakelite or clear resin.
5 Grind Use wet or dry silicon carbide papers ranging from 200 (coarse) up
to 1200 (fine) grit finish. This is often sufficient quality finish for a
macro but not for a micro specimen, which needs polishing.
6 Polish Use a rotary polishing wheel with diamond paste applied to a cloth
base, starting with 6m paste and finishing with 3 or 1m.
7 Inspect The specimen needs to be examined carefully during and after
polishing to ensure that the last grade of scratches have been
removed before polishing using a finer finish, or etching.
8 Etch Rinse specimens in acetone or alcohol before etching. Etching may
be purely chemical or (particularly for stainless steels) be
encouraged by electrolytic polarisation. Immerse and/or swab the
etch on to the polished surface using cotton wool (a typical etch for
ferritic steels is 2% Nital and for stainless steels 20% sulphuric acid).
Use a heavier etch for macro than micro examination. Rinse and
dry.
9 Inspect Ensure that the etching has brought out the features of interest.
10 Photograph Record the investigation.
11 Storage In a dry environment for an agreed period.
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Revision Questions
4 When would a side bend test be specified instead of a face or root bend test?
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Section 5
Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
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5 Heat Treatment
5.1 Purpose of heat treatment
Heat treatment involves the use of controlled heating and cooling to achieve
desired mechanical properties (hardening, softening, improved toughness
and formability) in a metal or alloy. It can also be used to improve certain
manufacturability characteristics such as machinability, formability or
ductility after cold working. Heat treatment temperatures for steels are
derived on the basis of the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram which expresses
the stability of different phases under equilibrium conditions and is a helpful
tool for assessing the correct temperature for the majority of heat treatment
processes. The microstructures developed under non-equilibrium conditions
can be assessed by means of isothermal and continuous cooling diagrams.
Heat
Heating and cooling treatment Localised heat
bulk specimen treatment
Furnaces Localised
and ovens heat sources
Temperature control?
Use thermocouples,
Gas fired Flame heating
optical pyrometers
Laser heating
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Radiant-tube-heated furnaces
The components being heat treated are protected from the product of
combustion, as combustion is carried out inside high creep resistance metal
tubes which then heat up the chamber by radiating heat.
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Induction coil
Part to be
heat
The pad heaters are used as heating sources in furnaces and industrial
process equipment operating at temperatures of up to 1100°C. In welding,
flexible ceramic pads, also called heating blankets, are used for pre-heating
before welding and for PWHT after welding. This is a very efficient method
of preheat, however, the elements may burn out or arc during heating.
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The only type of heat treatment commonly applied to welds is post weld
heat treatment (PWHT), for stress relief and improvement of HAZ
microstructure toughness. Other heat treatments, such as annealing,
normalising, recovery, recrystallisation, quenching and tempering and
precipitation hardening are generally only used for parent metals.
oC
Austenite
Acm
910
Normalizing
A3
Annealing
727
Recovery and recrystallization A1
600
PWHT and PWHT
Stress Relieve
500
0.022 0.77 2.0
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The slow furnace cooling rates from the austenite phase field result in
equiaxed and fairly coarse grained ferrite and pearlite with coarse
interlamellar spacing. This microstructure results in good ductility, low
strength and hardness, which are the main objectives of a full annealing and
are desirable properties, for example, before cold working. Hypereutectoid
steels (>0.83%C) are annealed in the austenite plus cementite phase field,
promoting spheroidized pearlite and thus avoiding low toughness cementite
networks on the grain boundaries from slow cooling from the austenite
phase field.
5.7 Normalising
The purpose of normalising is to produce a fine ferrite-pearlite
microstructure and remove internal stresses introduced by heat treating,
casting, forging, or forming. Normalizing differs from annealing in that the
steel is allowed to cool in air, as opposed to furnace cooled as is the case
for full annealing. The cooling rate depends on the mass of the component
ie thin sections cool faster in air and develop finer grains than thick sections
of same type of steel. Soaking temperatures for normalizing heat treatments
are usually slightly higher than that for annealing. The temperature range
used to normalise Hypoeutectoid (<0.8 C) steels is the upper critical (A3)
temperature plus approximately 40oC. For hypereutectoid (high carbon)
steels the normalising temperature range is the upper critical temperature
(Acm) plus ~30oC.
The air cooling step from normalizing treatment produce finer ferrite grains
and closer pearlite inter-lamellar spacing, resulting in higher strength,
hardness but slightly lower ductility than annealed products. Faster cooling
in air (as compared to furnace cooled) results in undercooling of austenite
below the equilibrium transformation temperatures and this produces finer
proeutectoid ferrite grains and finer pearlite interlamellar spacing’s.
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Ferrite
Pearlite
Annealed Normalised.
oC
Austenite
Acm
910
A3
A1
727
Recovery and recrystallization
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At the heat treatment soaking temperature, the stored energy present in the
material (in the form of dislocations) is allowed to relax by elimination and
re-arrangement of the internal crystallographic defects. This process leads
to recovery where the internal energy of the system is reduced, but no major
changes in microstructure or mechanical properties are observed.
Recovery Rx GG
Ductility
Internal
Property
system
energy
Strength
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Austenite
Acm
910
A3
Annealing
727
A1
a b
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Water quenched.
380Hv
245Hv
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In the first stage the material is heated to a high enough temperature so that
second phase particles dissolve and a uniform homogenous solid solution is
formed. The material is then quenched to retain the metastable solid
solution at room temperature. The second stage heat treatment is at a lower
temperature, which is sufficient to nucleate and then grow the precipitates.
In some alloys, such as aluminium alloys, this ageing can be done at room
temperature, called natural ageing. When an elevated temperature is used
(but not above the lower critical temperature), it is known as artificial ageing.
The temperature and time of the ageing heat treatment determines the size
of the precipitates. A fine dispersion of small precipitates gives high strength
and toughness.
At PWHT temperature, the yield strength of the material is reduced and high
residual stresses are accommodated by plastic deformation. On cooling, the
residual stresses are reduced, with the maximum residual stress possible in
the joint being the yield strength of the material at temperature.
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The necessity for PWHT depends on the material and the service
requirements. Other factors that influence the need for PWHT are the
welding parameters and the likely mechanism of failure. In some standards,
PWHT is mandatory for certain grades or thicknesses, but where there is an
option, cost and potential adverse effects need to be balanced against
possible benefits. The energy costs are generally significant due to the high
temperatures and long times involved, but costs associated with time delays
may be more important. Detrimental effects include distortion, temper
embrittlement, over-softening and reheat cracking, which means that control
of heating and cooling rates, holding temperature tolerances and the times
at temperature are extremely important and must be carefully controlled in
order to realise the full benefit of the process.
Quenched and tempered (Q&T) steels have the PWHT temperature limited
to below the original tempering temperature of the steel, as higher
temperatures can change the microstructure of the base material from what
was expected or required.
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Revision Questions
3 Give a couple of examples of bulk and localized heat treatment equipment’s, with
a brief overview of some of the equipment characteristics.
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Section 6
Fe-C Steels
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Fe-C Steels
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6 Fe-C Steels
6.1 Steel
Steels are defined as iron alloys containing less than 2% C. Many other
elements are normally present in steels, both intentionally added alloying
elements and residual elements present from ore or scrap metal used in the
steelmaking process. Iron alloys of more than 2% carbon content are
generally only used for cast iron.
In a broad sense, steels can be divided in two major groups: Carbon steel
(also called C-Mn steels, depending on Mn level) and alloy steels. This
nomenclature is used in American standards (American Iron and Steel
Institute and The Society of Automotive Engineering) and in modified forms
in European standards as well. The AISI – SAE nomenclature is as follows.
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Carbon steels can be divided (broadly) into plain carbon and carbon-
manganese steels:
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Hydrogen-assisted cracking.
Solidification cracking.
Lamellar tearing.
Reheat cracking.
Liquation cracking.
These are covered elsewhere in the course. The most significant of these,
which is most strongly affected by the parent steel composition, is hydrogen-
assisted cracking and this is covered in more detail below. Lamellar tearing
resistance depends on having a clean steel; with a low level of rolled (Fe,
MnS) inclusions.
For welds that are to be exposed to sour (H2S) containing environments, the
risk of sulphide stress cracking (SSC) must be taken into account.
Susceptibility to this form of cracking is generally controlled through
hardness and thus the effect of composition on HAZ hardness is important.
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Different carbon equivalent formulas have been proposed and a widely used
carbon equivalent formula is the International Institute for Welding (IIW) CE
or Ceq formula. An IIW CE of less than around 0.4 imparts good weldability;
above 0.5 CE the weldability is considered to be poor.
M 6
n
C
r
M 5
o
V
N
i 1
C 5
u
C
EI
C
I
W
IIW Ceq
Since its adoption by IIW, the equation has been incorporated into a number
of material standards and codes, including EN 1011-2:2001 and in a
modified form in AWS D1.1-2010, with a +Si/6 term added to the equation.
5
B
3
0
c
m
Pcm is generally used for modern steels typically used for pipeline
manufacture, where carbon contents are no more than ~0.11%. The IIW
formula gives less tolerance to the presence of substitutional elements
(which increase hardenability) than the Pcm equation. What this means is
that at higher carbon concentration, the increased hardenability from the
substitutional alloying results in more martensite in the microstructure and
the risk of hydrogen cracking is increased. At low enough carbon
concentration, the addition of substitutional elements have a much smaller
impact on hardenability and the risk of hydrogen cracking is reduced.
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Welds cool relatively rapidly throughout the temperature range where steels
undergo phase transformations and therefore the continuous cooling
transformation (CCT) diagrams are more applicable to welding conditions.
The cooling rate depends principally on heat input and joint thickness and
also to some degree on initial temperature. In a CCT diagram, the cooling
rate is given by the slope of the time-temperature cooling profile, as shown
in Figure 6.2: In welding, the cooling severity is usually expressed as the
time in seconds for the temperature to fall from 800-500°C and is usually
expressed as t8-5 or t8/5.
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Austenite
t8-5=3s
Martensite t8-5=90s
Ferrite and
t8-5=30s pearlite
Ferrite and lower temperature
transformation products
(Bainite and acicular ferrite)
Figure 6.2 CCT diagram for medium carbon C-Mn steel, with microstructures
obtained at cooling rates t8-5 of 3, 30 and 90 seconds, shown.
Whilst the cooling rates depend on joint geometry and welding parameters,
the time for the start of transformation to ferrite, pearlite and bainite depends
on alloying additions; C, Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo, Cu, V and B shift the curves to
longer times, thus promoting martensite formation at slower cooling rates.
This effect is reflected in the CEIIW and Pcm formulas.
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Post heat is applied for hydrogen release, after the weld has been
completed. The post-heat temperature may be the same as, or greater than,
the original preheat temperature specified, but care must be taken not to
allow the joint to cool before applying the post heat.
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is carried out at higher temperatures for
stress relief or to temper hard microstructural phases. See the notes on heat
treatment for more details.
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Fe-C Steels
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Reprinted with
permission of ASM
International. All
rights reserved.
www.asminternational.
org
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Fe-C Steels
Copyright TWI Ltd 2012
In Figure 6.3 (a), the lines indicate the boundaries between predominant
microstructural constituent regions as a function of C content and
transformation temperature. In Figure 6.3 (b), the corresponding sections
through Figure 6.3 (a) at three carbon levels are shown and correlation of
microstructures developed and toughness is shown. Good toughness
cannot be obtained for the highest C level without the use of PWHT and will
not be discussed further here. The intermediate and low C levels, of 0.14
and 0.07%, respectively, will be discussed in further detail below.
The threshold cooling rate needed for good toughness is faster with
increasing C content, as the temperature for formation of lower
transformation temperature phases is shifted (lowered) due to the increased
hardenability associated with the higher C contents. A narrower weld
parameter window for good toughness is also observed, probably due to the
increased hardness of the C-rich phases due to the higher C content, which
acts to lower toughness.
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0 490
Calculated Ms, °C
-10 28J Transition Temperature, °C 480
-20 470
28J Transition Temperature, °C
-30 460
-40 450
Ms, °C
-50 440
-60 430
-70 420
-80 410
-90 400
-100 390
0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23
% Carbon
Figure 6.4 Influence of C on 28J transition temperature and martensite start (Ms)
temperatures.
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Fe-C Steels
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Figure 6.5 Weld metal microstructural constituents, as defined by the IIW system.
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Fe-C Steels
Copyright TWI Ltd 2012
Additions of manganese tie up the sulphur as MnS inclusions and can help
improve toughness. Manganese also provides strength to iron alloys
through solid solution strengthening. Most C-Mn steels contain 1.3-1.6%
Mn.
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Fe-C Steels
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Fe-C Steels
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Revision Questions
1 What are CCT and TTT diagrams and what do they show?
2 What is the carbon equivalent of a steel with 0.28% carbon, 0.9% manganese,
0.1% chromium and 0.15% nickel? Are any precautions needed to butt weld a
15mm thickness plate of this steel?
3 Describe how low heat input can affect HAZ toughness. In which cases does it
improve toughness? When is it bad for toughness?
