Mechanics of Materials - : F M F F F M M M

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

30 December 1997 (Version 1c) compiled by Michael G. Jenkins, University of Washington page 1 / 36
NOTE: These notes represent selected highlights of ME354 and are not intended to replace conscientious
study, attendance of lecture, reading of the textbook, completion of homework assignments, and performance
of laboratory work. These notes are corrected, modified, and upgraded periodically with date and latest version
number appearing in the header.
Mechanics of Materials - a branch of mechanics that develops relationships

between the external loads applied to a deformable body and the intensity of internal forces
acting within the body as well as the deformations of the body
External Forces - classified as two types: 1) surface forces produced by a) direct
contact between two bodies such as concentrated forces or distributed forces and/or
b) body forces which occur when no physical contact exists between two bodies (e.g.,
magnetic forces, gravitational forces, etc.).
Internal Forces - non external forces acting in a body to resist external loadings
Support Reactions - surface forces that develop at the support or points of support
between two bodies. Support reactions may include normal forces and couple moments.
Equations of Equilibrium - mathematical expression of vector relations showing that
for a body not to translate or move along a path then ∑ F = 0 . ∑ M = 0 for a body not to
rotate. Alternatively, scalar equations in 3-D space (i.e., x, y, z) are:
∑F x = 0 ∑F y = 0 ∑F z = 0
∑M x =0 ∑M y =0 ∑M z =0
Some nomenclature used in these notes

Roman characters
a - crack length; A- area; Af - final area; Ao - original area; c - distance from
neutral axis to farthest point from neutral axis or Griffith flaw size; C - center of Mohr's circle;
E- elastic modulus (a.k.a., Young's modulus); F - force or stress intensity factor coefficient;
F S - factor of safety; G - shear modulus (a.k.a. modulus of rigidity); I - moment of inertia;
J - polar moment of inertia; K - strength coefficient for strain hardening; K - stress intensity
factor, k - bulk modulus; L - length; L f - final length; L o - original length; M or M(x) - bending
moment; m - metre (SI unit of length) or Marin factor for fatigue; N - Newton (SI unit of force)
or fatigue cycles; N f - cycles to fatigue failure; n - strain hardening exponent or stress
exponent; P - applied load; P cr - critical buckling load; P S D - Sherby-Dorn parameter;
P LM - Larson-Miller parameter; p - pressure; Q - first moment of a partial area about the
neutral axis or activation energy; R - radius of Mohr's circle or radius of shaft/torsion
specimen or stress ratio; S f - fracture strength; S uts or S u - ultimate tensile strength;
r - radius of a cylinder or sphere; S y - offset yield strength; T - torque or temperature;
T mp - melting temperature; t - thickness of cross section or time; tf - time to failure;
U - stored energy; U r - modulus of resilience; U t - modulus of toughness; V or V(x) - shear
force; v or v(x) - displacement in the "y" direction; w(x) - distributed load; x or X - coordinate
direction or axis; y or Y - coordinate direction or axis; z or Z - coordinate direction or axis;
Greek characters
∆ - change or increment; ε - normal strain or tensoral strain component;
εο - normal strain at σο; φ - angle or angle of twist; γ - engineering shear strain;
ν - Poisson's ratio; ω - angular velocity; ρ - variable for radius or radius of curvature;
σ - normal stress; σ1 , σ2 , σ3 - greatest, intermediate, and least principal normal stresses;
σ '- effective stress; σο - proportional limit, elastic limit, or yield stress; τ - shear stress;
τmax - maximum shear stress; τo - yield shear strength; θ - angle; θp - principal normal
stress angle; θs - maximum shear stress angle
Stress
Stress: i) the ratio of incremental force to incremental area on which the force acts such
∆F
that: lim .
∆ A→0 ∆A
ii) the intensity of the internal force on a specific plane (area) passing through
a point.
Normal Stress: the intensity of the internal force acting normal to an incremental area
∆F n
such that: σ = lim
∆ A→0 ∆A
Note: +σ = tensile stress = "pulling" stress

and -σ = compressive stress = "pushing" stress
Shear Stress: the intensity of the internal force acting tangent to an incremental area
∆F t
such that: τ = lim
∆ A→0 ∆A
General State of Stress: all the internal stresses acting on an incremental element
y σy
τ yx
τyz τ xy σx
τ zy
τ zx τxz x
σz
z
Note: A +σ acts normal to a positive face in the positive coordinate direction

and a +τ acts tangent to a positive face in a positive coordinate direction
Note: Moment equilibrium shows that τ xy = τ yx ; τ xz = τ zx ; τ yz = τ zy
Complete State of Stress: Six independent stress components
(3 normal stresses, σ x ;σ y ;σ z and
3 shear stresses, τ xy ; τ yz ; τ xz ) which uniquely
describe the stress state for each particular orientation
Force F
Units of Stress: In general: = ,
Area L2
N N N
In SI units, Pa = 2 or MPa = 106 2 =
m m mm 2
lb lb kip
In US Customary units, psi = f2 or ksi = 10 3 f2 = 2
in in in
Stress Transformation
For the plane stress condition (e.g., stress state at a surface where no load is supported on
the surface), stresses exist only in the plane of the surface (e.g., σ x ;σ y ; τ xy )
The plane stress state at a point is uniquely represented by three components acting on a
element that has a specific orientation (e.g., x, y) at the point. The stress transformation
relation for any other orientation (e.g., x', y') is found by applying equilibrium equations
(∑ F = 0 and ∑ M = 0 ) keeping in mind that F n = σA and F t = τA
x'
∆Ax=∆A cos θ
θ Rotated coordinate
y'
axes and areas for
∆A x and y directions
∆Ay=∆A sin θ X
y x'
τxy∆Ax
y' θ σx' ∆A
σx ∆Ax θ
θ
τx'y' ∆A
θ Rotated coordinate
axes and components of
τxy ∆Ay X stress/forces for
θ
original coordinate axes
σy ∆Ay θ
∑F x' = 0 gives
σx + σy σx − σy
σ x ' = σ x cos2 θ + σ y sin 2 θ + 2τ xy cos θ sin θ or σ x ' = + cos2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
∑F y' = 0 gives
σx − σy
τ x 'y ' = (σ x − σ y )cos θ sin θ + τ xy (cos2 θ + sin 2 θ) orτ x 'y' = − sin2θ + τ xy cos2θ
2
Similarly, for a cut in the y' direction,
σx + σy σx − σ y
σ y ' = σ x sin 2 θ + σ y cos2 θ − 2τ xy cos θ sin θ or σ y ' = − cos2θ − τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
Principal Normal Stress - maximum or minimum normal stresses acting in principal
directions on principal planes on which no shear stresses act.
Note that σ 1 > σ 2 > σ 3
σ + σy  σ − σy 
2
2τ xy
For the plane stress case σ 1,2 = x ±  x  + τ xy and tan 2 θ p =
2
2  2  σx − σy
and τ max
 σ x − σy 
= 
2
 + τ xy , σ ave =
2 σx + σy
and tan 2θ s =
(
− σx − σy )
 2  2 2τ xy
Mohr's Circles for Stress States - graphical representation of stress
Examples of Mohr's circles

