EE3741 - L2 - Transformer and Per Unit

EE3741 Lecture 2 Transformer and
per unit calculation

Subject lecturer: Dr. XU Zhao
Department of Electrical Engineering

Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Email: eezhaoxu@polyu.edu.hk
R
Room: CF632
Tel: 27666160
outline
• Transformer
-ideal
-actual
-connections
-tap change …
• Per unit
• load model
2 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Transformers - History
• 1882 – Edison inaugurates first central generating station
in USA
– 400 lamps, each consuming 83 W
– DC supply
• Supply limited to relatively small distances from power station
because of low distribution voltage
• 1886 – William
Willi Stanley,
St l W
Westinghouse
ti h engineer
i iinstalls
t ll
first AC system using transformer at Great Barrington in
Massachusetts
– AC supply chosen as dominant mode of electricity generation
primarily due to invention of transformer

Transformers
• Makes possible:
1. Power generation at the most economical level
2. Transmission and distribution at the most economical level
3. Power utilisation at the most suitable level
4. Measurement of high voltages (potential transformer) and
high
g current (current
( transformer))
5. Impedance matching, insulating one circuit from another or
insulating DC circuits from AC circuits

Single Phase Transformer
• A single phase transformer

– Two or more winding, coupled by a common magnetic
core

Ideal Transformer
zFirst we review the voltage/current relationships for an ideal
transformer
– no real power losses
– magnetic core has infinite permeability
– no leakage flux
zWe’ll define the “primary” side of the transformer as the side

that usually takes power, and the secondary as the side that
usually delivers power.
– primary is usually the side with the higher voltage, but may
be the low voltage side on a generator step-up transformer.
permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a magnetic field
within itself.
itself

Ideal Transformer Relationships
Assume we have flux φm in magnetic material. Then

λ1 = N1φm λ2 = N 2φm
d λ1 dφ m d λ2dφ m
v1 = = N1 v2 = = N2
dt dt dt dt
dφ m v1 v2 v1 N1
= = → = = a = turns ratio
dt N1 N2 v2 N2
Current Relationships
To get the current relationships use ampere's
ampere s law
mmf = ∫Γ
∫C H • ds = + '
H i dL N i
11 N i
22
H × length = N1i1 + N 2i2'

B × length
l h
= N1i1 + N 2i2'
μ
Assuming uniform flux density in the core
φ × length
= N1i1 + N 2i2'
μ × area

Current/Voltage Relationships
If μ is infinite then 0 = N1i1 + '
N 2i2 . Hence
i1 N2 i1 N2 1
'
= − or = =
i2 N1 i2 N1 a
Then
⎡a 0 ⎤ v
⎡v1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 2⎤
⎢i ⎥ = 1 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1⎦ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎣ i2 ⎦
⎣ a⎦

Impedance
p Transformation Example
p
•Example:
Example: Calculate the primary voltage and current for an impedance load
on the secondary
⎡ a 0 ⎤ ⎡ v2 ⎤
⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎢
⎢i ⎥ = 1 ⎥ ⎢ v2 ⎥
⎣ 1⎦ ⎢0 ⎥⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣ a⎦ ⎣ Z
1 v2
v1 = a v2 i1 =
aZ
v1
= a2 Z
i1
Real Transformers
z Real transformers
– have losses
– have leakage flux
– have finite permeability of magnetic core
• Real power losses

– resistance in windings (i2 R)
– core losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis

Transformer Core losses
Eddy currents arise because of changing flux in core.
core
Eddy currents are reduced by laminating the core
Hysteresis losses are proportional to area of BH curve

and the frequency
These losses are reduced by

using material with a
thin BH curve

Effect of Leakage Flux
Not all flux is within the transformer core
λ1 = λl1 + N1φm
λ2 = λl 2 + N 2φm
Assuming a linear magnetic medium we get
λl1 = Ll1i1 λl 2 = Ll 2i 2'
di1 d φm
v1 = r1i1 + Ll1 + N1
dt dt
di 2' dφm
v 2 = r2i 2 + Ll 2 '
+ N2 r1/2 accounts
for copper
pp loss
dt dt
Effect of Finite Core Permeability
Finite core ppermeabilityy means a non-zero mmf
is required to maintain φm in the core
N1i1 − N 2i2 = ℜ φm
This value is usually modeled as a magnetizing current
ℜ φm N 2
i1 = + i2
N1 N1
N2 ℜ φm
i1 = im + i2 where i m =
N1 N1

Transformer Equivalent Circuit
Using the previous relationships,
relationships we can derive an
equivalent circuit model for the real transformer
This model is further simplified by referring all

impedances to the primary side
r2 = a r2
' 2
re = r1 + r2
'
x2' = a 2 x2 xe = x1 + x2'
Simplified Equivalent Circuit

