Project Title

Wireless Mobile Charger Using By Magnetic Resonant Coupling

Supervised By:
Engr.Usman Tariq ShB

Designed By:
Muhammad Faruq BTHET-021R17-16
Muhammad Bilal BTHET-021R17-04
Muhammad Rizwan BTHET-021R17-03
Muhammad Rizwan BTHET-021R17-05
Muhammad Adeel BTHET-021R17-14
Rashid Aftab BTHET-021R17-12
Acknowledgement

All praise to Allah almighty, the most gracious, the most Merciful .who made

the human being super creative, blessed us with knowledge and without his

help and blessings we were unable to complete the project.

First of all, we pay thanks our supervisor Engr.Usman Tariq. Without his

precious guidance and help we could never be able to do the project work.

We would like to express our profound gratitude to him for his invaluable

guidance and continuous encouragement during the entire period of this

work.
TABLE OF CONTENTS:

 Chapter#01 Introduction of WPT

 Chapter#02 Wireless Mobile Charging Techniques

 Chapter#03 Details of Components & working:

 Chapter#04 Solar power Generation

 Chapter#05 Arduino

 Chapter#06 Design and Implementation of Our Project

 Chapter#07 References
Chapter#01 Introduction to WPT

Definition:

Wireless power or wireless energy transmission is the

transmission of electrical energy from a power source to an

electrical load without man-made conductors.

Wireless transmission is useful in cases where

interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or

impossible. The problem of wireless power transmission

differs from that of wireless telecommunications, such as

radio. In the latter, the proportion of energy received

becomes critical only if it is too low for the signal to be

distinguished from the background noise. With wireless

power, efficiency is the more significant parameter. A large

part of the energy sent out by the generating plant must

arrive at the receiver or receivers to make the system

economical.

History:

The past decade has witnessed a dramatic surge in the use

of autonomous electronics devices (laptop, cell phones,

robots, PDAs, etc).The problem with these devices is that

despite their portability and ability to communicate wirelessly,

these devices still require regular charging, usually by

plugging into a wall outlet. The ability to provide power for

these and other electric devices wirelessly would greatly

increase their portability and accessibility for the public.

Wireless energy transfer or wireless power is the

transmission of electrical energy from a power source to an

electrical load without a conductive physical connection.

Wireless transmission is useful in cases where

interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or

impossible. The problem of wireless power transmission

differs from that of wireless telecommunications, such as

radio. In the latter, the proportion of energy received

becomes critical only if it is too low for the signal to be

distinguished from the background noise. With wireless

power, efficiency is the more significant parameter. A large

part of the energy sent out by the generating plant must

arrive at the receiver or receivers to make the system

economical.

One of the wirelesses charging method is when a changing

electric current flows through a wire. It generates a magnetic

field, which in turn can induce a voltage across a physically

separate second wire. Called inductive coupling, this

electromagnetic phenomenon is already used commercially

to recharge devices. The power transfer efficiency of such

systems can be improved by increasing the inductive

coupling.
The concept of wireless energy transfer is not new, it is

invented a long ago. It is most wanted technology. The work

about wireless energy transfer was started in 19th century.

The first step for this concept was taken by André-Marie

Ampere who develops Ampere’s law showing that electric

current produces a magnetic field. After a few years main

stream of this concept is accomplished by Nikola Tesla, he

improves Hertz-wave wireless transmitter RF power supply or

exciter in his patent.

Types of Wireless energy transfer (WPT):

Generally, it is well known that there are three types of WPT:

 Radio frequency (RF) radiation

 Inductive coupling in low frequency (LF) bands,

 A resonant coupling in HF-bands.

Principle of electric power transfer:

An electric current flowing through a conductor carries

electrical energy. When an electric current passes through a

circuit there is an electric field in the dielectric surrounding

the conductor; magnetic field lines around the conductor and

lines of electric force radially about the conductor.

In a direct current circuit, if the current is continuous, the fields are constant.

In an alternating current circuit, the fields also alternate; that is, with every

half wave of current and of voltage, the magnetic and the electric field start

at the conductor and run outwards into space with the speed of light. Where

these alternating fields impinge on another conductor a voltage and a current

are induced. Any change in the electrical conditions of the circuit, whether

internal or external involves a readjustment of the stored magnetic and

electric field energy of the circuit, that is, a so-called transient.

Electromagnetic induction is proportional to the intensity of

the current and voltage in the conductor which produces the

fields and to the frequency. The higher the frequency the

more intense the induction effect. Energy is transferred from

a conductor that produces the fields (the primary) to any

conductor on which the fields impinge (the secondary). Part

of the energy of the primary conductor passes inductively

across space into secondary conductor. A high frequency

current does not pass for long distances along a conductor

but rapidly transfers its energy by induction to adjacent

conductors. The higher the frequency the more preponderant

becomes the inductive effects that transfer energy from

circuit to circuit across space.

The flow of electric energy thus comprises phenomena

inside of the conductor and phenomena in the space outside

of the conductor, the electric field which, in a continuous

current circuit, is a condition of steady magnetic and dielectric

stress, and in an alternating current circuit is alternating, that

is, an electric wave launched by the conductor to become far-

field electromagnetic radiation traveling through space with

the speed of light.

The electric charge displacement in the conductor produces

a magnetic field and resultant lines of electric force. The

magnetic field is a maximum in the direction concentric, or

approximately so, to the conductor. That is, a ferromagnetic

body tends to set itself in a direction at right angles to the

conductor. The electric field has a maximum in a direction

radial, or approximately so, to the conductor. The electric

field component tends in a direction radial to the conductor

and dielectric bodies may be attracted or repelled radially to

the conductor.

Applications:

Wireless power transfer technology can be applied in a wide

variety of applications and environments. Wireless power

transfer technology can be used to provide:

In the field of medicine, for example to power the

rechargeable battery under the human skin to power a device

likes pace-maker. This would eliminate the need for wires

piercing the skin.

Power devices like cell phones, laptops, plasma displays

wirelessly, eliminating the need of messy wires.

Hybrid vehicles can get recharged while driving, if the

transmitting coils are place

Inside the road and receiver is embedded in the vehicles.

Different ranges of power transfer:

Short range (transformers)

Medium range (wi-tricity)

Long range (SBPS

Short range:

This methodology is used in transformer for short range

wireless power transfer as both the coils (primary and

secondary) are placed at a very short distance. They are

magnetically coupled having no electrical connection

between them. Primary coil is connected across supply and

load connected across the secondary coil will be glowed.

Medium range:

Wi-tricity Technology: Wi-tricity power sources and capture

devices are specially designed magnetic resonators that

efficiently transfer power over large distances via the

magnetic near-field. These proprietary source and device

designs and the electronic systems that control them support

efficient energy transfer over distances that are many times

the size of the sources/devices themselves.

The MIT researchers successfully demonstrated the ability to

power a 60 watt light bulb wirelessly, using two 5-turn copper

coils of 60 cm (24 in) diameter, that were 2 m (7 ft) away, at

roughly 45% efficiency. The coils were designed to resonate

together at 9.9 MHz (≈ wavelength 30 m) and were oriented

along the same axis. One was connected inductively to a

power source, and the other one to a bulb. The setup

powered the bulb on, even when the direct line of sight was

blocked using a wooden panel. Researchers were able to

power a 60 watt light bulb at roughly 90% efficiency at a

distance of 3 feet. The research project was spun off into a

private company, also called Wi-tricity.