τ max = σ1 − σ3
τ max for x-y plane 2
σ3 σ2 σ1 σ
σ2 σ1 σ
τ
τ
Mohr's circle for stresses in x-y plane Mohr's circle for stresses in x-y-z planes
Graphical Description of State of In this example all stresses acting in axial

Stress directions are positive as shown in Fig. 1.
2-D Mohr's Circle
Y
σy
τ xy
σx
X
Fig. 1- Positive stresses acting As shown in Figs. 2 and 3, plotting actual
on a physical element.
sign of the shear stress with x normal stress
requires plotting of the opposite sign of the
+σy shear stress with the y normal stress on the
Mohr's circle.
y-face +τxy
+σx
In this example σx > σy and τxy is positive.
Fig. 2 - Directionality of shear By the convention of Figs. 2 and 3, φ = 2θ on
acting on x and y faces.
the Mohr's circle is negative from the +σ
+σy ,−τ axis. (Mathematical convention is that
positive angle is counterclockwise).
Note that by the simple geometry of
Fig. 3, φ = 2θ appears to be negative while
φ =2θ
σ by the formula,
tan 2θ = 2τxy/(σx -σy), the physical angle, θ,
τ +σ x,+τ is actually positive.
σ σ In-plane principal stresses are: σ1 = C+R

C= x + y R = (σx - C)2 + τ2 )
2
σ2 = C - R
2
tan φ = -σ−τ
Maximum in-plane shear stress is:
( x - C) τmax = R =(σ1 -σ2 )/2
Fig. 3 - Plotting stress values on
Mohr's circle.
σ2
The direction of physical angle, θ, is from
Y
σ1 the x-y axes to the principal axes.
Direction
of +θ
θ
X
Fig. 4 - Orientation of physical element
with only principal stresses
acting on it.
Note that the sense (direction) of the

physical angle, θ, is the same as on the
Mohr's circle from the line of the x-y stresses
Principal to the axes of the principal stresses.
Axis
Direction of θ
Line of X-Y
Stresses
Fig. 5 - Direction of θ from the line of x-y
stresses to the principal stress
axis.
strain except interchange variables as

Same relations apply for Mohr's circle for
γ
σ ⇔ ε and τ ⇔
2
30 Decmber 1997 (Version c) compiled by Michael G. Jenkins, University of Washington page 7 / 36
Strain
Strain: normalized deformations within a body exclusive of rigid body displacements
Normal Strain: elongation or contraction of a line segment per unit length such that
A' B'− AB L f − Lo
ε = lim ≡ and a volume change results.
B →A along n AB Lo
Note: +ε = tensile strain = elongation
and -ε = compressive strain = contraction
Shear Strain: the angle change between two line segments such that
π ∆
γ = (θ = ) − θ ' ≈ (for small angles ) and a shape change results.
2 h
π
Note: +γ occurs if > θ'
2
π
and -γ occurs if < θ'
2
General State of Strain: all the internal strains acting on an incremental element
εy
εyx
εxy εx
A
Engineering shear strain,

γ = ε xy + εyx
xy
Complete State of Strain: Six independent strain components

(3 normal strains, ε x ;ε y ; ε z and
3 engineering shear strains, γ xy ; γ yz ; γ xz ) which uniquely
describe the strain state for each particular orientation
Length L
Units of Strain: In general: = ,
Length L
m m
In SI units, for ε and or radian for γ
m m
in in
In US Customary units, for ε and or radian for γ
in in
Strain Transformation
For the plane strain condition (e.g., strain at a surface where no deformation occurs normal
to the surface), strains exist only in the plane of the surface (ε x ;ε y ; γ xy )
The plane strain state at a point is uniquely represented by three components acting on a
element that has a specific orientation (e.g., x, y) at the point. The strain transformation
relation for any other orientation (e.g., x', y') is found by summing displacements in the
appropriate directions keeping in mind that δ = ε L o and ∆ = γ h
y x'
∆ = γ dy
}
Q*
} δy = ε y dy
Q
y' Rotated coordinate
dy ds
axes and displacements
for x and y directions
θ
δ x= ε x dx
}
dx x
y
x'
δ = ε x' ds dx
x' cos θ =
θ
{ ∆ = γ dy
Q*
sin θ =
ds
dy
Displacements in
the x' direction
for strains/ displacements
θ ds
in the x and y directions
δy = εy dy
Q θ
δx = εx dx x
∑ displacements in x 'direction for Q to Q * gives

ε + ε y εx − εy γ
ε x ' = ε x cos2 θ + ε y sin 2 θ + γ xy cos θ sin θ or ε x ' = x + cos2θ + xy sin2θ
2 2 2
∑ rotation of dx ' and dy' gives
γ x 'y ' γ γ ε − εy γ
= (ε x − ε y )cos θ sin θ + xy (cos2 θ + sin 2 θ) or x 'y ' = − x sin 2θ + xy cos2θ
2 2 2 2 2
Similarly, ∑ displacements in y 'direction for Q to Q * gives
ε + εy εx − εy γ
ε y ' = ε x sin 2 θ + ε y cos2 θ − γ xy cos θ sin θ or ε y ' = x − cos2θ − xy sin2θ
2 2 2
Principal Normal Strain - maximum or minimum normal strains acting in principal

directions on principal planes on which no shear strains act.
Note that ε 1 > ε 2 > ε 3
 γ xy 
2
ε x + εy  εx − εy  γ xy
2
For the plane strain case ε 1,2 = ±   +  and tan 2θ p =