Determination of Equivalent Circuit
Parameters
• Two simple tests used to determine transformer equivalent
circuit parameters
– Open circuit test
– Short
Sh t circuit
i it test
t t
• Tests used by manufacturers to confirm design values or
to obtain value where no data available

Open Circuit Test

Open Circuit Test
• Transformer rated voltage applied to one winding while other winding open
circuited
– Choice of energized winding depends upon availability of suitable
voltage source
• Allows measurement of magnetizing inductance Lm1, core loss resistance

Rc1
• Also allows verification of turns ratio

Open Circuit Test
•Since transformer unloaded, current IOC

represents excitation current through shunt
branch
– Current ~5% rated current
• Voltage drop across leakage reactance, winding
resistance
i t off energized
i d winding
i di can be
b ignored
i d
•When rated voltage and rated frequency applied
during open circuit test, measured power
practically equal to core loss
– Core loss assumed to remain constant for different load
levels

Open Circuit Test

Open Circuit Test
• Magnitude of admittance of • Complex admittance of

shunt excitation branch, excitation branch
referred to energized side
YOC = |YOC|∠ -θOC
|YOC| = |IOC|/|VOC| = GC – jBM
• Phase angle of admittance • Corresponding resistance and

reactance calculated as
-θOC = -cos-1[POC/(VOC IOC)] RC = 1/ GC
jXM = 1/ – jBM

Open Circuit Test
• If necessary parameters may be referred to primary or secondary side as
required
RC1 = a2RC2
XM1 = a2XM2

Example – Open Circuit Test
• 50 kVA
kVA, 2400/240 V,V 50 Hz single phase transformer
– Open circuit test performed on low voltage side
– Results
VOC = 240 V
IOC = 5.4 A
POC = 186 W

Example Contd
– Open Circuit Test
• |YOC| = IOC/VOC • Referring these quantities to

= 0.0225 siemens HV side
– a = 2400/240 = 10
• -θ2 = -cos-1[POC/(VOC*IOC)]
= - 81.75
81.75° •Rc11 = a2Rc22 = 30.96
30 96 kΩ
Yoc = |Yoc|∠(-θ2)=Gc2-jBm2 Xm1 = a2Xm2 = 4.48 kΩ
• YOC = 0.0033 – j*0.022 [S] Lm1 = Xm1 / 2πf
RC2 = 309.6
309 6 Ω(=1/G
Ω( 1/Gc2) =14.26 H
Xm2 = 44.8 Ω(=1/Bm2)

Short Circuit Test
Rated currents
Short Circuit Test
• One winding short circuited while just enough voltage

applied to other winding to ensure rated current flows in
both windings
• Allows measurement of equivalent resistance, RE, and
leakage reactance XE, of windings as seen from supply side
– Equivalent resistance can be compared with measurement of DC
resistance to determine impact of frequency of windings resistance
• Also allows check of turns ratio

Short Circuit Test
• With transformer short circuited voltage required to

produce rated current very low
– Voltage
V lt ~5
5 - 10% rated
t d voltage
lt
• Current through magnetising branch is negligible
• Applied voltage may be assumed to occur wholly as
voltage
lt d
drop across transformer
t f equivalent
i l t series
i
impedance
• Also when rated current flows through windings during
short
h circuit
i i test, measured d power equals
l to rated
d copper
loss

Re1=R
R1+a
a2R2 and Xe1=X
X1+a
a2X2
Short Circuit Test

Short Circuit Test
• Magnitude of series impedance of• Equivalent series resistance

transformer, referred to (referred to HV side)
energized (HV) side
RE1 = PSC/I2SC = R1 + a2R2
|ZE1| = |VSC|/|ISC|
• Equivalent series reactance
(referred to HV side)
XE1 = √(|ZE1|2 - RE12)

= X1 + a2X2

Short Circuit Test
• If using complete equivalent circuit parameters for secondary can be
determined according to:
R1 = a2R2 = RE1/2
X1 = a2X2 = XE1/2

Example – Short Circuit Test
• 50 kVA
kVA, 2400/240 – V, V 50 Hz single phase transformer
– Short circuit test performed with low voltage side shorted
– Results
VSC = 48 V
ISC = 20.8 A
PSC = 620 W

Example - Short Circuit Test
• Magnitude of series impedance of• Equivalent series reactance

transformer, referred to (referred to HV side)
energized (HV) side
XE1 = √(|ZE1|2 - RE12)
|ZE1| = Vsc/Isc=48/20.8 = 2.3 Ω = X1 + a2X2
• Equivalent series resistance = √(|2.3|
√(|2 3|2 – 1.43
1 432) = 1.8Ω
1 8Ω
(referred to HV side)
RE1 = PSC/I2SC = R1 + a2R2