Long range:

Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting

solar power in space (using an "SPS", that is, a "solar power

satellite" or a "satellite power system") for use on Earth. It

has been in research since the early 1970s.

SBSP would differ from current solar collection methods in

that the means used to collect energy would reside on an

orbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some

projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection

rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a

diffusing atmosphere and nighttime in space. Part of the solar

energy is lost on its way through the atmosphere by the

effects of reflection and absorption. Space-based solar power

systems convert sunlight to microwaves outside the

atmosphere, avoiding these losses, and the downtime

(And cosine losses, for fixed flat-plate collectors) due to the

Earth's rotation.

Besides the cost of implementing such a system, SBSP also

introduces several new hurdles, primarily the problem of

transmitting energy from orbit to Earth's surface for use.

Since wires extending from Earth's surface to an orbiting

satellite are neither practical nor feasible with current

technology, SBSP designs generally include the use of some

manner of wireless power transmission. The collecting

satellite would convert solar energy into electrical energy on

board, powering a microwave transmitter or laser emitter, and

focus its beam toward a collector (rectenna) on the Earth's

surface Radiation and micrometeoroid damage could also

become concerns for SBSP.

 CH#2

Wireless
Mobile
Charging
Technique

Wireless CHARGING techniques:

Three major techniques for wireless charging are magnetic inductive coupling,

magnetic resonance coupling, and microwave radiation. The magnetic

inductive and magnetic resonance coupling work in the near field, where the

generated electromagnetic field dominates the region close to the transmitter or

scattering object. The near-field power is attenuated according to the cube of the

reciprocal of the distance. Alternatively, microwave radiation works in the far

field at a greater distance. The far-field power decreases according to the

reciprocal of the distance. Moreover, for the far-field technique, the

absorption of radiation does not affect the transmitter. In contrast, for the

near- field techniques, the absorption of radiation influences the load on the

transmitter.

Magnetic Inductive Coupling:

Magnetic inductive coupling is based on magnetic field induction, which

delivers electrical energy between two coils. Figure .a shows the reference

model. Magnetic inductive coupling happens when a primary coil of an

energy transmitter generates a predominant varying magnetic field across the

secondary coil of the energy receiver within the field, generally less than the

wavelength. The near-field power then induces voltage/current across the

secondary coil of the energy receiver within the field. This voltage can be

used by a wireless device. The energy efficiency depends on the tightness of

coupling between two coils and their quality factor. The tightness of

coupling is determined by the alignment and distance, the ratio of diameters,

and the shape of two coils. The quality factor mainly depends on the

materials, given the shape and size of the coils as well as the operating
frequency. The advantages of magnetic inductive coupling include ease

of implementation, convenient operation, high efficiency at close distance

(typically less than a coil diameter), and safety. Therefore, it is

applicable and popular for mobile devices. Very recently, MIT scientists

announced the invention of a novel wireless charging technology, called

MagMIMO, which manages to charge a wireless device from up to 30 cm away.

It is claimed that MagMIMO can detect and cast a cone of energy toward a

phone even when the phone is inside a pocket.

Magnetic Resonance Coupling:

Magnetic resonance coupling, as shown in Fig, is based on evanescent wave

coupling, which generates and transfers electrical energy between two

resonant coils through varying or oscillating magnetic fields. As the

resonant coils, operating at the same resonant frequency, are strongly

coupled, high energy transfer efficiency can be achieved with small leakage to

non-resonant externalities. This property also provides the advantage of

immunity to the neighboring environment and line-of-sight transfer

requirement. Compared to magnetic inductive coupling, another advantage

of magnetic resonance charging is longer effective charging distance.

Additionally, magnetic resonance coupling can be applied between one

transmitting resonator and many receiving resonators, which enables

concurrent charging of multiple devices.

In 2007, MIT scientists proposed a high efficient mid-range wireless power

transfer technology, Wi-tricity, based on strongly coupled magnetic

resonance. It was reported that wire- less power transmission can light a 60

W bulb from more than 2 m with transmission efficiency around 40 percent.

The efficiency increases up to 90 percent when the transmission distance is 1

m. However, it is difficult to reduce the size of a Wi-tricity receiver because it

requires a distributed capacitive coil to operate. This poses a big challenge in

implementing Wi-tricity technology in portable devices. Magnetic resonance

coupling can charge multiple devices concurrently by tuning coupled

resonators of multiple receiving coils. This has been shown to achieve

improved overall efficiency. However, mutual coupling of receiving coils

can result in interference, so proper tuning is required.

Comparison of different wireless charging techniques:
Chapter# 03:

Details of Components & working:

Power Supply:

1. Diode.
2. Filter capacitor.
3. Resistance.
4. Regulator Ic.
Details:-
Diode:-
A simple Diode is the simplest two-terminal unilateral semiconductor

device. It allows current to flow only in one direction and blocks the current

that flows in the opposite direction. The two terminals of the diode are called

as anode and cathode. The symbol of diode symbol is as shown in the figure

below.

The characteristics of a diode closely match to that of a switch. An ideal

switch when open does not conduct current in either directions and in closed

state conducts in both directions. The characteristic of a diode is as shown in

the figure below.

Ideally, in one direction that is indicated by the arrow head diode must

behave short circuited and in other one that opposite to that of the direction

of arrow head must be open circuited. By ideal characteristics, the diodes is

designed to meet these features theoretically but are not achieved

practically. So the practical diode characteristics are only close to that of the

desired.
Working of Diode:
The diode operates when a voltage signal is applied across its terminals.

The application of a DC voltage to make the diode operate in a circuit is

called as ‘Biasing’. As already mentioned above the diode resembles to that

of a one way switch so it can either be in a state of conduction or in a state

of non conduction. The ‘ON’ state of a diode is achieved by ‘Forward biasing’

which means that positive or higher potential is applied to the anode and

negative or lower potential is applied at the cathode of the diode. In other

words, the ‘ON’ state of diode has the applied current in the same direction

of the arrow head. The ‘OFF’ state of a diode is achieved by ‘Reverse

 biasing’ which means that positive or higher potential is applied to the

cathode and negative or lower potential is applied at the anode of the diode.

In other words, the ‘OFF’ state of diode has the applied current in the

opposite direction of the arrow head.

During ‘ON’ state, the practical diode offers a resistance called as the

‘Forward resistance’. The diode requires a forward bias voltage to switch to

the ‘ON’ condition which is called Cut-in-voltage. The diode starts conducting

in reverse biased mode when the reverse bias voltage exceeds its limit

which is called as the Breakdown voltage. The diode remains in ‘OFF’ state

when no voltage is applied across it.

A simple p-n junction diode is fabricated by doping p and n type layers on a

silicon or germanium wafer. The germanium and silicon materials are

preferred for diode fabrication because:

 They are available in high purity.

 Slight doping like one atom per ten million atoms of a desired impurity can

change the conductivity to a considerable level.

 The properties of these materials change on applying heat and light and

hence it is important in the development of heat and light sensitive devices.

TYPES OF DIODE:
The other variant of diodes have different construction, characteristics and

applications. The different types of diodes are:

 Small signal or Small current diode - These diodes assumes that the

operating point is not affected because the signal is small.

 Large signal diodes - The operating point in these diodes get affected as

the signal is large.