2  2   2  εx − ε y
γ max  εx − εy 
2
γ  ε + εy − (ε x − ε y )
and = +  xy τ xy2 , ε ave = x and tan2θ s =
2  2   2  2 γ xy
Mohr's Circles for Strain States - graphical representation of strain
Examples of Mohr's circles

γ max = ε 1− ε 3
γ max /2 for x-y plane
ε3 ε2 ε1 ε
ε2 ε1 ε
γ/2
γ/2
Mohr's circle for strains in x-y plane Mohr's circle for strains in x-y-z planes
Strain Gage Rosettes
Rosette orientations and equations relating x-y coordinate strains to

the respective strain gages of the rosette
y
60°
c b c b
60°
45° a
a
x x
45° Rectangular 60° Delta
ε x = εa ε x = εa
1
ε y = εc ε y = (2ε b + 2 εc − ε a )
3
2
γ xy = 2ε b − (ε a + ε c ) γ xy = (ε − ε c )
3 b
Continuum Mechanics and Constitutive Relations

Equations which relate stress and strain (a.k.a., Generalized Hooke's Law)
{ σ } = [C ]{ ε } { } [ ]{ }
ε = S σ
E νE
σx = εx + (ε + ε y + ε z )
(1+ ν ) (1+ ν )(1− 2 ν) x εx =
1
E x
[
σ − ν (σ y + σ z ) ]
E νE
σy =
(1+ ν )
εy + (ε + ε y + ε z )
(1+ ν )(1− 2 ν ) x εy =
1
E y
[
σ − ν(σ x + σ z ) ]
νE
[ ]
E 1
σz = εz + (ε + ε y + ε z ) εz = σ − ν(σ x + σ y )
(1+ ν) (1+ ν)(1− 2ν ) x E z
τ xy = Gγ xy 1
γ xy = τ xy
G
1
τ yz = Gγ yz γ yz = τ yz
G
1
γ xz = τ xz
τ xz = Gγ xz G
ε
Poisson's ratio, ν = - transverse
ε longitudinal
[C ] = [S ] and [S ] = [C ]−1
−1
−ν
Elastic relation (1-D Hooke's Law) σ =Eε Plane stress : σ z = 0, ε z ≠ 0 = (ε + ε y )
1− ν x
Plastic relation (Strain -Hardening) σ =Kε n Plane strain : ε z = 0, σ z ≠ 0 = ν(σ x + σ y )
Stress − strain relations ∆σ

Elastic Modulus, E=
for plane stress (x − y plane) ∆ε
ε
σx =
E
(1− ν 2 ) x
(
ε + νε y ) Poisson's ratio, ν = - lateral
ε longitudinal
∆τ E
σy =
E
(1− ν 2 ) y
(
ε + νε x ) Shear Modulus, G=
∆γ
=
2(1+ν)
σ z = τ xz = τ yz = 0
Bulk Modulus, k =
(σ + σ
x y + σx )= E
τ xy = Gγ xy 3(ε + εx y + εx ) 3(1− 2ν)
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Non recoverable deformation beyond the point of yielding where Hooke's law
(proportionality of stress and strain) no longer applies. Flow curve is the true stress vs. true
strain curve describing the plastic deformation.
Simple Power Law

Strain
Hardening Elastic: σ = Eε (σ ≤ σ o )
σο
Plastic: σ = Hε n (σ ≥ σ o )
Ε
εp εe
Strain
Approximate flow curves
Power
σο σο Linear
σο
E E
εT εT εT
Rigid-Perfectly Plastic Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Elastic-Linear Hardening
Elastic-Power Hardening
Ramberg-Osgood Relationship
1
σ σ σn
Total strain is sum of elastic and plastic ε = ε e + ε p = + ε p σ = H ε pn ⇒ ε = +
E E  H
Deformation Plasticity
1 2
σ eff = (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ1)2 and ε eff = (ε1 − ε 2 )2 + (ε 2 − ε 3 )2 + (ε 3 − ε1 )2
2 3
Effective stress-effective strain curve is independent of the state of stress and is used to
estimate the stress-strain curves for other states of stress.
Failure Theories
Two types: Fracture and Yield Criteria. Generally used to predict the safe limits of a
material/component under combined stresses.
Material Strength
Factor of Safety, FS = , Failure occurs if FS<1
Component Stress
Maximum Normal Stress Criterion
Fracture criterion generally used to predict failure of brittle materials.
SUTS
FS =
MAX( σ1 , σ 2 , σ 3 )
Maximum Shear Stress (Tresca) Criterion
Yield criterion generally used to predict failure in materials which yield in shear (i.e. ductile
materials)
( τ o = Sy / 2 = σ 0 / 2)
FS =
 σ − σ 2 σ 2 − σ 3 σ1 − σ 3 
MAX 1 , , 
 2 2 2 
Von Mises (Distortional Energy)
or Octahedral Shear Stress Criterion
Yield criterion generally used to predict failure in materials. which yield in shear (i.e. ductile
materials)
(σ o = Sy )
FS =
σ'
1
σ'= (σ1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ1 )2
2
1
σ'= (σ x − σ y )2 + (σ y − σ z )2 + (σ z − σ x )2 + 6(τ xy2 + τ yx2 + τ zx2 )
2
Mechanical Testing
The results of materials tests (e.g. tensile, compressive, torsional shear, hardness, impact
energy, etc.) are used for a variety of purposes including to obtain values of material
properties for use in engineering design and for use in quality control to ensure materials
meet established requirements
Tensile Testing
σ
σ1=P/Ao σ1
ε =(Li-Lo)/Lo Ao
τ
P σ2 = σ3 = 0
Mohr's Circle for Uniaxial
Lo Tension
dσ
Elastic Modulus : E = of the linear part of the stress-strain curve.
dε
Yielding : Proportional limit, σp ; elastic limit; offset yield (Sys at 0.2% strain) where σo is used
to generally designate the stress at yielding.
L −Lo A − Af
Ductility : % elongation = f x 100 = ε f x100 or %RA = o x 100
Lo Ao
Necking is geometric instability at SUTS and εU
SUTS
Strain hardening ratio = where ≥1.4 is high and ≤1.2 is low.
σo
Energy absorption (energy/volume):