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Section 7
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Micro-alloyed/High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steels
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Rough rolling
Relatively high temperature deformation of the austenite gives rapid
recrystallisation and finer austenite grains. This is the same as normal
processing routes.
Finishing rolling
Rolling at lower temperature, below the region of rapid recrystallisation.
Plastic deformation at this temperature promotes fine grain size and
retards precipitation. Deformation bands act as sites for subsequent
austenite transformation.
These stages decrease the grain size in order to increase strength and
toughness.
Accelerated cooling
Typically at 5-15°C/sec between 800-500°C, followed by air cooling from
500°C. Additional strengthening results from the refinement of the ferrite
grains and enhanced precipitation hardening for micro-alloyed steels.
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PWHT is typically required for thickness greater than 40mm. TMCP grades
will, in general, not tolerate PWHT without detriment. If TMCP steel is to be
subjected to PWHT, this should be specified at the time of the order; the
PWHT temperature may be limited to 580°C or even 560°C (BS EN 10025-
1).
One of the main welding problems with carbon and C-Mn steels is to
achieve adequate fracture toughness in the HAZ and weld metal with high
productivity. It may be necessary to limit the heat input to around 3.5kJ/mm
to minimise grain growth, but with many modern steels designed to resist
grain growth in the HAZ, many of which are TMCP, much higher heat inputs
can be tolerated. Although high heat inputs can result in HAZ softening in
TMCP steels, particularly those with accelerated controlled cooling, joint
strength is generally not compromised unless this is severe and extensive.
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Micro-alloyed/High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steels
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Revision Questions
1 What effect does grain size have on strength and toughness of HSLA steels?
2 What is the minimum yield strength and production method of 10mm thickness
S355M steel?
7-5
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Section 8
Weld metal.
Heat affected zone (HAZ).
Unaffected parent metal.
The HAZ can be sub-divided into four regions, depending on the peak
temperature reached:
Coarse grain.
Fine grain.
Intercritical.
Sub-critical.
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Structure of the Welded Joint
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Low heat input welds, have smaller weld beads. The fast cooling can give
hard brittle zones in the HAZ and a risk of hydrogen cracking, which means
that the heat input must be controlled or preheat used. The heat input during
arc welding is governed by the current, voltage and travel speed and by the
thermal efficiency (which depends on the welding process).
Figure 8.2 Weldment thermal cycles at different distances from the centre of the
weld.
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Structure of the Welded Joint
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The molten metal in the weld pool melts back the adjoining parent steel,
transforming a region beyond that to austenite; see Figure 8.3. Following
austenite grain growth in the HAZ and cooling of the weld pool, which will
generally solidify as dendrites of delta ferrite (Figure 8.4) and then transform
to austenite, epitaxial growth of the new austenite grains in the weld metal
on the un-melted austenite grains in the HAZ can often be observed to have
occurred.
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Acicular ferrite appears as small laths of ferrite with a low aspect ratio (1-2
microns in width), formed in intragranular regions by nucleating on non-
metallic inclusions (which are generally spherical and sub-micron in
diameter) in the weld pool. It forms at around 650-550°C (depending on
alloy content, cooing rate and the efficacy of the inclusions as nucleants),
after the primary ferrite and has an interlocking appearance. As it has a
small grain size, it is usually associated with excellent toughness.
The microstructure in Figure 8.5 is of a typical basic MMA weld metal. This
weld was made using an AWS A5.1 E7018 4mm diameter electrode and
shows a microstructure of large regions of primary ferrite along the original
austenite grain boundaries. (This is also called grain boundary ferrite or pro-
eutectoid ferrite.) Acicular ferrite has formed in the centre of the prior-
austenite grains.
Primary
ferrite
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Structure of the Welded Joint
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Structure of the Welded Joint
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Figure 8.7 Schematic weld cross sections, indicating the total weld area, with the
dashed lines indicating the amount of parent material diluted into the weld.
A b
Figure 8.8 GCHAZ microstructure of a high heat input weld in a C-Mn steel (right),
with parent microstructure (left).
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Structure of the Welded Joint
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FS (A) = Ferrite with aligned second phase, which has poor toughness.
FS (NA) = Ferrite with non-aligned second phase which has better
toughness.
M = martensite which (until it has been softened by tempering)
generally has high hardness and low toughness. (Note: In very
low carbon steels (below 0.1%) martensite formed during
cooling following welding can auto-temper due to the high
martensite transformation temperature of these alloys. In this
case, the martensite can have excellent toughness).
FS (A) M
FS (NA)
a b
A b
Figure 8.10 GRHAZ microstructure of a of a high heat input weld in a C-Mn steel
(right), with parent microstructure (left).
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A b
A b
Figure 8.12 Subcritical HAZ microstructure of a of a high heat input weld in a C-Mn
steel (right) showing slight spheroidisation, with parent microstructure (left).
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Structure of the Welded Joint
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The reheat thermal cycle of subsequent weld passes normalises and refines
parts of the microstructure in the previous HAZ and weld metal, which
improves toughness. Figure 8.14 below shows that weld run 2 refines part of
the HAZ from run 1, such that the refined coarse-grained HAZ from run 1
has a similar microstructure to the fine-grained HAZ in run 2. In multi-pass
welds, the subsequent weld run also tempers the previous weld metal. The
lower heat input per pass means that the amount of grain growth is limited
and previous passes also provide some preheat which slows down the
cooling rate of the subsequent pass and helps reduce the hydrogen level.
However, multi-pass welding can mean a lower productivity from the larger
number of passes needed compared to an equivalent single-pass weld.
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8-10
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Structure of the Welded Joint
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Revision Questions
1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a low heat input when arc
welding?
3 List the four regions of the HAZ. Which has the lowest toughness?
4 What are the advantages of using a multi-pass instead of a single pass weld in a
similar joint?
5 If the heat input during welding is not controlled, what disadvantageous effects
could occur in the HAZ?
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Section 9
Cracking in Welds
Rev 2 July 2011
Cracking in Welds
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9 Cracking in Welds
9.1 Cracking phenomena
The main types of cracking that can affect welded joints are:
Hydrogen level.
Hardness.
Stress (residual stress made worse by stress concentrations).
Temperature.
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Since hydrogen-assisted cracking will not occur until the temperature has
dropped, it can be avoided by keeping the material warm for a sufficient time
to allow any hydrogen to diffuse out. This can be by applying preheat,
maintaining the interpass temperature and then, in difficult cases, continuing
the preheat as a post-heat immediately after welding.
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A >15 ml H/100g
B 10-15 ml H/100g
C 5-10 ml H/100g
D 3-5 ml H/100g
E <3 ml H/100g
Shielding gases for welding are generally supplied with low moisture
content, in order to provide less than 5mg/100g hydrogen. Some welding
processes are of lower hydrogen potential than others, especially EB and
gas-shielded processes such as TIG, MIG/MAG and laser.
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Cracking in Welds
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Step 5 - Choose the appropriate diagram and read off the required
preheat.
If, for the selected hydrogen scale and IIW CE, there is no diagram
available, choose the diagram for the next highest IIW CE.
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Cracking in Welds
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There are four main factors that affect the likelihood of hot cracking in
steels:
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Cracking in Welds
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The weld bead shape can be altered using the welding parameters. Higher
current will result in deeper penetration welds and higher arc voltage a wider
weld. The shielding gas used can also affect the weld bead profile, with
helium giving a wider shallower weld bead than argon for example.
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Cracking in Welds
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Certain weld profiles prevent any remaining liquid weld metal backfilling
shrinkage cavities. In particular, concave (or flat) fillet welds.
A fast travel speed can also mean that the solidification fronts meet in this
susceptible orientation and that the distance from the weld pool to an
incipient crack is long and difficult to feed.
Much of the sulphur contamination in the weld metal comes from the parent
metal. Certain welded joint geometries and high heat input produce high
dilution of the parent metal and a greater likelihood of solidification cracking.
The addition of manganese to the weld metal ties up the sulphur as MnS
inclusions in the weld metal and moves the sulphide composition away from
the low melting point iron sulphide. Adding calcium oxide combines with any
sulphur that has not been removed in the slag to form spherical calcium oxy-
sulphide inclusions.
In stainless steels, austenite has a very low solubility for sulphur (ten times
less than ferrite) and so welds in austenitic stainless steels can be very
susceptible to hot cracking. Dilution control and over-alloyed consumables
are often used to ensure minimum ferrite content in the weld metal.
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9.3.4 Strain
High shrinkage strains, due to restraint or joint design, increase the risk of
cracking.
9.3.5 Temperature
Solidification cracking occurs at high temperature as the weld is solidifying.
Steel weld metal starts to solidify at around 1,500°C, the FeS eutectic
solidifies at 988°C. However, as Mn is added, this temperature is raised
towards 1,570°C, which is the MnS eutectic temperature. A wide
temperature range for weld metal solidification increases the risk of
solidification cracking. Steels with lower carbon have a narrower
solidification range.
High welding speeds are likely to increase the risk of hot cracking.
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Cracking in Welds
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If possible, control the amount of the residual elements and impurities that
cause the grain boundary weakening, eg copper pick-up from coated wires
and also control heat input during welding. These results in a small narrow
coarse-grained HAZ, but the beneficial effect for reheat cracking must be
balanced against the risk of hydrogen-assisted cracking.
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Cracking in Welds
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∆G = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V - 2
∆G < 0
K = Pb + Bi + 0.03Sb (ppm)
K < 1.5 (for 2.25%Cr-1%Mo-0.25%V weld metal)
Consider why the cracking has occurred. How can it be avoided in the
repair?
Many problems are caused by either the welder or issues with the fit-up.
Consider methods of removal of the flaw (grinding, machining or arc air
gouging), the position of the flaw and the shape of the subsequent
groove.
Remember to inspect after grinding, to ensure that the cracking is
entirely removed.
Return to the original weld procedure; it may need to be revised if the
welding parameters employed are likely to have contributed to the
cracking.
How many times are you permitted to reweld? Most contract
specifications limit the number to three cycles of repair before the weld is
cut out and completely rewelded.
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Cracking in Welds
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Revision Questions
1 What factors are taken into account when determining the appropriate preheat for
the avoidance of hydrogen-assisted cracking in steels?
2 The profile of the weld affects the susceptibility for solidification cracking.
Describe ways in which a favourable weld profile can be obtained.
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Section 10
Corrosion
Rev 2 July 2011
Corrosion
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10 Corrosion
10.1 Definition
Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal due to chemical or (very often)
electrochemical reactions with its environment.
Redox
Oxidation is when metal atoms release electrons. The anode (up direction in
Greek) is where the oxidation reaction takes place and the anode is
consumed during corrosion. Reduction is when oxygen atoms accept
electrons. The cathode (down direction in Greek) is where the reduction
reaction takes place and corrosion products build-up the cathode.
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Corrosion
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Platinum.
Gold.
316 stainless steel.
Titanium.
Nickel.
Copper.
Tin.
Mild steel.
Cadmium.
Zinc.
Magnesium.
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Corrosion
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General
General corrosion attack proceeds at the same speed over the entire
surface and the rate of corrosion can be determined, for example in
mm/year or mpy. For stainless steels, it occurs almost exclusively in acidic
or strong alkaline solutions. Resistance against general corrosion is
improved by increasing the Cr and Mo content in the steel or passivation to
grow a thick, protective oxide layer (see below for more detail). For stainless
steel apply pickling (to remove high temperature scale) followed by
passivation (to restore the Cr oxide layer). Often a corrosion allowance may
be specified in design.
Intergranular
Intergranular corrosion attack is localised at and adjacent to the grain
boundaries and occurs in stainless steel due to Cr carbide precipitation
(sensitisation); in the case of welded stabilised grades (eg 321, 347), it can
take the form of knife line corrosion in the HAZ. Resistance against this type
of corrosion is improved by lowering the C content, controlling the welding
procedure or by addition of Ti or Nb (stabilisation).
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Corrosion
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Pitting
Pitting corrosion is a highly destructive non-uniform attack due to localised
breakdown of passivity. The pit becomes the anode whilst the surface
becomes the cathode due to the effect of differential aeration, resulting in
holes, or pits, in the metal. In stainless steel pitting occurs most commonly
in chloride-containing environments or oxidising salts. Resistance against
pitting corrosion is improved by increasing Cr and Mo content; N has also a
favourable influence
Crevice
Crevice corrosion attack occurs in narrow crevices filled with liquid and
where the oxygen level is very low (due to differential aeration), eg gasket
surfaces or under bolt/rivet heads, weld toes. Under-deposit corrosion or
corrosion under insulation (CUI) is similar and is where corrosion occurs
under non-metallic deposits or coatings on the metal surface. Materials
resistant to pitting corrosion are also resistant to crevice corrosion.
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Coatings
Paints, plating, weld cladding, anodising and metal spraying.
Inhibitors
Add suitable chemicals to control the environment.
Cathodic protection
Impressed current or sacrificial anodes (eg galvanised steel).
Anodic protection
Passivation of stainless steel (see below).