 Zener diodes - This diode runs in reverse bias condition when the voltage

reaches the breakdown point. A stable voltage can be achieved by placing a

resistor across it to limit the current. This diode is used to provide reference

voltage in power supply circuits.

 Light emitting diodes (LED) - This is the most popular kind of diode. When

it works in the forward bias condition, the current flows through the junction

to produce the light.

 Photodiodes - The electrons and holes are generated as light strikes across

the p-n junction causing the current to flow. Theses diodes can work as

photo detector and are used to generate electricity.

 Constant current diodes - This diode keeps the current constant even

when the voltage applied keeps changing. It consists of JFET (junction –

field effect transistor) with the source shorted to the gate in order to function

like a two - terminal current limiter or current source.

 Schottky diode - These diodes are used in RF applications and clamping

circuits. This diode has lower forward voltage drop as against the silicon PN

junction diodes.

 Shockley diode - This is a four layer diode which is also known as PNPN

diode. This diode is similar to thyristor where the gate is disconnected.

 Step recovery diodes - This semiconductor diode has the ability to

generate short pulses and hence it is used in microwave applications as a

pulse generator.

 Tunnel diodes - This diode is heavily doped in the forward bias condition

that has a negative resistance at extremely low voltage and a short circuit in
 the negative bias direction. This diode is useful as a microwave amplifier and

in oscillators.

 Varactor diodes - This diode works in reverse bias condition and restrict the

flow of current through the junction. Depending on the amount of biasing, the

width of the depletion region keeps varying. This diode comprises of two

plates of a capacitor with the depletion region amidst them. The variation in

capacitance depends upon the depletion region and this can varied by

altering the reverse bias on the diode.

 PIN diodes - This diode has intrinsic semiconductor sandwiched between P-

type and N- type region. Doping does not occur in this type of diode and

thereby the intrinsic semiconductor increases the width of the depletion

region. They are used as photodiodes and radio frequency switches.

 LASER diode - This diode produces laser type of light and is expensive as

compared to LED. They are widely used in CD and DVD drives.

 Transient voltage suppression diodes - This diode is used to protect the

electronics that are sensitive against voltage spikes.

 Gold doped diodes - These diodes use gold as the doping and can operate

at signal frequencies even if the forward voltage drop increases.

 Super barrier diodes - These are also called as the rectifier diodes. These

diodes have the property of low reverse leakage current as that of normal p-

n junction diode and low forward voltage drop as that of Schottky diode with

surge handling ability.

 Point contact diodes - The construction of this diode is simpler and is used

in analog applications and as a detector in radio receivers. This diode is built

of n – type semiconductor and few conducting metals placed to be in contact

with the semiconductor. Some metals move from towards the semiconductor

to form small region of p- type semiconductor near the contact.

 Peltier diodes - This diode is used as heat engine and sensor for

thermoelectric cooling.

 Gunn diode - This diode is made of materials like Gas or INP that exhibit a

negative differential resistance region.

 Crystal diode - These are a type of point contact diodes which are also

called as Cat’s whisker diode. This diode comprises of a thin sharpened

 metal wire which is pressed against the semiconducting crystal. The metal

wire is the anode and the semiconducting crystal is the cathode. These

diodes are obsolete.

 Avalanche diode - This diode conducts in reverse bias condition where the

reverse bias voltage applied across the p-n junction creates a wave of

ionization leading to the flow of large current. These diodes are designed to

breakdown at specific reverse voltage in order to avoid any damage.

 Silicon controlled rectifier - As the name implies this diode can be

controlled or triggered to the ON condition due to the application of small

voltage. They belong to the family of Thyristors and are used in various fields

of DC motor control, generator field regulation, lighting system control and

variable frequency drive. This is three terminal devices with anode, cathode

and third controlled lead or gate.

 Vacuum diodes - This diode is two electrode vacuum tubes which can

tolerate high inverse voltages.

Application:

Diodes are used in various applications like rectification, clipper, clamper,

voltage multiplier, comparator, sampling gates and filters.

1. Rectification – The rectification means converting AC voltage into

DC voltage. The common rectification circuits are half wave rectifier

(HWR), full wave rectifier (FWR) and bridge rectifier.

2. Half wave rectifier: This circuit rectifies either positive or negative

pulse of the input AC. The figure is as shown below:

· Full wave rectifier: This circuit converts the entire AC signal into DC.
RESISTORS:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a

voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing

through it in accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are

ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of

various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a

high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance,

maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics

include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is

critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the

maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied

voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the

resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as

integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to

equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to

overheat when dissipating their power.

FUNCTION
Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed

in series with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit the current passing through

the LED.
 TYPES OF RESISTORS

FIXED VALUE RESISTORS

It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film .These two

types are explained under

 CARBON FILM RESISTORS: During manufacture, at in film of carbon is

deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive coating is spiraled away in

an automatic machine until the resistance between their two ends of the rods

is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are

added, the resistors is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted

with colored bands to indicate the

resistor value

Fig Carbon film resistors

Fig Carbon Film Resistors Another example for a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22

Kilo-Ohms also known as 22K at 5% tolerance: Band 1 = Red, 1st digit Band
 2 = Red, 2nd digit Band 3 = Orange, 3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in this

case 3 zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%

 METAL FILM RESISTORS: Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made

in a similar way, but can be made more accurately to within ±2% or ±1% of

their nominal value there are some difference in performance between these

resistor types, but none which affects their use in simple circuit.

 WIRE WOUND RESISTOR: A wire wound resistor is made of metal

resistance wire, and because of this, they can be manufactured to precise

values. Also, high wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire

material. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency circuits.

Coils are used in high frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors in a ceramic

case, strengthened with special cement. They have very high power rating,

from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of watts. These resistors can become extremely

hot when used for high power application, and this must be taken into

account when designing the circuit.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC (78XX):

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically

maintain a constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical

mechanism, or passive or active electronic components. Depending on the

design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.

With the exception of passive shunt regulators, all modern electronic voltage

regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some internal

fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control the

regulation element in such a way as to reduce the voltage error. This forms a

negative feedback control loop; increasing the open-loop gain tends to

increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability (avoidance of oscillation, or

ringing during step changes). There will also be a trade-off between stability

and the speed of the response to changes. If the output voltage is too low

(perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current increasing), the

regulation element is commanded, up to a point, to produce a higher output

voltage - by dropping less of the input voltage (for linear series regulators

and buck switching regulators), or to draw input current for longer periods
(boost-type switching regulators); if the output voltage is too high, the

regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage.

The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a family of

self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx

family is a very popular choice for many electronic circuits which require a

regulated power supply, due to their ease of use and relative cheapness.

When specifying individual ICs within this family, the xx is replaced with a

two-digit number, which indicates the output voltage the particular device is

designed to provide (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the

7809 produces 9 volts). The 78xx line is positive voltage regulators, meaning

that they are designed to produce a voltage that is positive relative to a

common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are

complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used
in combination to provide both positive and negative supply voltages in the

same circuit, if necessary.

FEATURES
• Output current in Excess of 1.0 A

• No external component required

• Internal thermal overload protection

• Internal short circuit current limiting

• Output transistor safe-area compensation

• Output voltage offered in 2% and 4% tolerance

• Available I n surface mount D2PAK and standard 3-lead transistor

packages

• Previous commercial temperature range has been extended to a junction

temperature range of -40 degree C to +125 degree C.

