Educational Planning and Evaluation Book Report

OVERVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Introduction
Planning is a rational action mixed with a little of fore thought. It is seen everywhere. In a
business, planning is the primary of all managerial functions as it involves deciding of future course of action. Thus,
planning logically precedes the execution of all managerial functions. Planning is the process of deciding in
advance what is to be done, where, how and by whom it is to be done. Planning as a process involves
anticipation of future course of events and deciding the best course of action. Thus, it is basically a
process of ‘thinking before doing’. All these elements speak about the futurity of an action. Koontz and
O’Donnell have defined planning in terms of future course of action. They state “that Planning is the
selection from among alternatives for future courses of action for the enterprise as a whole and each
department within it.
Objective
• Nature of Planning
• Significanceof Planning
• Limitation of Planning
• Requirements of A Good Plan
• Foundation of Educational Planning
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 1

Sociological
Economical
Demographic
• Management Techniques applicable to Educational Planning
Learning Content
Nature of Planning
The nature of planning can be highlighted by studying its characteristics.Theyare asfollows:
(a) P l a n n i n g i s a m e n t a l a c t i v i t y
Planning is not a simple process. It is an intellectual exercise and involves thinking and
forethought on the part of the manager.
(b) P l a n n i n g i s g o a l - o r i e n t e d
Every plan specifies the goals to be attained in the future and the steps necessary to
reachthem. A manager cannot do any planning, unless the goals are known.
(c) Planning is forward looking
Planning is in keeping with the adage, “look before you leap”. Thus, planning means looking
ahead. It is futuristic in nature since it is performed to accomplish some objectives in future.
(d) P l a n n i n g p e r v a d e s a l l m a n a g e r i a l a c t i v i t y

Planning is the basic function of managers at all levels, although the nature and scope of planning
willvaryateach level.
(e) P l a n n i n g i s t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n
Planning logically precedes the execution of all other managerial functions, since managerial activities
in organizing; staffing, directing and controlling are designed to support the attainment of organizational goals.
Thus, management is a circular process beginning with planning and returning to planning for revision and
adjustment.
(f) P l a n n i n g i s b a s e d o n f a c t s
Planning is a conscious determination and projection of a course of action for the future. It is
based on objectives, facts and considered forecasts. Thus planning is not a guess work.
(g) Planning is flexible
Planning is a dynamic process capable of adjustments in accordance with the needs and
requirements of the situations. Thus planning has to be flexibleand cannotbe rigid.
(h) P l a n n i n g i s e s s e n t i a l l y d e c i s i o n m a k i n g
Planning Is a choice activity as the planning process involves finding the alternatives and the selection of
the best. Thus decision making is the cardinal part of planning.
Significance of Planning

According to G.R. Terry, “Planning is the foundation of most successful actions of all
enterprises.” An enterprise can achieve its objectives only through systematic planning on account
of the increasing complexities of modern business. The importance and usefulness of planning can be
understood with reference to the following benefits.
(a) M i n i m i z e s u ncertainty. The future is generally uncertain and things are likely to
change with the passage of time. Planning helps in minimizing the uncertainties of the future as it
anticipates future events.
(b) Emphasis on objectives. The first step in planning is to fix the objectives. When the
objectives are clearly fixed, the execution of plans will be facilitated towards these objectives.
(c) Promotes coordination. Planning helps to promote the coordinated effort on account of pre-
determined goals.
(d) Facilitates control. Planning and control are inseparable in the sense that unplanned
actions cannot be controlled. Control nothing but making sure that activities conform to the plans.
(e) Improves competitive strength. Planning enables an enterprise to discover new
opportunities, which give it a competitive edge.
(f) Economical operation. Since planning involves a lot of mental exercise, it helps in proper
utilization of resources and elimination of unnecessary activities. This, in turn, leads to economy in
operation.

(g) Encourages innovation. Planning is basically the deciding function of management. Many
new ideas come to the mind of a manager when he is planning. This creates an innovative and
foresighted attitude among the managers.
(h) Tackling complexities of modern business. With modern business becoming more and
more complex, planning helps in getting a clear idea about what is to be done, when it is to be done,
where it is to be done and how it is to be done.
APPROACHES OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
There are three rival approaches to educational planning. The three rival
approaches are:
1. The social demand approach
2. The manpower requirement approach
3. Rate of Returns Approach.
I think social demand approach is more suitable for educational planning
because!
1. SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH:
The Social Demand Approach requires the education authorities to provide
schools and find facilities for all students who demand admission and who are qualified

to enter. Aghenta (1987) opined that this approach looks on education, as service
demanded by people just like another social services. Politicians in developing countries
often find the approach expedient to use because of its appealing nature .This approach
was used in the Robbins Committee Report on Higher Education in Britain. In India too,
this approach is a popular one while opening new schools and colleges in particular.
In this method are involved the following steps:
(a)To estimate the proportion of students completing school education and are
likely to enter into higher education.
(b)To estimate how many of these successful school leaving students would
actually apply for admission to colleges.
(c) To determine how many of the applicants should be given admission to higher
education.
(d) To determine the length and duration of the study.
Thus, the major issue involved in this approach is to forecast future demands for
seats keeping in mind social and educational trends as well as demographic changes.
The underlying assumption in this approach is that expansion of education is beneficial
to the economy and thus, additional expenditure on education would not create a
burden too heavy to bear.