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Revision Questions
10-7
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Section 11
Stainless
steels: Austenitic Fe-Cr-Ni, fcc,
Ferritic stainless steel contains 13-30% Cr and less than 0.1%C. There is no
phase transformation so the structure is ferritic at all temperatures and the
main welding problem is grain growth at high temperature. It is used for
vehicle exhausts, cutlery, etc. Martensitic stainless steel contains 11.5-
18%Cr and 0.03-0.30%C, has moderate corrosion resistance and high
strength up to 400°C. However, it is very sensitive to hydrogen (cold)
cracking when welded. Precipitation hardened stainless steels come in three
types; martensitic, semi-austenitic and austenitic. They show good corrosion
and oxidation resistance, with high strength and hardness at room
temperatures, but their service is limited to below 310°C. Precipitation-
hardened stainless steels have lower ductility and notch toughness than
austenitics and some precipitation-hardened austenitic grades are
considered unweldable.
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Austenite () has an fcc crystal structure and no toughness transition, which
means it can be used at cryogenic temperatures. It is non-ferromagnetic.
Sulphur has low solubility in austenite, giving a higher risk of hot cracking
when welding, but the microstructure is not sensitive to hydrogen so there is
no cold cracking risk.
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Welding of Stainless Steels
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304
19%Cr + 9%Ni + 0.05%C.
304L
19%Cr + 9%Ni + 0.02%C (improved corrosion resistance).
304H
19%Cr + 9%Ni + 0.07%C (improved creep strength).
304N
19%Cr + 9%Ni + 0.05%C + 0.13%N.
316
17%Cr + 12%Ni + 0.05%C + 2.5Mo (improved pitting corrosion resistance).
321
18%Cr + 10%Ni + 0.05%C + 0.3%Ti (stabilised).
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347
18%Cr + 11%Ni + 0.05%C + 0.6%Nb (stabilised).
308L
21%Cr + 10%Ni + 1.5%Mn + 0.5%Si + 0.02%C (used to weld 304L parent
metal).
309
24%Cr + 13%Ni + 1.5%Mn + 0.5%Si + 0.1%C (used for dissimilar welds,
buttering carbon steels).
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ferrite
austenite
Duplex stainless steels are divided into groups according to their pitting
resistance equivalent number (PREN).
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Duplex filler metals with increased nickel content are usually employed to
weld duplex grades with other duplex grades. The higher nickel content
ensures that an adequate level of austenite is formed in the weld during
cooling.
When welding to austenitic grades, the austenitic filler metals with low
carbon and a molybdenum content intermediate between the two grades are
usually employed, like AWS E309LMo/ER309LMo. The same filler metal is
generally used to weld duplex grades to carbon steels. If nickel-base filler
metals are used, they should be free of niobium. Because austenitic
stainless steels have lower strength than duplex stainless steels, welded
joints made with austenitic filler metals will not be as strong as the duplex
base metal.
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phase
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A good gas shield during welding is essential to protect the weld pool and
HAZ from contamination and excessive atmospheric oxidation (heat tint).
Most typically, this protection is achieved using argon, but gas mixtures of
Ar/He can also be used. Backing gas (purging) for internal protection of
single-sided welds (in pipes, for example) should be applied so that several
changes of volume have occurred prior to commencing welding and it is
typical practice for multipass welds to maintain the gas for approximately 3
or 4 passes, ie until the root pass ceases to be significantly heated by
subsequent welding. Purging gases can be either pure argon or high purity
nitrogen (although this may cause high austenite content on the root
surface). Pickling of welds can be performed to remove heat tint, but may be
difficult to carry out.
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Revision Questions
1 Compare the weldability problems expected for different types of stainless steels.
3 Are preheat and PWHT required for welding stainless steels and if so why?
11-13
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Section 12
Surfacing
Rev 2 July 2011
Surfacing
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12 Surfacing
12.1 Reasons for using overlays and coatings
It is often desirable to change the surface properties of a component,
because the properties required at the surface may be different to those
required of the base material. Some examples are described below.
12.1.1 Wear
A few examples of the types of wear that can occur are:
Abrasion
This is also caused by hard particles, but they are forced against the
surface rather than being carried in a stream of air or liquid. For
example, digger teeth are abraded by rock and sand.
Metal-to-metal wear
Includes galling, fretting, adhesive wear and others.
Cavitation
A special type of wear caused by shock waves in a liquid, due to
collapsing bubbles of vapour in the liquid.
Wear resistant materials are often quite hard and brittle. If the surface of a
component must be wear resistant, but the component must have high
toughness and bulk strength to do its job, then it may not be possible to find
a single material that will do both.
Another reason why wear resistant alloys are not generally used for bulk
parts is that they are harder to manufacture. Usually, they are not easily
forged, extruded or drawn. Although they can often be cast, cracking during
cooling can be a problem in larger parts. This is another reason why a wear
resistant cladding or coating is often more cost effective.
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12.1.2 Corrosion
Corrosion can be classified according to the corrosive environment as well
as the corrosion mechanism. Corrosion is discussed in detail elsewhere in
this course.
Although many materials that resist corrosion also have good strength and
toughness, they tend to be expensive (eg nickel alloys, titanium alloys, or
stainless steels). Other corrosion resistant materials, such as gold, platinum,
glass, paints, polymers and CoCr alloys are either extremely costly and/or
do not have the required strength. Applying corrosion resistant materials as
coatings onto cheaper base materials is therefore often more cost-effective.
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Table 12.1 some common surfacing processes and welding related challenges associated with them.
Typical thickness Coating technique Examples Some welding-related considerations
range
5-25μm Thin film techniques, eg: Gold-coloured PVD titanium nitride (TiN) These coatings should preferably be applied
(0.005-0.025 mm) Physical Vapour. coatings are used on cutting tools and after welding.
Deposition (PVD). dies/punches.
Chemical Vapour. CVD coatings are used on metal forming tool
Deposition (CVD). and dies. The diamond coatings on high
performance tool bits are CVD diamond.
Up to 1mm Paints, waxes, polymers. Used for decorative and corrosion protection When applying paint systems to welded
purposes. Suitable for low temperature, low fabrications to mitigate corrosion, consider the
cost applications were wear is not an issue. potential for localised corrosion and stress
corrosion cracking of the weld, especially if
being used at high temperatures where coating
protection may fail.
If welding a coated structure, remove all residual
paint/coating before welding and reapply (if
applicable) after welding.
10-500μm Electroplating techniques Being phased out for environmental and health The plating process can induce hydrogen
(0.01-0.5mm) such as chrome or reasons. embrittlement in high strength alloy welds and
cadmium plating. consideration should be given to post-
deposition heat treatment.
50 - 500 μm Thermal spray coatings WC-Co wear resistant coatings See Section 12.16 for more detail.
(0.05-0.5 mm) using powder as a feed Thermal barrier coatings (typically based on Thermal sprayed coatings should be applied
stock. stabilised zirconium oxide) after welding.
See following Sections.
0.1-3mm Thermal spray coatings Thermally sprayed aluminium (TSA) coatings See Section 12.16 for more detail.
using wire as a feed are widely used for corrosion protection of Thermal sprayed coatings should be applied
stock. shore oil rigs. after welding if at all possible.
See following Sections.
1.6mm and above Weld surfacing. See Section 12.3 onwards. See Section 12.3 onwards.
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50-200μm Hot dip galvanizing. The most common hot dipping process for When welding parts that are going to be
(0.05-0.2mm) industrial applications is galvanising, which is galvanised, it is important to use a filler metal
the coating of iron or steels with zinc for rust that matches the silicon content of the base
proofing. steel. The Si content of a steel has a dramatic
It is an extremely versatile and easy means of effect on the thickness of the galvanised zinc
providing corrosion protection for construction layer. If, for example, the weld filler metal has a
materials exposed to atmospheric conditions. higher Si content than the steel, the galvanised
Protection is imparted in two ways: assembly will have a visibly thicker zinc
Zinc acts as a galvanic protector of the steel coating on the weld area.
by slowly sacrificially corroding in a corrosive Hot dip galvanising of welded structures can
aqueous environment. cause Liquid Metal Embrittlement of the
structure at areas of stress concentration, such
Continuous barrier of zinc protects the
as dramatic section changes or badly prepared
underlying substrate from contact with the
weld finishes. Zinc has a low melting point and
corrosive electrolyte.
if melting occurs due to welding being done
Hot dip galvanising is essentially a two-step nearby, liquid Zn can cause Liquid Metal
process. First, the steel must be properly Embrittlement.
prepared to accept the zinc coating. A clean Care is required when welding galvanised
base metal is essential to achieve a good steels. Zn vapour may cause porosity in the
galvanised coating, normally accomplished by welds with high speed welding processes such
pickling the component in an alkaline solution to as GMAW or laser.
remove any rust or grease. Breathing in of metal oxides such as zinc and
The second step involves immersing the copper can lead to an acute flu-like illness
component in a bath of molten zinc, long enough called metal fume fever. It occurs most
for the zinc to form a series of alloy layers with commonly when welding galvanised steel;
the base steel of sufficient thickness to meet symptoms usually begin several hours after
certain required weight specifications. exposure with thirst, coughing, headache,
sweating, pain in the limbs and fever.
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12.3.2 Hardfacing
A softer material is given a wear, abrasion or erosion resistant surface by
cladding using a hardfacing alloy with high hardness, such as cobalt alloys
(eg Stellite®), tungsten carbide, Cr-Mo steels, or martensitic steels.
12.3.3 Cladding
Cladding provides a corrosion or oxidation resistant surface on a less
corrosion resistant material. An example is the deposition of a stainless
steel (309, 316) or nickel-based layer (625, 825) on a carbon steel base.
The clad materials will depend on the application, eg austenitic stainless
steels for corrosion resistance, nickel alloys for oxidation resistance, copper-
nickel alloys for saltwater service. One advantage is the cost saving arising
when surfacing a relatively inexpensive metal, such as a carbon steel, with a
more expensive but corrosion resistant layer of stainless steel rather than
using solid stainless steel.
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Figure 12.2 Weld overlay being applied to a large industrial process vessel.
12.4 Buttering
Buttering is the term used when depositing a layer of weld metal on to the
face of a weld preparation or surface which will then form part of a welded
joint. The objective is to engineer the composition of the buttered weld metal
(with dilution of parent) to prevent cracking when the subsequent weld is
made, eg to deposit a weldable lower carbon surface for making repairs to
medium or high carbon steel vessels.
Another example is the buttering of an alloy steel weld preparation with a Ni-
based weld metal and then post-weld heat treating this part before making
the joining weld between the buttering and a steel which would be degraded
by heat treatment.
Hardfacing and cladding are, as a rule, not included in the calculations for
component design but weld build-up frequently is and buttering must be
included since it forms part of the load-carrying portion of a joint.
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This diagram gives an overview of Surfacing Techniques and these are described in more detail on the following pages:
Surfacing methods
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Due to the low cost of the equipment, the low operating costs of the process
and the ease of transporting the equipment, this flexible process is ideally
suited to repair work.
Figure 12.3 The MMA hardfacing process (image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with
permission).
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Cold wire GTAW is used infrequently because of its low deposition rate, but
the addition of a hot wire facility can increase deposition rates to match
those of the GMAW/MAG process but with a GTAW quality deposit.
Welding rods used for GTAW Welding can also be used for hardfacing with
the oxy-acetylene welding process.
12.5.3 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and submerged arc welding (SAW)
Figure 12.4 The GMAW hardfacing process (image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used
with permission).
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Wire (which can be a cored wire) or a flat strip consumable is used as the
hardfacing consumable in the SAW process. In this process, a mineral-
based fluxing powder flows around the consumable wire and is melted by
the arc. It forms a gaseous shield around the arc and also forms a slag on
top of the weld pool, shielding the cooling weld pool from the atmosphere.
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Figure 12.6 The PTAW Process (images © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with
permission).
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The deposition rate from a 60mm wide strip can be as high as 36kg/hr for
ESW and 20kg/hr for SAW. ESW cladding provides lower levels of substrate
dilution into the surfacing material than SAW (10% compared with 20%),
meaning that the required chemical analysis can often be achieved in a
single layer deposit where SAW cladding may need two. The strip cladding
process is usually confined to relatively large and thick components which
need to be manipulated to enable welding to be carried out in the flat
position. It is used for surfacing the internal surfaces of pressure vessels
and large diameter pipe and in the reclamation of steel mill rolls.
The overlap between adjacent beads must be controlled to avoid lack of fusion
defects (Figure. 12.8).
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Due to the narrow heat-affected zone and the fast cooling rate, the heat
input is low, thereby producing an almost stress free overlay. Compared
with other welding processes, for a given hardfacing alloy, the fast cooling
rate of the laser process produces an overlay with a significantly finer
microstructure.
Usually, this fast cooling leads to a higher hardness; but in some hardfacing
alloys that rely on time-dependent carbide growth for their wear properties it
can lead to unexpectedly poor wear resistance.