= 620/(20.8)2 = 1.43 Ω

Example
Transformer Equivalent parameters
Ideal
transformer
I1 RE1 XE1
I2/a
V1 RC1 Xm1 aV2 V2
• From open circuit and short circuit test can define

needed p parameters of equivalent
q circuit
for 50 kVA, 2400/240 V transformer:
RC1= 30.96 kΩ, XM1= 4.48 kΩ,
RE1 = 1.43
1 43 Ω,
Ω XE1 = 1.8Ω
1 8Ω
Example
Transformer Equivalent parameters
Ideal
transformer
R1 X1 R2 X2
I1 I2
RC1 Xm11 V2
• By assuming R1 = a2R2 = (RE1)/2 and

X1 = a2X2 = (XE1)/2
can derive necessary parameters for full equivalent circuit
of 50 kVA 2400/240 V 50 Hz transformer:
R1 = 0.715 Ω, R2 = 0.00715 Ω
X1 = 0.9 Ω, X2 = 0.009 Ω

Example I1 RE1 XE1
Ideal
transformer
Transformer Voltage I2/a
Regulation/Efficiency
V1 RC1 Xm1 aV2 V2
•Determine regulation/efficiency of 50 kVA

transformer with parameters as determined
previously if operated at rated load, 0.8 power
factor lagging
lagging, at rated secondary voltage
•Rated
Rated load (rated secondary current)
= 50 000 VA / 240 V = 208.3 A
I2 = 208.3 ∠ - cos-1(0.8) = 208.3 ∠ -36.87°
if secondary voltage selected as reference
phasor
•Required
R i d parametert ffor approximate
i t equivalent
i l t
circuit referred to primary
aV2 = 2400 ∠ 0°, (I2/a) = 20.83 ∠ -
36 87° A
36.87°
Ideal
transformer
I1 RE1 XE1
Example I2/a
Transformer Voltage V1 RC1 Xm1 aV2 V2
• Primary voltage required to supply load
V1 = aV2 + (I2/a)(RE1 + j*XE1)
= 2400 ∠ 00° + 20.83
20 83 ∠ -36.87
-36 87°(1
(1.43
43 +
j1.80)
= 2446.4 ∠ 0.28°
• Voltage
V l regulation
l i
| V2,no load | − | V2, full load | | V1 | − | aV2 |

= ×100% = ×100%
| V2, full load | | aV2 |
⎛ 2446.4 − 2400 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ × 100% = 1.93%
⎝ 2400 ⎠
Example
Transformer Voltage
• Output power = rated load x power factor Ideal
transformer
POUTPUT = 50 kVA x 0.8 = 40 000 W I RE1 XE1

1
I2/a
V1 RC1 Xm1 aV2 V2
• Total losses = core loss + copper loss

= (|V1|)2/RC1 + (|I2|/a)2RE1
= 193 W + 620 W = 813 W
OR ΣPloss =POC+I12Re1
• Input power = Output power + losses
PINPUT = 40 000 W + 193 W+ 813 W = 41006 40813W
• Efficiency: = POUTPUT/PINPUT = 40000/ 4100640813W x

100%
=9
97.55%
55% 98%

Test on Three Phase Transformers
• For tests on three phase transformers
– Power being measured is total three phase power
– Measured voltage is line-to-line voltage
– Measured current is line current
• Previous formulae are valid for single phase transformer
– Three phase measurements must be converted to per-phase values

Transformer Rating
• Transformer rating determines conditions under which transformer is
designed to operate
• Defined by:
– frequency
– voltage
– current
– apparent power (volt-ampere
(volt ampere product)

Voltage Rating
ωN1 ABmax ωN1φmax

V1ratedd = =
2 2
• Rated voltage controlled by maximum flux density
permissible within core
– Problems with high peak flux density
• high magnetising current due to core saturation
• Increase in cores losses with both hysteresis and eddy
current losses controlled by maximum flux density
• Size of transformer (cross sectional area of core)
affected by maximum flux density that can be
tolerated by transformer
Current rating
•Rated current of 1
transformer is ⎛ PL − PC ⎞ 2
maximum rms current I1,rated = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
that will not p
produce ⎝ RE1 ⎠
excessive heating in
transformer insulation PL – power that can be
– For oil-impregnated paper dissipated as heat
insulation maximum
temperature ~100
~100°C C PC – core losses of
transformer
at rated voltage

Current Rating
• Method of cooling
cooling, surface area of transformer and even ambient
temperature will control amount of heat that can be dissipated
– If transformer temperature considerably below maximum
permissible level can increase current above rated current
until insulation reaches design limit
• Operation at temperatures above design limit can
reduce life of transformer appreciably
pp y