This approach is more prevalent in those societies which favour traditional
cultural values, where decisions are taken on the basis of public opinions (in a fragile
polity and sometimes in a democracy) and in societies where the social environment is
generally pessimistic in nature.
The approach is based on currently expressed preferences and does not take
into account public expenditure on education vis-a-vis the benefits as the demand for
education may far exceed the resources available in a vast country like India. Also, it
sometimes leads to a mismatch between the output of higher education and the
demands of the economy.
ADVANTAGES OF THE SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH
The approach provides the planners with approximate number of places where
educational facilities has to be provided.
It is a suitable political tool to meet the need to satisfy the demands of the
general public.
Where resources are acutely limited, and where we are seeking to provide those
kinds and quantities of education which will offer the greatest good to the greatest
number, such planning techniques are best.

LIMITATIONS OF THE APPROACH
The approach has no control over factors such as the price of education
The approach has no control over absorptive capacity of the economy for the trained
personnel.
The approach does not in any way lay claim to whether the resources expended
are economically allotted and to that extent, the approach is poor.
The approach does not provide guidance we need as to how best to meet the
identified needs.
2. MANPOWER PLANNING APPROACH:
The focus of this approach is to forecast the manpower needs of the economy.
That is, it stresses output from the educational system to meet the man-power needs at
some future date. The approach focuses on 3 main elements, namely:
Specification of the composition of manpower need at some future date e.g.
2015-2020
Specification of man power availabilities e.g. in 1995.
Specification which reconciles the former specification with the later.

In this method, the general demand for and the capacity of supply of human
resources in different streams of and at different levels of the educational sector are
estimated.
The approach asserts that the system of education produces the right quality of
human resources with desirable knowledge, attitudes and skills in the right numbers and
thus, education is directly linked with economic development.
The application of the manpower planning approach depends on these factors:
(a) An appraisal and analysis of the existing employment conditions and the system of
education,
(b) Planning the system of education vis-a-vis the manpower needs of the economy,
and
(c) Using the financial resources (which are limited) in an optimum way so as to fulfill
the demands of the employment sector without incurring wastage on account of
unemployment.
(d) Making an appraisal of the number of students enrolled, the number of existing
teachers and their qualifications, enrolment in teacher education institutions (availability
of future teachers), as well as the existing number of school buildings, equipments,
infrastructure and other facilities.

(e) The requirements of the employers regarding occupational and/ or professional
qualifications for employees, their levels of training and abilities should also be
assessed.
The manpower planning approach takes note of the fact that the teaching
profession requires approximately 60% of the highly qualified human resources of a
country which competes with the demand for manpower in other economic sectors.
A detailed projection of the demand for human resources is difficult due to the
uncertainty of productivity trends. Some developed countries such as Norway, France
and Sweden estimate their future manpower needs so as to meet the demands of the
economy whereas others such as Great Britain estimate the numbers to be educated on
the basis of students’ demands.
ADVANTAGES OF MAN-POWER APPROACH
Man-Power could usefully call attention to extreme gaps and imbalances in the
education out-put pattern that need remedy. This does not need elaborate statistical
studies.
It gives educators useful guidance on how roughly educational qualifications of
the labour force ought to be developed in the future. That is, the relative proportion of

people who would have primary education, secondary education and various amount of
post-secondary training.
The unemployment and underemployment which may result from some over-
emphasis on man-power approach may become a challenge to move towards the right
kind of education which may be development-oriented, and thereby creating its own job.
WEAKNESSES OF THE APPROACH
It gives educational planner a limited guidance in the sense that it does not tell
what can be actually achieved in every level of education e.g. primary education,
secondary education, etc
The approach says nothing about primary education, which is not considered to
be work connected. By implication, manpower approach suggests the curbing of the
expansion of primary education until the nation is rich enough to expand it. Hence,
attention is focused on the cream of education that will contribute to manpower
development in the society
Most manpower needs are mostly needed in the urban employment. Thus, the
planner who may be called to plan is not given any useful clauses about education
requirements to those people like semi-skilled and unskilled workers in the cities and
vast majority of workers that live in rural areas

The employment classifications and manpower ratios such as desirable ratio of
engineers to technicians; doctors to nurses etc. and the assumed education
qualifications corresponding to each category of job borrowed ideas from industrialized
countries or economy. This does not fit into the realities of less developed countries of
Africa
It is impossible to make reliable fore-cast of manpower requirements far enough
ahead of time because of many economic, technological and other uncertainties which
are involved.
3. RATE OF RETURNS APPROACH:
According to this approach, investment in education should take place in such a
way that the returns from the investment are equal to the returns from other kinds of
investment of capital, e.g., investment in industry. This principle is known as ‘equi-
marginal returns’ in economic theory and could be extended to educational sector.
This approach treats education as an investment in human capital and uses rate of
returns as a criterion in allocation of financial resources. The approach implies that if the
rate of return is low, expenditure on education should be curtailed.
However, in reality, it is difficult to apply this approach to education due to
problems associated with measuring rate of returns in education.

