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Technology (JCEET)
Volume 4, Issue 5; July-September, 2017
Contents
Highway Safety 382-383
Arun Kumar Singh1, Ramendra Pandey2 and Ashish Pandey3
Green Concrete 384-387

Ashish Pandey1, Ramendra Pandey2 and Shweta Yadav3
Analysing Water Quality Parameters for Liquid Waste from Distillery 388-390
Dravin KumarDev1, Ms.Sunayana2 and A.K. Mishra3
Soft Computing and Regression Models for Compressive Strength of BFS and SP Mixed Concrete 391-395
Y K BIND1, Keshav Sharma2, N N Harry3 and Y K Kushwaha4
Time History Analysis of Irregular Reinforced Concrete High Rise Building with Shear Wall 396-400
Keshav. K. Sharma1, S. K. Duggal2, R. K. Pandey3 and Sanjay Singh4
Retrofitting Methods for Unreinforced Masonry Structure 401-404

Mahesh Yadav1 and Vinay Kumar Singh2
Analysis of Seismic Loads acting on Multistory Building as per IS: 1893-2002 and 405-408
IS: 1893-2016 :- A comparative Study
Ravikant Singh1 and Vinay Kumar Singh2
Geosynthetics: A Smart and Sustainable Material for Construction and Soil Improvement 409-411
Shivani Verma1 and Vikas Kumar2
Fluoride Removal Techniques from Groundwater: A Review 412-415

Shulbha Singh1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
Study of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Ground Water Quality of Indira Nagar, Gorakhpur 416-422
Surya Pratap Singh1 and Sunayana2
Contents
ENERGETICS OF 2,3,5 TRIMETHYL PHENOL –FORMALDEHYDE REACTION 423-425

PS Jassal*
Comparative Study of different Waste Materials as an Adsorbent for Fluoride Removal from 426-429
Groundwater
Anju Gulia1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
Anaerobic Co-digestion of Lignocellulosic Waste Co-Digested with Food Waste under 430-433
Mesophillic Conditions
Pushkar Adhikari1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
The Energy Potential of Rice Straw by the Thermal and Biological Method: 434-437
A Comparative Study
Suraj Negi1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
Journal of Civil Engineering and Environmental Technology
p-ISSN: 2349-8404; e-ISSN: 2349-879X; Volume 4, Issue 5; July-September, 2017, pp. 382-383
© Krishi Sanskriti Publications
http://www.krishisanskriti.org/Publication.html
Highway Safety
Arun Kumar Singh1, Ramendra Pandey2 and Ashish Pandey3
1,2,3
P.G. Student Madan Mohan Malaviya university of Technology Gorakhpur 273010
E-mail: 1ce.arunsingh@gmail.com, 2imramendrapandey@gmail.com, 3ashishpandey840@gmail.com
Abstract—The construction of Structure and highway is very

important for development of any nation. Major part of economy of Types of highway
nation depends on the highway because in India the transportation National highway
mainly depends on highway. There is a heavy loss occurs when State highway
accidents happened on the highway. The many goods like milk, milk
products, fruits, vegetables etc. reach on their destination on a
Major district road
limited or fixed time. Due to accidents the jam held on the highway. Other district road
For reduction of accidents and improvement in economy, the safety Village road
of highway is necessary. The main goal of this research paper is
Types of pavement
highway safety and the method used in highway safety. Highway
safety depends on the factors mainly traffic volume, pavement design, Flexible pavement-Flexible pavement is define as the
crash factor, curve provided in highway, alignment of highway. The
consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or bituminous material and
statistical method of analysis and application of GIS is used for
highway safety assessment.
aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular material of
proper quality in different layers of the subgrade. Water bound
Keywords: Highway safety assessment, Accident, Traffic volume, macadam roads surface and stabilized soil roads with or
Pavement design, GIS without asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible pavements
Thus the strength of subgrade primarilyeffects the thickness of
Introduction the flexible pavement.
Road traffic accident responsible forbillions of death
worldwide each year .It has largest contributors. Road traffic
accident are often covered in the media simply as events—not
as a leading killer of people and an enormous drain on a
country’s human, health and financial resources. By
formulating highway safetyas health and development story
with in-depth information and data.Writter have chance to
Rigid pavement- A rigid pavement is constructed from
influence the way story are told conceivably. Traffic volumes
cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs. The design of
on highways vary with both time and space. Temporal
rigid pavement is depend on providing a structural cement
variation occurs with respect to hour, day and month of the
concrete slab of enough strength to resists the loads from
year.
traffic. The rigid pavement has rigidity and high modulus of
The highway type, location and route choice behavior of elasticity to distribute the load over the soil.
road users cause spatial variation. Even if traffic streams are
investigated for the same time and location, the variations of
traffic volumes could differ substantially when each vehicle
class travelling in the traffic stream is analyzed separately.
Factor affecting highway safety
 Types of highway
 Types of pavement
 Pavement design
 Traffic volume
 Highway alignment
 Curve on highway
Highway Safety 383
Traffic volume study- (e) Designing for pedestrians and cyclists-

Traffic volume is a calculation of the total work done by a Pedestrians and cyclists are among the most vulnerable road
resource or facility, normally over 24 hours, and is measured user and in some countries constitute over half of all road
in units of per lane per hours. It is defined as the product of the deaths. Interventions aimed at improving safety of non-
average traffic intensity and the time period of the study motorized users.
Several method is adopted for measuring traffic volume  Design Sidewalks of suitable width for pedestrian traffic
study Pedestrian close to the desire line which allow pedestrians
to cross roads safely.
 By Toll Plaza Ticketing
 Use Segregated pedestrian routes and cycle lanes away
 Registration offices record from the main highway.
 Statistical Approach
 Construct Overbridged (tend to be unpopular with
 By Interviewing of each vehicle
pedestrians and cyclists due to additional distance and
 By Check posts on several place effort).
 By using Modern Global Positioning
 Make Underpasses (these can pose heightened risk from
Systems(GPS)
crime if not designed well, can work for cyclists in some
cases).
Importance of traffic volume study –
 Use Traffic calming and speed humps concept.
Traffic volume study Increase the efficiency and life of road,
Reduces traffic volume at a particular section, Provide better  Low speed limits that are rigorously enforced, possibly
means for development of infrastructures. It Provide better by speed cameras.
means to utilize other roads in case of special events in the  Shared space schemes giving holding power of the road
city, provide estimate of number of vehicles against number of space and equal priority to all road users, regardless of
persons mode of use.
Highway alignment-  Construct Pedestrian barriers to prevent pedestrians
Highway alignment is define as The position or lay out of crossing dangerous locations
center line of the highway on the ground. It includes straight Conclusion
path, horizontal deviation and curves .once highway is
constructed then not change in alignment so it is design From the above data it is concluded that these concept are
carefully .some disadvantage of highway alignment as- helpful for highway safety and it helps for the movement of
increase maintenance cost. Increase in vehicle operation cost vehicle from one place to another place without any damage ,it
Increase accident. also helps to improve the social and economic condition for
the growth of any nation .
Factor for controlling alignment-Some special care in
hill roads as Stability , Drainage , Geometric standards of hill REFERENCE-
roads ,Resisting length Obligatory points , Traffic ,Geometric
design , Economics ,Other considerations [1] wikipedia.org-Road_traffic_safety
[2] Crime in India. National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of
Highway safety assessment. Home Affairs, Govt. of India. 2007
(a) Behavior Modification incorporates Aggressive Driving, [3] Sunken B, Edwards P, Roberts I, Green J. Walking, cycling and
transport safety: an analysis of child road deaths. J R Sok Med
Distracted Driving, Impaired Driving, and Ooccupant
2006;99(8);402-405
Protection.
[4] Bannon MJ, Carter YH, Mason KT. Causes of fatal childhood
(b)Design and Operations incorporates Intersections and accidents in North Staffordshire 1980-1989. Arch Emerg Med
Roadway Departure. 1992;9:357- and prevention of traffic injuries to urban children
and adolescents. Pediatrics 1999;103(6):74
(c) System Management includes Vehicle Safety and Incident [5] Highway engineering by Khanna and justo.
Management. Figure from google.com/highway pavements
(d) Vulnerable Roadway Users has been updated to include
High Risk Drivers, Motorcycles, and Non-Motorized Users

p-ISSN: 2349-8404; e-ISSN: 2349-879X; Volume 4, Issue 5; July-September, 2017
Green Concrete
Ashish Pandey1, Ramendra Pandey2 and Shweta Yadav3
1,2
P.G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, India
3Department of Civil Engineering, Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, India
E-mail: 1ashishpandey840@gmail.com, 2imramendrapandey@gmail.com
Abstract—Concrete is the most commonly used building material in 1.1. Requirements of Green Concrete
the world. Pollution is becoming more and more serious with the
increasing use of concrete in the world. It was observed that 0.9 To be called as “Green Concrete” the concrete should have the
tonnes of carbon dioxide is produced per tonne of cement production. following requirement:
By weight the cement composition is almost about 10% of the
concrete. The reduction of emission of carbon dioxide in atmosphere 1. Requires the optimizes use of available materials.
is possible by using the green concrete towards the eco-friendly
2. It requires the better performance.
construction techniques. This paper gives an idea about the
advantages and disadvantages about the green concrete. Some of the 3. It enhanced cohesion workabiliry/consistency in the
materials used in the manufacturing of green concrete are quarry concrete.
rocks, crushed concrete marble sludge powder and fly ashes. It also
helps in reducing the pollution in the atmosphere 4. It reduces shrinkage and creep in the concrete.
Keywords: Green Concrete, Pollution, Recycled Materials, Eco- 5. Their is no increase in cost.
friendly construction, Geo-polymer concrete, Sustainable 6. It reduces the carbon foot print.
construction.
7. Certification of LEED.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MATERIALS FOR GREEN CONCRETE
In ‘Green Concrete’ the word ‘green’ doesn’t represent the
colour of the concrete. Green concrete means that the concrete 1. Fly Ash
is eco-friendly. In other words, we can say that the concrete 2. Marble Sludge Powder
which is made from the concrete wastes which are eco- 3. Quarry Rock Dust
friendly are called as “Green Concrete”. It represent that the 4. Recycled Aggregate
concrete requires less energy in its production and produces 5. Blast Furnace Slag
less carbon dioxide than the normal concrete. The concrete
should not be confused by its colour. Due to the use of 2.1. Fly Ash
recycled material the green concrete is considered to be very It has a number of advantages. It is used to improve the
cheap to produce. At present green concrete is a miracle and concrete performance in both fresh and hardened state. Fly ash
tool for future when the natural resources are demolishing helps in improving the workability of plastic concrete and
strength and durability of hardened concrete. Fly ash is mainly
available where there coal is being burned. Fly ash is less
expensive as compared to the Portland Cement. We can make
the best use of the fly ash by utilizing its cemmentitious
properties.
Fig 1: Green Mix Concrete

Green Concrete 385
2.2. Marble Sludge Powder

Since ancient times Marble is commonly used as a building
material. The disposal of the waste materials coming from the
marble industry, which consist of very fine powders, is one
of the major environmental problems in the worldwide now a
days. We can improve the properties of fresh and hardened
mortar and concrete by using these waste materials which are
successful and economical.
Fig 2: Fly Ash
Fig 5: Marble Sludge Waste
2.3. Quarry Rock Dust

It is made by blasting, crushing and screening coarse
aggregate. Due to better interlocking it gain in strength and
quarry rock dust has rough, sharp and angular particles. As
compare to the conventional concrete quarry dust concrete
experiences the better sulphate and acid resistance and its
permeability is less.
Fig 3: Fly Ash Block
Fig 4: Source of Fly Ash Fig 6: Quarry Rock Dust

386 Ashish Pandey, Ramendra Pandey and Shweta Yadav
Fig 9: Recycled Aggregate
2.5. Blast Furnace Slag

It is another excellent cementitious material. In recent year the
Fig 7: Dust Chemical Quarry use of blast furnace slag in concrete is increasing considering
and this trend is expected to continue.
2.4. Recycled Aggregate
The aggregates which are obtained by crushing the concrete
collected from the demolition site called as “Recycled
Aggregate”. These types of concretes are previously used in
landfills by disposing at the site. It helps in reducing the
mining of gravel for making concrete.
Fig 10: Blast Furnace Slag
3. SUITABILITY OF GREEN CONCRETE IN

STRUCTURES
1. It helps in reducing the dead weight of the structure.