Apparent Power Rating
• Transformer has volt-ampere rating,

not a (real) power rating
– Srated = V1,ratedI1,rated or Srated = V2,ratedI2,rated
– Voltage rating and current rating essentially independent
• Rating independent of power factor or load

– Transformer can become fully loading supplying capacitive or
inductive loads even if load requires little real power

Distribution Transformer
LTC
Radiators
W/Fans
115 – 35 kV distribution
di ib i transformer
f
45
Source: Tom Ernst, Minnesota Power
Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu
230/115 kV Transformer
230 kV surge 115 kV surge
arrestors arrestors
Oil Cooler
Oil
Radiators
pump
p p
W/Fans
46
Source: Tom Ernst, Minnesota Power
Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu
Polyphase Transformers
•Formed as either
–Three
Three single phase transformers connected together
• Easy to replace failed units
–Three phase transformer bank constructed with all
th
three phases
h on a common core
• Lower weight and cost for given transformer rating
than 3 individual units
• 6 rather than 12 external connections
(large saving for HV windings with complicated
structure)
• Whole transformer must be replaced if single winding
fails
•In both case,
case analysis procedure is identical
Polyphase Transformer
• Winding connections
– Wye – wye
– Delta – delta
– Wye – delta
– Delta – wye

Wye – wye connection
• Each single phase transformer
VAB
Vab
winding controls ratio of phase –
g and p
neutral voltages phase
currents
E.g
|VAN|/|Van| = N1/N2
|IAN|/|Ian| = N2/N1
VCNN
Vcn
• Ratio of line-line voltages
|VAB|/|Vab| =
√3|VAN|/√3|Van|
= N1/N2
• Ratio of line – currents
|IA|/|Ia| =
|IAN|/|Ian|
= N2/N1

Wye – wye connection
• Seldom used in industrial applications
– Easy to develop voltage unbalances
– Allows propagation of harmonics, especially “triplen”

harmonics (3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th harmonic, etc) through
transformer

Delta – delta connection
A
• Each single phase transformer IA IAB Iab Ia a
winding controls ratio of line –
line voltages
g and p phase currents
VAB
Vab
E.g B b
|VAB|/|Vab| = N1/N2
|IAB|/|Iab| = N2/N1
C c

|IA|/|Ia| =
√3|IAB|/√3|Iab|
= N2/N1

Open delta or V – V connection
• One single-phase transformer can be removed and remaining

two continue to operate as a three-phase bank
• Apparent power rating (kVA) of bank reduced to 58% or 1/√3 of
original rating
• Sometimes used to supply small load that is expected to grow
– 2 transformers used for 3 phase supply, with 3rd serving as spare

Wye – delta connection A a
IA Iab Ia
• Each single phase transformer
winding controls ratio of phase –
VAB
neutral voltage (HV) to line–line
Vab
voltage(LV)
l (LV) and d ratios
i off currents B b
through each single phase winding
E.g.
||VAN||/|V
| ab| = N1/N2
|IAN|/|Iab| = N2/N1 C c
• Ratio of line-line voltages
VCN
|VAB|/|Vab| = √3|VAN|/|Van| N
= √3N1/N2
|IA|/|Ia| =
| AN|/(√3|I
|I |/(√ | ab|)
= N2/(√3N1)

Delta – wye connection
A a
• Each single phase transformer IA IAB Ia
winding controls ratio of line –
line voltage (HV) to phase –
Vaab
VAAB
neutrall voltage
l (LV) and
d ratios
i off B
currents through each single b
phase winding
E.g.
g
|VAB|/|Van| = N1/N2
|IAB|/|Ian| = N2/N1 C c
• Ratio of line-line
line line voltages
Vcnn
|VAB|/|Vab| = n
|VAB|/(√3|Van|)
= N1/(√3N2)
• Ratio off line
l – currents
|IA|/|Ia| =√
3|IAB|/|Ian|
= √3N2//N1

Wye – delta connections
•Wye (HV) – delta (LV) connections

– Utilises insulation more efficiently
• Turns ratio effectively increased
• (Y-Δ) for stepping down from HV to medium or LV as in
distribution transformers
• (ΔLV-YHV) Commonly applied to generator step-up
t
transformers
f
– Grounding point desirable because it limits stress on line-
ground impedance of high voltage winding under some
fault conditions
– Delta connection allows circulating path for harmonics
(especially triplen harmonics)
• Allows maintenance of system balance and “good” shape of
voltage waveform even in presence of load unbalances and
magnetizing current harmonics