An educated person’s earnings or rate of returns depend upon his/her innate
intelligence, parental socio-economic status, motivation and aspirations. Hence, it is not
easy to attribute the rate of returns only to education acquired. Hence, this approach is
least frequently applied to education.
FOUNDATION OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
SOCIOLOGICAL
Educational planning cannot succeed without attention to social factors.
Basically, all authors agree that sociology of education deals with three categories of
problems. First, it involves study of relations between educational systems and the rest
of society, including the economy. The second category of problems is related to the
educational system or school as a social system or organization in itself. Third,
sociology of education deals with the social aspects of the learning process. Clearly,
sociology of education is related in numerous ways to the various problems that
educational planners have to face. To learn to look for social factors and social forces
and their mutual interdependence and to view education as an integral part of a social
whole is probably the most important component of sociological sensibility and of the
sociological approach to educational planning.

DEMOGRAPHIC
Education is for people and its development is ultimately aimed at maximizing the
capacity for achieving full welfare of the population. The educational planner as well as
administrator is constantly engaged in activities for and with the people. The question
arises: What are the demographic challenges facing educational planning today? It is
vital for planners and decision-makers to know the structure and distribution of the
population at a given date, as well as how it has changed in recent years. In other
words, educational planning cannot be divorced from considerations about dynamics of
population (i.e., its growth and change), as it deals with a ‘target population' which is
constantly changing in number, age and sex composition, and geographic distribution.
Population growth results in significant variations in the age and sex
compositions of the population besides the numerical increase. The rate of population
growth has wide implications on all spheres of human activity. Migration of people
determines their geographical distribution and this too, has a significant impact on the
needs of the society. All these affect educational development in a direct manner. In
fact, the findings of demography are one of the foundations on which educational plans
are built and for this reason, planners should have a sufficient knowledge of
demographic methods and concepts, their meanings and limitations. Nearly all
quantitative analyses and estimates of the qualitative aspects of education are related

to population - its size, structure, location, dynamics and prospects. Hence there is need
to study demographic aspects of educational planning.
The discipline of the study of human population is known by two terms: (i)
population studies (ii) Demography. Population Studies can easily be understood as
studies concerned with population. Demography has been derived from the latin word
'demos', meaning people and hence is the science of population. Demographic analysis
is confined to a study of the components of population variation and change. Population
studies are concerned not only with population variables but also with the relationships
between population changes and other variables - social, economic, political, biological,
genetic and geographical etc. Whereas the theoretical demographic analysis tries to
explain demographic facts and to seek the causes behind them, the descriptive
approach limits oneself to a ‘statistical description of populations’. In reality, however,
the distinction is not as clear as this; population forecasts, for instance, cannot be made
without a minimum of demographic analysis. Whichever approach is adopted,
demographers have two possible fields of study distinct from each other, both in
objectives and in method. The first one is static demographic analysis which deals with
the current situation of the population, their structure or composition. The second one is
the dynamic aspect of population analysis which aims at the trend of the population –

also called movement of the population which depend on a number of factors,
particularly on such demographic events as births, marriages and deaths.
Population Structure and Its Effects on Education
Studying the structure of a population means studying its composition, i.e., its
distribution according to certain pre-defined criteria. Educational planners may be
concerned with the distribution of the population for various reasons. First, they may be
interested in its distribution by age and sex. This enables them to measure the relative
size of the school-age population, which is the foundation and the point of departure for
any educational policy. Second, they may be concerned with the distribution of the
population by sector of economic activity and, within each of these sectors, by
occupation. Without accurate knowledge of the distribution by sector and occupation, it
is impossible to estimate manpower requirements, and hence to determine targets for
technical, vocational and higher education. Third, planners may be concerned with the
geographical distribution of the population, which affects both the cost of education and
the choice of types, sizes and locations of schools. Our examination of population
structure will be confined to the three above-mentioned aspects.
Structure of the Population by Age and Sex

The simplest method of studying the population structure by age and by sex is to
construct an ‘age pyramid’. The age structure of the population is very important in
demographic analysis because it provides a sort of summary of the demographic history
of the nation, and also because, as it governs to some extent the future growth of the
population. The number of individuals at each age, or in each age group, depends on (i)
the number of births in the generation, or generations, of which they were born; (ii) the
effect of mortality on that generation or those generations; and (iii) the size of migratory
flows at various times, and the ages of the migrants.
Age Composition
The age structure of a population is the consequence of trends in fertility (birth),
mortality (deaths) and migration over past periods with fertility trends having the
dominant influence. The proportion of small children, for instance, reflects the recent
birth rate as further affected by infant mortality. The proportion of old person is a
cumulative effect of population trends ever since the time when they are born. The
population of children aged 0-4 year gives an indication of the burden of child care. The
group 5-14 is an indicative of investment needed for school enrolment and teaching
staff. The economically active population is reflected by the 15- 64 group while a rough
index of old age dependency is the proportion of the population aged 60 years and over.