2. It reduces the 30% of the emission of carbon dioxide from
the concrete industry.
3. Concrete industry increases the 20% use of the waste
products.
4. It requires less maintenance and repairs.
5. It helps in sustainable development and reduces the
environmental pollution.
6. It helps in reducing the crane age load, allow handling and
lifting flexibility with lighter weight.
Fig 8: Recycled Aggregates

Green Concrete 387
4. APPLICATION OF GREEN CONCRETE 5. It requires less maintenance and repairs.
Following are the application of green concrete: 6. It has good thermal and acid resistance.
1. Widely used in the construction of building. 7. Environmental pollution is reduced.

8. By the use of light weight aggregates we can reduce the self
2. In constructing the columns. weight of the structure.
3. In mass concrete projects. 9. By the use of recycled aggregates it reduces the green
mining.
4. Used in bridge construction. 10. As compare to the conventional concrete much change is
not required in the preparation of green concrete.
5. In high density radiation shielding.
6. DISADVANTAGES
1. Higher water absorption capacity.
2. In green concrete flexural strength is less.
3. As compare to the conventional concrete shrinkage and
creep is high.
7. CONCLUSION
In this paper we concluded that there are various means to get
the sustainable construction and one of the better means is by
Green Concrete. Now a days, construction industry is using
Green Concrete technology to get the sustainable construction
without affecting the environment. Green concrete helps in
decreasing the demand of natural resources. With the help of
green concrete technology we can save the natural materials
for the future generation.
REFERENCES
Fig 11: Application of Green Concrete
[1] Chirag Garg and Aakash Jain (2014), “Green Concrete:
Efficient and Eco-Friendly Construction Materials”.
5. ADVANTAGES [2] Abhijeet Baikerikar (2014), “AReview On Green Concrete”.
[3] Https://Theconstrucor.Org/Concrete/Green-Concrete/5566/
1. It reduces the overall consumption of cement. (Online).
2. As compare to conventional concrete it is economical. [4] D.B. Desai, A.K. Gupta and Pradeep Kumar (2013), “Green
Concrete: Need Of Environment”.
3. As compare to conventional concrete it has better [5] Bambang Suhendro (2014), “Toward Green Concrete For
compressive and split tensile strength. Better Sustainable Environment”.
4. It helps in reduction of creep and shrinkage.

Analysing Water Quality Parameters for

Liquid Waste from Distillery
Dravin KumarDev1, Ms.Sunayana2 and A.K. Mishra3
1
M.Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering MMMUT Gorakhpur
2,3
Department of Civil Engineering MMMUT Gorakhpur
E-mail: dkd3485@gmail.com
Abstract—The effluent that are originated from distillery are very 50000 mg/l and the typical value of chemical oxygen demand
harmful in nature. Many distillery effluent are dispose into the river (COD) are 100000-1500000 mg/l. all different industries have
or stream without proper treatment which cause change in physical, set there norms for effluent discharges. Due to increasing
chemical, and biological characteristics of river/stream. The effluent industrialization the no of pollution is increase like air
generated from the distillery is also known as spent wash lead to
more water pollution .Industrial waste create a variety of water
pollution, noise pollution, water pollution. The increasing
pollution which is more difficult in treating and more costly the level of water pollution is more dangerous to environment and
present study is under take to assess the level of physical chemical living things. Most of the industries discharge the waste water
parameter of distillery spent wash. The parameter is compare with in the stream without proper treatment which causes more
Bureau of Indian standard. Untreated effluent have high BOD rate water pollution. Around the industrial area soil and
but low DO rate. The untreated effluent have more harmful to plant underground water is polluted and due to soil pollution by
so it is no permissible to irrigation the treated effluent is under nearly industries the crop growth rate decreases. Water
permissible limit and less toxic and it is use as irrigation purpose. pollution also increases due to standard of living being, high
This study was conducted to know the physical and chemical profile person have high rate of demand of water supply per
characteristics of distillery waste water like Biological oxygen
demand, chemical oxygen demand, turbidity, pH, alkalinity, total
day. The demand of water supply increases per year due to
dissolved solid, Total suspended solid, total solid, chloride. The this led to scarcity of water in the world. . In the world various
average values of pH, Turbidity, Acidity, Chloride, Hardness, Total standards are laid down by agency after analyzing the water
Solid, BOD, DO, Alkalinity are found out. Distillery industries in quality for different use such as (WHO) world health
India pose a very serious threat to the environment because of the organization, U.S Environmental Protection Agency
large volume of wastewater they generate which contains significant (USEPA), the Bureau of Indian standards (BIS) the Indian
amount of recalcitrant compounds. Distillery spent wash has very Council of Medical Research (ICMR) etc.
high COD and BOD with low pH and dark brown color. The
treatment of spent wash using various treatment technologies and
reactor configurations has been widely explored.
1. INTRODUCTION
Large amount of dissolved organic matter is present in effluent
of distillery. With the help of biological action organic matter
is readily decompose, consequently its causes serious damage
to aquatic life when distillery effluent is discharge into the
stream. In India there are about 145 distilleries, a state wise
producing ethyl alcohol by fermentation of molasses and
subsequent distillation of the fermented wash. The
fermentation is carried out by yeast, which convert the sugar
present in the molasses into alcohol while the sludge settle
down at the end of the process.
The color of the waste water of distillery is dark brown
instead of color the spent wash of distillery have high
biological oxygen demand, high chemical oxygen demand,
high suspended solid, and inorganic solid but low value of ph. Fig 1 Map of Study Area
The typical range of biological oxygen demand (BOD) 35000-
Analysing Water Quality Parameters for Liquid Waste from Distillery 389
For existance of life on the earth water is one of the most 7 TSS Gravity metric Gooch Crucible
important components. For all human being in the world fresh method and electronic
and clean drinking water is needed for survival on the earth, Balance,
but sadly millions of people are deprived by fresh water in the Burner
world. Today in the entire world all the living (being) flora
8 Chloride
and fauna need water for survival.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. pH VALUE
2.1 WATER SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND
ANALYSIS The pH is measure the alkalinity or acidity and hydrogen ion
concentration of the sample. The low pH below 4 indicates
Water samples were analyzed for various parameters in the
acidity and above 7 indicates alkalinity. In the present study
Environmental Laboratory Engineering, Madan Mohan
the pH value varies from 2.2 to 3.8. According to B.I.S 1998
Malviya University, Gorakhpur, various physical and
the pH value is 5.5 to 9.0 when they are discharge into the
chemical parameters like Temperature, pH, turbidity, total
stream or on land for irrigation purpose.
dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS)
Hardness, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), disourced 3.2. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND VALUE
oxygen (DO), fluoride, alkalinity have been monitored for the
waste water of different places. Plastic bottles with a capacity BOD means the total oxygen require of bacteria to decompose
of 1.5 liters with a stopper were used to collect samples. Each the organic matter under aerobic condition. In this study the
The bottle was washed with 2% nitric acid and was washed BOD value is varies from 1419.15 to 1763.89mg/l. The
three times with distilled water. This The bottles were then average values according to B.I.S 1998 of biochemical oxygen
preserved in a clean place. The bottles were filled with no air demand are 30000mg/l to 70000mg/l. But according to CPCB
space, and So the bottle was stopped to stop any leakage. Each the BOD of discharge spent wash for irrigation purpose on
container was clearly marked with Name and date of the land are 100 mg/l and 30 mg/l for disposal into inland surface.
sample. 3.3. COD VALUE
2.2 Physical and Chemical methods of analysis for The oxygen require to oxidize the organic matter present in
distillery industry wastewater given waste water. But in this study chemical oxygen demand
Table 1: Analytical Methods adopted for Distillery Industry of the waste water varies from 2617.53 to 3512.90 mg/l. But
Wastewater Analysis the average value of chemical oxygen demand of spent wash
is 70000 mg/l to 98000mg/l. According to average value of
s.no parameters Method used Experiment COD is 500 mg/l after dilution.
used
1 pH 3.4. Dissolved Oxygen
2 BOD5 @ Dilution method Volumetric The determination of DO is very important before discharging
20○C glassware’s,
BOD Bottles,
the waste into the stream. The 4ppm DO is sufficient for
Incubator aquatic life in the stream, otherwise it have adverse effect on
fish. In this paper the value of Dissolved Oxygen is 2.2 to 3.8
3 COD Open reflux COD mg/l. According to CPCB the value of dissolved oxygen in
method apparatus, spent wash which are discharge on land surface for irrigation
Round Bottom purpose are from 4ppm to 6ppm.
Flask
3.5. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLOD
4 DO
5 TDS Gravity metric Gooch Crucible
In the study area the total dissolved solid is varies from
method and electronic 361mg/l to 461mg/l. The average value of TDS of distillery
Balance, waste is 58000mg/l to 76000mg/l and 2100mg/l on land
Burner disposal after treatment.
3.6. TOTAL SOLID
6 TS Gravity metric Gooch Crucible
method and electronic Total amount of solid may be defined as evaporating the
Balance,
sample and weighing the left material. The mass of left
Burner
material is divided by the total volume of the sample and it is
denoted in mg/l. the sample of waste water is evaporated at
105OC in the ballast furnish. According to B.I.S 1998 TS

390 Dravin KumarDev, Ms.Sunayana and A.K. Mishra
range from 80000 mg/l to 90000mg/l and 2200 mg/l on land REFERENCE
disposal after treatment.
(1). Agrawal, C.S., Pandey, G.S., Soil pollution by spent wash
3.7. TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLID discharge: Depletion of manganese (II) and impairment of
its oxidation. J. Environ. 1994.
Suspended solid may be define as those solid which are retain
by passing the sample through 1µm pores and therefore also (2). Beauro of Indian standard 1998.
called as non filterable solid. In this project the TSS varies
(3). CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board). Pollution
from 199mg/l to 318mg/l. But the TSS is 100 mg/l after
Control Acts, Rules, Notifications issued there under, vol.
treatment by CPCB.
I.
3.8. CHLORIDE
(4). G.N Pandey and G.C Carney, Environmental Engineering.
In this project the average value of chloride is range from 78 (5). Dr.Ahmad Ashfaq, Industrial waste Treatment
mg/l to 99 mg/l. But according to CPCB the chloride range of Technology.
spent wash is 5000 mg/l to 6000 mg/l. The treated spent wash
of distillery waste which is dispose on land is in range from 50 (6). Management of distillery waste water resource recycling
mg/l to 100 mg/l. series RERES/4/2001-2002.
4. CONCLUSION (7). Goetz, C.A. and R.C. Smith, (1959). Evaluation of various
methods and reagents for total hardness and calcium
The main objective of this project was analyse the physical hardness in water. Lowa State J.Sci. 34:81.
and chemical characteristics parameter of distillery waste (8). Schwarzenbach, G.and H. Flaschika, (1969).
water. Complexometric Titrations, 2nd Ed., Barnes and Noble,
The pH range from 6 to 6.5. According to CPCB distillery Inc., New York, N.Y.
effluent standard prescribed limit for irrigation purpose is 5.5 (9). Sawyer Clair N., Perry Z. McCarty, Gener F. Parkin.
to 9. Chemistry for Environmental Engineering, 4th Edition.
The Turbidity, TDS and TSS ranged from 145 to 182 (10). C PCB document stating the guidelines values for
NTU, 261 to 361 mg/l and 199 to 318 mg/l respectively. The various water bodies. Rationalization and Optimisation of
value of Turbidity was found to be within the prescribe limit. Water Quality Monitoring Network, CPCB, MINARS,
The DO and BOD were in the range of 2.2 to 3.8 mg/l and IS-2001-2001.
1419.33 to 1763.89 mg/l. The prescribe value DO for (11). American Society for Testing and Materials, (1195).
irrigation purpose according to CPCB are 2ppm to 5ppm .But Standard Methods for Chemical Oxygen Demand
the prescribed value of BOD of distillery effluent for irrigation (Dichromate Oxygen Demand of Water D1252-95,
purpose 100mg/l in this project the BOD value is above the ASTM Annual Book of Standard, American Testing and
prescribe value. Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
Rise in BOD value due to presence of organic matter that (12). Howard, C.S., (1933). Determination of total dissolved
are not oxidise during the treatment process solids in water analysis. Ind. Engg. Chem. Anal. Ed., 5:4.
The COD and Alkalinity were in the range of (13). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
2617.53mg/l to 3512.90mg/l and 283mg/l to 340mg/l Wastewater, APHA, AWWA and WEF, 21st Edition,
respectively. The parameters studied resemble the distillery 2005
effluent waste water quality.
(14). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
High COD value may occur because of the presence of Wastewater; APHA, AWWA and WEF, 21st Edition,
inorganic substance with which the dichromate can react. 2000.
In addition agricultural, industrial, waste water discharge (15). Peavey, S. and Rowe, R. Environmental Engineering,
to surface water are a source of chloride. Mc- Graw-HILL International.
Alkalinity in waste water result from the presence of (16). Rajor, A. Kalia, P and Mathur, R, P., Research Journal
hydroxide , carbonate and bicarbonate of element such as Chemistry Environment, 2003, 7(2) 59-75.
calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and ammonia.
(17). Joshi, H. C., Pathak, H., Choudhary, A., Kalro, N.,
Problems and prospects fertilizer News. 1996, 41: 41-47.

Soft Computing and Regression Models for

Compressive Strength of BFS and
SP Mixed Concrete
Y K BIND1, Keshav Sharma2, N N Harry3 and Y K Kushwaha4
1,2,3,4
SIET, SHUATS,
E-mail: yeetendra@gmail.com, 2keshavmnnit2014@gmail.com,
1
3
nnharry@gmail.com,4yogendra.kkushwaha@shiats.edu.in
Abstract-–This research is prepared with a notion that it will parameters like workability, shrinkage of cement and shape of
encourage the use of soft computing methods in the field of concrete aggregate causes substantial imprecision in the design strength
technology since these methods are being extensively used in many even though quite a lot of care had taken in the calculation of
field of engineering now a days. Concrete mix design calculation was
design mixes and subsequent preparation of laboratory
carried out for blast furnace slag and super plasticizer mixed
concrete. Compressive strength was determined by casting cubes in
samples. Casted cubes takes several days in curing. Soft
the laboratory. Hence, the mix design calculations and experimental computing methods can offer a ground to overcome the
set up yielded set of variables viz. cement content, water content, difficulties involved in standard design mix process and save
super plasticizer, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and curing time involved in curing.
period. Using these variables as inputs and compressive strength as
target, two different soft computing methods, Artificial Neural This research paper is prepared to examine the
Network (ANN) and Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) feasibilityArtificial Neural Network (ANN) and Adaptive
were employed to understand the nonlinear pattern between concrete Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) in determining the
mix design data and corresponding compressive strength. Later on, concrete compressive strength. Two regression analysis were
multiple linear and nonlinear regression analysis was also carried also carried out to compare the results of ANN and ANFIS
out for comparative performance. Compressive strength was models with the regression models.
satisfactorily modeled with given set of variables using ANN
technique. 2. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
Keywords -Blast Furnace Slag, Super Plasticizer, Artificial Neural A large number of interconnected processing units (also called
Network, Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System, Regression as neuron) working on the principle of biological neuronal cell
Analysis. is called as Artificial Neural Network (Goh, 2002).Function
1. INTRODUCTION and structural aspects of ANN is same as a bunch of biological
neurons. ANN is advanced and standard tools to find solutions
A suitable value of compressive strength of concrete is the to a wide variety of non-linear statistical data complications
primary and most important requirement of hardened concrete (Hanna et. al., 2007).Interconnections among neurons are
to ensure satisfactory performance under service load. established by weights. The ANNs are arranged in three or
However, binding capacity, strength and workability of more layers (depending on number of hidden layers). The very
conventional concrete is often below expectations. To first layer is input layer, second layer is hidden layers and last
overcome this problemuse of admixtures in concrete are layer is target layer. Each layer of neurons has connections to
encouraged. Mineral admixtures increases the binding all the neurons in next layer. Each neuron receives an input
capacity of concrete (Huang et. al, 2013 and Nath&Sarker, signals from the previous neuron. Each of these connections
2011). In addition, chemical admixture are used to increase the has numeric weights associated with it. Figure 1 shows the
workability of concrete (Elsageer et. al., 2009 andJatale et. al., simplest form of ANN.
2013). Hence, this study takes into account the use of Blast
Furnace Slag (BFS) and Super Plasticizer (SP) into concrete
mix.
Variation in behavior of conventional concrete materials
and admixturein different places, vagueness in design
392 Y K BIND, Keshav Sharma, N N Harry and Y K Kushwaha
bias
x1 wk1 bk
Activation
x2 wk2 Function
vk Φ(.
∑xiwki yk
)
xm wkm
Figure 3 Architecture of ANFIS model in conjunction with

Figure 1 simplest form of ANN Sugeno FIS
Where x 1 , x 2 , …,x m are input signals; w k1 , w k2 , …., w km A typical rule in a Sugeno fuzzy model has the form, if
are synaptic weights of neuron k; u k is the linear combiner input x = A 1 and input y = B 1 , then output is given as f 1 = p 1 x
output; b k is the bias ;φ (.) is the activation function; v k is the + q 1 y+ r 1. For a zero-order Sugeno model, the output level
induced local field or activation potential; and y k is the output f 1 is a constant (p 1 = q 1 =0).Likewise,If input x = A 2 and input
signal (Haykin, 2006). y = B 2 , then output is given as f 2 = p 2 x + q 2 y+ r 1. For a zero-
order Sugeno model, the output level f 2 is a constant (p 2 = q 2
3. NEUROFUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM
=0). Butif outputf 1 ,f 2 are linear then we have first order TSK
There are various categories of neurofuzzy system which is fuzzy inference system. The output level f i of each rule is
essentially an integration of ANN and Fuzzy logic. However weighted by the firing strength w i of the rule. For example, for
Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) which was an AND rule with input x = A i and input y = B i , the firing
originally proposed by Jhang, 1993 is frequently used due to strength is
its simplicity and vast applicability. Fuzzy inference systems w i = And Method {µ A i (x), µ B i (y)}, i=1,2 (8)
are mainly composed of a rule base, a database and a decision
making unit(Habibagahi, 2002). The steps of FIS consist of Where, µ A i (.) and µ B i (.) are the membership functions
fuzzification, allotment of membership grade, rule base for inputs 1 and 2. The final output of the system is the
development by employing if, then reasoning and finally weighted average of all rule outputs, computed as shown in
defuzzification i.e. fuzzy set into crisp set. This is how an Equation 1 below
input variable x is fuzzified to be a partial member of the ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖
Overall output = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤̅𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖
(9)
fuzzy set A by transforming it into a degree of membership of
function µ A (x) of interval (0, 1)(Shahin et.Al., 2003). A
typical ANFIS structure containing zero order and first order 4. DEVELOPMENT OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
Takagi-Sugeno-Kang (TSK) model are shown below (Figure 2 DATA
& 3).
The concrete mix data used in this research paper was
developed in laboratory by casting cubes of Blast Furnace
Slag (BFS) and Super Plasticizer (SP) mix concrete. BFS and
SP were used as partial replacement of cement and water
respectively. Total 170 samples of cubes were casted to carry
out compression test. The discussion on properties of BFS and
design mix calculations are avoided here due to limitation of
space. The compression testing machine was used to break the
casted cubes of concrete for curing period of 3, 7, 28, 56, and
91 days. In this manner,seven variable data matrix was
prepared from BFS and SP mixed concrete. These variables
were cement content (CC), water content (w), coarse
aggregate (CA), fine aggregate (FA), BFS, SP and curing
period (CP).These seven variable were taken as input in both
Figure 2: Sugeno method of fuzzy inference system soft computing methods. The concrete compressive strength
(CCS) obtained from compression test was taken as target
parameter in both methods.

Soft Computing and Regression Models for Compressive Strength of BFS and SP Mixed Concrete 393
A typical representationof above discussed variables is Figure 4 ANN network architecture

given in Table 1. Serial no. 1 – 6 in this table illustrates the
ranges of each components of concrete in Kilograms in one m3 6. ANFIS ATTRIBUTES
mixture of concrete.Serial no. 7 (curing periods) and 8
(Concrete Compressive Strength) are in days and MPa Subtractive clustering was used with hybrid optimization to
respectively. 145 datasets were used to develop the soft generate ANFIS models. Hybrid optimization is a combination
computing and regression models and remaining 25 datasets of least-squares and back propagation gradient descent
were reserved to validate the models. method. Training was carried out for fifty iterations only since
more iterations results over-fitting in training output and FIS
Table1-Range of input and target parameters
out.
Sr. Input Parameters Min Max 7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
No
1 Cement Content (CC) 133.00 475.00 The best validation performance was obtained at MSE of
2 Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) 50.00 282.80 0.0043939 at second number of cycle(Figure 5).
3 Water content (w) 126.60 214.00
4 Super Plasticizer (SP) 2.00 32.20
5 Coarse Aggregate (CA) 811.00 1134.30
6 Fine Aggregate (FA) 605.00 992.60
7 Curing Period (CP) 3.00 91.00
8 Concrete Compressive Strength 18.28 82.60
(CCS)
5. ANN ATTRIBUTE AND ARCHITECTURE

As discussed in previous articlesback-propagation neural
network (BPNN) was employed for all kind of operations.
Training in BPNN is carried out through the minimization of
the defined error function using the gradient descent approach
(Chua and Goh, 2003). There exists many ways to improve the
rate of convergence one of them is normalization, therefore
datasets were normalized using following equation (Rafiq et.
Al., 2001,Kayadelen, 2008 and, Gunaydım, 2009).
𝑈𝑈 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 −𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑈𝑈𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = (10)
𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −𝑈𝑈𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Figure 5 MSE plot from ANN model
The ANN toolbox inMATLAB (R2010a)computer added
software was utilized to perform the necessary computation in Figure6 shows continuously decreasing trend of mean
which learning rate (LR) and momentum term kept constant squared error in ANFIS model. Error was decreased to a value
whereas connection weights kept adjustable for all the models. of 0.0182393 which is highercompared to ANN. This
ANN network architecture with a hidden layer (ten number of indicates improper training and it may yield in poor
neurons in hidden layer) is shown in Figure 4. It describes the predictability. Total sixteen number of fuzzy rules were
way the network was treated from given set of input and target developed after minimization of error.
parameters.
CC
w N1
BFS
N2
SP CCS
N3
CA
N10
FA
CP

394 Y K BIND, Keshav Sharma, N N Harry and Y K Kushwaha
Figure 6Training error in concrete ANFIS model

90
Predicted Compressive Strength

80 y = 0.738x + 12.91
Figure 8a & b shows coefficient of determination R² = 0.488
70
obtained fromANN and ANFIS models respectively. The R2
was 0.8275 for ANN model. Contrary to ANN models, the 60
performance of ANFIS model got declined giving R2 = 50
(MPa)
0.4886. The higher performance of ANN model may be 40
attributed to higher number of inputs. However, same could be 30
the cause of underperformance of ANFIS that is it don’t work 20
well with higher number of inputs. Poor predictability also 10
depends on several other factors also like nature of input and 0
validation data, optimization of fuzzy rule bases and training 0 20 40 60 80 100
parameters.
Actual Compressive Strength (MPa)
Concrete compressive strength (CCS) of BFS and SP
mixed concrete was selected as dependent variable in multiple Figure 8b ANFIS Prediction for BFS & SP Mixed Concrete
linear regression (MLR) and multiple nonlinear regression
(MNR) analysis. Dependent variables were same as input in The values of gradients and intercept obtained from
case of soft computing models. The SPSS 20 statistical regression analysis are shown in above equation. The R2
software was used for developing regression models. obtained from compressive strength yielded by this multiple
linear equation and actual compressive strength was 0.5885
The multiple linear equation obtained from MLR analysis (Figure 9a). Multivariate power equation was adopted for
is gives as: MNR analysis. Same set of independent and dependent
CCS = 0.696+ (0.439cc) + (0.296BFS) - (0.636w) - variable yielded following multivariate power function
(0.375SP) - (0.378CA) - (0.434FA) + (0.499CP) (11) CCS = 2.032895cc 0.864565 BFS 0.476152 w – 72.328
SP –
0.06611
CA -0.1991FA -0.048406CP 0.215445(12)
90
80 y = 0.835x + 8.181 This MNR model yielded R2 = 0.7354 (Figure 9b) which
70
R² = 0.827 is higher than R2 obtained from MLR analysis. It shows that
multivariate power equation can model concrete compressive
60
strength better than multiple linear equation. Overall it can be
50
observed that soft computing method may satisfactorily model
(MPa)
40 concrete compressive strength by offering favorable

30 conditions to them.
20
10 90
Predicted Copressive Stength (MPa)
0 80
0 20 40 60 80 100 70 y = 0.645x + 19.97
R² = 0.588
Actual Compressive Strength (MPa) 60
50
Figure 8a ANN Prediction for BFS & SP Mixed Concrete
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Actual compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 9a MLR Prediction for BFS & SP Mixed Concrete

Soft Computing and Regression Models for Compressive Strength of BFS and SP Mixed Concrete 395
and Taiwan earthquake data’ Soil Dynamics and Earthquake

90 Engineering, 27, 521– 540.
80 [3] Haykin, S. (2006). “Neural Networks.”2nd Ed., Prentice Hall,

70 y = 0.748x + 13.32 New Delhi, India.
R² = 0.735 [4] Jang, J.–S. R. ANFIS: Adaptive-network-based fuzzy inference
60
system. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics,
(MPa)
50 23, 3 (1993), 665-685.

40 [5] Habibagahi G., 2002. Post construction settlement of rockfill
dams analyzed via adaptive network based fuzzy inference
30
system. Journal of Computers and Geotechnics, Vol . 29: 211-
20 233.
10 [6] Shahin M.A., Maier H.R., and Jaksa M.B., 2003. Settlement
prediction of shallow foundation on granular soils using B-
0 spline neurofuzzy models. Journal ofComputers and
0 20 40 60 80 100 Geotechnics, Vol . 29: 211-233.
[7] Chua, C.G. and Goh. A.T.C. (2003), A hybrid Bayesian back-
Actual Compressive Strength (MPa)
propagation neural network approach to multivariate modeling,
Int. Jl. Numer. Anal.Meth.Geomech., John Wiley & sons, 27,
651-667.
Figure 9b MNR Prediction for BFS & SP Mixed Concrete [8] Rafiq, M.Y., Bugmann, G. and Easterbrook, D.J. (2001), Neural
network design for engineering applications, Comput.Struct., 79,
8. CONCLUSIONS 1541-1552.
[9] Kayadelen, C. (2008), Estimation of effective stress parameter
The study was carried out to test the ability of soft computing of unsaturated soils by using artificial neural networks, Int. J.
methods in determining concrete compressive strength. Based Numer. Anal.Meth.Geomech., 32(9), 1087-1106.
on obtained results it was concluded that higher number of [10] Gunaydım,O. (2009), Estimation of soil compaction parameters
inputs decreased training error considerably in ANN by using statistical analyses and artificial neural networks,
modeling. Hence, ANN models with seven input variables Environmental Geology, 57, 203-215.
gave good performance evaluation measure. Contrary to ANN [11] Jatale, A., Tiwari, K., and Khandelwal, S., (2013), Effects On
model, performance of ANFIS was severely affected due to Compressive Strength When Cement Is Partially Replaced By
higher number of inputs. Hence, ANFIS model can be further Fly-Ash, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 5
(4), PP 34-43.
examined when number of inputs are less. Another important
[12] Elsageer, M., E., Millard, S., G. and Barnett, S., J. (2009),
conclusion drawn from regression analysis is that multivariate
Strength development in concrete containing coal fly ash under
power regression equations have far greater ability to work different curing temperature conditions, World of Coal Ash
with higher number of data matrix. However, multiple linear (WOCA) conference, May 4-7, 2009, Lexington, KY, USA.
regression was not found suitable for modeling compressive [13] Huang, C., Lin, S., Chang, C. and Chen, H. (2013), Mix
strength. proportions and mechanical properties of concrete containing
very high volume of class F fly ash, Construction and Building
REFERENCES Materials, Elsevier, 46, 71 – 78.
[1] Goh A.T.C. (2002). ‘Probabilistic neural network for evaluating [14] Nath, P. and Sarker, P. (2011), Effect of Fly Ash on the
seismic liquefaction potential’ Can. Geotech. J., 39, 219-232. Durability Properties of High Strength Concrete, Procedia
Engineering, Elsevier, 14, 1149–1156.
[2] Hanna A.M., Ural D., and SaygiliG.(2007). ‘Neural network
model for liquefaction potential in soil deposits using Turkey

Time History Analysis of Irregular Reinforced

Concrete High Rise Building with Shear Wall
Keshav. K. Sharma1, S. K. Duggal2, R. K. Pandey3 and Sanjay Singh4
1,3,4
Department of Civil Engineering, SHUATS, Allahabad
2Department of Civil Engineering, MNNIT Allahabad
Abstract—In this research work effect of plan and vertical torsional modes have great influence on seismic responses. In
irregularities of a 20 story high rise building located in zone-V have this study time history analyses of buildings irregularities in
been studied. An attempt has been made to investigate the responses plan and elevation is attempted using real time earthquake
of the buildings forreal seismic event that took place in
event of Loma Prieta 1989 recorded at Loma Gilroy station is
LomaPrieta.To investigate the seismic responses of the building,
modelling and analysis has been carried out in STAAD.Pro.V8i
attempted. In this paper lateral deflection, base shearand
(ss6).The building has been modelled with and without shear walls, acceleration are discussed.
and ideal positions of shear walls have been identified in the
building. Time history analysis (incorporating Loma Gilroy 2. MODELLING AND ANALYSIS
acceleration-time history) has been carried out as perIS: 1893-2002.
The results showa higher base shear, lateral displacement and 20 storey high rise building with structural height 62 m has
acceleration in case of the building with vertical irregularitiesthan been modelled in STAAD.Pro.V8i (SS6).Two types of base
that with plan irregularities. structures are considered viz., plan irregular and vertical
irregular. Plan dimensions of vertical irregular building at
Keywords: Dynamic analyses, Time-history analyses, Shear walls, ground floor is 24.5 × 24.5 mwhereas plan irregular building
Loma Prieta. is in T-shape throughout the height. Each storey height of 3 m
and framing plan grid of 3.5 × 3.5 m is considered in both
1. INTRODUCTION
cases.In vertical irregular building, vertical irregularity starts
Due to high population growth rate, rapid urbanization is at 29.0 m from foundation level with continuous setbacks of
taking place resulting in high rise structures to conserve the 3.5 m at each storey up to roof level. T-shape building has
urban land for other useful puposes. To beautify the cities, flange width of 24.5 m, flange thickness of 7.0 m, web length
large number of new buildings with unique design of of 17.5 m and web thickness of 10.5 m.Fig. 1 (a-b) shows the
structureshave adopted innovative aesthetics views like Icon isometric view of plan irregular and vertical irregular
Hotel in Dubai (Berahman, 2010), China Pavilion in Shanghai buildings. Further, shear walls are also modelled as lateral
(Yang et al., 2011) and BurjKhalifa in Dubai.Appealingly load resisting system in both types of buildings. Shear walls of
good structures usually have setbacks in plan or vertical or panel size (3.5 × 3.0 m) are modelled as surface element with
both. The discontinuity, setbacks which leads to reduced fine meshing continuing throughout the height of building.
lateral stiffness and high stress concentration due to sudden Many configurations have been modelledto optimize location
change in geometry. Setbacks also results in non-uniform of shear walls in each type of building. Optimum locations of
distribution of mass, which may have significant effect on shear walls are shown in Fig. 2 (a-b). Materials and geometry
seismic responses of structure (Lu et al., 2011). Determining of various structural members considered are shown in Table
seismic responses of structures with setbacks are quite 1.
complex since large number of variables are involved (Humar Table 1. Geometry and material properties of structural
et al., 1977). Therefore, in becomes important to knowseismic members
behaviour of these special structures when subjected to
dynamic loading. Many researchers in the past have studied Structural Thickness (m) Grade of Grade of
seismic behaviour of asymmetric structures. Aranda (1984) Member concrete Steel
compared the regular and setback structures in terms of Beam 0.3×0.5 M30 Fe500
ductility demand and observed that ductility demand of Slab 0.15 M30 Fe500
setback structures are higher. Khoury et al., (2005) performed Shear Wall 0.25 M40 Fe500
the nonlinear dynamic analysis on 49 storey asymmetric frame Foundation 0.5 ×0.5 M40 Fe500
level to 5th
structure and conclude that higher modes, specially the
C floor
Time History Analysis of Irregular Reinforced Concrete High Rise Building with Shear Wall 397
o 6th to 10th floor 0.45 ×.45 M40 Fe500 acceleration-time history recorded atLomagilroy station of
l 11th to 15th 0.4 ×0.4 M40 Fe500 Loma Prieta earthquake is used. Loma Prieta earthquake is
u floor one of the great seismic event in earthquake history that has
m 16th to 20th 0.35 ×.35 M40 Fe500 occurred in 1989 in San Francisco, California along San
n floor Andreas Fault. Its magnitude was 6.9 on Richter scale and
Maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). It was the
disastrous earthquake which took 63 lives, 3757 injuries and
caused 4000 landslides resulting in large damage to life and
property. Severe ground shaking occurred in Santa Cruz
Mountains where buildings collapsed and destroyed by ground
shaking and land sliding. Liquefaction occurred on poorly
consolidated deposits or man-made fill area at San Francisco
Bay area where many buildings collapsed. Recorded Time-
history at Lomagilroy station is shown in Fig. 3, which shows
the maximum peak ground acceleration of 0.36 g.
Fig. 3: Acceleration-time history of Loma Prieta earthquke

recorded at Lomagilroy
Fig. 1. Vertical and plan irregular building
Dynamic analysis is performed as suggested by IS: 1893-
2002 since height of both types of building is 62 m (> 12 m)
and have irregularities. 5.0 % critical damping is used as target
buildings are of reinforced cement concrete. Design base shear
��
(𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ) is compared with base shear (𝑉𝑉 𝐵𝐵 ) based on fundamental
time period, for the case of 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 <𝑉𝑉 ��
𝐵𝐵 ; all responses are
��
multiplied by factor of 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 .The dynamic time-history
analyses methodology is described brieflyas follows.
The equation of motion for a multi degree of freedom
system in matrix from can be expressed as
[𝑚𝑚]{𝑥𝑥̈ } + [𝑐𝑐]{𝑥𝑥̇ } + [𝑘𝑘]{𝑥𝑥} = −𝑥𝑥̈𝑔𝑔 (𝑡𝑡)[𝑚𝑚]{𝐼𝐼} (1)
Where [𝑚𝑚]=Mass matrix; [𝑘𝑘]=Stiffness matrix;
[𝑐𝑐]=Damping matrix; {𝐼𝐼}= Unit vector; 𝑥𝑥̈𝑔𝑔 (𝑡𝑡)= Ground
acceleration
Coupling of the variables {x} in the physical coordinates
may be related with normal or principal coordinates {q} from
Fig. 2. Vertical and plan irregular building with shear walls the transformation and [∅] = the modal matrix
{𝑥𝑥} = [∅]{𝑞𝑞} (2)
Dead load, live load and dynamic loadsare considered for
analyses and design of the modelledbuildings. Dead load (DL) [𝑀𝑀]{𝑞𝑞̈ } + [𝐶𝐶]{𝑞𝑞̇ } + [𝐾𝐾]{𝑞𝑞} = �𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)� (3)
of 6 kN/m2 (slab + floor finish) and live load (LL) of 2 kN/m2
is applied at typical floor level whereas at terrace level DL and [𝑀𝑀] = [Φ]𝑇𝑇 [𝑚𝑚][Φ]
LL are reduced to 5 kN/m2 and 1.5 kN/m2 respectively. [𝐶𝐶] = [Φ]𝑇𝑇 [𝑐𝑐][Φ]
Buildings wereconsidered to be located on medium soil
(Type-II)in seismic Zone V (very severe) with zone factor of [𝐾𝐾] = [Φ]𝑇𝑇 [𝑘𝑘][Φ]
0.36 as per IS: 1893-2002. Response reduction factor is taken
�𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)� = �−𝑥𝑥̈𝑔𝑔 (𝑡𝑡)[Φ]𝑇𝑇 [𝑚𝑚]{𝐼𝐼}� (4)
as 5 for ductile shear wall with special moment resisting
frame. Besides the above loading, dynamic load in form of

398 Keshav. K. Sharma, S. K. Duggal, R. K. Pandey and Sanjay Singh
[M], [C] and [K] are the diagonalized modal mass matrix, Table 2. (b) Base shear plan irregular building for with and
modal damping matrix and modal stiffness matrix, without shear wall
respectively, and �𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)� is the effective modal force vector. Plan Irregular
Direction Without Shear With Shear Wall
�𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)� = �−𝑥𝑥̈𝑔𝑔 (𝑡𝑡)[Φ]𝑇𝑇 [𝑚𝑚]{𝐼𝐼}� 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 �−𝑥𝑥̈𝑔𝑔 (𝑡𝑡)Γ𝑟𝑟 � Wall
X 7.81× 103 10.8× 103
{Φ}𝑇𝑇 [𝑚𝑚 ]{𝐼𝐼} {Φ}𝑇𝑇
𝑟𝑟 [𝑚𝑚 ]{𝐼𝐼}
Shear
Base
(kN)
Γ𝑟𝑟 = {Φ}𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟[𝑚𝑚 ]{Φ} = (5) Y 2.66× 101 8.02× 101
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟
Z 8.17× 103 8.9× 103
Displacement response in physical coordinates
{𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)} = ∑𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟=1{Φ}𝑟𝑟 𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟 (𝑡𝑡) (6)
Effective earthquake response force at each storey
𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) = [𝑘𝑘]{𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)} (7)
3. RESULTS
Seismic response of 62 m high rise building subjected to
dynamic loading has been evaluatedusing time history
analysis. Response in terms of lateral time-displacement, time-
acceleration and base shear are presented. Maximum
acceleration and maximum displacement in vertical irregular
building without shear walls was found to be 9.74 m/s2 and
188 mm occurred at 6.1 s and 6.64 s respectively [Figure4 (a-
b)], whereas maximum acceleration and maximum
(a) Maximum Lateral Time-Displacement
displacement reduces to 10.1 m/s2 and 124 mm occurred at
6.82 s and 6.88 s respectively [Fig. 5 (a-b)] in vertical
irregular building with shear walls. Figure6 (a-b),show the
response of plan irregular building without shear wall in terms
of maximum acceleration and maximum displacement as 7.37
m/s2 and 141 mm at 5.34 s and 6.82 s respectively. Figure7 (a-
b), show the response of plan irregular building with shear
walls. Figure7 show the maximum acceleration of 10.1 m/s2
and maximum displacementof 101 mm at 6.06 s and 6.6 s
respectively.Table 2 (a-b) shows the base shear for two cases
in global co-ordinate system. It can be observed from the
Table that base shear increases in global X and global Z
directions for plan irregular building with shear walls as
compared to plan irregular building without shear wall.
Whereas, in global Y direction base shear decreases in case of
plan irregular building with shear walls. Higher base shear (b) Maximum Time-Acceleration
was observed in global X, Y and Z directions for vertical
Fig. 4.Response of vertical irregular building
irregular building with shear walls as compare to vertical
irregular building without shear walls.
Table 2. (a) Base shear vertical irregular building for with and
without shear wall
Vertical Irregular
Direction Without Shear With Shear Wall
Wall
X 17.9 × 103 22.6 × 103
Shear
Base
(kN)
2
Y 2.73 × 10 3.51 × 102
3
Z 11.2 × 10 14.5 × 103

Time History Analysis of Irregular Reinforced Concrete High Rise Building with Shear Wall 399
(a) Maximum Lateral Time-Displacement (a) Maximum Lateral Time-Displacement
(b) Maximum Time-Acceleration

(b) Maximum Time-Acceleration
Figure7. Response of plan irregular building with shear walls
Fig. 5. Response of vertical irregular building with shear walls
4. CONCLUSIONS
Buildings with plan and vertical irregularities have been
analysed using time history method. The results are presented
in the form of maximum time-acceleration, maximum time-
displacement and base shears for a 20 storey building with and
without shear walls. Lateral displacement was reduced in both
types of irregular buildings with shear walls as compared to
buildings without shear walls. Deflection was reduced by 34
% and 22.6 % for vertical and plan irregular buildings with
shear walls, respectively which increase the lateral stiffness of
(a) Maximum Lateral Time-Displacement buildings and behaves as a lateral load resisting system. The
acceleration was increased by 3.56 % and 3.1 % for vertical
and plan irregular buildings with shear walls, respectively.
The reason probably is increment of acceleration is because of
addition of weight of shear walls. Base shear was found to
increasedue to addition of shear walls in X and Z direction for
both cases whereas in Y direction base shear was decreased in
plan irregular buildings.
REFERENCES
[1] Khoury W, Rutenberg A, Levy R “The seismic response of

asymmetric setbackperimeter-frame structures”. Proceedings of
the 4th European workshop on the seismicbehaviour of irregular
and complex structures, CD ROM. Thessaloniki, August 2005.
(b) Maximum Time-Acceleration [2] Yang J, Chen Y, Jiang H, Lu X. Shaking table tests on China
pavilion for Expo 2010 Shanghai China. The Structural Design
Figure6. Response of plan irregular building of Tall and Special Buildings. April 1, 2012;21(4):265-82.
[3] Berahman, F., Performance-based seismic evaluation of the Icon
Hotel in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Struct. Design Tall Spec.
Build., (2013), 22: 300–326. doi:10.1002/tal.688
[4] Lu X, Lu X, Guan H, Ye L. Collapse simulation of reinforced
concrete high‐rise building induced by extreme earthquakes.
Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics. April 25,
2013;42(5):705-23.
[5] Aranda, G.R, “Ductility demands for R/C frames irregular in
elevation”. Proceedings of the Eighth World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, San Francisco, U.S.A., (1984), Vol. 4,
pp. 559-566.

400 Keshav. K. Sharma, S. K. Duggal, R. K. Pandey and Sanjay Singh
[6] Humar, J.L., Wright, W, “Earthquake response of steel-framed

multistory buildings with set-backs”. Earthquake Engineering &
Structural Dynamics, (1977), Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 15-39.
[7] Montgomery, D. D. " Effects of The Loma Prieta
Earthquake, " California Geology 43, October 17, (1989),
no. 1 (1990): 8-13.
[8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_Loma_Prieta_earthquake
[9] IS: 1893 – 2002, Indian Standard, Criteria for Earthquake
Resistant Design of Structures, Part-I, General Provisions and
Buildings.

Retrofitting Methods for Unreinforced Masonry Structure

Mahesh Yadav1 and Vinay Kumar Singh2
1
P.G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering Madan Mohan Malaviya University ofTechnology, Gorakhpur, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, India
E-mail: 1yadavmahesh6273@gmail.com, 2vinay011990@gmail.com
Abstract—More than 70% of residential unreinforced masonry

structures (URM) are included to estimate the masonry structures.
Even in the moderate earthquakes, the structures are highly prone to
earthquake shaking which leads to undesirable many losses. Due to
the failure of masonry structures many losses are given rise. Because
of low resistance to seismic action the unreinforced masonry walls
have very stiff and brittle elements. To overcome this problem, we
need to do retrofitting of the unreinforced masonry structures (URM).
In this paper, we are going to study about the different method of
retrofitting and its advantages and disadvantages. Most seismic
retrofitting for unreinforced masonry structures (URM) makes
efficiency and economy problems. These methods are preferred for
retrofitting due to its low cost and not required for high working
capacity. In this paper, we also present an overview of project of the
ongoing comprehensive test program at Drexel University whose aim
is to investigate on the use of Fibre-glass Reinforced Plastic (FRP)
laminates for the strengthening and repair of solid unreinforced
masonry walls.
Figure 1. Seismic Retrofitting
Keywords: Unreinforced masonry structure, Retrofitting,
Earthquake, Behaviour, Safety, fibre glass reinforced plastic,
strength.
1. INTRODUCTION
Stone masonry is a traditional form of the structure which has
been used for the hundreds of years in the regions where the
stone is easily available. Due to the external effects, there are
formed losses in masonry structures. Many losses are caused
due to the failure of the unreinforced masonry buildings. The
main aim of the retrofitting is to provide the resistance to the
damaged construction instatedof repairing thus it becomes
reliable under coming earthquake occurrences.
Figure 2. Retrofitting Work

402 Mahesh Yadav and Vinay Kumar Singh
Figure 3. Seismic Retrofitting of Bridges Figure 5. Grouting
In the world, a large portion of the residential masonry

buildings comes under the masonry structures. The retrofitting
techniques are very important for the masonry structures.
2. RETROFITTING METHODS FOR

UNREINFORCED MASONRY STRUCTURES
2.1. Surface Treatment

Surface treatment technique is a most common technique
which is developed significantly through the experience. This
method is used to strengthen the unreinforced masonry wall
which is old with architectural worth. The strengthening is
done by using shotcrete, bamboo and fiber reinforced
polymer. The surface treatment technique improves the
seismic capacity of the unreinforced masonry building
significantly. It has high strength and there is no need for the
special workers.
Figure 6. Pressure Grouting
2.3. Post-Tensioning
By introducing prestressed reinforcement along the vertical
member, the post tensioning technique is used to improve the
strength and ductility of the vertical members of the lateral
load resisting frame of the structure. This technique reduces
the cracking deflection caused under the service loads. It does
Figure 4. Surface Treatment Technique not change the appearance of the historical structures. The
method is costly and causes shrinkage of masonry.
2.2. Grouting Disadvantage of this method is that the external straps and
For the strengthening of the masonry structures Grout connections may affect the architectural aspect of the
injection technique is one of the most widely used in the structures and being a external element it is exposed to
unreinforced masonry buildings. Mostly, it is used for the re- corrosion.
establishing the bond in the cracks of the wall. The advantage
of this method is that it does not change the architectural
aspect of the building and the main disadvantage is that it has
high shrinkage and segregation.

Retrofitting Methods for Unreinforced Masonry Structure 403
Figure7. Post Tensioning Technique
Figure 9.Column Jacketing
4. DISADVANTAGES
Following are the disadvantages of the strengthening method
for unreinforced masonry structure:
1. Expensive.
2. High mass.
3. High disturbance.
4. High electric conductivity.
5. High segredation.
6. High shrinkage.
Figure 8. Unbonded Post Tensioned Slab 7. Irreversible action.
2.4. Jacketing 8. Labour requirement.

9. Anchorage problem.
Various attempts are made to tie the masonry walls together
by using reinforced concrete elements built within and 10. High technology required.
adjoining the existing structure. In China, the brick walls are
strengthened by casting the reinforced concrete columns 5. EFFECT OF SEISMIC RETROFITTING
which are firmly connected to the walls. TECHNIQUE
3. ADVANTAGES Following figure shows the effect of retrofitting in different

seismic environment.
Following are the advantages of the strengthening method for
unreinforced masonry structure:
1. High deformation.
2. High strength.
3. Low cost.
4. Increase ductility.
5. Improve resistance.
6. Reduces cracking.
7. Easy application.
8. Increase flexural strength.
9. Does not change the architectural aspect.
10. High stability.
11. High ultimate load.
12. No corrosion. Fig 10: Effect of Seismic Retrofitting Technique

404 Mahesh Yadav and Vinay Kumar Singh
6. TEST PROGRAM AT DREXEL UNIVERSITY 7. CONCLUSION

The main aim of the ongoing comprehensive test program at From the above discussion, we concluded that the seismic
Drexel University is to investigate on the use of Fiber-Glass resistant of the damaged building is increase by using seismic
Reinforced Plastic (FRP) composite laminates for the retrofitting instead of repairing building. So, the building is
strengthening and repair of the small-scale solid unreinforced safe for seismic shocks.
concrete masonry shear walls.
1.Surface treatment method are using the strength of
The test program is divided into the three phases: unreinforced masonry walls.
2. Advantages of this method no need for special workers.
1. Aimed to study the effect of strengthening in improving the
strength of small scale masonry shear walls, it is completed in 3. Epoxy injection method, advantage of this method not
1993. changing the architectural aspects of the building and
2. It involves the testing of the small 1/3 scale for shear walls disadvantage of the method has been high shrinkage and
which is subjected to the lateral horizontal monotonic and segregation.
cyclic static load as well as the vertical compressive axial
load. 4. Post tensioning technique is used to improve the strength
3. It covers the strengthening of shear walls. and ductility of the vertical members of the lateral load
resisting frame of the structure. This method is costly and
The complex matrix of the test shear walls for the phase causes shrinkage of masonry.
two and phase three is shown in Table No.1.
5. Jacketing the brick walls are strengthened by casting the
Table No. 1: Test Matrix for Drexel Test Program reinforced concrete columns which are firmly connected to
wall.
Wall Block Mason Aspe Axia Type Remarks
Specim Streng ry ct l of 6. Test program at Drexel university improving the strength of
en th Streng Ratio Stre Later small scale masonry shear wall.
MPa th ss al
(psi) MPa MPa Load 8. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
(psi) (psi)
SWA1 28 20 1.4 These I give my sincere thanks to my guide Mr. Vinay Kumar Singh,
SWA2 (4000) (2800) 0.5 (200 M walls Assistant Professor, for his guidance in the paper.
SWA3 28 20 ) will be
SWA4 (4000) (2800) 1 0.7 M repaired REFERENCES
SWA5 10.5 9.5 (100 after
(1500) (1350) 1 ) M their [1] Muslum Murat Maras, HHuseyin Cagan Kilinc, “Comparison on
28 20 0.7 failure Repair and Strengthening Techniques for Unreinforced Masonry
(4000) (2800) 1 (100 C Structures”, International Journal of Engineering Research and
28 20 ) Application, ISSN: 2248-9622, Vol. 6, Issue 11, (Part-5)
(4000) (2800) 0.5 0.7 C November 2016, pp. 01-05.
(100 [2] Bothara, J., Brzev, S. (2011), “Improving the Seismic
) Performance of Stone Masonry Buildings”, First Edition.
1.4 [3] Chuang, S.W., Zhuge, Y. (2015), “Seismic Retrofitting of
(200 Unreinforced Masonry Buildings”, Australian Journal of
) Structural Engineering, 6(1), 25-36.
SWB1 28 20 1.4 These [4] Bindal L. Modena C. Baronial G. Abbaneol S. (1997), “Repair
SWB2 (4000) (2800) 0.5 (200 M walls and Investigation Techniques for Stone Masonry Walls”.
SWB3 28 20 1 ) will be Construction and Building Materials, 11(3), 133-142.
SWB4 (4000) (2800) 1 0.7 M strengthe [5] Warner, J., “Methods of Repairing and Retrofitting
SWB5 10.5 9.5 1 (100 ned (Strengthening) Existing building”, Workshop on Earthquake-
(1500) (1350) ) M before Resistant Reinforced Concrete Building Construction (ERCBC),
28 20 0.5 0.7 testing University of California, Berkeley, July 1977.
(4000) (2800) (100 C
28 20 )
(4000) (2800) 0.7 C
(100
)
1.4
(200
)

Analysis of Seismic Loads acting on Multistory

Building as per IS: 1893-2002 and
IS: 1893-2016 :- A comparative Study
Ravikant Singh1 and Vinay Kumar Singh2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, MMM University of Technology, Gorakhpur
Abstract—Many changes and improvement in the Earthquake recommendations. Comparison of building designed according
resistant design of structure is done in past recent years. It results in earlier code is done as per revised code recommendation to
the changes in the Indian seismic code IS 1893 which is revised and check whether the building is safe or not safe. If any structural
drafted in year 2016, after a time elapsed of nearly 14 years. deficiency is found the building is retrofitted to withstand
In this paper we represents the seismic load assessment for multistory
building as per IS: 1893-2002 and IS: 1893-2016 recommendations.
expected design earthquake vibration.
Considering and analyzing the four storey RC framed multistorey The goal of this paper is to calculate the seismic forces
building. acting on the building as per IS: 1893-2002 and IS: 1893-
It is concluded that such study is done on individual RC framed
2016. And also comparison of seismic forces is done using
building structure which is designed using earlier code. To predict
the seismic vulnerability of building structure and to check due to both codes.
revisions and changes in the IS codal provisions the structure is safe
or unsafe.
2. CHANGES DONE IN IS: 1893-2016
Keywords: - seismic loads, IS: 1893-2002 RC framed buildings, IS: IS 1893 was first published in 1962 and it has been revised 5
1893-2016, IS codal recommendations times. Last revision was done in 2002 and presently, draft
code of part I has been released. The following significant
1. INTRODUCTION changes have been included in this revised code:
Seismic code help designer to construct and improve the (i) Design spectra are defined for natural time
behavior of structure. So it can withstand during Earthquake period up to 6 s;
effect and reduce loses. Seismic code are unique for particular (ii) for all building structures same design response
country and region. spectra are specified;
(iii) Bases of various load combinations are made
Seismic code consider the local seismology with consistent, with other codes;
recognized level of Earthquake risk, properties of raw (iv) Temporary structures are brought under the
material, methods and technique used in design and insight of this code.
construction of building. It shows the country progress and (v) Importance Factor provisions are modified in
development in the field of Earthquake Engineering. code;
The changes made in the IS code based on the observation (vi) A provision is introduced to ensure that all
and data collected from past Earthquakes, and Experimental buildings are designed and constructed for at least a
and logical studies done by engineers, researchers, and minimum lateral force;
seismologists. (vii) Buildings with flat slabs are brought under the
insight of this code;
As the continuous analysis and efforts put by researchers (viii) Additional clarity is brought in consideration how to
to study the behavior and performance of structure during past handle different types of irregularity of structural
earthquake leads to development and advancement in system;
designing earthquake resistant structure. Therefore, it is (ix) Effect of masonry infill walls has been contained
required to revise the seismic code time to time. IS: 1893-2016 in design of building frame structure;
revised after 14 years in year 2016. (x) Method is introduced for determining
approximate natural time period of building
The building design according to previous code are also
checked according to revised code as per IS code
406 Ravikant Singh and Vinay Kumar Singh
structures with basements, step back buildings and The detailing of the building is done according to the IS:
buildings on hill slopes; 13920-1993 and also provided with moment resisting frame
(xi) Torsional provisions are made easier; and (MRF). Moment resisting frame provided for lateral load
(xii) liquefaction potential analysis method is resistance and also infilled with brick masonry panels.
Simplified
The Zone factor, Z is 0.16 for seismic zone III. As the
3. DETAILS OF BUILDINGS building is official building, the Importance Factor, I is 1. The
response reduction factor, R is 5. The values of Zone factor,
The multi storey RC buildings are considered for analysis. The Importance Factor, response reduction factor are given same
building structure is analyzed as individually distinct system.. in the both IS codes.
The structural load calculated on each floor are Permanent The fundamental time period calculated using previous
load (include all the load on each floor), Weight of one – half and revised code is same as 0.28 sec. and base shear calculated
of the columns , Weight of the walls above and below the from both code as 832 kN.
floor , Some amount of live load which always act on the
building structure Table 1 - Lateral Load acting on building with height by the
Static method
The geometrical detail of the building is given and we
find the fundamental time period of the building structure by Storey Wi hi Wi hi2 x Wi h2i Lateral Force at i
th
using empirical relation as per IS: 1893-2002 and IS: 1893- Level (kN) (m) 1000 ∑ Wi h2i Level for EL in
2016. direction (kN)
Four storey building X Y
Considering RC framed building with 3 x 4 bay configuration. 4 4000 13.8 761.76 0.424 352.768 352.768
Consider a four-storey RC framed office building as shown in 3 5600 10.6 629.216 0.350 291.2 291.2
2 5600 7.4 306.656 0.171 142.272 142.272
Fig. 1.1. The RC framed building is situated in seismic zone
1 5600 4.2 98.784 0.055 45.76 45.76
III and soil is medium stiff. The RC framed building is
1796.41 832 832
supported on a raft foundation. The reinforced concrete 6
frames of building are infilled with brick-masonry. The dead
and live load acting on the floor of building is 12 kN/m2 and 4
kN/m2 respectively. The dead and live load acting on the roof
of the building is 10 kN/m2 and 1.5 kN/m2 respectively.
Increase the no. of storey and Calculate seismic load acting on
the RC framed building structure as per old and new code.
Figure 2 . Design seismic force acting on the building for X and Y

direction
Five storey building

The fundamental time period calculated using previous and
revised code is same as 0.3421 sec. and base shear calculated
from both code as 1056 kN.
Table 2 . Lateral Load acting on building with height by the
Static Method
Storey Wi hi Wi hi2 x Wi h2i Lateral Force at ith

(kN) (m) 1000 ∑ Wi h2i Level for EL in
Level direction (kN)
X Y
Figure 1: Building Configuration 5 4000 17 1156 0.3549 374.774 374.774

Analysis of Seismic Loads acting on Multistory Building as per IS: 1893-2002 and IS: 1893-2016 :- A comparative Study 407
4 5600 13.8 1066.464 0.3274 345.734 345.734
3 5600 10.6 629.216 0.1931 203.914 203.914
2 5600 7.4 306.656 0.0941 99.37 99.37
1 5600 4.2 98.784 0.0303 31.99 31.99
3257.12 1056 1056
Figure 3 . Design seismic force acting on the building for X and Y

direction
4. LOAD CALCULATION AS PER IS: 1893-2016

RECOMMENDATIONS
The aim of the various IS codal recommendation of IS: 1893

is to make sure that structure is able to respond to the
earthquake vibration without any structural damage to the
structure at moderate intensity and not entirely collapse at the
Figure 3. Design seismic force acting on the building for X and Y vibrations of high intensities.
direction
As for given building the codal provision for designing
Six storey building the building is similar. So the load calculated for given four
storey building is same.
The fundamental time period calculated using previous and
revised code is same as 0.4065 sec. and base shear calculated 5. CONCLUSIONS
from both code as 1280 kN.
As the analysis of the building structure is carried out from
Table 3 - Lateral Load acting on building with height by the both IS codes to inspect the changes done in latest IS code for
Static Method calculating lateral force of the multistorey building. The strong
and ductile structure is designed as per seismic design
approach of both IS codes. The lateral forces acting on the
Storey Wi hi Wi hi2 x Wi h2i Lateral Force at ith
Level (kN) (m) 1000 Level for EL in
upper storey are more than the lower storey of the building.
∑ Wi h2i As we increases the no. of storey in the building the lateral
direction (kN)
forces acting on the upper storey of the building increases with
X Y increase in the base shear of the building .The lateral load and
6 4000 20.2 1632.160 0.305 390.4 390.4 seismic force calculated is same. The building is safe as per
5 5600 17 1618.400 0.3024 387.072 387.072 revised code and no any structural deficiency is found. There
4 5600 13.8 1066.464 0.1992 254.976 254.976 is no need retrofitting of building to withstand expected design
3 5600 10.6 629.216 0.1175 150.4 150.4 earthquake vibration..
2 5600 7.4 306.656 0.0573 73.344 73.344
1 5600 4.2 98.784 0.0184 23.552 23.552
5351.68 1280 1280

408 Ravikant Singh and Vinay Kumar Singh
REFERENCES
[1] Chopra, A. K. (2002), Dynamics of Structures, 2nd Edition,

Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
[2] IS:1893-2016, Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of
Structures, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India
[3] IS:1893-2002 (Pt. 1), Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of
Structures, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India
[4] IS:13920-1993, Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete
Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces – Code of Practice,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India
[5] S.K. Ahirwar, S.K. Jain and M. M. Pande , earthquake loads on
multistorey buildings as per Is: 1893-1984 And Is: 1893-2002 :
comparative study , The 14th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering (WCEE) October 12-17, 2008, Beijing, China
[6] Dr. Sudhir K Jain, Explanatory Examples on Indian Seismic Code
IS 1893 (Part I) ,Department of Civil Engineering , Indian
Institute of Technology Kanpur, India

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nd Environmenntal Technologyy
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Geosyynthetics: A Smartt and Sustain

S nable Materi
M al for
Connstructtion an
nd Soil Improovemen
nt
S
Shivani ma1 and Vikas Kumar2
Verm
1
P.G. Studdent, Departmennt of Civil Engiineering, Madaan Mohan Malaaviya Universitty of Technologgy, Gorakhpur, India
2
Deepartment of Ciivil Engineeringg, Madan Mohhan Malaviya University
U of Teechnology, Gorrakhpur, India
E--mail: 1shivanivvermace0094@@gmail.com, 2viikaskumarnitk@@gmail.com
Abbstract—Geosynnthetic materials ls have been exxtensively used for classifyy based on the techniques off production: either
e woven
impproving the softt soil. Geosyntheetics have becom me smart and most
m or non woven.
w
susstainable materiaal for geotechnical and environm ment applicationn in
thee whole world. The polymeric behaviour of prroduct makes thhem 2.1.1. Woven
W
suiitable for use in ground where high
h level of durrability is requirred. These cloth-like fabrics
f are made
m by the regular and
Geeosynthetic materrials solve manyy types of engineeering problemss. In uniformm ineterweavingg of threads in two directionss.
thiss paper, we focuus on the applica
ations of geosyntthetic materials and
a
its functions for soil improvem ment and construction purposses. Theese are mainlyy used for soil separation, reinforcement,
Geeosynthetic materrials have greatt potential to be used also as a cost
c filteratioon, drainage annd load distribuution.
effe
fective solutions for several en ngineering problems. Geosynthetic
maaterials are availlable worldwidee and activity is robust and steaddily
groowing.
Keeyword: Geosynthetics, Woven, Non-woven,

N Geootextiles.
1. INTRODUC
CTION
Geeosynthetic materials
m are man-made
m materials used to
im
mprove soil coonditions. It makes
m possiblle cost effecttive
envvironmental and
a geotechnical engineeriing constructtion
proojects. The woord Geosynthettic is derived frrom:
Geo=earth or soil+ Synthettic=man made Fiig 1: Woven Geotextile

Geosynthetics are artificial fabrics
fa which arre placed on orr in
soiil to improve or
o modify civill engineering works.
w The teerm 2.1.2. Non-Woven
N
GEEOSYNTHETIIC includes co ontinuous fibrres, staple fibrres,
These felt like fabrrics are made byb a random placement
p of
perrmeable texttile and im mpermeable membranes
m e
etc.
threads in a mat annd bonded by heat-bonding and needle
Geeosynthetics arre mainly man nufactured froom petrochemiical
punchinng. Non-woven geotextiles are mainly used u for soil
bassed polymers that are bio ologically inert and will not
separatiion, drainage, stabilization
s annd load distribuution.
deccompose from fungal action.
2. Types of Geossynthetics
Thhere are variouss kind of geosyynthetic materials which cann be
useed for differennt purposes .Few of the geosyynthetic materiials
aree as follows:
2.11. Geotextiles
Geeotextiles are defined as, “aany
perrmeable textilee used with fou
undation soil, rock,
r earth or any
a
othher geotechnical engineerin ng related material
m in ciivil
enggineering applications”. They are mainlyy the most used
geoosynthetic matterial. They aree generally maade fibres and can
c Fig 2:
2 Non-Woven Geotextile
G
410 Shivani Verma and Vikas Kumar
2.2 Geogrids
Geogrids are stiff or flexible open grid like structure of

integrally connected polymers with large apertures used
mainly for stabilization and reinforcement of unstable soil and
waste masses. Geogrids have a low strain and stretch only
about 2 to 5% under load.
Fig 5: Geomembranes
2.5. Geocells
Geocells are mainly formed from polyethylene sheets and
expand out like an accordion when opened up to use. They are
meant to contain soil, gravel or other fill material within their
maze of cells. They are used in slopes with soft subgrades for
stabilization and in erosion control in channels.
Fig 3: Geogrid
2.3. Geonets
Geonets are polymer grids with integrally fused joints and

net like structures, manufactured from HDPE 0r LDPE. These
are generally used in drainage application with combination of .
geotextiles.
Fig 6: Geocells
6 Geosynthetic clay liners (GCL)

Geosynthetic clay liners are the combination of woven and
non-woven geotextiles with Bentonite is sandwitched in
between them. The bentonite swell during wet condition and
this system is worked as a Clay liner. GCLs are also used as
environmental protection barriers in transportation facilities or
storage tanks, and as single liners for canals and ponds.
Fig 4: Geonets
2.4. Geomembranes
Geomembranes are impermeable polymeric sheets generally
made up of HDPE or LDPE used as barriers for solid or liquid
waste containment. They are used in different applications like
waste treatment projects, Water conservation projects, water
transport projects and landfill projects. Fig 7: Geosynthetic clay liner

Geosynthetics: A Smart and Sustainable Material for Construction and Soil Improvement 411
2.7 Geocomposites materials have also been used as prefabricated vertical drains
(PVDs) and slope interceptor drains.
Geocomposites are hybrid system of any, or all of the above
geosynthetics types such as geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, 3.5. Reinforcement
geomembranes, geocells, geosynthetic clay liners, which can
Geosynthetic with high tensile strength perform the function
function as specifically designed for use in soil, rock and
of reinforcement. Geogrids are used to add tensile strength to a
liquid related problems.
soil mass in order to produce vertical or near vertical changes
in grade. Heavy geotextiles can be used to reinforce earth
structures by means of fill materials due to their high tensile
strength.
3.6. Barrier
Geosynthetic acts as an impermeable barrier to fluids or gases.
For example, geosynthetic clay liners, thin film geotextile
composites. Geomembranes are used as barrier to prevent flow
of liquid or gas.
Fig 8: Geocomposites 4. Conclusion
3. Functions Geosynthetics are considered as bona fide engineering