Delta – wye connections
• Delta (HV) – wye (LV) connections
– Less commonly used as turns ratio on transformers not
used as effectively
y
– Often applied for step-down transformers for

connection to distribution or LV network where single
phase loads connected that require neutral point

Transformer Phase Shift
• Delta-wye (or wye-delta)
A a connections introduce phase shift
IA IAB Ia into voltage and current
waveforms
E.g. Delta – wye connection |VAB|
Vab
VAB
B b / |Van| = N1/N2
|Van| = |VAB|*(N2/N1)
Vab = √3|Van|∠+30°
C c = √3 |VAB||*(N
(N2/N1)∠+30
)∠+30°
• Turns ratio of this transformer

Vcn
n then contains magnitude

g change
g
and phase shift change
Vab/VAB = √3 (N2/N1)∠+30°

• Can determine similar • Possible to achieve phase

relationship for current ratio shifts of
• Ratio of line – currents of – ±30°
delta – wye connection – ±150°
|IA|/|Ia| = – ±90
±90°
√3|IAB|/|Ian| depending upon manner
= √3N2/N1 by which windings are
• For line current feeding delta connectedd
winding IA • Need to standardize the
IA = √3IAB∠-30° relationship
IA/Ia = √3(N2/N1) ∠-30°
30°

• IEEE C57.12.70
C57 12 70 – 1978 American National Standard
Terminal Marking and Connections for Distribution and
Power Transformer
– For both delta-wye and wye-delta connections the HV
terminal voltage will lead the corresponding LV terminal
voltage by 30°
– Currents in the transformers are displace by 30°in the

direction of the voltages
g since the p
phase angles
g of the
currents are determined by the load impedances

Polyphase transformers
120o
Φa+Φb+Φc=0

Polyphase transformers
• Consist of 3 sets of primary and secondary windings on a

common magnetic structure
• For balanced excitation flux produced in each winding of

Φ1, Φ2 and Φ3 balanced
– Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 = 0
– no flux in central magnetic path allowing it to be removed,
simplifying construction, reducing mass and cost of
transformer
• Two main transformer bank construction types

– Core
• Most
M t common three
th phase
h transformer
t f construction
t ti
– Shell

Core type transformer
• Magnetic circuit consists of three

core sections in parallel
– Similar
Si il tto d
delta
lt connected
t d
bank of single phase
transformer
– Removall off return pathh for
f
flux ensures that both the flux
and voltage per phase must
sum to
t zero even for
f
unbalanced loading conditions
– Limits production of triplen
h
harmonics
i underd un-balanced
b l d
loading conditions

Shell type transformer

Shell type transformer
• Can be considered as a stack of 3 single phase units
• Phase B coil wound in opposite direction to Phase A or Phase C
coils
– Ensures that magnitude of combined fluxes such as 0.5*Φ
0 5*Φa +
0.5*Φb or 0.5*Φc + 0.5*Φa will have same magnitude as flux
in outer section of core of 0.5*Φa
– Allows significant reduction in core size (with respective to
stack of 3 single phase units)

Core construction
– Laminated steel core
• Transformer core built from layers

of steel laminate
• Positions
P iti off joints
j i t between
b t layers
l
alternated to give mechanical
strength
• Carefully
f ll constructed d to lleave no
air-gaps in corner where laminates
overlap
– Air-gaps lead to increased
losses within core

Core construction
– wound steel core
• Core wound from
continuous strip of grain-
oriented steel fed through
core

Winding construction

Winding construction
• Windings made of copper or aluminium

• While resistive losses may be significant in distribution class
t
transformers,
f leakage
l k l
losses, mostt important
i t t ffor HV
transformers
– Windings construction to maximize coupling between primary
and
d secondary
d coils
il
• Diagram shows common arrangement used to limit leakage
flux.
• Performance enhanced further by
– Minimize area in which flux leakage occurs
– Increasing
g windings
g length
g to maximize p path length
g for leakage
g
flux

Alternating excitation
of ferromagnetic material
• Transformer excited by sinusoidal voltage
v = Ri + dλ/dt
= Vmcos(ωt)
• λ – related to excitation current by core dimensions and B-
B
H curve of core material
• Ri – small compared to back emf
λ ~ (Vm/ ω)sin(ωt)
) i ( t)
• Waveform of excitation or magnetising current will then be
governed by need to ensure sinusoidal variation in flux
l k
linkages within
h core

Alternating excitation
of ferromagnetic material
• To produce sinusoidal flux
linkages (and voltage)
– Excitation current
become non-sinusoidal
consisting of
fundamental frequency
plus odd – order
harmonics
• If excitation current
sinusoidal
– Flux linkages contain
harmonics

Transformer Actual Impedances
• Difficult to compare
performance of
p
transformers of different
ratings
– Parameter take on wide
range of values