ECONOMIC
The type of education largely depends on the economic strength of any country.
Also the economic factor determines the content and method of an education system. It
is important to note that formal education is often possible where production exceeds
consumption. In indigenous traditional education people were trained depending on the
economic conditions and needs of the community. From an economic perspective,
expenditure on education refers to the amount or percentage of national revenue spent
on education by both individuals and the government. If the economic condition is poor,
education becomes backward in many aspects while if the economy of a country is
strong, then educational aims and the curriculum are given a special direction for
making the country prosperous. For example, in the USA and Japan, education system
is patterned so as to make the individual graduate, strong and capable enough to stand
on his or her own feet after having received education. While in India, college and
university graduate do not know where to go after completing their education and most
of the students continue to stay on in the university as long as they can so that one can
post pone for a few years the problem of the educated - unemployed.
Another economic influence on education is that, the poorer classes in
communities tend to be content with minimum education for their children, and the
richer classes are known to be able to keep their children longest at school because

they can afford to meet the costs. In a subsistence economy, that is, one is which
people are just able to make ends meet, educational systems tend to be informal
occurring on the job. On the contrary, where there are enough grants in systems of
education, minimum requirements are met and thus the quality of education is often
high. For example, Britain, France, Japan and the USA among other strong economy
countries, they provide enough grants that are allocated to their systems of education;
actually they have enough funds to support all educational programmes in their
education systems. Unlike the case of developing countries, where funds are very
scarce, which affects even payment of teachers salaries, essential resource materials
such as textbooks are not adequate and in some cases not even available. As such,
this greatly affects the nature of the systems of education in terms of the content and
methods in learning institutions and in essence the whole system of education.
In this regard, the growth of the capacities of individual citizens and national
development is of great importance. In fact, the education system should be such that, it
provides opportunities for the maximum development of each citizen. The aim here is to
ensure that the wealth of the nation is not concentrated in the hands of a few capitalists
who manage to attain some level of education. It is actually by developing individuals
that the overall growth of the nation can be guaranteed. At the same time, there should
be no-class distinction in the planning of education that should be permitted, because

this results in neglect of the education of other more capable citizens. If this happens it
often results in social disparities and in the long run weakens the nation. Proper
planning of the education system also calls for the establishment of a proper national
character, which if it lacks, then the necessary leadership and co-operation of the
people will also be lacking. Lack of a proper national character, means that the national
education system will not be able to realize its objectives. Consequently, with good
leadership and people's cooperation, there is much that can be achieved even when
adequate economic resources are wanting. Thus, there is evidence to show that there is
a very close relationship between economic security and the national system of
education of any country.
GEOGRAPHIC
The geography of any particular place is often natural, which means that it is
undefined by In this regard the education system cum school system is influenced by
the geography of the man. Man in this respect ought to behave in accordance with the
geography and nature in particular region. By and large the geography of a particular
area dictates the type of building and equipment, means and methods of transporting
children to school, school going age of pupils among others. However, there are three
major geographical aspects that influence the educational system directly. These are,

climatic conditions, population distribution and land configuration. In regard to climatic
conditions they influence the system of education in terms of ,content of education
depend on the continental climate, for example, training of doctors in the tropics is likely
to emphasize more on tropical disease like malaria. Extreme low temperatures in
Continental Europe, affects accessibility to school by young children. Temperatures also
affect the time at which schools can reasonably begin in the morning and when they
end. In Norway, for example, the sun does not rise during winter until ten o'clock in the
morning and often temperatures fall to negative 20 degrees. Thus in the Scandinavian
countries there are no infant schools or early childhood education departments in some
schools because of extreme temperatures. Climatic conditions also influence the
education system in relation to time of vacations. In North America and many countries
in Europe take school vacations during cold winter and others during hot summer. In hot
climatic conditions especially experienced in arid and semi-arid areas, learning often
takes place during morning hours when it is cool. When it is hot in the afternoon very
little learning takes place due to excessive heat.
In regard to population distribution, which is often as a result of geographical
influence also affects the educational system. Generally worldwide, population is either
concentrated in the urban centers, or scattered in the country side. For example
Australia has two systems of education, that is, one for the urban areas and the other