Modulus of Resilience | Modulus of Toughness
= measure of the ability to | = measure of the ability to
store elastic energy | absorb energy without fracture
= area under the linear portion | = area under the entire
of the stress-strain curve | stress-strain curve
εf
(S + σ o )ε f
UT = ∫ σ dε ≈ UTS ("flat" σ - ε curves)
εo
σ o εo σo2 o 2
UR = ∫ σ dε ≈ ≈ | εf
o 2 2E 2SUTS ε f
or ∫ σ dε ≈ (parabolic σ - ε curves)
o 3
Strain-hardening: σ T = K (εT )n = H (ε T )n
H=K=strength coefficient and n = strain hardening exponent (0≤n≤1)
Representative stress-strain curves for tensile tests of brittle and ductile materials
Su=Sy=Sf Su
X Sf
X
E Sy
E
Ut
Ur Ut=Ur
Ur
Strain Strain
Brittlle Material Ductile Material
Table: Stress-strain definitions for tensile testing

PARAMETER FUNDAMENTAL PRIOR TO AFTER
DEFINITION NECKING NECKING
Engineering Stress P P P
σE = i σE = i σE = i
(σE) Ao Ao Ao
True Stress ( σT) P P Pi
σT = i σT = i σT =
Ai Ai Aneck
σ T = σ E (1+ ε E )
Engineering Strain ∆L Li -L o ∆L Li -L o ∆L Li -L o
εE = = εE = = εE = =
(εE) Lo Lo Lo Lo Lo Lo
True Strain (εT) L L A
ε T = ln i ε T = ln i ε T = ln o
Lo Lo A neck
Ao Ao
ε T = ln ε T = ln
Ai Ai
ε T = ln(1+ ε E )
Note: Subscripts: i=instantaneous, o=original; Superscripts: E=engineering, T=true
Hardness Testing
Resistance of material to penetration
Brinell
Steel or P=3000 kg
tungsten or 500 kg
carbide D=10 mm
ball t
d P 2P
BHN = HB = =
[
πDt πD D − (D 2 − d 2 )
]
Vickers
P=1-120 kg
Diamond
pyramid
θ= 136°=Included
angle of faces
2P θ
VHN = HV = 2 sin
L 2
d=L
Rockwell
Requires Rockwell subscript to provide meaning to the Rockwell scale.
Examples of Rockwell Scales

Rockwell Hardness Indentor Load (kg)
A Diamond point 60
B 1.588 mm dia. ball 100
C Diamond point 150
D Diamond point 100
E 3.175 mm dia. ball 100
M 6.350 mm dia. ball 100
R 12.70 mm dia. ball 60
Notch-Impact Testing
Resistance of material to sudden fracture in presence of notch
mass, m
Ductile
h1
h2
Ductile/Brittle
IZOD CHARPY Brittle Transition
V-NOTCH
IMPACT ENERGY=mg(h1-h2) TEMPERATURE
Torsion Testing
τ =TR/J T
γ =R θ /L τ
θ
φ=γ σ
2R σ2 =−τ σ 1=τ
Torsional Shear Stress Torsional Shear Strain

TR πD 4
τ= J = for solid shaft
J 32 Rθ
γ =
π(Douter − Dinner )
4 4
L
J = for tube
32
τ E
Shear Modulus : G = =
γ 2(1+ ν)
Rθ TR
• For linear elastic behaviour, plane sections remain plane, so γ = and τ =
L J
T maxR
Modulus of Rupture (maximum shear stress) : τ u =
J
• For nonlinear behaviour, plane sections remain plane, so
Rθ TR 1  dT 
γ = but τ ≠ beyond linear region . Instead τ = (θ / L ) + 3T
L J 2πR 3  d (θ / L ) 
3T max
Modulus of Rupture (maximum shear stress) when dT/d(θ/L) = 0 so τ u ≈
2 πR3
Table: Comparison of stresses and strains for tension and torsion tests
Tension Test Torsion Test
σ 1 = σ max ; σ 3 = σ 2 = 0 σ1 = − σ3 ; σ2 = 0
σ σ 2σ 1
τ max = 1 = max τ max = = σ max
2 2 2
ε ε max = ε 1 = − ε 3 ; ε 2 = 0
ε max = ε 1; ε 2 = ε 3 = − 1
2
3ε 1 γ max = ε 1 − ε 3 = 2 ε1
γ max =
2
1
effective stress σ eff = (σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ1)2
2
2
effective strain ε eff = (ε1 − ε 2 )2 + (ε 2 − ε 3 )2 + (ε 3 − ε1)2
3
σ = σ1 σ = 3σ1
ε = ε1 2 γ
ε = ε1 =
3 3
Compression Testing
σ1 =P/Ao τ σ
ε =(Li-Lo)/Lo Ao
σ
ε
P σ1
P
Lo σ2 = σ3 = 0
No necking and maximum load may not occur since pancaking allows load to keep
increasing. For many metals and polymers, the compressive stress and strain relations are
similar to those in tension (including elastic constants, ductility, and yield). For other
materials, such as ceramics, glasses, and composites (often at elevated temperatures),
compression behavior may be quite different than tensile behavior.
In an ideal column (no eccentricity) the axial load, P, can be increased until failure occurs
wither by fracture, yielding or buckling. Buckling is a geometric instablity related only to the
elastic modulus (stiffness) of the material and not the strength.
π 2EI π 2E
Pcr = or σ cr =
(KL)2 (KL / r)2
where (L/r) is the slenderness ratio

and (KL/r) is the effective slenderness ratio
Sometimes, Le =KL is the effective length.