Transformer Per-Unit Impedance
• Per-unit values offer
greater consistency of
parameter for different
transformer ratings
E.g. resistance of primary
windings
• Allows easy identification of

major variations in
transformer design and
performance
f

Transformer Per-Unit
Per Unit Impedance
73 Electrical Engineering, HKPU

73
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu
Auto-transformer
•Transformers
T f provide
id
isolation between
windings
– If isolation not required
voltage transformation
can be
b achieved
h d with
h
single tapped winding
– This is called an
autotransformer

Auto-transformer
• Primary
P i voltage
lt applied:
li d V1,
V1 iinduced
d d voltages
lt are: V1/V2=NN1/N2
(Eac/Ebc = N1/N2)
• When load connected at 2ndary, y, currents: I2 =I1+I3
• as other transformers: N1I1=N2I2 we have
– I2/I1=N1/N2 = a
– I3 = (a-1)I1
• Apparent powers: input S1= V1I1 Output S2=V2I2
• Apparent power output of transformer 2ndary: Sw=V2I3=[(a- =[(a
1)/a]*S2
• Total power transferred through autotransformer is appreciably
greater than transferred by induction

Auto-transformer
• Accurate model of autotransformer

– Incorporates
co po a es leakage
ea age reactance,
eac a ce, wining
g resistance
es s a ce referred
e e ed to
o N1-
turn side
– It also shows method of converting single phase transformer to
autotransformer

Auto-transformer
•Compared
C d with
ith ttwo-winding
i di ttransformer
f off
equivalent rating, autotransformer is
–Smaller
S ll
–More efficient
–With
With lower internal impedance
•It’s used extensively in power systems
where voltages of two systems coupled by
autotransformer do no differ by a factor of
greater than ~ 3

Instrument Transformers
- Current Transformer
• Toroidal core wound from continuous strip of low-

loss low
loss, low-field
field intensity magnetic material
– Secondary winding wound around toroid transformers
high current to 1-5A for measurement
– Insulation of secondary must be adequate for voltage of
current carrying conductor
• Rated conservatively and may be considered as ideal
with little error
error. Sources of error include
– Excitation currents
• Core designed to operate at low flux densities
• Load currents on secondary kept low

- Current Transformer
Operating considerations
– Secondary should never be
open circuited
open-circuited
• All primary current would
become magnetizing current
driving core alternatively
between positive and
negative saturation
producing high voltage
pulses
l iin secondary
d windings
i di

- Potential Transformer
• On most systems, line-voltages cannot be measured

directly
– Voltage measured using potential transformer
• Allows low current metering
• Performs isolation from high voltage system
– VA rating of potential transformer often very small
• Transformer however may
be physically large due to
need for insulation from
line voltage
80 Electrical Engineering, HKPU

80
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu
Load Tap Changing Transformers
z LTC transformers have tap ratios that can be varied to regulate bus
voltages
z The typical range of variation is ±10% from the nominal values, usually in
33 discrete steps (0.0625% per step).
z Because tap changing is a mechanical process, LTC transformers usually
have a 30 second deadband to avoid repeated changes.
z Unbalanced tap pp
positions can cause "circulating
g vars"

Voltage regulation transformer
•Voltage
V lt magnitudes
it d and d
current flow may need to
be controlled/maintained
• Booster transformer is
designed to provide a
boost of voltage
magnitude along a line
• E.g. +/-5 %(parallel
connection) or +/-10% (in
series)
i ) voltage
lt regulation
l ti

Phase Shifting Transformers
zPhase shifting transformers are used
to control the phase angle across the
transformer, normally
autotransformer
zSince power flow through the
transformer depends upon phase
angle, this allows the transformer to
regulate the power flow through the
transformer
zPhase shifters can be used to
prevent line overloads and reduce
llosses.

Per unit notation
• Per Unit Quantities
– Definition
– Advantages
– Formulation
– Change of Base
– Examples

Per-Unit Quantities
• Any electrical quantity may be expressed in “per-units” as

a ratio of actual q
quantity
y to a chosen base value of that
quantity
• E.g.
actual quantity
per − unit quantity =
base value quantity
– Actual quantity
– value of quantity in actual units (such as volts, amps)
– Base quantity
– reference value with same units as actual quantity

Base quantity
• Reference level
• Always has same units as actual quantity being measured
– PER-UNIT QUANTITY IS DIMENSIONLESS
• Always a real number – e.g.
e g 100,
100 or 1.5
15
– Phase angle of per-unit quantity always the same as the phase-angle
of the actual quantity being measured