for rural areas. In the urban areas there are well-equipped schools with adequately
qualified teachers and administrative personnel. While in the rural areas, schools are
small with one teacher for ten up to forty students. This is because farms are far from
the nearest schools and daily attendance is difficult. Therefore the central government is
responsible for their administration and financing. The government also provides the
means and organization of correspondence, tuition and traveling teachers. As such
most students receive education through correspondence and occasional visits by the
traveling education inspectors.
In regard to land configuration, this also influences the education system in terms
of architectural structure of farm houses, school buildings, village location and also the
whole way of life and thinking of people because of the rigours of the climate, in some
cases, because of closeness of family ties, boarding schools for children are non-
existence, except for the few who come from far and inaccessible places on daily basis.
By and large land configuration determines settlement and location of schools.
MANANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES APPLICABLE TO EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Practical guides for first-time principals on systems such as finance, employment,
property.

Understanding school finances
This guide has information on funding sources, keeping accounts, preparing
budgets, and reporting school finances.
Planning and reporting: School charters
This guide has information on developing, reviewing and updating a charter.
Dealing with complaints
This guide will help you to apply simple, broad principles to the way you deal with
complaints.
Effective communications
This guide contains suggestions for managing the myriad of everyday
communications you are involved in as a principal.
Understanding attendance
This guide focuses on the administration of attendance, attendance levels at your
school, and getting beyond the collection of data.
Understanding school employment
This guide has information on appointing staff, payroll, concurrence,
and performance.

Understanding school property
This guide has information on property plans, school property policies and
procedures, and property management.
Primary principals' annual calendar
This calendar will help you to keep a month-by-month overview of what’s ahead so
that you can bring coherence to your planning.
Secondary principals' annual calendar
This calendar will help you to keep a month-by-month overview of what’s ahead so
that you can bring coherence to your planning.
Starting in a new school
This guide has suggestions to help make the first term a positive one, avoid major
issues and develop good processes.
Managing your time
This guide offers some suggestions to help you to manage your own time
and other's time agendas.

Progress Evaluation
In all countries, there is widespread recognition that evaluation and assessment
frameworks are key to building stronger and fairer school systems. Countries also
emphasise the importance of seeing evaluation and assessment not as ends in
themselves, but instead as important tools for achieving improved student outcomes.
Although each country context is unique, some common policy challenges are emerging
from the OECD’s Review. These can be grouped under five main headings.
GOVERNACE AND IMPLEMENTATION Ensuring articulations within the evaluation
and assessment framework
A strategic approach to the development of the evaluation and assessment
framework provides an opportunity to reflect on the articulations between the different
evaluation components. For example, there might be room for increased integration
between teacher evaluation, school evaluation and school development, between the
evaluation system and overall educational research, between evaluation and the labour
market, and so on.
Policy development needs to involve a reflection on the different components of
the framework such as school assessment, teacher appraisal, or standardised national-
level student tests to assess students’ progress, and ways in which they can be

articulated to achieve the purposes of the framework. The key aspect is to determine
how the different components need to be interrelated in order to generate
complementarities, avoid duplication, and prevent inconsistency of objectives.
Developing competencies for evaluation and for using feedback
The effectiveness of evaluate valuation activities as well as those who use ion
and assessment relies to a great extent on ensuring that both those who design and
undertake their results possess the proper skills and competencies. This is crucial to
provide the necessary legitimacy to those responsible for evaluation and assessment.
STUDENT ASSESSMENT Aligning educational standards and student assessment
In standards-based systems, which are increasingly common across countries,
governments set standards for student attainment, clearly defining the knowledge and
skills students are expected to have attained at different stages of their education. The
curriculum covers the objectives identified in standards, and student assessments focus
on attainment of standards. The core logic of standards-based systems rests upon the
alignment of these key elements. If the assessments do not well match the curriculum
and the standards, then results have little value in judging how well students are
learning and in diagnosing school or student needs.

Hence, policy needs to give considerable attention to sound strategies to assess
performance against standards. Part of the strategy may consist of developing large-
scale standardized tests with a high degree of validity (i.e. the degree to which
assessments and evaluations measure what they are intended to measure), reliability
(i.e the consistency and stability of results across student populations) and usability (i.e.
how policy makers, school leaders and teachers make sense of and respond to
assessment and evaluation results). Another possible strategy is to develop teacher
capacity in assessing against standards, provide detailed guidelines on marking
assessments and strengthen moderation processes between teachers and schools.
TEACHER EVALUATION Combining Improvement and accountability function of
teachers evaluation
Teacher evaluation has typically two major purposes; First, It seek to improve
teacher own practice by identifying the strengths and weaknesses for further
professional development. Second, it is aimed to holding teachers accountable for their
performance in enhancing student learning. Combining both the accountability and
improvement into a single teacher evaluation process raises difficult challenges. When
an evaluation is oriented towards the improvement of practice within school teachers
are typically open and willing to reveal their self-identified weaknesses, in the expection