Main Controlling Board:

PIC 16F877
PIC 16F877 is one of the most advanced microcontroller from Microchip.

This controller is widely used for experimental and modern applications

because of its low price, wide range of applications, high quality, and ease of

availability. It is ideal for applications such as machine control applications,

measurement devices, study purpose, and so on. The

PIC 16F877 features all the components which modern microcontrollers

normally have. The figure of a PIC16F877 chip is shown below.

Features of PIC16F877

The PIC16FXX series has more advanced and developed features when

compared to its previous series. The important features of PIC16F877 series

is given below.

General Features

 High performance RISC CPU.

 ONLY 35 simple word instructions.

 All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two

cycles.
 Operating speed: clock input (200MHz), instruction cycle (200nS).

 Up to 368×8bit of RAM (data memory), 256×8 of EEPROM (data

memory), and 8k×14 of flash memory.

 Pin out compatible to PIC 16C74B, PIC 16C76, PIC 16C77.

 Eight level deep hardware stack.

 Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources).

 Different types of addressing modes (direct, Indirect, relative

addressing modes).

 Power on Reset (POR).

 Power-Up Timer (PWRT) and oscillator start-up timer.

 Low power- high speed CMOS flash/EEPROM.

 Fully static design.

 Wide operating voltage range (2.0 – 5.56) volts.

 High sink/source current (25mA).

 Commercial, industrial and extended temperature ranges.

  Low power consumption (<0.6mA typical @3v-4MHz, 20µA typical

@3v-32MHz and <1 A typical standby).

Peripheral Features

 Timer 0: 8 bit timer/counter with pre-scalar.

 Timer 1:16 bit timer/counter with pre-scalar.

 Timer 2: 8 bit timer/counter with 8 bit period registers with pre-scalar

and post-scalar.

 Two Capture (16bit/12.5nS), Compare (16 bit/200nS), Pulse Width

Modules (10bit).

 10bit multi-channel A/D converter

 Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (master code) and I2C

(master/slave).

 Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART)

with 9 bit address detection.

 Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8 bit wide with external RD, WR and CS

controls (40/46pin).

 Brown Out circuitry for Brown-Out Reset (BOR).

 Key Features

 Maximum operating frequency is 20MHz.

 Flash program memory (14 bit words), 8KB.

 Data memory (bytes) is 368.

 EEPROM data memory (bytes) is 256.

 5 input/output ports.

 3 timers.

 2 CCP modules.

 2 serial communication ports (MSSP, USART).

 PSP parallel communication port

 10bit A/D module (8 channels)

Analog Features

 10bit, up to 8 channel A/D converter.

 Blown out Reset function.

 Analog comparator module.

Special Features:
  100000 times erase/write cycle enhanced memory.

 1000000 times erase/write cycle data EEPROM memory.

 Self programmable under software control.

 In-circuit serial programming and in-circuit debugging capability.

 Single 5V,DC supply for circuit serial programming

 WDT with its own RC oscillator for reliable operation.

 Programmable code protection.

 Power saving sleep modes.

 Selectable oscillator options.

Pin Diagrams

PIC16F877 chip is available in different types of packages. According to the

type of applications and usage, these packages are differentiated. The pin

diagrams of a PIC16F877 chip in different packages are shown in the figure

below.
Input/output ports:
PIC16F877 has 5 basic input/output ports. They are usually denoted by

PORT A (R A), PORT B (RB), PORT C (RC), PORT D (RD), and PORT E

(RE). These ports are used for input/ output interfacing. In this controller,

“PORT A” is only 6 bits wide (RA-0 to RA-7), ”PORT B” , “PORT C”,”PORT

D” are only 8 bits wide (RB-0 to RB-7,RC-0 to RC-7,RD-0 to RD-7), ”PORT

E” has only 3 bit wide (RE-0 to RE-7).

All these ports are bi-directional. The direction of the port is controlled by

using TRIS(X) registers (TRIS A used to set the direction of PORT-A, TRIS

B used to set the direction for PORT-B, etc.). Setting a TRIS(X) bit ‘1’ will set

the corresponding PORT(X) bit as input. Clearing a TRIS(X) bit ‘0’ will set

the corresponding PORT(X) bit as output.

(If we want to set PORT A as an input, just set TRIS(A) bit to logical ‘1’ and

want to set PORT B as an output, just set the PORT B bits to logical ‘0’.)

Analog input port (AN0 TO AN7): these ports are used for interfacing analog

inputs.

 TX and RX: These are the USART transmission and reception ports.

 SCK: these pins are used for giving synchronous serial clock input.

 SCL: these pins act as an output for both SPI and I2C modes.

 DT: these are synchronous data terminals.

 CK: synchronous clock input.

 SD0: SPI data output (SPI Mode).

 SD1: SPI Data input (SPI mode).

 SDA: data input/output in I2C Mode.

 CCP1 and CCP2: these are capture/compare/PWM modules.

 OSC1: oscillator input/external clock.

 OSC2: oscillator output/clock out.

 MCLR: master clear pin (Active low reset).

 Vpp: programming voltage input.

 THV: High voltage test mode controlling.

 Vref (+/-): reference voltage.

 SS: Slave select for the synchronous serial port.

 T0CK1: clock input to TIMER 0.

 T1OSO: Timer 1 oscillator output.

 T1OS1: Timer 1 oscillator input.

 T1CK1: clock input to Timer 1.

 PGD: Serial programming data.

 PGC: serial programming clock.

 PGM: Low Voltage Programming input.

 INT: external interrupt.

 RD: Read control for parallel slave port.

 CS: Select control for parallel slave.

 PSP0 to PSP7: Parallel slave port.

 VDD: positive supply for logic and input pins.

 VSS: Ground reference for logic and input/output pins.

 Take a look at the specifications of the PIC 16F87X Series.

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:

It is often required to produce a signal whose frequency or pulse rate is very

stable and exactly known. This is important in any application where

anything to do with time or exact measurement is crucial. It is relatively

simple to make an oscillator that produces some sort of a signal, but another

matter to produce one of relatively precise frequency and stability. An

ordinary quartz watch must have an oscillator accurate to better than a few

parts per million. One part per million will result in an error of slightly less
than one half second a day, which would be about 3 minutes a year. This

might not sound like much, but an error of 10

parts per million would result in an error of about a half an hour per year. A

clock such as this would need resetting about once a month, and more often

if you are the punctual type.

Crystal oscillator
A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical

resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an

electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly

used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable

clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for

radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric

resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around

them were called "crystal oscillators".

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz

to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are

manufactured annually. Most are small devices for consumer devices such

as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals

are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters,

signal generators, and oscilloscopes.

OPERATION: A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules,

or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all

three spatial dimensions.

Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal,

with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant

frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high

speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The

resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of

sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape
of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in

digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For

applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is

often used in place of a quartz crystal.

When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to

distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the

crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed,

the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape,

and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves

like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise

resonant frequency.

Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size

change in such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be

very low. The specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration

and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes).

Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size,

will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock, filter or
oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is

mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can

also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external

mechanical vibrations.

CERAMIC CAPACITOR:

The main differences between ceramic dielectric types are the temperature

coefficient of capacitance, and the dielectric loss. C0G and NP0 (negative-

positive-zero, i.e. ±0) dielectrics have the lowest losses, and are used in

filters, as timing elements, and for balancing crystal oscillators. Ceramic

capacitors tend to have low inductance because of their small size. NP0

refers to the shape of the capacitor's temperature coefficient graph (how

much the capacitance changes with temperature). NP0 means that the

graph is flat and the device is not affected by temperature changes.