Advantages of Per-Unit
•Eliminates need for conversion of voltages,

current and impedances across every
transformer
– Per-unit quantities same on both sides of transformer
• Reduces chance of computational error
•Many network quantities lies within narrow
numerical bounds when expressed in per-units
– Nominal voltage or rated voltage of system usually
chosen as voltage base Î per-unit value of voltage
usually ~ 1.0 p.u.
• Per-unit data can be checked rapidly for gross errors

Advantages of Per-Unit
•Manufacturers
M f t usually
ll specify
if impedance
i d off
machines and transformers in per-unit or
percent based on name
name-plate
plate ratings

Per-Unit
Per Unit Quantities
– Single Phase Systems
•Network behaviour characterised by 4 base

quantities
– Power (apparent power)
– Voltage
– Current
– Impedance
•Base q
quantities must satisfy
y electrical laws
– Sbase = VbaseIbase
– Vbase = IbaseZbase
•Necessary
N to
t select
l t two
t base
b values
l from
f which
hi h
remaining quantities will be specified

Per-Unit Quantities
•Usual to specify Power and Voltage bases
– These parameter often determined according to rated
values or nominal values network
E.g. – for transmission line nominal voltage 132 kV
and power rating 100 MVA
•Current and Impedance bases calculated from
Power and Voltage bases
Vbase (Vbase )
2
Sbase
I base = , Z base = =
Vbase I base Sbase
Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1φ
1. Pick a 1φ VA base for the entire system, SB
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, VB. Voltage bases are
related by transformer turns ratios. Voltages are line to neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Note per unit conversion only affects magnitudes,

Note, magnitudes not
the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
units (i.e.,
( a voltage
l is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
l )
Per-Unit Quantities
•Per-unit electrical quantities calculated as:

P + jQ
S per −unit = = Pper −unit + jQ per −unit
Sbase
V∠φv V
V per −unit = = ∠φv
Vbase Vbase
I∠φi
I per −unit =
I base
Z∠φ z
Z per −unit =
Z base
Per-Unit
Per Unit Quantities
– Three Phase Systems
• For 3 phase systems,
systems
– Base power is total 3 phase
– Base voltage is line-to-line voltage
– Base line current assumed equal to base phase current
• Assumption is that network wye connected
– Base impedance is the same per-phase base quantity

Per-Unit
Per Unit Quantities
– Three Phase Systems
• For 3 Phase Systems

– Base power: ST,base= 3Sp,base
– Base voltage: VL,base=√3Vp,base
– Base current: Ip,base = (ST,base)/(√3VL,base)
= (Sp,base
b )/(Vp,base
b )
– Base impedance: Zp,base = (VL,base)2/(ST,base)
= (Vp,base)2/(Sp,base)

Change of base formula
• Impedance characteristics of electrical equipment usually expressed as
percentage based on machine ratings
– Machine ratings may be different from system voltage or power bases
– Need formula to convert per-impedance or percentage impedance of
machine ratings to per-unit impedance for new base

Change of base formula
Z actual Z actual × Sbase ,old

Z per −unit ,old = =
Z base ,old (Vbase,old )2
Z actual Z actual × Sbase ,new
Z per −unit ,new = =
Z base ,new (Vbase,new )2
Z per −unit ,new = Z per −unit ,old
Z base ,old
= Z per −unit ,old
(V
base ,old )
2
×
Sbase,new
Z base ,new (V
base , new )
2
Sbase ,old
Per Unit Examples

Per unit example-single phase
• Solve for the current
current, load voltage and load power in the circuit shown
below using per unit analysis with an SB of 100 MVA, and voltage bases of 8 kV,
80 kV and 16 kV.

Per Unit Example, cont’d
8kV 2
Z BLeft = = 0.64Ω
100 MVA
80kV 2
Z BMiddle = = 64Ω
100 MVA
16kV 2
Z BRight = = 2.56Ω
100 MVA
Same circuit, with

values expressed
in per unit.

Per Unit Example single phase
Courtesy of Prof
Tom, UIUC
1.00∠0°
1
I = = 0.22∠ − 30.8° p.u. (not amps)
3.91 + j 2.327
VL = 1.0
1 0∠0° − 00.22
22∠ − 30
30.88° × 22.327∠90
327∠90°
= 0.859∠ − 30.8° p.u.
2
VL
S L = VL I L =
*
= 0.189 p.u.
Z
SG = 1.0
1 0∠0° × 0.22
0 22∠30.8
30 8° = 0.22∠
0 22∠30.8
30 8° p.u.
Per Unit Example, cont’d
To convert back to actual values just multiply the
per unit values by their per unit base
V LActual = 0.859∠ − 30.8° × 16 kV = 13.7∠ − 30.8° kV

S LActual = 0.189∠0° × 100 MVA = 18.9∠0° MVA
SGActual
A t l
= 0.22∠30.8° × 100 MVA = 22.0∠30.8° MVA
100 MVA
I BMiddle = = 1250 Amps
80 kV
Middl = 0.22
I Actual
Middle 0 22∠ − 30 8° ×1250 Amps = 275∠ − 30
30.8 8° Α
30.8
Three Phase Per Unit Example
Solve for the current,
current load voltage and load power
in the circuit, assuming a 3φ power base of
300 MVA,, and line to line voltage
g bases of 13.8 kV,,
138 kV and 27.6 kV. Also assume the generator
is Y-connected so its line to line voltage is 13.8 kV.
Convert to per unit

as before.