that conveying that information will lead to more effective decision on developmental
needs and training.
SCHOOL EVALUATION Aligning external evaluation of schools with internal school
evaluation
In many countries there has been a move away from school evaluation which
emphasizes compliance with the central policies and procedure toward much greater
stress being placed on the need for schools to evaluate themselves as part of wider
strategies of school improvement. Partly as a result of this strengthened school
autonomy, the role of external evaluation has undergone significant changes and
achieving a much closer alignment between self evaluation and external evaluation.
SYSTEM EVALUATION Meeting information needs at system level
A key priority within the evaluation and assessment framework is to develop
indicators and measure of system performance that permit a good understanding of
how ell schooling is being delivered. Using these data, governments can analyze
performance and identify priority areas for planning, intervention and policy. This
typically entails the development of a system performance measurement framework.

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
Management by Objectives, often shortened to MBO, is simply one of several
management models that have been used, and are still being used even today. This
technique allows management to focus on the attainable goals of the organization, and
to work towards achieving the best possible results, using the resources available to the
organization at that point in time.
The goal of this model is to improve the overall performance of an organization
by defining its objectives clearly, and these objectives have to have been agreed to
completely by the management, the employees, and the other members of the
organization. In other words, it operates on the assumption that, if the goals of the
organization are aligned with that of the employees, then achieving these goals through
work performance will be more successful.
The origins of MBO can be traced back to 1954, when management expert Peter
Drucker first introduced the term and the concept in his book, entitled “The Practice of
Management”. Basically, he described it as an environment where management and
employees join forces and work together to set and monitor the goals of the
organization for a certain period.

MBO requires supervision and coordination, since it involves sets of individual
and personal goals, which must then be coordinated together to move towards one
common goal – which is the overall goals of the organization. Employees and their
plans have often been likened to pieces of a puzzle which, when completed, represents
the organization and its goals.
This style is considered to be most appropriate in organizations or enterprises
that are knowledge-based, or where the organization mostly operates or runs using
information or knowledge on its customers, competitors, product, and processes. If the
staff or members of the organization are competent, MBO is sure to work.
If management is also keen on developing its employees’ personal and
professional growth and skills, applying MBO is also a good idea.
KEY CONCEPTS OF MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
Awareness of all members of the organization
In MBO, knowledge will not be limited to top management or several key players
of the organization. Everybody should have knowledge and a clear understanding of the
goals, aims or objectives of the organization.

In addition, they should also be fully aware of their roles, functions and
responsibilities as members of that organization, particularly with respect to the
attainment of the organizational goals, aims or objectives.
Participation and commitment of employees
This personnel management technique holds that the objectives of an
organization will have greater chances of being realized sooner if they are aligned within
the ranks of the organization, and one way to ensure that is to encourage the
participation of all members and bolstering their commitment to the organization and its
goals. MBO helps accomplish that by including the employees in the goal setting
activities of the organization.
Conventionally, strategic planning and decision-making will be left in the hands of
several members of top management. MBO advocates that all managers will be
involved, as well as its employees.
Planning
As mentioned earlier, in MBO, employees are proactive and key players in what
takes place in the organization. They are not just pieces left there to react when an

event takes place or a problem arises. They take active part in it, and so they play a
major role in the planning.
This planning is not limited to the organization, because the employees must also
create personal plans that are aligned with that of the organization. Take, for example, a
construction company that set a target of completing a series of housing projects within
a three-year period.
Use of a management information system for performance measurement and
monitoring
Management by Objectives advocates the establishment of a management
information system, which will purposefully be used to measure the actual performance
and achievements of employees – and the organization as a whole – against the
objectives that have been defined and set prior.
It is to be noted that the goals that have been previously set are put into writing
on a periodic basis. This is to facilitate continuous measurement and monitoring by the
managers as they track the progress of work within the organization.

Continuous tracking and feedback
Since this technique is systematic and organized, the tracking and monitoring is
also done on an ongoing or continuous basis. So is the provision of feedback. Feedback
is provided at every turn to ensure that the goals are still in sight.
Rewards’ dependence on attainment of goals
Rewards are a given in MBO, but they will depend on the achievement of the
goals. The extent of the reward will also be based on the attainment of these goals.
PROS AND CONS OF MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
 Disciplined approach to goal attainment
MBO provides a means for management to readily identify its goals and objectives,
and plan on how they will be achieved. The problem most managers encounter involves
vagueness when it comes to goals. They know they have to achieve something, but
they are not clear as to what it is. In MBO, the objectives and goals are clearly defined
and identified.
Logically, it would be difficult to start planning when you do not know what you are
supposed to accomplish or achieve in the first place. MBO addresses that issue by

starting with the identification of goals and objectives. This will provide direction for
management to start planning.
 Improved employee empowerment and commitment
Empowered employees are motivated employees, and employees will feel more
motivated in their work performance if they feel that they are given importance and
recognition by management. When an employee is asked for his thoughts or input on
something related to work, this will visibly boost his confidence and make him strive
more so he can contribute more.
An organization cannot expect commitment and loyalty from employees when it
does not give them enough credit to ask for their input or opinion on important matters.
Put yourself in the shoes of an employee in a company that simply gives out orders and
expect them to be followed.
Individual employee satisfaction will also have greater benefits, giving a boost to the
overall organizational morale. A strong work force will naturally result to a strong
organization.