This is a solid state process so can clad a wide range of metals to almost
any base material (dissimilar materials). The parent plate is stationary which
means that components of a wide range of sizes can be joined. However,
geometric configuration must allow a uniform progression of the detonation
front, which limits the application to flat plate and cylindrical and conical
structures. There are also safety issues with the use of explosives. The
main industrial sectors using explosively clad materials include the food and
chemical process industries.
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Weld Cladding.
Centrifugal casting.
Extrusion.
Seamless clad pipes are seldom used for pipelines in the common range of
between 8-24”.
Metallurgically clad (roll bonded) pipes are manufactured by hot rolling the
plates of the different materials together to produce a metallurgical bond
between them. This process is widely used. The advantages compared with
overlay welding are that there is no dilution from the base material (ref.
Section 12.10).
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Contact between the two layers is achieved by the different elastic and
plastic behaviours of the ferrite outer pipe and the austenitic material of the
inner pipe, whereby the spring-back effect of the ferrite outer pipe is greater
than that of the inner pipe when the pressure is released.
This results in residual compressive stress on the inner pipe of ca. 50-100
MPa, which provides a homogenous contact.
The one concern when cutting by shearing is to cut from the clad side, so
that the shear deformation forces the clad layer and carbon steel together,
rather than peeling apart.
When applying overlays onto steels, there will be some iron from the steel in
the overlay. This decreases the corrosion resistance of overlays such as
Alloy 625 and affects both the corrosion and the wear resistance of
hardfacing alloys.
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The effect of welding process can be seen in Figure 12.10, which shows
how the dilution levels in Stellite® 12 welds drop off rapidly from about
50%Fe at the weld fusion line, to about 5%Fe at a distance of 4mm from the
fusion line.
The dilution for PTAW deposits is lower than for GTAW deposits, reaching
10%Fe at less than 1mm deposit thickness. For GTAW deposits however,
dilution levels below 10%Fe are typically only reached at deposit
thicknesses of over 2mm.
60
50
% Fe Content
40 PTA Weld
GTA weld
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Distance from fusion line, CM
Figure 12.10 Typical dilution levels in stellite 12 GTAW and PTA overlays.
Figure 12.11 shows how the hardness of the overlay drops more or less
linearly with dilution up to levels of about 15%Fe, although the curve seems
to start flattening out at the highest iron percentages.
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540
530
520
Hardness VHN 510
500
GTA weld
490
480 PTA weld
470
460
450
440
0 5 10 15 20
% Fe Dilution
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These metallurgical issues mean that often nickel base fillers (eg Alloy 625)
are preferred as they have less thermal expansion coefficient mismatch
from carbon steels than stainless and are also less likely to form martensitic
HAZs. However, they are more expensive than carbon steel and stainless
steel wires.
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The combination of ferritic and austenitic materials in one joint gives rise to
restrictions on the NDT methods that can be used (eg ultrasonics may
bounce from the interface whether defective or not). It is common to have
some misalignment in the bore (ie at the clad layer) of abutting tubes or
pipes. However, the clad layer cannot be machined to fit or else the
corrosion resistance will be lost. This misalignment issue therefore imposes
tight tolerances of the ends of clad pipes in order to weld them.
The access for welding is important when assessing how the joint is to be
welded.
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Step 1: Step 6:
Faces bevelled from Faces bevelled from
carbon steel side. carbon steel side.
Step 2: Step 1:
Fit-up. Faces bevelled.
Step 3: Step 2:
Weld from carbon Fit-up.
steel side.
Step 3:
Step 4: Weld from carbon
Root gouge. steel side.
Step 4:
Step 5: Clean the root and
Weld from stainless weld from the
steel side. stainless steel side.
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Welding clad steel plates from only one side: Welding clad steel pipe from only one side:
Step 1:
Faces bevelled. Step 1:
Faces bevelled and
carbon plate cut back
to expose cladding.
Step 2: Step 2:
Fit-up. Fit-up.
Step 3a:
Welded with stainless
steel/Ni base filler
only.
Step 3:
Welded from C steel
side only.
Step 3b:
Welded with stainless
and carbon steel filler.
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12.14 Standards
Weld overlay processes, consumables, weld procedure and welder
qualifications (and the properties of the weld overlays themselves for
specific applications) are covered by several internationally recognised
standards. Some of these are:
Standard Title
AWS A5.13 Specification for Surfacing Electrodes For Shielded Metal Arc
ASME SFA 5.13 Welding.
AWS A5.21
Specification for Bare Electrodes And Rods For Surfacing.
ASME SFA 5.21
Recommended Practices for Surfacing and Reconditioning of
AWS D14.7/D14.7M
Industrial Mill Rolls.
NACE MR0175
Corrosion Resistant Alloys for Sulphide Service.
BS EN ISO 15156
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Test Remarks
A typical acceptance criterion might be: complete fusion of weld
Visual examination
metal and base metal.
NDT: Liquid Penetrant,
The acceptance criteria must define the acceptable number,
ultrasonic or X-ray
distribution, location, shape and size of indications.
Examination
A sample taken from a specific position is polished, etched and
Metallography examined at a specified magnification for cracks, lack of fusion,
linear defects, etc according to the specified criteria.
Although not often required for overlays, one might use tensile
tests to determine the extent to which the base steel properties
Tensile tests have been affected by the welding process itself and by the post
weld heat treatment. Specimen geometry should meet an agreed
standard.
Face or side bend A weld-overlaid plate is machined, bent and examined according
tests to specified criteria.
Chemical analysis is usually done at a position corresponding to
the desired minimum qualified overlay thickness. The acceptance
Chemical Analysis of
criteria should specify the acceptable dilution levels at that
Weld Metal
finished weld thickness. For example, max. 8% Fe at 3.2mm from
fusion line.
Hardness testing is typically done at a position corresponding to
the desired minimum qualified overlay thickness.
The acceptance criteria should specify the acceptable hardness
Hardness of overlay
range.
Overlay hardness is typically only specified for hardfacings and
not for corrosion-resistant overlays.
Hardness of HAZ Can be used to indicate whether the PWHT was effective or not.
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Thermal spraying, when done correctly, will not raise the temperature of the
part by more than about 100-150ºC.
Energy source:
Wire.
Powder.
Velocity of coating feedstock particles or droplets.
Air.
Vacuum or low-pressure.
Water.
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Flame spraying does not deliver enough heat energy to melt some of the
higher melting point ceramics. It can apply some low melting point ceramics
such as titanium dioxide TiO2 and aluminium oxide Al2O3.
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Figure 12.14a The powder flame spray process (iage © Deloro Stellite Inc., used
with permission).
Figure 12.14b The powder flame spray process (Image © TWI Ltd).
Figure 12.14c The wire flame spray process (image © TWI Ltd.).
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Figure 12.15a The plasma spray process (image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with
permission).
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The exhaust gas exits through an expansion nozzle which produces a high
velocity gas stream. The powder particles are heated in this gas stream and
transferred by it with high kinetic energy to the surface of the workpiece,
forming a dense coating with excellent bonding properties. Due to the
moderate transfer of heat to the powder particles and to the workpiece,
which remains relatively cool, there is little metallurgical change to the
sprayed material and the work piece. Due to the high velocity and moderate
temperature of the gas jet, the HVOF process is especially suitable for
carbide coatings such as WC-Co or WC-CoCr. It is also well suited to alloys
and (in some cases) oxide/ceramic materials. Depending on the material
being applied, thick coatings up to 2mm are possible.
Figure 12.16a The HVOF process (image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with
permission).
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Revision Questions
2 What should one be aware of when welding a steel assembly that is going to be
hot-dip galvanised?
4 Explain the differences between weld overlays and thermal spray coatings by
considering the substrate preparation required the types of materials that can be
deposited, the typical deposit thicknesses and the heat loading on the parts being
coated.
5 Consider what methods of surface protection you might choose for the following:
a A diesel engine piston that requires thermal protection on its top surface
(note: typical thermal barrier coating materials are high melting point oxides such
as yttria-stabilised zirconium oxide ceramic).
b Valve seat and plug made of carbon steel and used for pumping sand-laden
sea water.
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Section 13
The high service temperature, service loads and time impose special
considerations in material selection. As well as creep resistance, it is
necessary to consider oxidation and corrosion resistance, crack sensitivity,
weldability and microstructural stability, ie carbide precipitation, sigma phase
formation (in stainless steels) and temper embrittlement.
Secondary creep also known as steady state creep. In this regime, which
forms the bulk of the creep life of a component, a balance is achieved
between the creep rate and the work hardening rate.
Tertiary creep is the final stage, in which the creep rate increases in an
unstable manner until the material finally fails. This is the result of structural
changes within the material, such as cavity/void formation and localised
necking leading to a reduction in cross sectional area and hence an
increase in the effective stress. Linkage of the cavities/voids leads to the
formation of cracks and ultimately failure.
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G = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V – 2.
G<0 implies the material is not susceptible.
G1 = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V + 10C – 2.
G1<2 implies the material is not susceptible.
P SR = Cr + Cu + 2Mo + 10V + 7Nb + 5Ti – 2.
P SR <0 implies the material is not susceptible.
In addition, it has been found that in steel the presence of high levels of Sb,
As, Sn and P are likely to increase the cracking risk, as well as C, Si and
Cu. It has also been found that cracking is more likely in the vicinity of
segregate bands within a steel, as in general the carbon, alloy and impurity
level are higher. As a rule of thumb, steel alloyed with three or more carbide
formers, eg Cr, Mo and V, are likely to be susceptible.
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0.70
Grade 91
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Time at 650°C, h
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Revision Questions
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Section 14
Cryogenic Steels
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Cryogenic Steels
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14 Cryogenic Steels
14.1 Cryogenic properties
Steels which are especially suitable for extremely low temperature service
are called cryogenic steels. There is a significant difference in the behaviour
of ferritic steels between low (sub-zero) and high temperatures. At sub-zero
temperatures, the dominant failure mechanism is brittle fracture; see the
ductile-brittle transition curves for steel below. However, at higher
temperatures (above the transition temperature), ductile fracture prevails.
Chemical processing equipment, including some oil and gas industry
installations, is required to work at sub-zero temperatures and thus the
behaviour of metals at temperatures down to -150°C needs consideration,
especially regarding welded design, where changes in section and welding
flaws may occur.
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Fine-grained steels
(increased strength
and toughness)
Nickel is the most important alloying element that imparts low temperature
toughness to low carbon steels. Nickel steels have very good toughness
(down to -196°C for 9%Ni steels), a lower thermal expansion compared with
austenitic stainless steels and aluminium alloys and low thermal
conductivity. Varying amounts of nickel (up to 9%) are added and they have
low carbon content (less than 0.15%). The grouping system of nickel steels
according to ISO 15608 is:
Ferrite is the predominant phase in low carbon steels and nickel refines
the grain size of ferrite, which improves the notch toughness of the steel.
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Austenitic stainless steel (up to 8%Ni and 16-26%Cr) has a fully austenitic
structure and are used for cryogenic applications. Austenitic steels have
excellent toughness down to absolute zero (-273°C), with no ductile to brittle
transition.
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Filler materials are Ni-based: AWS A5.11 ENiCrMo-6 (EN ISO 14172 E Ni
6620) or ENiCrMo-3 (E Ni 6625). Therefore the weld metal under matches
the strength of the parent plate. The weld metal is also very viscous
(sluggish). Fully austenitic filler of type 16Cr-13Ni-Mn is prohibited, due to its
higher coefficient of thermal expansion than the parent metal and brittle
martensite formation near the fusion line. Cleanliness is very important to
avoid hot cracking and smooth blending between weld face and parent
metal is required to avoid any stress concentration. 9%Ni steel is strongly
ferro-magnetic and also has residual magnetism, which can give rise to arc
blow a problem during welding. AC current and demagnetisation before
welding may be required to overcome this.
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When welding, limit the heat input to approximately 4.0kJ/mm to avoid grain
growth; so preferably do not use single run procedures. In general, use only
basic filler materials and preheat to help avoid hydrogen-assisted cracking
and reduce shrinkage. No preheat is necessary for thickness up to 25mm
and IIW CE up to 0.40%; otherwise, the maximum preheat should be 150°C.
Limit the interpass temperature to approximately 250°C to avoid grain
growth. Post-heating is advisable (maintain the preheating time for 5min/mm
with a minimum 2h) and PWHT is optional. (It might be required only for
large thickness.)
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Revision Questions
2 Why is the choice of a welding procedure more critical when the component is
to be used at sub-zero temperature?
4 What are the major problems encountered during the welding of 1-2%Ni steels
and how are they overcome?
5 How can we minimise the effect of reduction in toughness in the HAZ as a result
of welding Ni steels?