3 φ Per Unit Example, cont'd
1.0∠0°
I = = 0.22∠ − 30.8° p.u. (not amps)
3.91 + j 2.327
VL = 1.0∠0° − 0.22∠ − 30.8° × 2.327∠90°
= 0.859∠
0 859∠ − 30.8°
30 8° p.u.
pu
2
VL
SL = = = 0.189
VL I L*
0 189 p.u.
pu
Z
SG = 1.0∠0° × 0.22∠30.8° = 0.22∠30.8° pp.u.

3 φ Per Unit Example, cont'd
Differences appear when we convert back to actual values
V LActual = 0.859∠ − 30.8° × 27.6 kV = 23.8∠ − 30.8° kV

S LActual = 0.189∠0° × 300 MVA = 56.7∠0° MVA
SGActual = 0.22∠30.8° × 300 MVA = 66.0∠30.8° MVA
300 MVA
I Middl
Middle
B = = 1250 Amps (same current!)
3 138 kV
Middle = 0.22∠ − 30.8° × 1250 Amps = 275∠ − 30.8° Α
I Actual
A l

Generator in steady state
• Generator may be modeled in three different ways
a. Power Injection Model - the real, P, and reactive, Q, power of the
generator is specified at the node that the generator is connected
– either the voltage or injected current is specified at the connectednode,
connectednode
allowing the other quantity to be determined
b. Thevenin Model - induced AC voltage, E, behind the synchronous
reactance Xd
reactance,
C. Norton Model - injected AC current, IG, in parallel with the

synchronous reactance

Load Models
• Models are selected based on both the type of analysis and the
load characteristics
• Constant impedance, Zload
– Load is made up of R,
R L L, and C elements connected to a network
node and the ground (or neutral point of the system)
• Constant current, Iload
– The load has a constant current magnitude I, I and a constant power
factor, independent of the nodal voltage
– Also considered as a current injection into the network
• Constant power, Sload
– The load has a constant real, P, and reactive, Q, power component
independent of nodal voltage or current injection
– Also considered as a negative
g p
power injection
j into the network

EE3741 - L2 - Transformer and Per Unit

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EE3741 - L2 - Transformer and Per Unit

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EE3741 Lecture 2 Transformer and

per unit calculation

Department of Electrical Engineering

2 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

3 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

4 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• A single phase transformer

5 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

zWe’ll define the “primary” side of the transformer as the side

6 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Assume we have flux φm in magnetic material. Then

H × length = N1i1 + N 2i2'

8 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

9 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• Real power losses

11 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Hysteresis losses are proportional to area of BH curve

These losses are reduced by

12 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

14 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

This model is further simplified by referring all

16 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

17 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

18 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• Allows measurement of magnetizing inductance Lm1, core loss resistance

19 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

•Since transformer unloaded, current IOC

20 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

21 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• Magnitude of admittance of • Complex admittance of

• Phase angle of admittance • Corresponding resistance and

22 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

23 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

24 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• |YOC| = IOC/VOC • Referring these quantities to

25 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• One winding short circuited while just enough voltage

27 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• With transformer short circuited voltage required to

28 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Short Circuit Test

29 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• Magnitude of series impedance of• Equivalent series resistance

XE1 = √(|ZE1|2 - RE12)

30 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

31 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

32 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

• Magnitude of series impedance of• Equivalent series reactance

RE1 = PSC/I2SC = R1 + a2R2

33 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

V1 RC1 Xm1 aV2 V2

• From open circuit and short circuit test can define

• By assuming R1 = a2R2 = (RE1)/2 and

35 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Transformer Voltage I2/a

•Determine regulation/efficiency of 50 kVA

Transformer Voltage V1 RC1 Xm1 aV2 V2

| V2,no load | − | V2, full load | | V1 | − | aV2 |

POUTPUT = 50 kVA x 0.8 = 40 000 W I RE1 XE1

V1 RC1 Xm1 aV2 V2

• Total losses = core loss + copper loss

• Efficiency: = POUTPUT/PINPUT = 40000/ 4100640813W x

38 Electrical Engineering, HKPU EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu