Mabini Colleges, Inc.

Daet, Camarines Norte

88 MHz – 108 MHz Frequency Modulation Radio Transmitter Module Board for

Emergency Broadcast

Submitted by:

James Bryan Abaño

Marion Alto
Leimart Canabe
Edmond Esmalla
Rodolfo Estaras III
Tristan Indias
Jake Gerald Jamito
Adrian Rodriguez
Johani Margareth Abejero
Jihan Basco

Grade 12-Copper (STEM)

Ariel Papares
Instructor
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction and Background
Introduction

The circuit has three main stages, the input stage, the modulation stage, and the output. The

input stage consists of capacitors C3 and C1, and resistor R1. Input signals into the FM transmitter

must not contain a DC component as it would adversely affect the modulation/oscillation stage (by

saturating the transistor) and therefore no FM signal would be generated. C3 is used to couple the

input signal so that no DC component is fed into the transmitter. R1 provides biasing for the

transistor by feeding a small amount of current into the base (which prevents the transistor from

turning off).

The next stage is the modulation/oscillation stage which provides a carrier signal which is

then modulated by the input signal. The oscillator consists of C2, L1, C4 and R2 with the frequency

of oscillation being determined by C2 and L1 only. When power is applied to the circuit, a rush of

current flows through the inductor. This rush of current will also pass through C4 via capacitive

coupling which will result in current flowing through R2. Current flowing through R2 will result

in a voltage drop across R2 and since R2 is connected to the emitter of Q1, the same voltage will

be present on the emitter of Q1. This increase in voltage on the emitter therefore results in a smaller

value of Vbe and this reduction in Vbe reduces the conduction of Q1. As C4 begins to charge the

amount of current flowing through C4 reduces which results in less current flowing through R2.

When this happens the voltage across R2 reduces which increases the size of Vbe and therefore

increases the conduction of Q1. This increase in conduction results in C4 discharging and the

whole cycle starting all over again.

 Modulation is achieved thanks to parasitic capacitances inherent in BJT transistors.

Between the base – emitter, base – collector, and collector – base, are parasitic capacitances whose

capacitance value depends on the base current. By altering the base current these values change as

well and since the oscillation in the circuit is dependent on all capacitors and inductors in the LC

tank, the parasitic capacitances also affect the frequency of oscillation. Therefore, by changing the

base current you change the frequency of the oscillation which is how the FM (frequency

modulation) signal is produced.

Emitting the FM signal is done by AE1 which is a long piece of wire. The modulated signal

is fed into the antenna which helps to transmit the EM waves generated by the current as it

oscillates.

Statement of the Problem

This Capstone Project aimed to create an 88 MHz – 108 Mhz FM Transmitter Module

Board for Emergency Broadcast: specifically, it requires answering the following questions:

1. What are the factors that affect the transmission of signal as to:

a) Electronic Interference

b) Bandwidth

c) Channel

d) Human Intervention

2. What are the possible effect of the frequency as to:

a) Human

b) Electronic Devices

c) Technical Equipment
 3. What are the possible strategy that may be recommended to improve the signal of the

transmitter?

Purpose of the Capstone Project

The primary purpose of the project is to understand the operation of basic wireless

telecommunication. By going through the project, theoretical knowledge is transferred into

practice. During the hardware implementation, practical skills such as soldering, printed circuit

board (PCB) implementation and circuit testing can be enhanced. This project will definitely help

people mostly for those who are in areas that is prone to danger, as it activates the communication

process that can reach (one-fourth) ¼ to (one) 1 mile radius; the idea of it gives increasing rate

of possibility to get people to help immediately. The project’s goal is designed to improve the

survivability rate of people who are in absolute danger, especially within a danger zone caused by

natural calamities that sometimes become unexpected. It may also be an alternative device to use

that can transmit message effortlessly and immediately even if the cause of danger is made

intentionally. For the researchers, the most significant thing in the project itself is that it may

greatly help them uncover life-and-death situations and its flexibility as it is applicable to people

regardless of class, age, gender, occupation, etc.

Service Learning Component

Different calamities occur in the Philippines. From floods to landslides, earthquake to

volcanic eruption, that affects Filipinos in so many ways like economic crisis, destruction of

properties and specially causing them and their families to suffer. The researchers believe that by

making the 88 MHz – 108 MHz Frequency Modulation Radio Transmitter Module Board for

Emergency Broadcast can minimize casualties in such areas affected by calamities. By using this
device, it can broadcast messages through specific frequency to inform government officials or

authorities like the police, barangay officials, radio stations, or even people with radios available

on their cellular phones or just the literal radio powered by dry cells. It can help to deliver message

easily even without electricity in the specific place. Rescue operations can easily pinpoint where

the victim is and the chances of saving lives would be increased. It can also be used to spread

announcements from government officials for upcoming calamity that will affect a certain

location. Disseminating information would not be a problem when the proposed device is applied.

Significance of the Capstone Project

This Capstone Project would be conducted to determine if there is a significant relationship

between if there is a significant relationship between the FM Transmitter toward the environment

where the signal is transmitted. Furthermore, recommendations evolving from the result of this

project would contribute to the concerned individuals especially to the following:

Students. This transmitter module is a lightweight and pocketsize device that students can bring

wherever and whenever they want to. The main function of this device is to transmit information

in times of shortage of electricity and stored energy which empower communication applicable

during natural disasters. Also, the students could use this Capstone Project in creating a better

project or device in relation with the concept of this project. It would be handy for those students

who are taking electronics subject who are capable of modifying and/or enhancing for better

functions.

Community. This Capstone Project aimed to create a simple FM Transmitter for the community.

It would help the community in times of emergency by transmitting a message through the use of

FM Transmitter improving the poor communication that happens every time during typhoon in
example that causes power interruption. It would also be useful in everyday lives by transmitting

communal announcements through this transmitter module to FM Radios available in cellular

phones or the common radio. This would enhance specifically the rate of speed on spreading

information in wide area locations.

Future Researchers. This Capstone Project would serve as a reference or guide for those who

wanted to study a little bit deeper. It would help them in getting an idea about creating their own

FM Transmitter and how it can effectively be a tool in saving lives of people. Furthermore, it

would really help the future researchers in the field of communication, especially those who

wanted to become an Electronic Communication Engineer (ECE).

 Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter presents the review of related literature which guided the researchers in the

conduct of this project. The literature would be taken from the relevant materials to give the

necessary background, insight and to supplement the ideas in the present investigation. The

tremendous speed of technological innovations required that the students keep pace to the present

day changes. And another decade of the same trend is already detrimental to the educational

development of students.

Related literature

The first primitive radio transmitters (called Hertzian oscillators) were built by German physicist Heinrich

Hertzin 1887 during his pioneering investigations of radio waves. These generated radio waves by a high voltage

spark between two conductors. Theses park-gap transmitters were used during the first three decades of radio (1887-

1917), called the wireless telegraphy era. Short-lived competing techniques came into use after the turn of the

century, such as the Alexanderson alternator and Poulsen Arc transmitters. But all these early technologies were

replaced by vacuum tube transmitters in the 1920s, because they were inexpensive and produced continuous

waves, which could be modulated to transmit audio (sound) using amplitude modulation(AM) and frequency

modulation (FM). This made possible commercial radio broadcasting , which began about1920. The development

of radar before and during World War 2 was a great stimulus to the evolution of high frequency transmitters in the

UHF and microwave ranges, using new devices such as the magnetron and traveling wave tube .In recent years,

the need to conserve crowded radio spectrum bandwidth has driven the development of new types of transmitters

such as spread spectrum.

 FM (frequency modulation) transmitters can yield a number of results, depending on their

power and range. Extremely low-power transmitters can be used in very small locales, for purposes

such as eavesdropping. At the high end, radio transmitters are sometimes used for propaganda and

psychological warfare through broadcasting. Between these extremes are the low-power radio

transmitters, capable of making every user a broadcaster that have long been an issue of concern

for the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).

Mini transmitters, which have a range of about 50 feet (15.2 m), are available commercially to

serve purposes such as that of a baby monitor, but are easily adapted for eavesdropping as well.

Although they are capable of operating anywhere on the FM dial, from 88 to 108 MHz, the

recommended range for most of these is 88 to 95 MHz, where there is least likely to be interference.

Low-power FM transmitters, with a range of 100 to 400 feet (30.5–122m), make it possible to

transmit voices over a greater distance, and are applied commercially for purposes such as listening

to compact discs (CDs) in a car that does not have a CD player.

Both mini and low-power FM transmitters have such limited power—less than 1 watt—

that they pose no concern to communications regulators. On the other hand, high-power or

professional FM transmitters that are commercially available—some with as many as 35 watts of

power—theoretically have the capacity to make anyone a radio broadcaster. This could pose

serious concerns with regard to interference and communication jamming, and by 1998, the

availability of FM transmitters forced the FCC to at least consider the idea of legalizing low-power

transmission. The concept has been under consideration for some time, but many would-be

broadcasters are as likely to choose the Internet as a simpler, non-interfering environment in which

to operate a radio site.

In the realm of very high-power radio stations, there are many such facilities overseas operated by

the federal government for the purposes of winning over local populations. In February, 2002, a

year before the administration of President George W. Bush launched Operation Iraqi Freedom, it

provided assistance to the opposition Iraqi National Congress as it began transmitting from the

Kurdish-dominated north of Iraq on the FM dial. The United States already broadcast on short-

wave radio into Iraq, but FM is both more popular and harder to jam than short-wave or AM

(ampere modulation).

Related Study

According to the study of Dimitri D. Hauri et.al (19 February 2014).Radio-frequency

electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) from broadcast transmitters (radio and television transmitters)

have been hypothesized to cause childhood cancer, although a biological mechanism has not been

identified for low exposure levels (1, 2). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)

has classified RF-EMFs as “possibly carcinogenic to humans (group 2B)” based on positive

associations between glioma and acoustic neuroma and exposure to RF-EMFs from wireless

telephones (3). Regarding studies on the possible association between cancer and exposure to RF-

EMFs from fixed-site transmitters, the IARC Working Group found the available evidence

insufficient to draw a conclusion.

The output power of broadcast transmitters can be high, in order to cover large

geographical areas. Thus, they are spaced far apart, and field levels can be relatively high in the

immediate vicinity at ground level. As a consequence, epidemiologic exposure assessment for

these sources is less vulnerable to exposure misclassification than that for other environmental RF-

EMF sources such as mobile-phone base stations, which display a much higher spatial variation
(4, 5). High spatial heterogeneity is a challenge for modeling but also for exposure assignment,

because children are not stationary at their place of residence.

Most previous studies on this topic used an ecological design, and leukemia rates were

mostly found to be increased in the proximity of broadcast transmitters, reaching statistical

significance in some (6–9) but not all (10–12) studies. However, lack of individual exposure data

and lack of confounding adjustment limits interpretation. Further, some of these ecological studies

were based on small sample sizes and were initiated because of previous cluster reports. Recently,

the results of 2 more informative large case-control studies with individual exposure assessment

based on modeling were published (13–15). A South Korean study (13, 14) with 1,928 childhood

leukemia cases and an equal number of matched hospital-based controls found no association

between childhood leukemia risk and the average predicted field strengths from 31 amplitude-

modulation (AM) radio transmitters. However, children living within 2 km of the transmitters had

a relative risk of 2.15 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.00, 4.67) for all types of leukemia compared

with children living more than 20 km away. The other large case-control study (15), conducted in

the vicinity of 16 AM and 8 frequency-modulation (FM) broadcast transmitters in Germany,

included 1,959 leukemia cases and 3 population-based controls per case, matched on age, sex, and

transmitter area. That study found no indication for an association between RF-EMFs and

childhood leukemia.

The aim of our study was to investigate, within a prospective, census-based cohort study

design, the association between RF-EMF exposure from broadcast transmitters and childhood

cancer, particularly leukemia and tumors of the central nervous system (CNS).
 A team of Columbia Engineering researchers, led by Mechanical Engineering

Professor James Hone and Electrical Engineering Professor Kenneth Shepard, has taken

advantage of graphene’s special properties—its mechanical strength and electrical conduction—

and created a nano-mechanical system that can create FM signals, in effect the world’s smallest

FM radio transmitter. The study is published online on November 17, in Nature Nanotechnology.

“This work is significant in that it demonstrates an application of graphene that cannot be

achieved using conventional materials,” Hone says. “And it’s an important first step in advancing

wireless signal processing and designing ultrathin, efficient cell phones. Our devices are much

smaller than any other sources of radio signals, and can be put on the same chip that’s used for

data processing.”

Graphene, a single atomic layer of carbon, is the strongest material known to man, and also

has electrical properties superior to the silicon used to make the chips found in modern electronics.

The combination of these properties makes graphene an ideal material for nanoelectromechanical

systems (NEMS), which are scaled-down versions of the microelectromechanical systems

(MEMS) used widely for sensing of vibration and acceleration. For example, Hone explains,

MEMS sensors figure out how your smartphone or tablet is tilted to rotate the screen.

In this new study, the team took advantage of graphene’s mechanical ‘stretchability’ to

tune the output frequency of their custom oscillator, creating a nanomechanical version of an

electronic component known as a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). With a VCO, explains

Hone, it is easy to generate a frequency-modulated (FM) signal, exactly what is used for FM radio

broadcasting. The team built a graphene NEMS whose frequency was about 100 megahertz, which

lies right in the middle of the FM radio band (87.7 to 108 MHz). They used low-frequency musical
signals (both pure tones and songs from an iPhone) to modulate the 100 MHz carrier signal from

the graphene, and then retrieved the musical signals again using an ordinary FM radio receiver.

“This device is by far the smallest system that can create such FM signals,” says Hone.

While graphene NEMS will not be used to replace conventional radio transmitters, they have many

applications in wireless signal processing. Explains Shepard, “Due to the continuous shrinking of

electrical circuits known as ‘Moore’s Law’, today’s cell phones have more computing power than

systems that used to occupy entire rooms. However, some types of devices, particularly those

involved in creating and processing radio-frequency signals, are much harder to miniaturize. These

‘off-chip’ components take up a lot of space and electrical power. In addition, most of these

components cannot be easily tuned in frequency, requiring multiple copies to cover the range of

frequencies used for wireless communication.”

A team of Columbia Engineering researchers, led by Mechanical Engineering Professor

James Hone and Electrical Engineering Professor Kenneth Shepard, has taken advantage of

graphene’s special properties—its mechanical strength and electrical conduction—and created a

nano-mechanical system that can create FM signals, in effect the world’s smallest FM radio

transmitter. The study is published online on November 17, in Nature Nanotechnology.

“This work is significant in that it demonstrates an application of graphene that cannot be

achieved using conventional materials,” Hone says. “And it’s an important first step in advancing

wireless signal processing and designing ultrathin, efficient cell phones. Our devices are much

smaller than any other sources of radio signals, and can be put on the same chip that’s used for

data processing.”
Graphene, a single atomic layer of carbon, is the strongest material known to man, and also has

electrical properties superior to the silicon used to make the chips found in modern electronics.

The combination of these properties makes graphene an ideal material for nanoelectromechanical

systems (NEMS), which are scaled-down versions of the microelectromechanical systems

(MEMS) used widely for sensing of vibration and acceleration. For example, Hone explains,

MEMS sensors figure out how your smartphone or tablet is tilted to rotate the screen.

In this new study, the team took advantage of graphene’s mechanical ‘stretchability’ to

tune the output frequency of their custom oscillator, creating a nanomechanical version of an

electronic component known as a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). With a VCO, explains

Hone, it is easy to generate a frequency-modulated (FM) signal, exactly what is used for FM radio

broadcasting. The team built a graphene NEMS whose frequency was about 100 megahertz, which

lies right in the middle of the FM radio band (87.7 to 108 MHz). They used low-frequency musical

signals (both pure tones and songs from an iPhone) to modulate the 100 MHz carrier signal from

the graphene, and then retrieved the musical signals again using an ordinary FM radio receiver.

“This device is by far the smallest system that can create such FM signals,” says Hone.

While graphene NEMS will not be used to replace conventional radio transmitters, they have many

applications in wireless signal processing. Explains Shepard, “Due to the continuous shrinking of

electrical circuits known as ‘Moore’s Law’, today’s cell phones have more computing power than

systems that used to occupy entire rooms. However, some types of devices, particularly those

involved in creating and processing radio-frequency signals, are much harder to miniaturize. These

‘off-chip’ components take up a lot of space and electrical power. In addition, most of these

components cannot be easily tuned in frequency, requiring multiple copies to cover the range of

frequencies used for wireless communication.”

Graphene NEMS can address both problems: they are very compact and easily integrated with

other types of electronics, and their frequency can be tuned over a wide range because of

graphene’s tremendous mechanical strength.

“There is a long way to go toward actual applications in this area,” notes Hone, “but this

work is an important first step. We are excited to have demonstrated successfully how this wonder

material can be used to achieve a practical technological advancement—something particularly

rewarding to us as engineers.”

The Hone and Shepard groups are now working on improving the performance of the

graphene oscillators to have lower noise. At the same time, they are also trying to demonstrate

integration of graphene NEMS with silicon integrated circuits, making the oscillator design even

more compact. For this study, the team worked with research groups from the School’s

Departments of Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, and Physics. This work is

supported by Qualcomm Innovation Fellowship 2012 and the U.S. Air Force, using facilities at

the Cornell Nano-Scale Facility and the Center for Engineering and Physical Science Research

(CEPSR) Clean Room at Columbia University.

Base on the study of Remixing Benjamin, the relation between radio and its public has

always been based on a mutual act of faith: radio does not know its listeners, it never saw them

and, for a long time, it never heard from them. Radio and its listeners have always been strangers

to each other. Listeners never knew who the voices on the radio belonged to. The radio and its

audience believe in each other without knowing each other. For a long time, until phone calls from

listeners were introduced (in Italy this happened in 1969 with the programme Chiamate Roma

3131), the audience could only listen to the radio, without ever participating. Before the telephone,

the only means of interaction between radio and listeners was mail: too little to speak of audience
participation. From its invention, until the introduction of live telephone calls, radio has always

been a top–down, push medium, from the centre to the periphery, with no space for feedback. The

telephone, and subsequently mobile phones, e–mail, Internet streaming, blogs and social media

progressively reversed the communication flow, re–establishing a balance in favour of the public.

Finally, contemporary radio has become a potentially participative tool. With SNS (social

networking sites) we are facing a paradigmatic change in the relation between radio and its

audience: listeners are becoming the real content of radio. McLuhan already understood this when

he claimed that “in electronic media user is content” [1]. This has never been more true than today.

The first scholars to understand the value of radio as a social medium, rather than as a content

distributor, were Brecht and Benjamin. Yet before Brecht, and even more remarkably, it was

Walter Benjamin who realised radio’s radical potential as a “social medium”. Adorno and

Horkheimer considered radio a tool for propaganda and to spread a stupefying kind of

entertainment (Gilloch, 2002); Benjamin, having produced 90 programmes for the public radio of

the Weimar Republic between 1929 and 1933, had a deeper knowledge of this means of

communication, maintained, on the contrary, a positive outlook on radio. It had the ability, in

Benjamin’s view, to transform the public’s relation to culture and politics (Baudouin, 2009). In his

“Conversation with Ernst Schoen” (1929), Benjamin claims that radio should not be a means to

circulate an outdated bourgeois culture or a mere entertainment medium: it should instead occupy

a middle ground between sombre and dry educational broadcasts and the low–mindedness of

vaudeville shows.

It is in Reflections on radio (1930), however, that Benjamin expresses the most fruitful

ideas for our own times: “The crucial failing of [radio] has been to perpetuate the fundamental
separation between practitioners and the public, a separation that is at odds with its technological

basis. The public has to be turned into the witnesses of interviews and conversations in which now

this person and now that one has the opportunity to make himself heard” (Benjamin, 2003). The

radio that Benjamin is advocating is a medium that reduces the distance between transmitter and

receiver, allowing both the author/presenter and the listener to play the role of producers, who

contribute to creating the radio narrative. The importance that Benjamin attributes to active

reception is in stark contrast with the hypnotic effect of Nazi aesthetics and with the allure of a

radio show seen as a product to be consumed. Benjamin juxtaposes the aestheticisation of politics

and art embodied by Nazism (and more in general by propaganda and consumer culture) with the

politicization of art, something which requires, in his view, a more active and participant role for

the listener.

Benjamin further developed this theme in “The Author as Producer” (1934), a paper in

which he pointed out the need for a new intellectual/producer figure (writer, photographer, radio

drama author, film director) and the end of the distance between writer and reader due to the advent

of new mechanical and electrical reproduction technologies. Benjamin noticed that more and more

people had started to become “collaborators” in his own time through the rise of the newspaper,

as editors created new columns according to the current tastes of their readers. These spaces were

meant to make readers feel in touch with their culture, and in this sense the reader became a kind

of author (Navas, 2005). Benjamin saw the reader as redefining the literary text; his example is the

Russian press.

According to the study conducted by Usha Chandar and Ramesh Sharma (April - 2003)

Radio has been used in different formats for educational purposes the world round. Radio

technology was first developed during the late nineteenth century and came into popularity as an
educational medium during the early twentieth century. Although often overshadowed as

educational medium vis-à-vis other technologies such as television, radio remains a viable medium

that has proven educational worth in terms of both pedagogical importance and geographical reach.

Radio is capable of delivering high quality educational programming to highly diversified

audiences located across broad geographical expanses – all at a low per unit production cost

(Couch, 1997). Studies conducted by the Open University UK have demonstrated that, when used

as a supplementary learning tool, radio benefits weaker students (Tripp and Roby, 1996). The

Agency for International Development has shown radio to be more cost-effective and capable of

exerting greater learning effects than textbooks or teacher education (Tripp and Roby, 1996).

Radio has the advantage of permitting the teaching of subjects in which classroom teachers are

untrained or lacking certain knowledge sets. Another benefit for multi-grade classroom use is that

radio can provide instruction for one group of students, whilst the teacher is occupied with another.

Radio can also bring new or previously unavailable resources into the classroom, thereby greatly

enhancing student teaching (Muller, 1985). As a medium that can be listen to in the privacy of

one’s home or room, radio is often the preferred choice for those seeking information on culturally

taboo topics such as HIV/AIDS or STDs.

Jaminson and McAnany (1978) report three main advantages of radio: (1) improved

educational quality and relevance; (2) lowered per student educational costs; and (3) improved

access to education, particularly for disadvantaged groups. Some limitations of radio for

educational purposes are that it inherently lacks interaction; instructor feedback and clarification

are generally unavailable; instruction cannot be interrupted or reviewed Radio has been used in

different formats for educational purposes the world round. Radio technology was first developed

during the late nineteenth century and came into popularity as an educational medium during the
early twentieth century. Although often overshadowed as educational medium vis-à-vis other

technologies such as television, radio remains a viable medium that has proven educational worth

in terms of both pedagogical importance and geographical reach. Radio is capable of delivering

high quality educational programming to highly diversified audiences located across broad

geographical expanses – all at a low per unit production cost (Couch, 1997). Studies conducted by

the Open University UK have demonstrated that, when used as a supplementary learning tool,

radio benefits weaker students (Tripp and Roby, 1996). The Agency for International Development

has shown radio to be more cost-effective and capable of exerting greater learning effects than

textbooks or teacher education (Tripp and Roby, 1996). Radio has the advantage of permitting the

teaching of subjects in which classroom teachers are untrained or lacking certain knowledge sets.