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Section 15
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Aluminium and Light Alloys
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supersaturated
+ fine precipitates
with secondary
of
Keep at room
temperature for an
extended period (natural
ageing)
supersaturated
+ fine precipitates
with secondary
of
Heat to >200°C (over
ageing)
supersaturated
+coarse ppts of
with secondary
1xxx pure Al
2xxx Al-Cu
3xxx Al-Mn
4xxx Al-Si
5xxx Al-Mg
6xxx Al-Mg-Si
7xxx Al-Zn
8xxx other elements
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1xxx, 3xxx and 5xxx alloys are non-heat treatable and have temper
designations, given as a letter (and two or three numbers) appended to the
four digit alloy designation, which indicate the alloy condition:
2xxx, 4xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx and 8xxx are heat treatable and take one of the
following heat treatment designations as a suffix:
Some examples of full aluminium alloy designations are; 1100-O which has
>99% Al+0.12Cu and is annealed; 2024-T3 which is alloy Al-4.4Cu-1.5Mg-
0.6Mn and is solution treated, cold-worked and naturally aged; 5052-H34
which is alloy Al-2.5Mg-0.25Cr and is cold-worked to the half hard condition.
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There are several sources of hydrogen, the main ones being from the
workpiece and/or welding consumables:
Filler wire
Sometimes filler wires contain contamination such as grease, dirt and
oxide (on to which moisture can be adsorbed).
Shielding gases
Inert shielding gases are used in the MIG welding and TIG welding
processes. They can contain moisture and therefore hydrogen, the major
source of which could be plastic carrier pipes.
Parent metal
Hydrogen may come from the parent metal, either due to contamination
on the metal surface (oxide with adsorbed moisture, grease, oil or paint)
or hydrogen dissolved within the metal, itself.
Electrode coating
MMA electrode coatings are hygroscopic (absorb moisture). When these
electrodes are used, the absorbed moisture adds hydrogen to the weld.
However, the MMA process is rarely used for welding aluminium.
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At low solute levels, any liquid films between solidifying crystals are thin or
discontinuous and the weld has reasonable resistance to cracking. At high
solute levels, there is sufficient eutectic liquid to back-fill cavities, created by
shrinkage of the solidifying metal and prevent cracking. However, at
intermediate levels of solute the level of eutectic liquid is such that the liquid
films form continuously between the solidifying metal crystals creating ready
paths for cracking, as the shrinkage strains develop. Since the sensitivity to
hot cracking is affected by variations in composition, dissimilar filler metals
can be employed to adjust weld pool compositions to more favourable
ranges. However, it is important to control the levels of dilution in such
welds, as high dilution of the filler metal by the parent material will shift the
weld pool composition back to potentially solidification sensitive levels.
Those aspects of the welding procedure which affect dilution are joint
configuration, variations in bevel angle, root gap, torch manipulation, etc.
Levels of dilution which are acceptable for welding carbon steels might not
be acceptable for welding of aluminium alloys.
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Aluminium and Light Alloys
Copyright TWI Ltd 2012
Ease of welding.
Sensitivity to weld cracking.
Tensile strength of the weld.
Weld ductility.
Service temperature.
Corrosion resistance.
Colour match between the weld and the base alloy after anodising.
15-7
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Aluminium and Light Alloys
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Aluminium and Light Alloys
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Aluminium and Light Alloys
Copyright TWI Ltd 2012
Revision Questions
1 What is the difference between heat treatable and non-heat treatable alloys?
Give one example from each group.
15-11
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Section 16
Other types of joints may be made between two non-ferrous metals such as
copper and aluminium, or between steel and a non-ferrous metal. These are
less common and can sometimes only be made by mechanical means or by
using specialised processes such as friction welding or electron beam
welding.
16-1
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Joining Dissimilar Metals
Copyright TWI Ltd 2012
Type 309L (24% Cr - 12%Ni) stainless steel allows the deposition of weld
metal with a -ferrite content up to 15%, which reduces the sensitivity to hot
cracking, compared with the fully austenitic type 310 deposits. This filler
material is currently the most commonly applied when joining C-Mn steels to
austenitic stainless grades. It can also be used for welding martensitic
stainless steels. However, low carbon 309 filler metals are not suitable for
applications where PWHT is required and for service temperatures above
400°C. This is because at such temperatures, -ferrite tends to transform
into phase, which is hard and brittle.
16-2
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This happens relatively quickly at the typical PWHT temperatures for ferritic
steels and in the mid/long-term for high service temperatures. A higher
carbon variant has higher elevated temperature strength and is suitable for
elevated temperature exposure.
Type 312 (29%Cr – 9%Ni) stainless steel can be used for welding
hardenable steels (and can be used also for welding free-machining steels).
The high -ferrite content of this weld metal increases its tolerance to
dilution. The weld metal embrittles if subjected to PWHT. It should be used
neither for low temperature applications, nor for elevated temperature
service (above 300°C).
Type 307 (19%Cr – 10%Ni - 4%Mn - 1%Mo) stainless steel deposits a fully
austenitic weld metal, with the Mn giving resistance to solidification cracking.
The weld metal can be subjected to PWHT and is suitable for low
temperature applications.
16-3
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Joining Dissimilar Metals
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In general, unless hardenable alloy steels are being welded, preheat should
not be applied when welding austenitic stainless steels (to avoid
carbide/sigma phase precipitation). One exception is welding martensitic
stainless steels, when a 150-200°C preheat needs to be applied to avoid
cold cracking. However, it may be necessary to lower the temperature below
the Mf temperature prior to PWHT, to ensure full transformation to
martensite before, rather than after, PWHT. In general, keep the heat input
low. For fully austenitic weld metal, take precautions against hot cracking, ie
use filler with a minimum of 4%Mn.
By plotting points for the two different parent metals, the average parent
metal composition may be estimated, weighted, if appropriate, by
accounting for the relative thicknesses of the parent metals and the joint
design. By then plotting a point on the Schaeffler diagram for the filler metal,
it is possible to estimate the weld metal composition, taking into account the
welding process and consumable, joint design and hence the dilution with
the parent metal of the weighted average composition. The point
representing the overall weld metal composition can then be used to predict
any cracking, embrittlement or weldability problems that might occur. An
example of the method is given for welding a 304L austenitic stainless steel
to a C-Mn steel using a 309L filler, the joint design is such that there is 30%
dilution of the weld metal with each parent metal.
16-4
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Step 1: Find Creq and Nieq for the two parent metals.
16-5
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Joining Dissimilar Metals
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Welding
consumable
P
A
F
P
WM (30%
P
dilution)
16-6
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WM (30% dilution)
Step 5: Assess the likely weldability problems associated with the weld
metal point.
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Revision Questions
1 How is the Schaeffler diagram used to assess the weldability of a dissimilar joint
and filler combination?
2 Compare the precautions that should be taken when welding two different C-Mn
steels to when welding two different stainless steels.
16-9
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Section 17
3.5
C Content, %
3 Grey irons
2.5
White irons
2
Malleable irons
1.5
1
%C+1/6Si=2.0
Steels
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Si Content, %
The iron-carbon diagram can assist in identifying which type of cast iron will
be obtained.
17-1
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Welding Other Alloys
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For a typical composition in the range shown, all types of cast iron can be
obtained.
White cast iron Pearlitic grey cast Ferritic grey cast iron
iron
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17-3
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The partially melted zone is the most critical region in a weld in cast iron.
The high cooling rate means that metal can freeze as white iron (with the
highest hardness). To reduce the severity of cracking problems it is
important to select the proper filler metal and for the peak temperature and
time at high temperature to be reduced by control of the heat input, preheat
and interpass temperature.
Oxyacetylene welding
Because of the relatively low temperature heat source, oxyacetylene
welding will require a higher preheat than MMA. Penetration and dilution is
low and the wide HAZ and slow cooling will produce a soft microstructure.
Oxyacetylene welding is used with a slightly reducing flame and the
consumable has a slightly higher carbon and silicon content to match the
weld deposit.
Arc welding
There are two basic methods to avoid HAZ cracking when arc welding cast
irons – welding hot with high preheat and very slow cooling or welding cold
keeping the cast iron as cool as possible. Preheat helps to reduce residual
stresses and distortion and slows the cooling rate, resulting in lower
hardness and risk of cracking. It should be based on the microstructure and
strength of the casting and the higher the carbon content, the higher the
preheat temperature. Malleable or nodular cast irons usually require lower
preheat than grey cast irons. A casting with a complex shape usually
requires a higher preheat to control residual stresses and when welding
different thickness, preheat the thick member to decrease its heat sink.
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Welding Other Alloys
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PWHT improves HAZ ductility, improves the machinability of the weld and
HAZ, reduces the brittleness of martensite formed during welding and
relieves residual stresses. It is carried out by burying the entire casting in
sand or vermiculite, by transferring the casting to a furnace or by covering
the casting with an insulated blanket. It’s also possible to postheat with a
torch. Peening of the weld with a round ballpeen hammer after welding
reduces stresses.
MMA is widely used in the fabrication and repair of cast, the disadvantage is
greater weld pool penetration and parent metal dilution, but using electrode
negative polarity will help to reduce the HAZ size. Ranges of MMA
consumables are available and can be used on weld and repair jobs. When
using the hot technique, cast iron electrodes are often used. The intense,
high temperature arc enables higher welding speeds and lower preheat
levels with the flux coating improving arc stability, reducing porosity and
adding alloying elements to give a near-matching weld deposit (with nodular
graphite structure). When opting for the cold technique, Ni-base electrodes
are usually used (replacing Cu-based fillers). Nickel does not form carbides
so carbon is rejected from the weld area as graphite, therefore the weld
metal volume increases and there is less risk of HAZ cracking, but they can
be sensitive to hot cracking (especially high Ni electrodes), which means
that dilution must be limited. Welds have generally higher strength and
ductility than with cast iron electrodes. With nickel filler the bevel angle
needs to be wider because nickel forms a very viscous metal weld pool.
MIG and FCAW can be used to weld cast irons, mainly using dip transfer.
They can achieve high deposition rates, whilst limiting the amount of weld
penetration. Solid wires used are nickel, Monel (70Ni-30Cu) or copper
alloys; cored wires used are Ni-Fe or Ni-Fe-Mn.
Weld face grooving creates an irregular weld interface to give less risk of
cracking. In the first step grooves are ground into the surface of the weld
prep and then filled with weld beads. Hence, the beads in contact with the
casting are deposited first when stresses at the fusion line are lowest and in
the second step the whole joint is filled.
17-5
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17-6
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Welding Other Alloys
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When welding solid solution and precipitation hardened alloys, the annealed
and solution treated conditions should be used, respectively. Preheat is
generally neither required nor recommended to reduce the risk of porosity
due to moisture, the joint may be warmed to above ambient temperature
(>20°C) to drive off any condensates. If the material is in contact with
caustic soda, or HF acid, stress corrosion cracking is possible so residual
stress can be reduced by PWHT.
As a general rule, filler material for welding nickel alloys matches the parent
material; however, most filler materials contain small quantities of oxygen-
removing elements, such as aluminium, titanium and/or niobium to help
reduce the risk of porosity or cracking during welding.
Solidification cracking
Hot cracking results from low melting point solute elements segregating to
the weld centreline. Sulphur, even very small quantities, can cause hot
cracking. Mn and Nb additions in filler metals are used to combine with S to
avoid this. Pb, B, P and Bi also form low melting eutectics. The problem may
be minimised by reducing the welding speed to produce a deeper weld pool
and improve depth-to-width ratio and having a small grain size.
17-7
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Porosity
The principal cause of porosity is entrapment of slag/surface oxide/air (O2
and N2)/surface contamination (yielding O2 and H2), which become
incorporated into the weld pool during welding. To avoid porosity, attention
must be paid to the cleanliness of the joint preparation and the effectiveness
of the gas shield in TIG and MIG welding processes. Preheat might be
required to remove moisture condensation. Adding oxygen-removing
agents, such as aluminium, titanium (also Mn, Si or Fe), can also help
reduce porosity. Aluminium and titanium can form small islands/slag spots
so interpass cleaning is critical.
Oxide inclusions
Slag and surface oxide can also cause particulate inclusions. Oxides of Ti,
Nb, Cr and Ni itself all have much higher melting temperatures than the
base metal, so oxides trapped in the weld pool form inclusions. Surface
oxide, especially that formed at high temperature, must be removed by
machining or grinding (wire brush only polishes it making it harder to see but
still present).
Sometimes it is easier to braze pure copper than to weld it, however, the
preferred welding processes are TIG and MIG. Helium-rich shielding gases
may be used instead of pure argon as they give a higher arc voltage. When
fusion welding pure copper, high oxygen content in the material may lead to
embrittlement in the HAZ and weld metal porosity. Phosphorus deoxidised
copper is more weldable but residual oxygen can result in porosity in
autogenous welds, especially in the presence of hydrogen.
17-8
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Porosity can also result from the presence of hydrogen in the hot solid
metal, from moisture and is best avoided by using appropriate filler wire
containing deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si, P and Ti), using dry inert gases and
drying electrodes and fluxes before welding.
High levels of distortion and residual stress can result when welding copper
due to the high thermal expansion coefficient and this can lead to weld or
HAZ cracks. To avoid this, preheat and free expansion of components
during welding are required.
17.5.2 Brasses
Brasses are alloys of copper and zinc. When considering weldability,
brasses can be conveniently separated into two groups, low (up to 20%)
and high (30-40%) Zn. Nickel silvers contain 20-45%Zn and Ni to improve
strength. Low zinc alloys have higher ductility, while higher zinc brasses
have lower ductility. The main problem in fusion welding these alloys is the
volatility of zinc which results in white fumes of zinc oxide and weld metal
porosity. Only low zinc brasses are normally considered suitable for fusion
welding using the TIG and MIG processes.
17.5.3 Bronzes
There are several types of bronzes:
Silicon bronze contains typically 3%Si and 1%Mn and is probably the
easiest bronze to weld.
Gun metal is essentially tin bronze with up to 5%Zn and may additionally
have up to 5%Pb. The higher lead content alloys are considered
unweldable due to hot cracking problems in the weld metal and HAZ.
Bronzes are generally considered weldable (apart from leaded gun metal)
and a matching filler composition is normally employed.
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Single phase alloys can be susceptible to weld metal cracking and HAZ
cracking can occur under highly restrained conditions. It is often necessary
to use matching filler metals to maintain corrosion resistance but a non-
matching, two phase, filler will reduce the cracking risk. Two phase alloys
are more easily welded. Rigorous cleaning of the material surface is
essential, both before and after each run, to avoid porosity.
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Revision Questions
2 What are the two main types of nickel alloy? What applications is nickel alloys
used for?
3 What filler would you select for welding brass and why?
4 Are cupronickels weldable and if so, how would you weld them?
17-11
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Atoms
Atom - the smallest • The main atomic particles are:
possible particle of a – protons (in the nucleus).
chemical element that
– neutrons (in the nucleus).
retains its chemical
properties. – electrons (orbit the nucleus).
Crystalline Structure • Number of protons (atomic number)
determines the chemical element.
• Number of neutrons determines the
TWI Training and Examination Services isotopes of an element different
atomic mass.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course
• Number of valence electrons
governs the bonding behaviour.
1-1
Crystals Crystalline Structure
The arrangement of atoms inside the unit cell defines the crystalline
• Crystal - a solid in which the constituent atoms are packed
structure.
in a regular order in a repeating pattern extending in three
b.c.c. f.c.c. h.c.p.
dimensions (space lattice).
• Smallest repeating unit = unit cell.
• Crystals form during solidification.
1-2
Grain Boundaries Recrystallization – Solid State Transformation
High
Grain -
temperature
regular
pattern - low (above
energy
recrystallization
temperature)
3 atoms
thick
• Grain boundaries have higher • Grain boundaries disappear.
energies than the grain • Reduced boundary length.
• At grain boundaries, the atomic Grain boundary interiors.
- no pattern - • Reduced energy, closer to
arrangement is disrupted. • Structure is far from energetic energetic equilibrium.
high energy
Structure becomes amorphous. equilibrium.
• Better electric conductivity.
• High toughness and YS.
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1-3
Strengthening Mechanisms Strengthening Mechanisms
1-4
Alloys
T2 Solid
1085 °C Solid
100% Solid
phase
2-1
Using the Phase Diagram Using the Phase Diagram
Find the temperatures at which solidification starts/ends Determine the concentration of phases at a specific
T (°C)
temperature (T)
Liquid Liquid
T (°C)
TStart
T = 1232°C
TEnd Solid
2-2
The Lever Rule Alloy Systems
Determine the quantity of phases present at a specific
Alloy systems
temperature (T) - the lever rule.
T (°C)
Quantity of ,
QN/M
L N
T = 1232°C With total With total With total
Quantity of ,
M solubility in solubility in solubility in
QL/M
liquid and solid liquid phase liquid phase
phase (solid and total and partial
solution). insolubility in solubility in
solid phase. solid phase.
100% A 66% A 60% A 57% A 100% B
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2-3
The Eutectic Alloy in Bi - Cd Alloy System Alloy Systems
146 °C
T (°C) Liquid Eutectic (Bi + Cd) T (°C) Alloy systems
Liquid 321 °C
271 °C
146 °C
Solidus line With total With total With total
solubility in solubility in solubility in
liquid and solid liquid phase liquid phase
phase (solid and total and partial
Eutectic Bi + Cd solution). insolubility in solubility in
solid phase. solid phase.
100% Bi 40% Cd 100% Cd
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012 Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012
1085°C 1085 °C
Liquid
962 °C TStart Liquid 962 °C
Liquid +
Liquid +
Liquid + Liquid +
T (°C) 780 °C
780 °C
Solidus line Solidus line
8% Ag 91% Ag
Eutectic
+
Solid phase Liquid phase
composition composition
Liquid +
780 °C
Eutectic + Solidus line + +
Crystals of
Eutectoid
+
2-4
Partial Solubility in the Solid Phase Age Hardening
Single phase,
• Insolubility of one element in the solid phase of the (uniform solid solution)
other means that particles of one solid phase will
precipitate in the other solid phase.
α
Heat up
to 500°C
(over +coarse
Keep at room ageing) ppts of
temperature for
+ fine long time (natural
precipitates of ageing) supersaturated with
secondary
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2-5
The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram Phases in Iron
Iron-Carbon diagram is complex, but breaks down into several smaller
phase diagrams: • Liquid, L (melting point of steel is between 1147 and
• Peritectic reaction 1550°C).
– Is a three-phase reaction in which, upon cooling, a liquid and a solid
phase transform to give one different solid phase. • Delta iron, , a bcc high temperature iron phase.
– In the Fe-C system this occurs at high temperature and is characterized
by the transformation of liquid plus delta ferrite to austenite. • Austenite, , a fcc phase, stable from 723 to 1447°C.
• Eutectic reaction
– Occurs in cast irons with more than 2.1 wt% carbon.
• Ferrite, , a bcc iron phase, stable down to room
– In the Fe-C system, the peritectic occurs at 1148oC and is characterized temperature.
by the transformation of liquid to austenite plus cementite.
• Eutectoid reaction • Iron carbide, Fe3C, a higher carbon compound also
– Occurs at 727oC and involves the transformation of the residual austenite called cementite, which along with forms pearlite (a
to a lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite, called pearlite.
– Solid to solid transformation.
lamellar eutectoid).
– The most important part of the phase diagram for predicting the phases
in steels in service.
2-6
Steel Microstructures Phase Diagram - Advantages
2-7
Overview of Steel Manufacture
Primary Steelmaking
Steel Manufacture Basic oxygen
steelmaking
Processing Rolling/Forging/Extrusion
Input:
• Iron ore.
• Coke carbon.
• Hot air oxygen.
• Limestone.
• Firebrick lining.
Output:
• Pig iron.
• Slag.
• Waste gases.
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3-1
Blast Furnace Reactions Blast Furnace Reactions
Type of Basic
Acid
slag/lining
3-2
Electric Arc Furnace - Features Ladle Refining
• Can lead to alloy elements
• Electric arc is formed between 3 graphite electrodes; O2 oxidation (Si, Mn).
temperature can be as high as 3500°C all possible grades • All mechanical properties drop,
of steel can be melted without passing oxidizable alloy especially notch toughness.
elements into the slag.
• Forms nitrides.
• Can be charged with scrap, pig iron and ore very versatile. • Strain ageing.
Remove
• Lancing with O2 and working slag additions can help control N2 • YS and UTS increase, toughness
gases
the steel composition. and elongation decrease.
• Low capital investment but high operation costs (power rating • Strong austenite stabiliser.
can be up to 150,000 kW). Ladle
refining • Can reduce oxides.
• Surface of bath, except at points where arcs are burning, is H2
• Leads to cracking and porosity.
covered with slag excellent control of steelmaking
reactions. • Responsible for hot cracking.
Remove S and P • Improved machinability.
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3-3
Electroslag Remelting - Features Ingot Casting Defects - Pipes
Open-end
mould
Cooling
chamber Straightening Shears Cooling bed
rolls
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Advantages
• Faster than rolling from
ingots - 300 t steel in 45
min compared to 12 h.
• Cheaper - no ingot
moulds, handling, etc.
• No piping problems.
Disadvantages
• Impurities segregate at
the centre of the plate.
3-4
Shape Casting Rolling
• Liquid metal fills a cavity within a mould and solidifies Principle of operation - thickness reduction through
into a useful shape. compression.
Input: Output:
Ingots, other Long length
rolled products with
products. uniform cross
section (blooms,
slabs, billets,
plates, etc).
– Slab used to make plate, sheet and pipe. Typical cross- Increase in
sectional dimensions: 3000 x 200mm. hardness and
– Bloom used to make rolled shapes and I-beams. Typical tensile strength
cross sectional dimensions: 150 x 150mm.
Decrease in
– Billet used to make bars, rods and wire. Typical cross Degree of plastic deformation ductility
sectional dimensions: 50 x 50mm up to 120 x 120mm.
Intermediate
annealing Spontaneous
recrystallization
Rolling below Rolling above
recrystallization Cold rolling recrystallization Hot rolling
temperature temperature
3-5
Effect of Rolling on Steel Inclusions Overview of Sheet Steel Production
Stringers
Upper die
Flash
Extrusion Drawing
Billet Ram
3-6
Material Properties
4-1
Toughness Charpy V-notch Impact Test Specimen
Anvil
(support)
Guided bend test • Inexpensive qualitative test. • Apply a cyclic stress range
• Test coupon wrapped around to a specimen and count the
number of cycles to failure.
a former.
• Similar specimens can be
• Any defects in the outside of used to plot a S-N (stress
the specimen will be opened versus no. of cycles) curve.
up. • Parent metals spend a lot of
• Brittle regions will cause lifetime initiating fatigue
fracture. crack.
• t<12mm weld face or root • Intrusions at weld toes mean
bends. most of life is in propagation
for welds.
• t>12mm weld side bends.
4-2
Creep Testing Hardness
d1 d2
d
2
d1 d2
d
2
4-3
Metallographic Examination Metallographic Examination
Metallographic Examination
• Used for detecting weld defects (macro).
• Measuring grain size (micro).
• Point counting the proportion of different constituents.
• Detecting brittle microstructures, precipitates, etc.
• Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold
cracking and corrosion sensitivity.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type. • Location of examined area.
• Etching solution. • Weld imperfections (macro).
• Magnification. • Phase, constituents,
• Grain size. precipitates (micro).
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012
4-4
Heat Treatment
Objectives:
Fundamentals of Heat Treatment
• Microstructural changes improve mechanical
properties ie toughness, machinability, strength.
TWI Training and Examination • Reduce residual stress level.
Services
Global Where? Local
5-1
Thermocouples Heat Treatment Cycle
Temperature
• Require two dissimilar wires (metal or semiconductor) Important parameters:
welded together at their ends. Soaking temperature
• Heating rate.
• Temperature difference causes a voltage (potential
difference) between the wires. • Soaking temperature.
• Soaking time
Hot Cold
(1h/inch).
(measuring) (reference)
junction junction • Cooling rate.
Thermoelectric
potential difference
Time
Heating Soaking Cooling
V
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012 Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012
• Annealing. oC
• Stress relief. A3
Normalizing
Annealing
Recovery and
• Quenching and tempering. 727
recrystallisation No phase
Parent metals Recovery and recrystallization A1
change
• Precipitation hardening. 600
PWHT and PWHT
Stress Relieve Stress relief and
PWHT
500
0.022 0.77 2.0
5-2
Recovery and Recrystallisation Recovery and Recrystallisation
Heat treatment temperature (oF)
• Cold work increase strength and reduce ductility and
toughness.
• Reversed by recovery and recrystallisation.
– But if temperature too high excessive grain growth
leads to drop in strength and toughness.
• Recovery reduces the stored energy in cold-worked or
deformed (rolled) material.
• Dislocations move and align at heat treatment
temperature (recovery).
• New defect-free grains nucleate from grain
boundaries and grow (recrystallisation). Heat treatment temperature (oC)
Non Equilibrium Heat Treatment - Quenching Non Equilibrium Heat Treatment - Quenching
727
Annealing
– Water. Increased quench severity
A1
– Oil.
• Ductility and toughness are drastically
0.008
0.05
0.83 2.0 reduced.
Carbon content in weight %
• Usually followed by tempering.
Tempering Tempering
5-3
Heat Treatments Following Welding Stress Relief and PWHT
oC
• No phase transformation.
• Stress relief • Slow heating and cooling
– Carried out at lower temperature, to reduce Austenite (max: 50°C/h).
Acm
residual stresses. 910 • Soaking time 1hr/inch of
thickest section.
A3
A1
• Usual temperature for
• PWHT 727
PWHT – 550 to 650°C.
– Carried out at higher temperature. Not only 600
PWHT
• Stress Relief carried out
relieves stresses, but also softens the hard Stress Relief
after cold work or welding
HAZ microstructure. 500 and at lower
0.022 0.77 2.0
Carbon content in
temperatures.
weight %
Stress Relief
5-4
Iron and Carbon
CE ≤ 0.4
Temperature (0C)
Temperature (0C)
C
EI
CE ≥ 0.5
Poor weldability
C < ~0.18C Phase transformations measured
S
i 0
M
n
C 2
u 0
C
r
N
i 0
M 1
o 5
V 1
5
B
m
6-1
TTT and CCT Diagrams CE and CCT Diagrams
900 900
Advantages:
Ac3 Start Ac3 Start
Ac1 • Includes effect of all Ac1
700 Ferite 700 Ferite
Pearlite
alloying elements Pearlite
Finish
• Show transformations Finish
500
Bainite that occur under non- 500
Bainite
equilibrium conditions
Ms >CE
Disadvantages: Ms
300 300
Martensite Martensite
• Are specific to one
Ferrite and
Mf Bainite Ferrite and alloy composition Mf
100
Martensite Pearlite 100
Time Time
• Low susceptibility to hydrogen cracking. • Weldability is still good when using low
• Preheat generally not required. hydrogen welding process or consumables.
• Low hardenability means weld and HAZ hardened • Some risk of hydrogen cracking due to
zones not severe, even if rapidly cooled. increased hardenability, especially thicker
• Easily welded with arc, gas or resistance welding sections.
processes. • For thickness >25mm preheat at 40-75°C.
• Use low-alloy filler metal matching parent metal • Maintain interpass temperature >100°C.
mechanical properties.
• PWHT thick sections or if high joint restraint.
6-2
Summary of Heating Requirements Welding Flaws in Steels
• Thermal cycle and shrinkage strains affect • Lower C or CE (typically down to around 0.3
microstructure and properties of the parent IIW CE) generally improves HAZ toughness.
material.
• Reduction induces in hardenability.
• Nearly always reduces toughness in the HAZ.
• Reduction in tendency for M-A formation.
• Lowest toughness (C-Mn steels) in:
– Grain coarsened as-welded HAZ associated with • Increased tendency for auto-tempering
the last pass of a weld (coarse and/or hardened (increase in martensite start temperature).
structures). • But very low C or CE can result in formation of
– Intercritically reheated grain-coarsened HAZ coarse microstructures at higher heat inputs.
regions (martensite or coarse carbides on grain
boundaries).
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-20 470
28J Transition Temperature, °C
-30 460
-40 450
Ms, °C
-50 440
-60 430
-70 420
-80 410
-90 400
-100 390
0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23
% Carbon
6-3
Effects of Heat Input on HAZ Toughness Improving Toughness in C-Mn Steels
• Generally decreases with increased heat input.
• Low carbon content.
– Change in transformation product from (eg) tough
auto-tempered low C martensite to more brittle – Carbon increases yield and tensile strength.
upper bainite/Widmanstätten ferrite. – Carbon decreases Charpy impact energy.
– Increase in grain size.
• Use fine grained steels.
• Low CE steels only produce auto-tempered
martensite at very low heat input. – Small grains have higher toughness.
– Toughness at normal low heat input can therefore – Add Al, Ti grain refiners.
be lower than that of higher CE steels. • Low heat input.
– Toughness often better than that of higher CE
steels. – Limits HAZ grain growth and weld grain size.
• Bainitic microstructures softer. – But, need to avoid hard phases in HAZ.
6-4
HSLA Steels
Increase in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
grain size
7-1
TMCP Steels Thermomechanical Rolling
7-2
Structure of the Weld
8-1
Microstructure of MMA Weld Metal Microstructure of MMA Weld Metal
• Polygonal aspect. • The ratio of the volume of parent metal melted to the total weld
Primary volume is known as the dilution of the weld.
• The result of high
ferrite temperature • Some dilution is necessary to ensure adequate fusion.
transformation • Single-pass welds and joints with shallow bevel angles generally
(proeutectoid) its have higher dilution.
formation is favoured in • Lower dilution means less risk of cracking (the parent steel usually
high heat input welds. contains more S, P, C etc than does the filler metal).
• Large amounts are not • Dilution is also affected by the welding process - MMA (high dilution)
beneficial for toughness. vs. EBW (low dilution).
• It has generally lower
strength than other
products.
8-2
Grain Coarsened HAZ Grain Coarsened HAZ
• Temperature between A3
• Temperature just above A3 - and A1 - partial
doesn’t allow grain growth austenitisation.
in the time available. • Carbon will diffuse into
• Several austenite grains austenite regions; they are
nucleate from each ferrite either stabilised as retained
grain on heating and then austenite or transform on
several ferrite grains cooling.
nucleate from each • Such regions are referred
austenite grain on cooling. to as MA phases.
• Grain size is reduced. • Carbides in the steel are
spheroidised.
• Temperature below A1 - no
phase transformation.
• Similar effect to tempering.
• Spheroidisation of
carbides is the only visible
effect.
• Relaxation of internal
stresses slight
softening.
• Ferrite and pearlite (or
other) micro-structure is
preserved.
8-3
Multi-pass Weldment Microstructures Multi-run HAZ effects
Run 2
CGHAZ run 2
FGHAZ run 2
Run 1
Intercritically reheated
CGHAZ run 1 Refined CGHAZ run 1
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8-4
Hydrogen (Cold) Cracking
Hydrogen scales:
Poor joint design Hydrogen
– A >15 ml H/100g. and/or fit-up diffusion
Hard, brittle
– B = 10-15 ml H/100g. martensitic
– C = 5-10 ml H/100g. structure
Hydrogen trapped in
High stress
– D = 3-5 ml H/100g. martensite lattice
– E <3 ml H/100g.
Cold Cracking
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9-1
Temperature Effect on Cold Cracking Post Weld Heating
9-2
Solidification (Hot) Cracking Summary - Hot Cracking Causes
High thermal Poor weld profile
stress Sulphur forms a (deep, narrow)
eutectic at grain
boundaries
Excessive travel
speed Poor joint fit-up
(wide gap)
High dilution
Reduced grain
Primarily boundary Poor weld bead
austenitic cohesion shape (concave)
Hot Cracking and Weld Profile Hot Cracking and Weld Profile
In order to avoid
solidification cracking, Wrong Right
(washed (slightly
reduce penetration and up, too convex,
increase bead width wide/high not full
and width)
(depth: width ratio ~0.5:1). concave)
9-3
Hot Cracking and Weld Profile Hot Cracking and Dilution
Arc voltage effect Filler metals often formulated to resist hot cracking.
Avoidance of high dilution welding conditions or joint geometries
associated with high dilution, is advisable.
9-4
Lamellar Tearing Segregation
Rolling direction
9-5
Assessing Reheat Cracking Sensitivity Weld Repairs
Probability of sensitivity to reheat cracking, PSR • Repairs are very expensive - 3 to 10 times the
cost of getting it right the first time.
P SR = %Cr + %Cu + 2%Mo + 10%V +7%Nb + 5%Ti - 2
• If you have found cracking do you need to repair it
< 0 less susceptible to reheat cracking or not?
• Is the defect outside the limits in the acceptance
P SR standard?
• Can it be shown to be tolerable in an ECA?
≥ 0 susceptible to reheat cracking
• Why has the cracking occurred? How will it be
Increased sensitivity to reheat cracking avoided again after repair?
• Often either the welder or fit-up problems, but
could be the WPS parameters.
5Cr 1Mo 2.25Cr 1Mo 0.5Mo B 0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V
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9-6
Definition
The deterioration of a metal due to chemical or (very often)
electrochemical reactions with its environment.
Common types of
corrosion
Introduction to Corrosion
• Oxidation is electron loss (eg iron loses electrons). • Defined as a measure of the affinity of a substance for
2Fe 2Fe2+ + 4e- electrons compared with that of hydrogen (which is set
at 0V).
• Measured in volts.
• Reduction is electron gain. • Substances more electronegative than hydrogen have
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH- positive redox potentials they are capable of
oxidising.
• Corrosion is a balance of reduction and oxidation. • Substances less electronegative than hydrogen have
- REDOX negative redox potentials they are capable of
2Fe + 2H2O + O2 2Fe(OH)2 reducing.
10-1
Galvanic Series Types of Corrosion 1 - Galvanic Corrosion
Relative potentials in seawater: Practical implications of the galvanic series:
• Platinum. More positive REDOX
• Gold. potential • The more anodic metal will corrode – use as large an
• 316 Stainless steel. anode as possible to reduce the penetration rate of
Least active, increasingly corrosion.
• Titanium.
inert cathodic • The farther apart the two metals, the faster will be the
• Nickel.
corrosion rate – choose metals closer together to reduce
• Copper.
the corrosion rate.
• Tin.
• To protect against galvanic corrosion.
• Mild steel. More negative REDOX – Electrically insulate dissimilar metals from each other.
• Cadmium. potential – Eliminate the electrolyte.
• Zinc. Most active anodic – Use a corrosion inhibitor.
• Magnesium. – Connect a third anode (sacrificial anode).
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10-2
Avoiding Crevice Corrosion Types of Corrosion 6 - Stress Corrosion Cracking
10-3
Stainless Steels - Properties
• Corrosion resistance.
• Oxidation resistance.
• High temperature strength.
Welding of Stainless Steels • Toughness at low temperatures.
• Ductility/formability.
• Resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
TWI Training and Examination Services • Strength and wear resistance (if work hardened).
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • Addition of Cr (>13%), Ni and Mo make stainless
steels more expensive than carbon steels.
11-1
Delong Diagram Measuring Ferrite Content
Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steels Precipitation Hardened (PH) Stainless Steels
11-2
Welding Austenitic Stainless Steel Duplex Stainless Steel Features
• Assessment of pitting corrosion resistance often • Not usually possible to maintain 50% austenite: 50% ferrite in
made using ASTM G48. autogenous weld metal, as higher cooling rate can mean only
partial transformation from ferrite to austenite on cooling.
– Immerse test piece of material in ferric chloride solution.
– In practice 30-70% austenite: 70-30% ferrite is acceptable.
– Typically 24 hour immersion.
• Austenite balance can be assured with filler metals over-
– Determine critical pitting temperature (CPT) below which alloyed with nickel.
pitting does not occur within the test timeframe. • Reduced corrosion resistance from:
• Weld metals. – Inadequate phase balance in the HAZ (generally ferrite too
– lower CPTs than equivalent composition of parent metal,
high) Partitioning of elements (Cr, Mo into ferrite and Ni, N
into austenite).
due to segregation in weld microstructure.
– Precipitates of nitrides and sigma phase in the HAZ
– to maintain corrosion resistance in weld metal, use filler (similar to weld decay).
metals over-alloyed with chromium and molybdenum, or • Reduce problems by using over-alloyed fillers (additional
even nickel-base alloys. nickel for toughness, additional Cr, Mo, N for corrosion
resistance).
11-3
Welding Problems in Stainless Steels Predicting Weldability Problems
11-4
475°C Embrittlement Solidification Cracking
• Weld metal containing delta ferrite will be • Most common problem for austenitic stainless steel
susceptible to 475°C embrittlement. welds.
• Dramatic fall in toughness after extended • Ferritic stainless steels are less prone because:
exposure to 400-550°C (worst at 475°C). – Lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Due to formation of chromium-rich precipitates – Greater solubility for sulphur and phosphorus.
and decomposition of ferrite. • Avoid by:
• Embrittlement increases as chromium content – Low sulphur weld metal (<0.003%).
increases. – Adding manganese to the filler metal.
• Not generally significant for materials with a – Ensuring 3-10% ferrite in austenitic weld metal.
ferrite number less than 14FN. – Ensuring good cleanliness when welding.
Heat Tint
11-5
Why do we need Overlays and Coatings?
Roll
Explosive bonding Mechanical
Arc welding ESW
cladding (metallurgical cladding
cladding)
12-1
Clad Steel Features Buttering
Parent plate • Buttering is the term for depositing a layer of weld metal
T onto the face of a weld preparation or surface which will
then form part of a welded joint.
(10-20%)T
Cladding • Engineer the composition of the buttered weld metal
(with dilution of parent) to prevent cracking when the
• Corrosion/abrasion resistance provided by the cladding. subsequent weld is made.
• Mechanical strength provided by the parent plate.
• Example: To deposit a weldable surface for making
• Lower cost compared to alloyed plate.
repairs to med/high carbon steel vessels.
Full thickness alloy
T < 10 mm plate
Required
material
thickness (T)
T > 10 mm Clad steel plate
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Strip Cladding (SAW and ESW) Submerged Arc Strip Cladding (SAW)
12-2
Submerged Arc Strip Cladding Electroslag Strip Cladding (ESW)
12-3
Mechanical Cladding Weld Dilution
Welding before or after Galvanising Filler Metals for Welding Clad Steel
Before:
• Use a filler metal that matches the silicon content of the base steel. The Si
When welding carbon steels clad with stainless
content of a steel has a dramatic effect on the thickness of the galvanised steels:
zinc layer.
• If, for example, the weld filler metal has a higher Si content than the steel, • Alloy 625 can be used to weld complete joint.
the galvanised assembly will have a visibly thicker Zn coating on the weld • E308, E316 and E347 type stainless steel filler wires
area.
• Hot dip galvanising of welded structures can cause Liquid Metal should NOT be deposited directly onto carbon steel plates
Embrittlement of the structure at areas of stress concentration, such as (dilution fully austenitic).
dramatic section changes or badly prepared weld finishes.
After: • E309/E309 Mo are suitable over-alloyed fillers to
• Care is required when welding galvanised steels. Zn vapour may cause compensate for dilution.
porosity in the welds with high speed welding processes such as GMAW
or laser. • E2209 (duplex stainless steel) fillers may also be used
• Breathing in of metal oxides such as zinc and copper can lead to an acute where higher strength is required.
flu-like illness called metal fume fever. Read the MSDS and use breathing
apparatus.