Creep and Time Dependent Deformation
Time dependent deformation under constant load or stress at temperatures greater than 30
and 60% of the melting point (i.e. homologous temperatures, T/Tmp >0.3-0.6)
I II III
STRAIN steady-state CREEP .
ε dε =ε. ε
ε dt d STRAIN.
min
dt RATE, ε I II III
TIME, t TIME, t
ε˙min = Aσ n exp( −Q / RT )
Stress exponent, n, from isothermal tests: log n

.
ε˙min = Bσ n so that log ε˙min = logB + n log σ ε min
log ε˙min,1 − log ε˙min,2
or n = log σ
log σ1 − logσ 2
Activation energy, Q, from isostress tests:

ε˙min = C exp(−Q / RT ) so that ln
.
ln ε˙min = ln C + (−Q / R ) (1/ T ) ε min
−R (ln ε˙min,1 − ln ε˙min,2 ) (-Q/R)
or Q = 1 1 1/T
−
T1 T2
Long term predictions from short term results - valid only if the creep/creep rupture
mechanism does not change over time. Rule-of-thumb: short-time test lives should be at
least 10% of the required long-term design life. Creep rupture occurs by the coalescence of
the diffusional damage (creep cavitation by inter or intragranular diffusion and oxidation)
which is manifested during secondary (steady-state creep).
Stress-rupture
Empirical relation σ = A tf N
Important where creep deformation is tolerated but rupture is to be avoided.
Stress
σ N
Failure time, t f
Monkman-Grant
Empirical relation ε˙min t f = C or ε˙min = Ctmf where m = −1 if the relation is applicable .
Important where total creep deformation (i.e. ε˙mint f ) is of primary concern.
.
ε min
m
t
f
Sherby-Dorn
Assumes that Q≠f(σ or T) and suggests that the creep strains for a given stress form a
unique curve if plotted versus the temperature compensated time, θ = t exp(− Q/RT) .
A common physical mechanism is assumed to define the time-temperature paramter such
 log (e)   1 
that the Sherby-Dorn parameter P SD = logθ = logt f - Q
 R   T
PSD
Larson-Miller
Assumes that Q=f(σ) and suggests that the creep strains for a given stress form a unique
curve if plotted versus the temperature compensated time, θf = t f exp(− Q/RT) .
A common physical mechanism is assumed to define the time-temperature parameter such
 log (e) 
that the Larson-Miller parameter P LM = Q = T (logt f +C)
 R 
PLM
Material Damping
Energy dissipation during cyclic loading - internal friction which is material, frequency,
temperature dependent.
σ σa
∆u=internal damping energy σ
= ∫ σ dε
δ t
ε ε εa
σa
Dynamic Modulus : E * = Phase Angle : φ = δ
εa
∆u
Loss Coefficient : Q −1 = tan δ =
2 πUe
σ'
Storage Modulus: = E * cos δ (where σ ' = σ at εa )
εa
1
Elastic Energy: Ue = σ 'ε aat ε a maximum extension
2
Fracture
Fracture is the separation (or fragmentation) of a solid body into two or more parts under the
action of stress (crack initiation and crack propagation) Presence of cracks may weaken the
material such that fracture occurs at stresses much less than the yield or ultimate strengths.
Fracture mechanics is the methodology used to aid in selecting materials and designing
components to minimize the possibility of fracture from cracks.
ALLOWABLE ALLOWABLE σο
STRESS, σ STRESS, σ
High K Ic a t = transition crack length
Low K Ic between yield and fracture
CRACK LENGTH, a CRACK LENGTH, a

Cracks lower the material's tolerance (allowable stress) to fracture.
Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture
A crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic strain energy is at least equal to the
energy required to create the new fracture surfaces
σ
For completely brittle material :
2c π c 2σ 2 t
Elastic strain energy with no crack , Ue =
t E
Energy required to produce crack surfaces , Us = 2(2c γ s )t
W
π c2 σ 2 t
Energy balance , ∆U= Us − Ue = 4cγ s t-
σ E
2 π cσ 2 t
= 0 = 4 γ s t-
d∆U
At critical crack length fracture will occur ,
dc E
Us
E 2γs
∆U Such that σ f = for plane stress and t = 1
πc
E 2( γ s + γ p ) Eγ p
Ue If plastic deformation occurs σf = ≈
πc c
Strain Energy Release Rate

E 2γ s σ 2π c
If σ f = let =2 γ s then = where is the linear elastic strain energy
πc E
release rate.
The stress intensity factor, K, uniquely defines the stress state at a crack tip in a linear-
elastic, isotropic material.
θ θ
cos 1-sin sin
K 3θ 
σx = +.....
y 2 πr 2 2 2 
r K θ θ 3θ 
σy = cos 1+sin sin +.....
θ 2πr 2 2 2 
K θ θ 3θ
x τ xy = cos sin cos +.....
2 πr 2 2 2
σ z = 0 for plane stress or σ z = ν(σ x + σ y )
a
τ yz = τ zx = 0
In general
MODE I
K = Fσ π a = Yσ π a = ασ π a OPENING MODE II
where F, Y, and α are geometry correction factors MODE SLIDING
Subscripts on K refer to fracture mode : MODE
KI =Mode I, opening mode
KII = Mode II, sliding mode
KIII =Mode III, tearing mode MODE III
TEARING
K2 MODE
Note: = where E' = E (plane stress)
E'
and E'= E/(1-ν 2 ) (plane strain)
Plane strain fracture toughness

KIc is the critical stress intensity factor in plane strain conditions at stress intensity factors
below which brittle fracture will not occur. The plane strain fracture toughness, KIc, is a
material property and is independent of geometry (e.g. specimen thickness).
Fracture toughness in design

Fracture occurs when
K Ic = K I = Fσ πa
where F is the geometry correction factor for the particular crack geometery.
Designer can choose a material with required K Ic ,
OR design for the stress, σ,to prevent fracture ,
OR choose a critical crack length, a, which is detectable (or tolerable).
Cyclic Fatigue
Fatigue is failure due to cyclic (dynamic) loading including time-dependent failure due to
mechanical and/or thermal fatigue. Fatigue analysis may be stress-based, strain based, or
fracture mechanics based.
Stress-based analysis
σm
σ max
σ ∆σ
σa t
σmin
σ max = Maximum stress
σ min = Minimum stress
σ + σ min
σ m = Mean stress = max
2
∆σ = Stress range = σ max − σmin
∆σ
σ a = Stress amplitude = = (σ max − σm ) = (σm − σmin )
2
Note: tension = + σ and compression = − σ. Completely reversed R= −1, σm = 0.
σ
R = Stress ratio = min
σ max
σ a 1− R
A = Amplitude ratio = =
σ m 1+ R
S-N Curves
Stress (S)-fatigue (Nf) life curve where gross stress, S, may be presented as
∆σ, σ a , σ max ,or σ m . High cycle N f>10 5 (sometimes 102 -10 4 ) with gross stress elastic. Low
cycle N f<10 2 -10 4 with gross elastic plus plastic strain.
Ferrous and Ti-based alloys