DESCRIPTION OF IR SENSOR:
This circuit is one of the most basic and popular sensor modules. In

electronics, this sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses which can

be used to detect an obstacle which is one of its common applications. In

robotics, a group of such modules are used so that a robot can follow a line

pattern.

The transmitter part of the sensor is an infrared LED (IR) which transmits

continuous IR rays to be received by an IR receiver. The output of the

receiver varies depending upon its reception of IR rays. Since this variation

cannot be analyzed as such, therefore this output can be fed to a

comparator. Here operational amplifier (op-amp) of LM 339 is used as

comparator.

When the IR receiver does not receive signal the potential at the inverting

input goes higher than that that at non-inverting input of the comparator (LM

339). Thus the output of the comparator goes low and the LED does not

glow .When the IR receiver receives signal the potential at the inverting input

goes low. Thus the output of the comparator (LM 339) goes high and the

LED starts glowing. Resistor (100 ), R2 (10k ) and R3 (330 ) are used to
ensure that minimum 10 mA current passes through the IR LED, photodiode

and normal LED, respectively. Resistor VR2 (preset=5k ) is used to adjust

the output. Resistor VR1 (preset=10k ) is used to set the sensitivity of the

circuit.

TRANSISTOR BC547:

BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer

of resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its

base controls a larger current at collector & emitter terminals.

BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a

maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and

BC549.

The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired

region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For

amplification applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for

all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the

emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The

voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching

applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal

at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.

Pin Diagram:

IR LED:
An IR LED, also known as IR transmitter, is a special purpose LED that

transmits infrared rays in the range of 760 nm wavelength. Such LEDs are

usually made of gallium arsenide or aluminum gallium arsenide. They, along

with IR receivers, are commonly used as sensors.

The appearance is same as a common LED. Since the human eye cannot

see the infrared radiations, it is not possible for a person to identify whether

the IR LED is working or not, unlike a common LED. To overcome this

problem, the camera on a cell phone can be used. The camera can show us

the IR rays being emanated from the IR LED in a circuit.

Pin Diagram:
Relay:
What is Relay…..?

A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an

electrical current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or

closing of another circuit.

Relays are like remote control

switches and are used in many

applications because of their

relative simplicity, long life, and

proven high reliability. Relays are used in a wide variety of applications

throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers and

automation systems. Highly sophisticated relays are utilized to protect

electric power systems against trouble and power blackouts as well as to

regulate and control the generation and distribution of power. In the home,
relays are used in refrigerators, washing machines and dishwashers, and

heating and air-conditioning controls. Although relays are generally

associated with electrical circuitry, there are many other types, such as

pneumatic and hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly

mechanical, or vice versa.

How do relays work? All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric

coil, which is powered by AC or DC current. When the applied current or

voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the armature, which

operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts.

When a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that

actuates the switch mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the

action from one circuit to another. The first circuit is called the control circuit;

The second is called the load circuit.

There are three basic functions of a relay: On/Off Control, Limit Control and

Logic Operation.
CH# 04: Solar Power Generation

Solar energy can be used in two ways.

Thermal systems:

Thermal systems use the heat of sun by using some form of solar

collector. This solar heat can then be used for making water hot or also for

producing electrical energy by using the heat of sun for driving generator.

Sterling engine is one example.

Photovoltaic Systems:

Power generation from sun light became possible with the

development of photovoltaic materials. A device that is capable of

converting energy in photons of light into direct voltage or current is called

Photovoltaic. A photon with sufficient wavelength and energy when strike

the surface of photovoltaic material, transfer its energy to the electrons of

PV material. If electron receives sufficient energy it will break free of the

atom that holds it and current flows through external circuit.

From Cells to Modules to Arrays

Solar cells are the building blocks of photovoltaic panels. A single solar

cell can produces only 0.5 Volt. So using only cell is meaningless. To get a

reasonable output these solar cells should be interconnected so that their

output will add up. Numbers of solar cells are connected in series, in

weather resistant package, to form a MODULE. For example 36 cells when

connected in series they form a 12 volt module. Similarly 72 cells are

connected in series to form 24 volt module.

Solar modules can be wired either in series

or parallel to increase voltage and current

respectively. An important factor in design

of photovoltaic system is to determine how

many PV panels should be connected in

series and how many branches should be

connected in parallel to deliver required

demand of energy. Such a combination of

modules is known as an ARRAY

Solar cell can be manufactured using

crystalline silicon and gallium arsenide.

Most solar panels use crystalline

Silicon because it is less expensive.

Gallium arsenide

Expensive and is used in application that

require high efficiency..

Improving Solar Panel Efficiency:

It is desired to operate panel at maximum

efficiency. Efficiency can be improved by,

 Using solar tracker

 Increase efficiency of solar cell

 Operating panel at maximum power

Our Implementation

Solar Tracker Design:

Design and construction of solar tracker requires

The consideration of following steps,

 Methods of Tracker Drives

 Methods of Mount

 Sensor

 Microcontroller

 Motor and motor drive Circuitry

Methods of Tracker drive:

Active Tracking

It is closed loop method of solar tracking. Active tracking normally use light

sensors to sense the

Sun and give feedback signal. In active tracking motors are used to rotate

the panel and align it with the sun. Light sensors are arranged in such a

way that when they receive same intensity of

Light no signal is given to motor. But when one of them receives more light

motor is signaled to rotate the panel. Such type of tracking is called active

axis tracking. Usually gear system is also provided with motor to adjust its

speed. Our project uses active axis tracking

Passive tracking:

Low boiling point fluid is used in a pipe in passive tracking. When sun light

falls on the pipe, liquid moves to either one side or another to rotate the

panel. This type of tracking is less precise as compare to active tracking.

Chronological Tracking:

In this tracking technique microcontroller is programmed to drive the motor

without taking any signal from sensors. Motors drive the panel at a rate

equal to the rate of rotation of sun. Problem with chronological trackers is

sun don’t follow the same path throughout the year. With the change of

weather sun also changes its path. So it is an open loop tracking. To solve

the problem solar tracker can be set to track a path which the sun will
follow for most part of year or programming of controller can be change

with the change in season.

Methods of Tracker Mount

1. Single axis Tracking

2. Dual axis Tracking

Single axis Tracking

In this mount type only one axis of solar path is tracked. During a day sun

moves from left to right single axis tracker follow the same path. As

seasons changes angle of rotation of sun also Changes. But single axis

tracker cannot track seasonal changes. Single axis tracker one of following

axis,

• Horizontal axis

• Vertical axis

Horizontal axis tracker is usually used in tropical regions while vertical

Type tracker is normally used in high latitudes regions.

Dual Axis Tracking:

In this type tracker is capable of tracking in both horizontal axis dimension

and vertical axis dimension. Solar path is tracked in both azimuth angle and

elevation angles dimension. Dual axis tracker is more efficient then single

axis tracking. This project is also based on dual axis tracking

Light Sensors:

Light Dependent Resistance

Light sensors are the most common sensor type and light dependent

resistance (LDR) is the most common light sensors. Sensors are required

to sense area around the photovoltaic assembly where light is

maximum.LDR is made up of semiconductor material. Its refalling on it

increases. It has very high resistance in dark but resistance drops

dramatically when exposed to light. When light falls on the device; bound

electrons get enough energy to cross the band gap and jump into the

conduction band where they are free for conduction.