 Improved communication in the organization
Employees communicate with and among each other; that is already an established
fact. However, one of the difficult areas of management is fostering communication
between management and the employees.
The differences in rank and positions tend to create a divide or a distance between
these two groups, where top management often do not care to communicate with those
who are lower than them, and the employees hesitate to approach their managers. With
MBO, that issue is addressed head on.
 Clarity of objectives
It is a sad reality that, you ask an employee on what its company’s goals are, and
they know nothing else beyond “making a profit”.
Through MBO, goals and objectives of the organization are reiterated and
emphasized, so that all its members are made aware of them. Better understanding of
the goals of the organization will make them better and more motivated members and
workers.

 Increased efficiency
If goals are properly set and managed, creation of plans will also be facilitated.
Management and implementation of the plans will likewise be facilitated, which will
increase the overall efficiency of the organization.
The organization will be able to generate savings, since waste would be minimized
if not eliminated. Utilization of resources will be maximized, and performance will go
smoothly as planned.
Of course, the resources saved by the organization may be used in other projects or
areas, which will speed up the organization’s goal achievement process.
 Contingency preparation
MBO promotes planning, which means it also provides the organization more
chances to prepare for the unexpected. Businesses are bound to come across
stumbling blocks to the plans, and if they are prepared enough, they will have
contingencies and backup plans in place to deal with these problems.

Despite these advantages, MBO is not without its weaknesses, causing many
managers to avoid using it in their organizations.
– Emphasis on goal-setting and results more than implementation
MBO seems to put more emphasis on defining objectives and setting goals, instead of
working on a plan that is systematic enough to actually achieve these goals and
objectives. Implementation somehow takes a back seat, because the focus is on the
involvement of members of the organization in the goal setting and planning stage.
Executives managing by objectives have their eye trained on the result, not on
the activity conducted or how it was conducted. In essence, they do not care how the
employees arrive at the goal, just as long as they get to it.
As a result, there is a possibility that product or service quality may suffer. For
instance, the employees may have set a personal goal of finishing a specific quantity for
a certain period of time. To achieve that target, they will not pay a lot attention on the
quality, as long as they meet the quantity demanded.

– Requires full involvement
This may be a problem in a very large organization. The concerted effort required
in MBO means the involvement of a lot of people and personalities.
Unless there is a highly trained and capable manager, this will turn out to be a huge
headache, bringing an entire group of different people together.
– Limited perspective on external factors
The narrow approach taken by MBO is characterized once again by how it
focuses too much on setting goals rather than looking at the bigger picture. After all,
there are other factors at play in an organization other than its goals and its employees
and management.
A company can set goals all it wants, but if it ignores external factors such as
environmental and economic factors – those that are out of its control – then all that
goal-setting will be all for nothing.
There is a possibility that the management may fail to take into account the
scarcity of resources when it is setting its goals. Economic upheavals also have an
impact on the operations of an organization, and may lay all the goals to waste.

– Impracticality in simple tasks
There are some tasks or functions in an organization that are too simple,
applying MBO will prove to be a waste of time and resources, and utterly impractical.
Take, for example, a production assemble line. All that is needed to be done is to
take two separate parts, and snap them together to come up with one product.
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES VS. MANAGEMENT BY EXCEPTION
MBO is not to be confused with Management by Exception, or MBE, which is a
different model altogether. In MBE, the management’s attention will only be called when
there are significant deviations from a plan. It operates under the assumption that
management should only dispense its attention on the areas or issues that matter.
The action or strategic plan created will be communicated to all stakeholders of
the organization, and will serve as the guidelines or standards to be followed by all the
members. Adapting MBE means that the managers will be on the lookout for the
deviations from these standards that are deemed to be significant, and reporting them
or taking action.

In this management model, the objectives are communicated to the employees,
who are then tasked to focus or concentrate on whatever significant deviations that may
arise, and put their energy into them.
It goes without saying that, if the deviations are considered to be minor or
insignificant, they will not be paid much attention to, and no action will be taken.
Why? Because it is deemed that top management have a lot more important and
bigger things to do or pay attention to than some minor deviation. It is only when the
exception has become significant as to need immediate correction or rectification that it
will be reported to top management, for “appropriate and immediate” action.
This is seen as the advantage of MBE, because managers do not have to be
everywhere at all times, monitoring and keeping an eye on everything. They can focus
on the more important things instead of spreading themselves too thin. The
disadvantage, of course, would be the limited participation of employees.
Unlike MBO, employees will not have much to do with the decision-making
process, which won’t really do much for their motivation and level of commitment to their
work and the organization.