S σe= fatigue limit or endurance limit ( σe @106 cycles)
Non-ferrrous materials
(e.g Al or Cu alloys) ( σe @ 108 cycles)
10 6 log N f 108
Fatigue factors
σ LOCAL
Recall stress concentration factor: k t =
σ REMOTE
σ UN −NOTCHED
σ UN-NOTCHED
Fatigue strength reduction factor: k f = e
S e
σ NOTCHED
e σe NOTCHED
k −1
Notch sensitivity factor, q = f where q=0 for no
kt − 1
notch sensitivity, q=1 for full sensitivity. log N f
q“ as notch radius, ρ, “ and q“ as S UTS“
Generally, k f<< kt for ductile materials and sharp notches but kf≈ kt for brittle materials and
blunt notches. This is due to i) steeper dσ/dx for sharp notch so average stress in fatigue
process zone is greater for the blunt notch, ii) volume effect of fatigue which is tied to
average stress over larger volume for blunt notch, iii) crack cannot propagate far from a
sharp notch because steep stress gradient lowers KI quickly. In design, avoid some types of
notches, rough surfaces, and certain types of loading. Compressive residual stresses at
surfaces (from shot peening, surface rolling, etc.) can increase fatigue lives.
Endurance limit, σe is also lowered by factors such as surface finish (ma), type of loading
(mt), size of specimen (m d ), miscellaneous effects (mo ) such that: σ 'e = m amt m d mo σe
Note that σe can be estimated from the ultimate tensile strength of the material such that:
σ e ≈ meSUTS where m e =0.4-0.6 for ferrous materials.
For design purposes:

Effect of mean stress for constant amplitude completely reversed stress.
σe  σ 
Goodman: σa = σ e  1− m  Soderberg, use S YS instead of SUTS .
 SUTS 
σa
If factor of safety and /or fatigue factor are used:
Goodman
For brittle materials, apply k f to σ e , k f ≈ k t to SUTS , and FS to SUTS and σ e.
Soderberg σe  σm 
σa = 1− 
FS •k f  (SUTS /(k f ≈ k t )FS ) 
σm S
ys
Suts
For ductile materials, apply k f to σe and FS to SUTS and σ e .
σe  σm 
σa = 1− 
FS •k f  (S UTS / FS ) 
Effect of variable amplitude
about a constant mean stress.
σa3
σ a2
σa1
σ t σa3
σa σa2
σ a1
N1 N2 N3 N Nf 2 N f1 Nf
f3
Palmgren-Miner Rule (Miner's Rule)
N1 N2 N3 N
+ + = ∑ j =1
Nf1 Nf2 Nf3 Nfj
Fatigue crack growth

The fatigue process consists of 1) crack initiation, 2) slip band crack growth (stage I crack
propagation) 3) crack growth on planes of high tensile stress (stage II crack propagation)
and 4) ultimate failure.
Fatigue cracks initiate at free surfaces (external or internal) and initially consist of slip band
extrusions and intrusions. Fatigue striations (beach marks) on fracture surfaces represent
successive crack extensions normal to tensile stresses when 1 mark≈1N but ∑marks≠Nf.
Saturation
Slip bands on Cracking

Slip band Intrusions and
first loading Extrusions under cyclic loading Number of Cycles N
During fatigue crack propagation (stage II may dominate) such that crack growth analysis
can be applied to design: a) cracks are inevitable, b) minimum detectable crack length can
be used to predict total allowable cycles, c) periodic inspections can be scheduled to
monitor and repair growing cracks, d) damage tolerant design can be applied to allow
structural survival in presence of cracks.
Most important advance in fatigue crack propagation was realizing the dependence of crack
da
propagation on the stress intensity factor. Paris power law relation: = C(∆K )m
dN
For constant stress range such that ∆K = F (∆σ ) πa and F can be approximated as nearly
constant over the range of crack growth. Assume m and C are constant, then:
Nf af f a
da da
∫N dN= ∫a C(∆K )m a∫ C(F∆σ πa )m
=
i i i
OR
a(1−(m /2))
− a(1−(m /2))
a
Nf = f i
[ ] [1− (m / 2) ] da/dN
m
C F (∆σ ) π
where ai is the initial crack length which
is either assumed or determined from non N
destructive evaluation (NDE) and
1  K Ic 
2
af = 
π  Fσ max 
For >(+R) crack remains in
III tension (open) longer and can
I II tolerate less K for the same da/dN
log log
da/dN da/dN
m
+R -R
∆ Kth log ∆ K log ∆ K

If F is a function of crack length, i.e. F(a,W, etc.), then numerical integration must be used.
Nf af af
da da
∫N dN= a∫ C(∆K )m = a∫ C F(a,W,etc)∆σ πa m
i i i [ ]
Shafts in Torsion
τ =Tρ /J T
γ =ρθ /L
σ
θ σ2 =−τ
φ=γ σ 1=τ
ρ
2R=2c=D
τ
L
2-D Mohr's Circle for Pure Torsion
Torsional Shear Stress Torsional Shear Strain
Tρ ρθ
τ = where J= polar moment of intertia = ∫ ρ2 dA γ =
J dA L
Tc (or c o ) cθ
τ max = γ max =
J L
dτ E
Shear Modulus : G = =
dγ 2(1+ ν)
ρθ Tρ
For linear elastic behaviour, plane sections remain plane, so γ = and τ =
L J
Special cases
πD4 πc 4
J= = for solid shaft
32 2
π(Douter
4
−Dinner
4
) π(co4 − ci4 )
J= = for tube
32 2
Power transmission
P = Tω
P =power (S.I. units, P= W = N•m/s, US Customary, P =HP = 550 ft•lb/s
T = torque
dθ 2π
ω = =angular velocity, rad/s (ω =RPM )
dt 60
Angle of twist
L
T (x)dx
φ=∫ (in general)
0
J(x )G
TL
φ= (at x =L for constant T, J, G)
JG
TL
φ=∑ (for multiple segments for different T, J, G)
JG
Pressure Vessels
pr
σ1= pr σ1=σ2=
t 2t
p p
σ2= pr
2t
Thin wall cylindrical Thin wall spherical