An LDR
Since its resistance varies with the intensity of light so it can be used as

device to sense the light. We are using LDRs in this project for light

sensing. We can determine from the output of LDR that in which direction

motor should be rotated. The strategy used is called LDR Differential

Strategy.

LDR Differential Strategy

In this strategy two LDRs are used to rotate the panel along one axis. LDRs

are separated in such a way that when same intensity of light falls on them;

input to the motor is zero. But when one of the LDR receives more light as

compare to other LDR motor is allowed to move toward a point of greater

light.

LDR Differential strategy

LDRs are connected in series with a resistance of fixed value. So a voltage

divider is formed. Light falls on the LDR its resistance decreases as a result

voltage across it also decreases while voltage across fixed resistance

increases. LDR voltage is applied to the controller which makes decision

whether to drive the motor or not.

Circuit Diagram for LDRs

Two such pairs of LDRs are used in the project. Two LDRs are used to

track in azimuth angle direction while other two are used for following the

sun path along elevation angle direction. So four LDRs (or four voltage

dividers) are used in the project for dual axis tracking.

Microcontroller:
For solar tracking we have used ATMEGA8 which has built in ADC in it.

Output from LDRs is not digital. We need to convert analog output of LDRs

into digital form. Signal from LDR is provided to controller. Controller

converts this signal into digital form. ATMEGA8 is 28 pins DIP. Four

analogous inputs are applied at port C. controller is programmed in such a

way that it will orient the panel toward a place which is receiving maximum

light along both axis. Output is taken from port D of controller. Controller

output is connected to the operational amplifier connected as comparator.

Output of operational amplifier is connected to H-Bridge of MOSFETS.

H-Bridge is a motor drive circuitry used to drive motor efficiently.

Motor and Motor Drive Circuitry:

Motor Drive Circuitry

To drive the motor accurately we have used MOSFETS connected in H-

Bridge configuration. IRF630 MOSFETS are used in the project. Because

they have high current rating and can drive the motor easily. Since the

output of controller is only 2-4 volts. This much voltage is not enough to

turn on the H-Bridge, When this voltage was directly applied at the gates of

MOSFETS, it was not sufficient to turn on the MOSFETS. To overcome this

problem operational amplifier in comparator configuration is used as a

bridge between controller and H-bridge. Controller output is applied at the

inverting terminal (-) of op amp and output of op amp is applied to the

H-Bridge. Since output of op amp is equal to the voltage supply Vcc.

It is sufficient voltage to turn on the MOSFETS.

Motor:

Motor is one of the main parts in solar tracking.

Different types of motor are used for solar tracking

Application; for example stepper motor, dc motor

And servo motor etc. We are using DC Geared motor

In our project.

Inverters:

An Inverter is a circuit that converts DC voltage to AC voltage. It has

become an integral part of industry due to its uses in UPS and Variable

frequency Drives (VFD). There are two major topologies that are adapted

for DC to AC conversion as shown below:

1. Push Pull Inverter

2. H – Bridge Inverter

We use H-Bridge topology in this circuit, so we discussed only H-Bridge.

H-bridge Inverter:

H-bridge is a circuit that is used to reverse the polarity across the load by

switching the appropriate transistors. H-bridge is used in variable frequency

drives and some high quality inverters.

Fig shows an h-bridge circuit

As shown in fig H-bridge requires a DC voltage; this dc voltage should be

equal to the peak value of the required sinusoidal voltage. Usually Mosfets
are used as switching device due to the less losses, but at higher power
values IGBTs are preferred.
Chapter# 05

Arduino:
What is Arduino?

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use

hardware and software. Arduino board are able to read inputs - light on a
sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter message - and turn it into an
output - activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing something online.
You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino programming
language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino software, based
on Processing.
Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from
everyday objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community
of makers - students, hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals
has gathered around this open-source platform, their contributions have
added up to an incredible amount of accessible knowledge that can be of
great help to novices and experts alike.
Arduino Architecture:

Arduino’s processor basically uses the Harvard architecture where the program code
and program data have separate memory. It consists of two memories- Program
memory and the data memory .The code is stored in the flash program memory,
whereas the data is stored in the data memory. The Atmega328 has 32 KB of flash
memory for storing code (of which 0.5 KB is used for the boot loader), 2 KB of SRAM
and 1 KB of EEPROM and operates with a clock speed of 16MHz.
Arduino Pin Diagram:

Few of basic Arduino functions are:

 Digital Read (pin): Reads the digital value at the given pin.

 Digital Write (pin, value): Writes the digital value to the given pin.

 Pin Mode (pin, mode): Sets the pin to input or output mode.

 Analog Read (pin): Reads and returns the value.

 Analog Write (pin, value): Writes the value to that pin.

 Serial. Begin (baud rate): Sets the beginning of serial communication by

setting the bit rate.

Types of Arduino:
There are four types.

Arduino Board Processor Digital I/O

1. Arduino Uno 16Mhz ATmega328 14
2. Arduino Due 84MHz AT91SAM3X8E 54
3. Arduino Mega 16MHz ATmega2560 54
4. Arduino Leonardo 16MHz ATmega32u4 20

Overview:
The Arduino Uno board is a microcontroller based on the ATmega328. It
has 14 digital input/output pins in which 6 can be used as PWM outputs, a
16 MHz ceramic resonator, an ICSP header, a USB connection, 6 analog
inputs, a power jack and a reset button.

Our main focus on Arduino UNO and used Arduino UNO in this project.
Following Arduino UNO programming is given which we used for the
display of supervisor name, group members name and main displaying
parameters battery voltage, solar voltage and on/off status etc.

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>// call for lcd function

#define Battery A0 // Analog input pin that sensor is attached to

#define Solar A1 // Analog input pin that sensor is attached to

#define Ldr1 A2 // Analog input pin that sensor is attached to

#define Ldr2 A3 // Analog input pin that sensor is attached to

const int Led1 = 1; //

const int Led2 = 2; //
const int Led3 = 3; //
const int Led4 = 3; //

const int Button1Pin = A5;

const int Button2Pin = 0;
const int Button3Pin = 4;

const int Puls = A4;

const int Motor1A = 5;

const int Motor1B = 6;

const int Coil = 9; // buzzer pin no

LiquidCrystal lcd(13, 12, 11, 10, 7, 8);

int i,val;
unsigned int Bvolt,Svolt,Ldr1val,Ldr2val,Ldr3val,Ldr4val;

unsigned int lenth,step1;

boolean mode = false;

boolean sw1flag = false;

boolean sw2flag = false;
boolean sw3flag = false;

void setup()
{
lcd.begin(16, 2); // lcd type

pinMode(Battery, INPUT);
pinMode(Solar, INPUT);

pinMode(Ldr1, INPUT);
pinMode(Ldr2, INPUT);

pinMode (Coil,OUTPUT);
pinMode (Puls,OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(Puls,LOW);
digitalWrite(Coil,LOW);

pinMode(Button1Pin, INPUT); //assigns button pins as inputs

pinMode(Button2Pin, INPUT); //assigns button pins as inputs
pinMode(Button3Pin, INPUT); //assigns button pins as inputs