EDUCATIONAL FUTURISM
Futuristic planning means looking ahead and chalking out future courses of action
to be followed. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when,
how and who is going to perform a specific job.
In educational futurism, the term scenario was emphasized. It is a statement of
assumptions about the operating environment of the system to be studied.It is a brief
description of the future situations which could arise by the continuing interaction of a
number of socio-economic, political & other trends which can be identified currently.
The graphic shows the five basic steps involved in scenario planning. The basic
steps are:
Stage 1: determine a focal issue or critical decision to ‘anchor’ the process,

Stage 2: identify and analyse the internal and external driving forces after the decision
(these drivers are usually categorised into ‘predetermined elements’, those which we
have a good idea about how they will play out over time – for example, demographics,
and ‘critical uncertainties’, those which we have no real understanding of how they will
develop into the future),
Stage 3: build scenarios (using inductive or deductive approaches),
Stage 4: identify robust potential strategic options and implications, and determine
strategic options, and
Stage 5: identify drivers and other issues that need to be monitored over time (these
are often called ‘early warning signals’ – to see whether something identified in a
scenario is ‘coming true’ or is less likely to happen). This last step is often neglected,
but it is critical in terms of embedding strategic thinking in the organisation.
Eric Trist diagrams the various planning modes as a result about planners attitudes
about past, present and the future.

Inactive planners always goes by what is happening today, and therefore plays by its
ear, always waiting and seing. Reactive planners always looks back at past event or
past precedence to make decisions- if there are no past examples or precedence, then
he says it cannot be.Pre-active is so futuristic even for his own good, always predicting
and preparing but paying little heed to lessons of the past or scarcities of the
present. Inter-active planner looks at past, present, and future in a neutral way and
instead prepares to focus on making things happen.
Learning Guide
1. Why is there a need for educational planning?
2. As a planner/administrator, how do you understand the term “Educational
Development?” Suggest facets of educational development.
3. What may bring about a feasible and workable educational development plan in your
region/division/institution?
4. What do you think is the ideal approach to be used as a basis of planning actively in
your area? Why?

References
https://www.academia.edu/8415737/Approaches_of_educational_planning?auto=downl
oad
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000069263
https://www.oecd.org/education/school/46927511.pdf
https://ourhappyschool.com/others/futuristic-planning-0

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OVERVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

department within it.

• Requirements of A Good Plan

• Foundation of Educational Planning

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 1

• Management Techniques applicable to Educational Planning

The nature of planning can be highlighted by studying its characteristics.Theyare asfollows:

forethought on the part of the manager.

(c) Planning is forward looking

ahead. It is futuristic in nature since it is performed to accomplish some objectives in future.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 2

(g) Planning is flexible

requirements of the situations. Thus planning has to be flexibleand cannotbe rigid.

the best. Thus decision making is the cardinal part of planning.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 3

understood with reference to the following benefits.

anticipates future events.

(e) Improves competitive strength. Planning enables an enterprise to discover new

opportunities, which give it a competitive edge.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 4

foresighted attitude among the managers.

where it is to be done and how it is to be done.

APPROACHES OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

1. The social demand approach

2. The manpower requirement approach

3. Rate of Returns Approach.

I think social demand approach is more suitable for educational planning

1. SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH:

The Social Demand Approach requires the education authorities to provide

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 5

In this method are involved the following steps:

likely to enter into higher education.

actually apply for admission to colleges.

(d) To determine the length and duration of the study.

The underlying assumption in this approach is that expansion of education is beneficial

burden too heavy to bear.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 6

generally pessimistic in nature.

demands of the economy.

ADVANTAGES OF THE SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH

educational facilities has to be provided.

number, such planning techniques are best.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 7

are economically allotted and to that extent, the approach is poor.

2. MANPOWER PLANNING APPROACH:

some future date. The approach focuses on 3 main elements, namely:

Specification of the composition of manpower need at some future date e.g.

Specification of man power availabilities e.g. in 1995.

Specification which reconciles the former specification with the later.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 8

thus, education is directly linked with economic development.

The application of the manpower planning approach depends on these factors:

the demands of the employment sector without incurring wastage on account of

teachers and their qualifications, enrolment in teacher education institutions (availability

of future teachers), as well as the existing number of school buildings, equipments,

infrastructure and other facilities.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 9

profession requires approximately 60% of the highly qualified human resources of a

uncertainty of productivity trends. Some developed countries such as Norway, France

the basis of students’ demands.

ADVANTAGES OF MAN-POWER APPROACH

It gives educators useful guidance on how roughly educational qualifications of

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND EVALUATION SUMMER 2019 10