pressure vessel pressure vessel
Thin wall refers to a vessel with inner radius to wall thickness ratio, r/t, of greater than 10.
For cylindrical vessel with internal gage pressure only,

pr pr
At outer wall, σ 1 = (hoop); σ 2 = (longitudinal); σ 3 = 0 (radial),
t 2t
pr pr
At inner wall, σ 1 = (hoop); σ 2 = (longitudinal); σ 3 = -p (radial)
t 2t
For spherical vessel with internal gage pressure only,
pr pr
At outer wall, σ 1 = (hoop); σ 2 = (longitudinal); σ 3 = 0 (radial),
2t 2t
pr pr
At inner wall, σ 1 = (hoop); σ 2 = (longitudinal); σ 3 = -p (radial)
2t 2t
Beams
+w(x)
+V +V
+M
+M
x
Beam Sign Convention
Support Condition Force Reaction Boundary Condition

v=0
dv =0
M R dx
Fixed
v=0
dv
M=0 R dx ≠ 0
Roller
v=0
dv
M=0 R dx ≠ 0
Pinned
v≠0
R=0 dv
M=0 dx ≠0
Free
FBD, Shear Diagram and Moment Diagram
FBD: ∑ F = 0, ∑M = 0
dV
Shear Diagram (V): = −w(x )
dx
dM
Moment Diagram (M): =V
dx
Bending strain and stress
ρ = Radius of Curvature
−ε −σ
y
+M x Neutral Axis +M
=Centroid
ε = -y σ = -My
ρ I
+ε +σ
Normal Stress and Strain
y
= −  εmax where ε max =
-y -c
ε =
ρ  c ρ
My Mc
σ =- and σ max =
I I
y = distance from neutral axis
ρ = radius of curvature of neutral axis
c = distance from neutral axis to point furthest
from neutral axis
M= bending moment
∫ y dA
2
I = moment of inertia of cross section=
dA
Shear Stress
VQ
τ =
It
V = shear force
Q = ∫ ydA' = y 'A' where A'= portion of cross section
A'
I = moment of inertia of entire cross section

t = thickness of cross section at point of interest
Compare normal and shear stress distributions

−σ τ=0
y
x Neutral Axis
+M +M
=Centroid
+V σ = -My +V
I τ= VQ
It
+σ τ=0
Special cases
Rectangular Cross Section h

3
bh 6M 3V 3V b
I= σ max = τ max = =
12 bh 2 2A 2(bh)
Circular Cross Section
πc 4 2M 4V 4V c=co
I= σ max = τmax = =
4 πc 3 3A 3(πc 2 )
Tubular Cross Section
π(co4 −c i4 ) 2Mco 2V 2V ci
I= σ max = τmax = =
4 π(c 4o −c i4 ) A π(co2 −c i2 ) co
Beam Deflections
Moment Curvature
1 M
=
ρ EI
Equations for Elastic Curve
d 4v
EI = -w(x)
dx 4
d3v
EI 3 =V(x)
dx
d2v
EI 2 = M(x)
dx
Need to integrate equations for elastic curve for find v(x) and dv(x)/dx in terms of M(x), V(x),
w(x), and constants of integration. The specific solution for the elastic curve is then found by
applying the boundary conditions. Note that v=dv/dx=0 for fixed support, v=0 but dv/dx≠0 for
simple support, and v=max or min when dv/dx=0 at maximum moment (i.e. inflection point).
Statically Indeterminate
Axially-Loaded Members
FA FB
A C P B
LAC LCB
∑F = 0 so -FA − FB +P = 0
But FA and FB are unknown
so
Use load-displacement relation and compatibility
at the common point C
FAL AC FBL CB
− =0
AE AE
Torsionally-Loaded Members
T
TB
TA A C B
LAC LCB
∑M = 0 so -TA − TB +T = 0
But TA and TB are unknown
so
Use torque-twist relation and compatibility
at the common point C
TAL AC TBL CB
− =0
JG JG
Beams
A C B
LAC LCB
∑M = 0 and ∑F = 0
But there are additional supports not needed
for stable equilibrium which are redundants
and determine the degree of indeterminacy
so
First determine redundant reactions, then
use compatibility conditions to determine
redundants and apply these to beam to solve
for the remaining reactions using equilibrium
If use method of integration, integrate the

d2v M
differential equation, = twice to
dx 2 EI
find the internal moment in terms of x (i.e., M(x)).
The redundants and constants of integration are

found from the boundary conditions.
Engineering Materials
Classes and various aspects of engineering materials.
Size scales and disciplines involved in the study of engineering materials.

Crystals, structures, defects and dislocations, theoretical strength
Four common crystal structures: (primitive) cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic,
and hexagonal close packed.
a) amorphous b) crystalline
Examples of a) amorphous (without form) and b) crystalline structures
Types of point defects Types of line defects (dislocations)