12-4
Cutting Clad/Lined Steel Welding Clad Steel Plates – Single Sided
Cutting methods Weld metal - 309
type stainless steel
or Inconel
2.5-3.2 mm
Sheared from clad side – Sheared from carbon steel Step 2 - Fit-up.
correct. side – wrong.
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No gap
Step 2 - Fit-up.
Welding Clad Steel Plate Welding Clad Steel Pipe – Single Sided
• Butt weld from both sides – alternative method. Step 2 - Fit-up.
Step 2 - Fit-up.
Cladding 2.5-3.2 mm
No root face on
Step 1 - Faces bevelled and carbon
carbon steel 2.5-3.2 mm plate cut back to expose cladding. 3rd run - extra Fill runs -
Cladding
Weld metal - 309 low carbon carbon
Step 1 - Faces bevelled. Root run - 308 steel filler
type or Inconel steel filler
Weld metal - matches or 316 type 2nd run -
Weld metal - 309 stainless steel
type or Inconel 309 type
or Inconel
12-5
Standards and Quality Control Techniques for
Overlay Welds
Thermal Spraying
• Feedstock is melted and deposited to form a coating.
• Surface preparation is important (cleaning, degreasing,
roughening).
• Typically 50-500μm thick, but thicker is possible.
• Coatings are quite rough as-sprayed; they may require
machining or grinding to a final thickness and finish.
• Part temperature remains below about 150ºC.
• Processes can be classified according to:
– Energy source.
– Coating feedstock.
– Velocity of coating feedstock particles or droplets.
– Environment the coating process is performed in.
12-6
HVOF Deposition
12-7
Creep
• Alloyed with Mo and Cr increased hardenability • As alloy content increases, weldability decreases only low
control of hydrogen is essential. hydrogen consumables must be used.
• Cr improves resistance to oxidation. • Main welding problems:
13-1
Welding Creep-resistant Steels Problems for Creep Resistant Steels
13-2
Effect of Vanadium on Reheat Cracking Prevention of Reheat Cracking
• Vanadium produces precipitates inside the grain. • Low heat input and multi-run welding with careful bead
placement to reduce grain growth.
• Vanadium carbides, nitrides and carbo-nitrides are – But risk of hydrogen cracking.
very fine compared with other precipitates • Reduce stress concentration by grinding toes (while
effective pinning of dislocations. hot for V alloyed grades); avoid backing strips and
• For reheat cracking, need three or more carbide partial penetration welds; sharp notch defects not
formers to be susceptible, eg Cr, Mo and V. allowed.
• Use optimum heat treatment procedures, ie exact
• Therefore control steel composition to < 0.1%V. soaking time, temperature and heating/cooling rate.
• But, ~0.25% V used to obtain enhanced creep – Temper at 650-700°C, followed by rapid cooling to
resistance. Difficult to weld. redistribute impurities inside the grains.
K = Pb + Bi + 0.03Sb (ppm)
K < 1.5 to achieve freedom from reheat cracking.
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1 h 538°C
• Embrittlement is fully reversible, if steel is 15 h 523°C
reheated above 600°C. 24 h 495°C
48 h 468°C
• Loss in ductility of grain boundaries, in addition 72 h 415°C
to grain body strengthening, leads to Remove from
intergranular embrittlement. furnace
Time (hours)
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13-3
Cryogenic Steels
Key considerations
• Modification of composition to achieve properties
suitable for low temperature.
– Toughness is the main concern.
Cryogenic Steels – Grain size.
– Can be further improved by alloying with Ni.
• Service temperature is important.
TWI Training and Examination Services
– Fine grain size allows service down to -60oC.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course – Nickel allows lower temperature applications.
– Variation in content depending how low the service
temperature is.
Ni alloy
Carbon steels - Subgroup 9.2: Steels with 3.0% < Ni 8.0%
Nickel steels group 9
additions
14-1
Effect of Ni on Impact Toughness
Transition Curve
Weldability of Cryogenic Steels
• Use basic filler materials (for good toughness and • Pearlitic/martensitic structure (QT steel) reduced
hydrogen control). toughness in the HAZ (layer heated over 850°C)
• Preheat in the range 150-250°C to avoid cold due to increase in grain size; low hydrogen process
cracking; exact value depends on thickness, essential
restraint and hydrogen potential. • Use low heat input processes in order to preserve
• Interpass temperature: max 350°C for 2.3% Ni; the fine grain structure (less than 4.5kJ/mm);
max. 250°C for 3.5% Ni. pulsed welding beneficial
• PWHT at 620-730°C may be used. • Interpass temperature max. 250°C; PWHT at
• Matching filler materials available; Inconel type (Ni- 650°C, followed by rapid cooling
Cr-Fe) filler might be used for 3.5% Ni. • Filler materials are Ni based, eg Inconel 82, Inconel
625.
• Very low S content (max 0.006%) to avoid liquation • Welding process usually used: MMA, MIG and SAW
cracking no lamellar tearing.
• Very low P content (max 0.006%) to improve low
• Interpass temperature 250°C.
temperature toughness. • PWHT not normally required.
• Not sensitive to stress corrosion cracking. • Plates must be cleaned at least 25mm from the edge
• Tempered (ductile) martensitic structure (max 400HV) + (oxide layer is adherent); if flame cutting is used, heated
5% retained austenite (QT steels); austenite reduces layer must be removed by grinding.
risk of cold cracking + Ni based filler no preheat • Strongly ferro-magnetic (and also may have residual
required for thickness up to 50 mm. magnetism) arc blow is a potential problem.
• Hardness slightly increases in the HAZ near fusion line • Avoid contact with electromagnets for moving or for NDT.
(T>900°C) but with little drop in toughness.
• Use low heat input to avoid loss of toughness in the high • For welding, AC current and demagnetisation before
temperature HAZ, eg pulsed MIG. welding may be required.
14-2
Filler Materials for 9% Ni Steel Welding Fine-Grained Al-Killed Steel
• Increase the amount of acicular ferrite in the weld.
• Filler materials are currently only Ni-based: AWS
– Avoid slow cooling rate which
A5.11 ENiCrMo-6 (EN ISO 14172 E Ni 6620) or
promotes coarser structure.
ENiCrMo-3 (E Ni 6625) under-matching on
strength, high viscosity (sluggish); cleanliness very – Add B + Ti to aid acicular
important to avoid hot cracking. ferrite formation; B reduces
the amount of grain boundary
• Fully austenitic filler of type 16Cr-13Ni-Mn are ferrite.
prohibited; disadvantage is the higher coefficient of
thermal expansion than the parent metal and brittle – Increase Mn content and add
martensite formation near the fusion line. Ni (2-2.5%).
• Smooth blending between weld face and parent – Keep C in the range 0.08-
metal is required to avoid stress concentration. 0.12% and O in the range
0.02-0.06%.
14-3
Types of Aluminium Alloys
Al alloys
15-1
Alloy Designation Welding of Aluminium Alloys
• Solubility of hydrogen
varies with temperature. 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
T
(oC)
15-2
Aluminium Oxide Surface Coating Removal of Oxide Coating
• Al highly reactive - reacts with oxygen in air to • Mechanical removal – eg emery paper, burr.
form layer of Al2O3 on parent metal. • Chemical removal.
• Al2O3 layer adsorbs moisture from atmosphere – – Cleaning solutions – etching solutions eg alkali.
a source of hydrogen giving porosity in weld. – Flux cleaning – use of welding fluxes.
• Melting point of Al2O3 is 3 times higher than Al • Cathodic cleaning.
alloy: (1926oC). – Blasts away the oxide coating – half cycle of the
• Solid Al2O3 particles or films may enter the weld. AC current in TIG welding or positive electrode
welding.
• Reduced weld strength, ductility and quality (lack
of fusion etc).
liquid films
risk. to large
– Avoid sensitive composition. quantity of
eutectic
• Thermal and mechanical effects.
– Initiate at trailing end of weld pool from high shrinkage
and thermal stresses tearing liquid films at the grain
boundaries.
– Joint geometry and restraint.
Wt % solute
15-3
Titanium Alloys
General characteristics:
• Forms a stable oxide layer.
• Corrosion and oxidation resistance.
Titanium Alloys
• Light weight.
• High strength.
• Phase change from α phase to β phase on
heating to 883oC in pure titanium.
Magnesium Alloys
15-4
Welding of Magnesium Alloys
Weldability:
– 10% Al improves weldability by grain refinement.
– High Zn (>1%) alloys are prone to hot cracking.
– Stress relieve to avoid SCC in corrosive service.
Welding processes:
– TIG, using AC current.
– Resistance.
– Oxyfuel gas.
15-5
Arc Weldability of Dissimilar Metals
General arc
weldability problems
16-1
Using Schaeffler Diagram Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram
Step 1: Find Creq and Nieq for the two parent metals.
• The Schaeffler diagram is used to predict
microstructural phases in stainless steel weld
metal. Parent metal A -
• Plots chromium equivalent against nickel C-Mn steel.
equivalent. B Parent metal B -
• By plotting points for the parent steel(s) and the 304L stainless
filler metal, it is possible to estimate the weld A steel.
metal composition.
• This can then be used to predict any cracking or
embrittlement that might occur.
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Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram
Step 2: Find the average parent metal composition. Step 3: Find Creq and Nieq for the filler metal.
Average parent
metal composition
P depends upon: Filler metal F -
F
B • Thickness of B 309L.
parent metals. P
P
A • Joint design. A
Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram Selecting Filler Using Schaeffler Diagram
Step 4: Find the composition of the weld metal. Step 5: Assess the likely weldability problems associated
with the weld metal point.
Weld metal
point W
depends upon:
F • Welding process. W (30% dilution)
• Joint design.
P
W (30%
dilution) • Consumable.
Dilution
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16-2
Welding Other Alloys
• Cast Iron.
• Nickel alloys.
Welding Other Alloys
• Copper alloys.
17-1
White Cast Iron Malleable Cast Iron
White cast iron: Malleable cast iron
17-2
Preheat of Cast Iron PWHT and Stress Relief of Cast Irons
Why?
• Preheat reduces residual stresses and distortion,
• Improve the ductility and machinability of weld and
slows the cooling rate lower hardness, less HAZ.
cracking. • Relieve residual stresses.
• The higher the carbon content the higher the • Reduce the brittleness of martensite formed during
preheat. welding.
• A casting with a complex shape will usually How?
require a higher preheat to control residual • Bury the entire casting in sand or vermiculite.
stresses. • Cover the casting with an insulated blanket.
• Transfer the casting to a furnace.
• When welding different thicknesses, preheat the
• Postheat with a torch.
thick member to decrease its heat sink.
• Peen the weld with a round ballpeen hammer.
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17-3
Welding Nickel Alloys Ni Weldability Problems
• Solid solution hardened are readily welded. Hot cracking:
• Precipitation hardened grades are harder to weld.
• Even in very small quantities (starting at 0.003%)
– Lower ductility, susceptibility to cracking, possibility of ageing.
– Use solution annealed/overaged weld PWHT restore S hot cracking.
strength. • Mn and Nb additions in filler metals are used to
• Consider the service conditions and environment. combine with S.
• Preheat 20°C to avoid porosity; cleanliness very important. • Pb, B, P and Bi also form low melting eutectics.
• Shielding gases: Ar, He or Ar-He mixtures. • Tendency for hot cracking is increased for coarser
– Ar + 5% H2 only for single pass TIG welds; H2 produces hotter grain sizes (coarser than ASTM no. 5).
arc but danger of porosity in multipass welds.
• Reduce welding speed to improve depth-to-width
• If material is in contact with caustic soda or HF acid, SCC is possible
reduce residual stress by PWHT. ratio.
• Use matching filler with added de-oxidisers (Al, Ti, Nb).
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Copper Welding
Copper and Copper Alloys – For thick components preheat may be as high as 600°C.
– Copper alloys have lower thermal conductivity (can be 70%
lower).
• TIG and MIG are preferred welding processes.
• He-Ar shielding gases are used instead of Ar (higher arc
voltage).
• To avoid porosity, use filler wires with deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si and
Ti).
17-4
Copper - Weldability Problems Copper - Weldability Problems
Porosity:
Hot cracking:
• From presence/diffusion of H2 into the hot solid metal.
• Due to O2 and impurities that form low melting • Water vapours are trapped inside, leading to porosity or
point eutectics (eg Pb, Bi). cracking.
• Avoidance: • Avoidance: use PDO or oxygen-free grades, dry inert
– Use slag/inert gases to protect molten weld pool. gases; dry electrodes and fluxes before welding.
– Add deoxidisers (Mn, Si, Zn, Al, Ti). High level of residual stresses/distortions:
– Use boron-based deoxidising fluxes and forge the
• Due to the high thermal expansion coefficient.
weld joint (to fragment the oxide layer).
• Can lead to weld/HAZ cracks.
• Preheat and free expansion of components during welding
are required.
17-5