digitalWrite(Button1Pin, HIGH); //sets internal pulldown resistors

digitalWrite(Button2Pin, HIGH); //sets internal pulldown resistors
digitalWrite(Button3Pin, HIGH); //sets internal pulldown resistors

pinMode (Led1,OUTPUT);
pinMode (Led2,OUTPUT);
pinMode (Led3,OUTPUT);

pinMode (Motor1A,OUTPUT);
pinMode (Motor1B,OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(Motor1A,LOW);
digitalWrite(Motor1B,LOW);

lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("AUTOMATIC SOLAR");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("WIRELESS CHARGER");

for(int i=0;i<4;i++)
{
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);
delay(500);
 digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);
delay(500);
}

lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" SUPERVISED BY:");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("MR.USMAN TARIQ");
for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);

delay(500);
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);

delay(500);
}

lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" DESIGN ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print(" BY ");

for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);

delay(500);
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);

delay(500);
}
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" M FAROOQ ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("BTHET-021R17-16");
 for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);

delay(500);
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);

delay(500);
}
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" BILAL ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("BTHET-021R17-04");

for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);

delay(500);
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);

delay(500);
}
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" RIZWAN ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("BTHET-021R17-03");

for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);

delay(500);
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);
 delay(500);
}
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" RIZWAN ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("BTHET-021R17-05");

for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);

delay(500);
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);

delay(500);
}

lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" ADEEL ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("BTHET-021R17-14");

for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);

delay(500);
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);

delay(500);
}
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print(" RASH AFTAB ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("BTHET-021R17-12");

for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
 {
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);

delay(500);
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);

delay(500);
}

lcd.clear();
mode=0;
val=100;
}
//====================================================================
==================
//====================================================================
==================
//====================================================================
==================

void loop()
{

int button1State = digitalRead(Button1Pin); // button state define

int button2State = digitalRead(Button2Pin); // button state define
int button3State = digitalRead(Button3Pin); // button state define

if( button1State==LOW && sw1flag==0) //check button value

{
sw1flag=1;
mode=!mode;

}
if( button1State==HIGH && sw1flag==1) {sw1flag=0;}

if( button2State==LOW && sw2flag==0) //check button value

{
sw2flag=1;
val++;
if(val>254)val=255;
}
if( button2State==HIGH && sw2flag==1) {sw2flag=0;}
if( button3State==LOW && sw3flag==0) //check button value
{
sw3flag=1;
val--;
if(val<2)val=1;

}
if( button3State==HIGH && sw3flag==1) {sw3flag=0;}

//++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
if(mode==1)
{
///lcd.setCursor(13,1);
//lcd.print(" ");
// lcd.setCursor(13,1);
// lcd.print(val);

lcd.setCursor(13,0);
lcd.print("ON ");

digitalWrite(Coil,HIGH);
delay(0.2);
digitalWrite(Coil,LOW);
delay(1);

}
if(mode==0)
{
lcd.setCursor(13,1);
lcd.print(" ");

lcd.setCursor(13,0);
lcd.print("OFF");

//===============================================================
Bvolt = analogRead (Battery); /* Tells the Arduino to read the
pin and stores the value in “val2― */
//Solar1volts=Solar1volts/27.66;
Bvolt=Bvolt/47.5;
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("Bv=");
lcd.setCursor(3,0);
lcd.print(" ");
lcd.setCursor(3,0);
 lcd.print(Bvolt);

Svolt= analogRead (Solar); /* Tells the Arduino to read the pin

and stores the value in “val2― */
Svolt=Svolt/40.5;
lcd.setCursor(6,0);
lcd.print("Sw=");
lcd.setCursor(9,0);
lcd.print(" ");
lcd.setCursor(9,0);
lcd.print(Svolt);

Ldr1val = analogRead (Ldr1); /* Tells the Arduino to read the

pin and stores the value in “val2― */
//Solar1volts=Solar1volts/27.66;
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("L1=");
lcd.setCursor(3,1);
lcd.print(" ");
lcd.setCursor(3,1);
lcd.print(Ldr1val);

Ldr2val= analogRead (Ldr2); /* Tells the Arduino to read the pin

and stores the value in “val2― */
lcd.setCursor(7,1);
lcd.print("L2=");
lcd.setCursor(10,1);
lcd.print(" ");
lcd.setCursor(10,1);
lcd.print(Ldr2val);

Ldr3val=Ldr2val+50;
Ldr4val=Ldr1val+50;

if(Ldr1val>=Ldr3val)
{
digitalWrite(Motor1A,HIGH); digitalWrite(Motor1B,LOW);
}
else if (Ldr2val>=Ldr4val)
{
digitalWrite(Motor1B,HIGH); digitalWrite(Motor1A,LOW);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(Motor1A,LOW); digitalWrite(Motor1B,LOW);
}
//lcd.setCursor(6,1);
//lcd.print(count2);
//============================================================
//===================================
if(Bvolt<12) step1=1;
if(Bvolt>11 && Bvolt<13)step1=2;
if(Bvolt>12 && Bvolt<14)step1=3;
if(Bvolt>=14 ) step1=4;

lenth++; if(lenth>10)lenth=0;
//=========================================
if(step1==1) //90% pwm
{
if(lenth<1)
{
digitalWrite(Puls,LOW );
// digitalWrite(Led5,LOW);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(Puls,HIGH);
//digitalWrite(Led5,HIGH);
}
digitalWrite(Led1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW );
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW );
digitalWrite(Led4,LOW );
}
//=========================================
if(step1==2) //70% pwm
{

if(lenth<3)
{
digitalWrite(Puls,LOW );
// digitalWrite(Led5,LOW);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(Puls,HIGH);
//digitalWrite(Led5,HIGH);

}
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,HIGH );
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW );
digitalWrite(Led4,LOW );

}
//=========================================
if(step1==3) //50% pwm
{
if(lenth<5)
{
 digitalWrite(Puls,LOW);
//digitalWrite(Led5,LOW);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(Puls,HIGH);
//digitalWrite(Led5,HIGH);
}
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,HIGH);
digitalWrite(Led4,LOW);
}
//=========================================
if(step1==4) //10% pwm
{
if(lenth<9)
{
digitalWrite(Puls,LOW);
//digitalWrite(Led5,LOW);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(Puls,HIGH);
// digitalWrite(Led5,HIGH);
}
digitalWrite(Led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led3,LOW);
digitalWrite(Led4,HIGH);
}

//delay(100);
}

}
Arduino UNO after implemented on board:
CH#06
Design and Implementation of Our Project:
The idea of wireless charging came from the idea of wireless energy
transfer. The first thoughts were to charge a pacemaker wirelessly. Deep
study on that particular topic revealed that pacemakers already had a good
enough life time. So, the idea of charging it was not a feasible one.

Further study about wireless power transfer came up with the idea of a
wireless charger for the low power devices such as mobile phones, camera
etc.

The main idea was to charge these low power devices using inductive
coupling. The overall process required a transmitter and a receiver.

The transmitter would convert a D.C. power to high frequency A.C. power.
This alternating current would create an alternating magnetic field to
transmit energy.

The receiver, on the contrary, would receive that energy by means of an

induced A.C. voltage. A diode rectifier would convert the A.C. voltage to
D.C. and this voltage would be supplied to load through a voltage
controller.
Transmitter Module:
The transmitter module of our project is made up of a D.C. power source,
an oscillator circuit (commonly known as an inverter) and a transmitter coil.
The D.C. power source provides a constant D.C. voltage to the input of the
oscillator circuit. There, this D.C. power is converted to a high frequency
A.C. power and is supplied to the transmitter coil. The transmitter coil,
energized by the high frequency A.C. current, produces an alternating
magnetic field.