Another benefit for multi-grade classroom use is that radio can provide instruction for one group

of students, whilst the teacher is occupied with another. Radio can also bring new or previously

unavailable resources into the classroom, thereby greatly enhancing student learning (Muller,

1985). As a medium that can be listen to in the privacy of one’s home or room, radio is often the

preferred choice for those seeking information on culturally taboo topics such as HIV/AIDS or

STDs.

Jaminson and McAnany (1978) report three main advantages of radio: (1) improved

educational quality and relevance; (2) lowered per student educational costs; and (3) improved

access to education, particularly for disadvantaged groups. Some limitations of radio for

educational purposes are that it inherently lacks interaction; instructor feedback and clarification

are generally unavailable; instruction cannot be interrupted or reviewed by students (unless it is

tape-recorded); the pace of the lesson is fixed; note taking is difficult for some; and time for

reflection is minimal. To overcome these drawbacks, preparation, supporting materials, and

follow-up exercises are recommended when possible (McIsaac and Gunawardena, 1996). Below

aby students (unless it is tape-recorded); the pace of the lesson is fixed; note taking is difficult for

some; and time for reflection is minimal. To overcome these drawbacks, preparation, supporting

materials, and follow-up exercises are recommended when possible (McIsaac and Gunawardena,

1996).
 Chapter 3

Methodology

This chapter talks about project design, materials, cost analysis, and data analysis.

Design

Figure 1: FM Transmitter Design

This miniature transmitter is easy to construct and its transmission can be picked up on any

standard FM receiver. It has a range of up to ¼ of a mile or more. It is greater for room monitoring,

baby listening, nature research, etc. L1 is 8 to 10 turns of a gauge hookup wire close wound around

a non-conductive ¼ inch diameter form, such as pencil. C4 is a small, screw-adjustable, trimmer

capacitor. Set your FM receiver for a clear, blank space in lower end of the band. Then, with a

non-conductive tool, adjust the capacitor for the clearest reception.

 Figure 2: Parts Layout

Materials

The Researchers employed materials and equipment to FM radio transmitter that is

necessary to build successfully. The resources utilized in the study are the following:

 Circuit Board

 Transistor

 2N3904 NPN

 Electret Mic
 Chapter 4

This chapter presents the conclusion, recommendation for future practices,

recommendation for future research and self-reflection on the Capstone Project.

Problem 1: What are the factors that interrupt the transmission of signal?

Findings

Nearby electronic equipment or more distant equipment sending strong electromagnetic signals

can affect your wireless network. Common sources of interference include microwave ovens and

cellphones. Power cables carrying large voltages can also create interference. Bandwidth refers to

the amount of data that can be transmitted through a system. If too much of a network’s bandwidth

is being used, the result will be that all parts of the network slow down. According to PCWorld

magazine, another source of interference is a different router using the same channel as your

transmitter and network. This can often occur if more than one transmitter is in use in a particular

building. Signal can also be interrupt by faulty handling by human person. Specially, those who

intended to disrupt the signal.

Conclusion

Recommendation for Future Practices

As a result, most of the factors that affect the transmission are caused by environment or caused

by the place where the transmitter is located. In line with these, the future practitioners or future

researchers should chose a better place or environment where they plan to put the FM Transmitter.
Also, the researchers should plan the project carefully and with enough time to ensure that signal

interruption is minimal.

Recommendation for Future Research

The researchers can avoid electronic interference by shielding equipment or moving source of

interference by shielding equipment or moving source of interference out of range – transmission

should improve. While in terms of bandwidth, researchers should consider discouraging or

prohibiting high-bandwidth activities or instituting a bandwidth quota for each element of your

network. Also, this situation can sometimes be resolved by physically relocating one or both

transmitter; alternatively, it’s possible to change the frequency that a transmitter uses. Human

intervention can be prevented by conducting brainstorming, briefings, orientation, and seminars.