[a) edge dislocations and b) screw dislocations]
E E
σ max = ≈ Upper
Maximum Cohesive Strength
π 10 Bound
Eγ s
σmax = Lower
Bound
a0
Gb
Maximum Shear Stress at Slip τ max =
2πao
Strengthening Mechanisms
Grain Boundary Strengthening
Mechanism: GB is region of disturbed lattice with steep strain gradients
High angle = high fracture energy plus diffusion sites
Low angle = edge dislocations climb
Teq is equicohesive temp where GB is weaker than grain and d is the grain diameter.
Result: At R.T. As d ⇑ then H ⇓ and SUTS ⇓ AND as d ⇓ then H ⇑ and SUTS ⇑ such that
σ o = σ i + kd −1/2 (Hall-Petch Eq. where σ o is yield stress, σ i is friction
stress and k is the"locking" parameter
At H.T. If T>Teq as d⇑ then S UTS⇑ BUT if T<Teq as d⇓ then S UTS⇑
Yield Point Phenomenon
Mechanism: Lüders bands of yielded and unyielded Upper Yield
Strain
material with C and N atoms forming Hardening
atmospheres (interstitials) to pin dislocations Lower Yield
and forcing new dislocations to form.
Lüders Bands
Result: Upper yield point followed by lower yield point are bands of
before strain hardening. yielded material
Strain
Strain Aging
Mechanism: C and N atoms form atmospheres (interstitials) to pin dislocations and forcing
new dislocations to form BUT diffusion of interstitials can repin dislocations.
Result: Upper yield point and lower yield point return even if material is strain hardening.
YP returns
for load/unload
load/unload
shows no YP
Strain Strain
At R.T., No strain age and no YP Aged at T or after days at R.T., YP returns
Solid Solution Strengthening

Mechanism: Atomic-level interstitial and substitutional solute atoms provide resistance to
dislocation motion as dislocations bend around regions of high energy.
Result: Level of stress strain curve increases and yield strength increases.
Two Phase Aggregates
Mechanism: Microstructural-level solid solution (dispersed structure) or particulate
additions (aggregated structures). Super saturation of particles in a matrix
where hard particles block slip in a ductile matrix and localized strain
concentration raise yield strength due to plastic constraint.
Result: Yield strength increases, hardness increases
Bounds on properties: Isostrain: εm=εp =εc so σc=Vp σp +Vmσm
Isostress: σm=σp =σc so εc=Vp εp +Vmεm
Strengthening Mechanisms (cont'd.)
Fiber Strengthening
Mechanism: Discrete fibers carry load and directional properties "toughen" composite.
Discrete matrix transmits load to fibers and protects fibers.
Result: High strength to weight ratio, directional properties
Bounds on properties: Isostrain: εm=εp =εc so σc=Vp σp +Vmσm
Isostress: σm=σp =σc so εc=Vp εp +Vmεm
Martensite Strengthening
Mechanism: Fine structure and high dislocation density provide effective barriers to slip
with C atoms strongly bound to dislocations and restrict dislocation motion.
Result: Hardness and strength increase
Cold Working Suts

Mechanism: Strain hardening due to dislocations Sys
interacting with barriers and other dislocations
to impede slip. As number of dislocations %RA
increase the resistance to slip increases %EL
(toughness increases)
Result: Energy required for plastic deformation increases Amount of Cold Work
with increasing cold work. Strength increases
and ductility decreases.
Strain Hardening
Mechanism: Mutual obstruction of dislocations on intersecting slip systems through
interaction of stress field aid interpenetration of slip systems both of which
produce higher internal energy.
Result: Hardens alloys which do not heat treat harden. The "rate" of strain hardening is the
slope of the flow curve (true stress - true strain curve). Tensile behaviour
increases, density decreases (~0.2%), electrical conductivity decreases,
thermal coefficient increases, chemical reactivity increases.
Annealing of Cold Work
Mechanism: Hold at elevated temperature to cause annealing.
Recovery - short time - restores physical properties without change in
microstructure.
Recrystallization - longer time - cold worked microstructure is replaced with
new sets of strain free grains.
Grain growth - longest time - progressive increase in size of strain free grains.
Result: High internal energy due to cold work is relieved - material reverts to strain free
condition. Cold working is mechanically stable (shape) but not
thermodynamically so annealing restores ductility while retaining shape
changes of part.
Texture (Preferred Orientation)
Mechanism: Crystallographic fibering with reorientation of grains during deformation (e.g.
extrusion, rolling, etc.) Mechanical fibering with alignment of inclusions,
cavities, and secondary phases.
Result: Anisotropy of mechanical properties (generally enhanced in texture direction)

Mechanics of Materials - : F M F F F M M M

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SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

Mechanics of Materials - a branch of mechanics that develops relationships

Some nomenclature used in these notes

Note: +σ = tensile stress = "pulling" stress

Note: A +σ acts normal to a positive face in the positive coordinate direction

Mohr's Circles for Stress States - graphical representation of stress

Examples of Mohr's circles

Graphical Description of State of In this example all stresses acting in axial

σ σ In-plane principal stresses are: σ1 = C+R

Note that the sense (direction) of the

strain except interchange variables as

Engineering shear strain,

Complete State of Strain: Six independent strain components

∑ displacements in x 'direction for Q to Q * gives

Principal Normal Strain - maximum or minimum normal strains acting in principal

For the plane strain case ε 1,2 = ±   +  and tan 2θ p =

Mohr's Circles for Strain States - graphical representation of strain

Examples of Mohr's circles

Strain Gage Rosettes

Rosette orientations and equations relating x-y coordinate strains to

Continuum Mechanics and Constitutive Relations

Stress − strain relations ∆σ

Simple Power Law

Energy absorption (energy/volume):

Table: Stress-strain definitions for tensile testing

Examples of Rockwell Scales

Torsional Shear Stress Torsional Shear Strain

where (L/r) is the slenderness ratio

Sometimes, Le =KL is the effective length.

Stress exponent, n, from isothermal tests: log n

Activation energy, Q, from isostress tests:

CRACK LENGTH, a CRACK LENGTH, a

Strain Energy Release Rate

Plane strain fracture toughness

Fracture toughness in design

Ferrous and Ti-based alloys

For design purposes:

Fatigue crack growth

Slip bands on Cracking

∆ Kth log ∆ K log ∆ K

Thin wall cylindrical Thin wall spherical

For cylindrical vessel with internal gage pressure only,

Support Condition Force Reaction Boundary Condition

FBD, Shear Diagram and Moment Diagram

Bending strain and stress

I = moment of inertia of entire cross section

Compare normal and shear stress distributions

Rectangular Cross Section h

If use method of integration, integrate the

The redundants and constants of integration are

Classes and various aspects of engineering materials.

Size scales and disciplines involved in the study of engineering materials.

Types of point defects Types of line defects (dislocations)

Solid Solution Strengthening

Cold Working Suts

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