D.C. Power Source Oscillator Transmitter Coil

The block diagram gives a general idea of the transmitter module

The D.C. Power Source:

The D.C. Power Source consists of simple batteries which are connected in
series and a rectifier circuit. We get desired level voltage for battery and the
rectifier circuits convert the D.C. voltage to pure D.C or ripples free output.
The Oscillator Circuit:
The prototype oscillator Circuit designed for the project is a modified Royer
oscillator (Figure 6.2). This oscillator circuit is incredibly simple yet a very
powerful design. Very high oscillating current can be achieved with this
circuit depending on the semiconductor used. Here high current is
necessary to increase the strength of the magnetic field. Although Insulated
Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) is recommended for this type of oscillator,
but IGBTs have limitations in high frequencies. Thus, a HEXFET Power
MOSFET was used for its properties. The HEXFET is ultra-low on
resistance and has an operating temperature of 175°C. It has an advanced
process technology and is very fast in switching.

The Modified Oscillator

Operation of the Oscillator Circuit:
The circuit consists of with two chokes labeled L1 and L2, two
semiconductors (Here N-channel Enhancement power-MOSFETS) labeled
Q1 and Q2, a resonating capacitor labeled C and an inductor (here the
transmitter coil) labeled L. Cross-coupled feedback is provided via the
diodes D1 and D2. R1, R3 and R2, R4 are the biasing network for
MOSFETS Q1 and Q2.
When power is applied, DC current flows through the two sides of the coil
and to the transistors’ drain. At the same time the voltage appears on both
gates and starts to turn the transistors on. One transistor is invariably a little
faster than the other and will turn on more. The added current flowing in
that side of the coil does two things. One, it takes away drive from the other
transistor. Two, the auto-transformer action impresses a positive voltage on
the conducting transistor, turning it hard on. The current would continue to
increase until the coil (transformer) saturates. The resonating capacitor C
causes the voltage across the primary to first rise and then fall in a
standard sine wave pattern.
Assuming that Q1 turned on first, the voltage at the drain of Q1’s will be
clamped to near ground while the voltage at Q2’s drain rises to a peak and
then falls as the tank formed by the capacitor and the coil primary oscillator
through one half cycle.
The oscillator runs at the frequency determined by the inductance of the
coil, the capacitor value and to a lesser extent, the load applied to the
secondary (Source coil).
The operating frequency is the familiar formula for resonance,

F= 1/2 × π × (LC)……………………………………………
The Transmitter Coil:
For this project the transmitter coil was constructed with 26 AWG gauge
and 50 numbers of turns and its coil inductance is0.10mH with 0.7 ohm
resistance which is measured by inductance meter.
 Transmitting Circuit:

Components Used in the Transmitter Module:

The list of components that were used in the transmitter circuit is given in
the following table:
Component’s Name Component’s Value or code

Voltage Source, Vdc 30V

Capacitor, C 6.8nF
Resistor, R1 1k ohm
Resistor, R2 10k ohm
Resistor, R3 1k ohm
Transmitter coil 0.1 mH
Resistor, R4 10k ohm
Diode, D1 D4148
Diode, D2 D4148
MOSFET,Q1 IRF540
MOSFET, Q2 IRF540
Receiver Module:

The receiver module of our project is made up of a receiver coil, a rectifier

circuit and a voltage regulator IC.

An A.C. voltage is induced in the receiver coil. The rectifier circuit converts
it to D.C. and the voltage regulator IC helps to maintain a constant limited
voltage at the load.

A.C. Voltage D.C. Voltage Limited D.C. Voltage

Receiver Coil Rectifier Voltage Regulator IC Load/ Low Power Device

Block Diagram of the Receiver Module

Receiver Coil:
For this project the transmitter coil was constructed with 34 AWG gauge
and 500 numbers of turns and its coil inductance is36.1mH with 54.5ohm
resistance which is measured by inductance meter.

Rectifier:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC),
which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in
only one direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically,
rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-
arc valves, solid-state diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-
based semiconductor switches.
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit
configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of
input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an
alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known
as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a
two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a
rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped
secondary winding.
The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is
the same regardless of the polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit is
also known as the Graetz circuit after its inventor, physicist Leo Graetz.

The 4 diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in series pairs with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle
Operation of a Diode Bridge Rectifier:

During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in
series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows
through the load.

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in
series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch off, as they are reverse biased. The
current flowing through the load is the same direction as before

Negative Half- Cycle

Rectifier Used in the Receiver Module:

The rectifier used in the receiver module is similar to the one discussed
above. The only addition to it is a smoothing capacitor. The smoothing
capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth
DC output voltage. Figure shows a rectifier with a smoothing capacitor.

Rectifier with a Smoothing Capacitor

Voltage Regulator IC:

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically

maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple
feed-forward design or may include negative feedback control loops.
It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components.
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or
DC voltages.
In this project, LM 7805 voltage regulator IC was used since it allowed no
more than 5v to the output.
The Receiver Circuit as a Whole:

Receiver Module is highlighted here.

Components Used in the Receiver Module:

The list of components that were used in the receiver circuit is given in the
following table:

Component’s Name Component’s Value or code

Diode, D1 D4007

Diode, D2 D4007

Diode, D3 D4007

Diode, D4 D4007

Capacitor, C1 6.8 nF

Capacitor, C2 220 μF

Resistor, R 1k ohm

Voltage Regulator IC IC LM 7805

Receiver coil, L 36.1mH

Table Receiver Components

After completion of complete circuit picture is:

Summary:
This chapter discussed about all the components and circuits used in the
following project. The chapter also described some of these circuits and
components briefly. In addition, the chapter gives a brief idea of the
performance of the circuits.
 References:
[1] Russell M Kerchner and George F Corcoran, ―Alternating-Current
Circuits‖, pp. 273-324, 1960.
[2] G. Grandi, M.K. Kazimierczuk, A. Massarini, ―Optimal Design of
Single-Layer Solenoid Air-Core Inductors for High Frequency Applications‖,
Circuit Systems, Vol. 1, pp. 358-361, 1997.
[3] A. Kurs, A. Karalis, R. Moffatt, J. D. Joannopoulos, P. Fisher, M.
Soijacic, ―Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly Coupled Magnetic
Resonances‖, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007 Science, Vol.
317. no. 5834, pp. 83— 86, 2007
[4] Jacob Millman and Christos C. Halkias, ―Integrated Electronics: Analog
and Digital Circuits and Systems‖, pp. 103-107, 2007
[5] Muhammad H. Rashid, ―Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and
Applications‖, pp.37-63, 2nd Edition, 2000
[6] Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky,‖Electronic Devices and
Circuit Theory‖,9th Edition,2006, pp. 79-82
[7] William H.Hayt,Jr. and John A.Buck,‖Engineering Electromagnetics‖,
7th Edition,2006,pp.292-299
[8] http://info.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/air_coils.html
[9]http://en.wikipedia.com
[10] http://www.smeter.net/electronics/solnoid3.php
[11] http://inhabitat.com/tag/resonant-inductive-coupling-charger/
[12] http://www.delphi.com
[13] http://seminarprojects.com