Geosynthetics are generally designed for a particular material that not only are filling in for the scarce raw materials
application by considering the primary function that can be like cement and steel, but also are turning out to be a pretty
provided. There are 6 primary functions which geosynthetic sound good alternative to the conventional designs.
material perform, when placed in or soil. Geosynthetic material has been used in number of applications
3.1. Separation and currently used in civil, geotechnical, hydraulic,
Geosynthetic material acts to divide two layers of soil that transportation and private development applications including
have dissimilar particle size distributions. For example, roads, airfields, railroads, reservoir and retaining structures
Geotextile materials are used to prevent road base material and also in environmental projects. Overall, the use of
from penetrating into soft underlying soft subgrade soils, thus geosynthetic material has led to major advances towards the
maintain roadway integrity. It also used to prevent fine-graded construction environment systems that are cost effective but
subgrade soils from being pumped into permeable granular provide enhanced environmental as well as constructional
road bases. protection.
3.2. Erosion Control
Erosion is a natural phenomenon that can not be ignored. REFERENCES
However, its impacts can be reduced by taking suitable [1] Mena I. Souliman and Claudia Zapata, 2011. Worldwide
methods. One such effective and economical method is use of applications of geosynthetics reinforced walls for soil
geosynthetics for the control of erosion. Geosynthetic reinforcement. Jordan Journal Of Civil Engineering, Volume 5,
materials act to minimize soil erosion due to surface water No. 1, 2011.
runoff and heavy rainfall influence. Geosynthetic material can [2] Tarun kumar, Geosynthetics materials: recent advancements for
be used for short term or long term erosion control measure ground improvements, International Journal Of Research and
along side slopes. For example, Geotextiles are used for Development Organisation.
temporary protection against erosion on newly seeded slopes. [3] A. Bouazza, Geosynthetic clay liners, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, Volume 20, Issue 1, February 2002.
After the slope has been seeded, the geotextile is anchored to
[4] Anoop Singh, Geosynthetics materials and applications for soil
the slope holding the soil and seed in place until the seeds reinforcement and environmental protection works, International
germinate and vegetative cover is established. Journal of Emerging Research in Management and Technology,
ISSN:2278-9359 (Volume-2, Issue-5).
3.3. Filteration [5] G. Madhavi Latha, Vidya S. Murthy, Effects of reinforcement
Geosynthetics act as a filter, it permits liquid to flow through form on the behaviour of geosynthetic reinforced sand,
the soil while preventing most of the soil particles from being Geotextiles and Geomembranes 25 (2007) 23-32.
carried away by the current. [6] www.aquatan.com
3.4. Drainage
Geosynthetic material act as a drain to carry fluid flows
through less permeable soils. Geotextiles will efficiently
collect superfluous water from structures, such as rainwater or
surplus water, from the soil and discharge it. Geosynthetic

Jouurnal of Civil Engineering
E an
nd Environmenntal Technologyy
p-IISSN: 2349-84404; e-ISSN: 23 349-879X; Volume 4, Issue 5;
5 July-Septem
mber, 2017, pp. 412-415
© Krishi
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Publication.htm
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Fluo
oride Remo
R val Teechniq
ques frrom
Grou
undwaater: A Reviiew
Shulbha Singh1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati
G 3
1
Studdent, B.Tech, Environmental
En E
Engineering, Ch Brahm Prakkash Govt. Engiineering Collegge, Delhi, Indiaa
Ch.
2,3
Environmental Engineering, Ch. Braahm Prakash Govt.
G Engineeriing College, IN
NDIA
E-mail: 1shulbhasingh@
s @gmail.com, 2atthariitr@gmaill.com, 3mimanssagulati@gmail.com
Abbstract—In the present

p paper an n attempt has beeen made to revview  Intaake of fluoridee higher than thhe optimum levvel is the
thee different technniques used forr fluoride remooval from drinkking maain reason for dental
d and skeleetal fluorosis.
water. Among thesse techniques meembrane and ionn exchange proccess
aree not encourageed in India because of econom mic constraints and
a
opeeration and maiintenance probleems. However Nalgonda
N technique
is one of the well known strategiess geneerally utilized for
deffluoridation of water
w as a partt of developing nations like Inddia.
Varrious technologgies are being ussed to remove fluoride
f from waater
butt still the probllem has not beeen rooted out. Fluoride
F being the
lighhtest member of the halogen group
g and can interfere with the
impportant biologiccal processes ass well as vital ceellular constitueents
succh as enzymes. Defluoridation
D off water is thereffore one of the most
m
impportant remediaal measures in n order to solvve excess fluorride
prooblem. However based on extenssive literature suurvey a compariison
of existing convenntional and adva anced treatment used for fluorride
remmoval has been summarised.
s Thee efficiency and limitations of thhese
tecchniques and metthods has also been
b discussed.
Keeywords: Defluooridation, Nalg

gonda techniquee, fluoride remooval
tecchniques
1. INTRODUC
CTION
1.11 Fluoride in drinking

d water
Figure1. Affected
A areas in
n India Fluoridee
Fluuorine is one of
o the most reacctive chemical elements and the
ligghtest member of the halogen n group, found as fluoride in the 2. HU
UMAN HEAL
LTH EFFECTS
envvironment. Flluoride is the negatively
n charrged ionic form
m of
thee element fluorine and preseent in all naturral water in traace Fluoride is considered to be very beneficial
b for teeth at low
ammounts. Fluoridde is inorganicc, monatomic anion of fluorrine concenttrations thus preventing deecay, but witth excessive
witth its chemicall formula as F– . It is a mineral and is pressent exposurre through drinnking water, itt results into many
m adverse
in right amount in the drinkin ng water, strenngthens our teeeth. effects. Fluoride expoosure leads to acute problem ms following
Fluuorides are fouund in a widee variety of miinerals, includding fluoridaation overdosiing i.e. gastrrointestinal prroblems are
fluuorspar, rock phosphate, crryolite, mica, hornblende and a common. The major effects
e involveed with fluoriddation ranges
othhers. Fluorite (C
CaF2) is a com
mmon fluoride mineral
m occurrring from mild
m dental fluoorosis to severee skeletal fluorrosis as well
in both igneous and sedimentaary rocks havinng low solubillity as bone fractures. Dental
D fluorossis is the moost common
levvels. manifesstation of overr-consumption of fluoride whichw results
1.22 Guidelines into moottling of teetth ranging froom mild disccoloration to
 As per WHO O, the upper lim
mit of fluoride in drinking waater severe dark
d patches ono teeth. Expoosure to very high
h fluoride
over a prolonged perriod of time results
r in acutee to chronic
has been set up as 1.5 mg/llt. skeletall fluorosis. Fluuoride increasses bone volum me, there is
 The Bureau of Indian stan h laid down the
ndards (BIS) has less streength per unit volume
v therefoore Bone strenggth begins to
maximum peermissible limiit of fluoride ass 1.0 mg/lt. decline leading to riskk of Bone fractuures.
Fluoride Removal Techniques from Groundwater: A Review 413
Table1. Effects due to fluoride contamination This paper attempts to characterize the basics of removal
techniques of fluoride from water, followed by discussing the
S.no. Fluoride conc. Health effects most promising defluoridation techniques; bone char,
1. > permissible limit Effects neuro activated alumina, Nalgonda and finally these methods are
development in compared using indicators, which may be appropriate in
children developing countries.
2. 1-4 mg/lt Skeletal fluorosis
and fractures 5. DEFLUORIDATION TECHNIQUES
3. > 4 mg/lt / 12 mg/day Kidney injury due
to dehydration and Defluoridation refers to methods of water treatment that
polyuria
reduce the concentration of fluoride in the water, normally, in
4. > 1 mg/lt( range – 4 to 21 mg/lt) Dental fluorosis
order to make it safe for human consumption. The objective of
5. 50 mg/lt Suppresses
endocrine glands Defluoridation is to prevent or to mitigate endemic fluorosis.
like thyroid Defluoridation technology has to be simple, affordable,
reliable and operational. Defluoridation is defined as, “The
3. FLUORIDE MEASUREMENT downward adjustment of level of fluoride in drinking water to
the optimal level.” Various techniques of defluoridation can be
Addition of fluoride is certainly effective, but too much categorized into four:
fluoride can be harmful; therefore, it is important to have a
convenient Method for monitoring fluoride levels. Fluoride 1. Adsorption technique
presence in water is odourless, tasteless and colourless; 2. Precipitation technique
therefore the use of instrumentation is must for identifying its 3. Ion-exchange technique
concentration in water. Fluoride selective electrode is 4. Other techniques, which includes reverse osmosis,
considered to be the most reliable way of testing water for electro- dialysis
fluoride, though this method is difficult to do outside of a lab
setting. Fluoride selective electrode consists of a lanthanum Table2. Materials used in different defluoridation techniques
fluoride crystal (LaF6) which in the presence of fluoride ions,
experiences an electro-potential. Several methods have been Adsorption precipitation Ion exchange others
developed, out of which most of them are colorimetric tests by Carbon Anion exchange Lime, Alum, Electrochemi
which fluoride interacts with dyes and chemicals such as materials, resins: NCL Lime & cal method
SPADNS method, where fluoride determination involves the Activated poly anion resin, Alum (Aluminium
Alumina, Tulsion A27, (Nalgonda electrode),
reaction of fluoride with a red zirconium-dye solution. The
Magnesia, Lewatit-MIH- technique), Electro
fluoride combines with part of the zirconium to form a Tricalcium 59, Amberlite Alum flock dialysis,
colourless complex, thus bleaching the red colour in an phosphate, IRA-400, blanket Electrolysis,
amount proportional to the fluoride concentration. Though Calcite, Deacedodite FF- method, Poly Reverse
these are less accurate than an electrode method, they can be Hydroxy IP, Polystyrene. Aluminium Osmosis.
used in order to evaluate if a body of water is safe to consume. apatite, Cation exchange Chloride
Wood, resins: (PAC), Poly
4. TECHNIQUES FOR FLUORIDE REMOVAL Lignite, Defluoron-1, Aluminium
Activated Defluoron- 2, Hydroxy
Excessive fluoride level in drinking water in developing char coal, Carbion. Sulphate
countries poses to be a serious problem and its detection Fish bone (PAHS),
demands laboratory equipment, skills and analytical grade char, Brushite.
chemicals. Preventing fluorosis through management is a Processed
bone, Nut
tough task as it requires various favourable conditions. Several
shells,
water treatment techniques are known to be used in order to Avaram bark,
remove fluoride from the water however, many of these Tea waste,
techniques have failed to meet the requirements. In order to Coir pitch,
select an appropriate method of defluoridation to achieve a Fly ash,
sustainable solution for fluorosis problem, the provision for Bauxite,
safe, low fluoride water from alternate sources, either as an Serpentine
alternative source or for blending, should be investigated as
the very first option. In cases where alternate sources are not 5.1 conventional techniques
available, then defluoridation is the only technique to prevent 5.1.1 Nalgonda technique
fluorosis. Adsorption technique functions on the adsorption of fluoride
ions onto the surface of an active agent. Activated alumina,
activated carbon and bone char were among the highly tested

4144 Shulbha Singh,
S Athar Hussain
H and Mim
mansa Gulati
adssorbing agentss. After extenssive testing off these materiaals; 5.1.1.1 Merits and Demerits
NE EERI, Nagpur has evolved a simple and economical methhod Merits::
forr removal of fluoride thatt is referred to as Nalgonnda  Reggeneration of media
m is not reqquired.
tecchnique in the year 1975 in response to fluuorosis concerrns.
Thhe methods are a based on n the additioon of chemiccals  Noo handling of caaustic acids andd alkalis.
(cooagulants andd aids) and the subsequennt formation of  Thee chemicals reequired are readdily available and
a are used
inssoluble fluoridde precipitatess. Its involvess the addition of in conventional
c m
municipal waterr treatment.
lim
me, bleaching powder
p and aluuminum salts followed
f by raapid
mixing, flocculattion sedimentaation, filtration and disinfectiion.  Addaptable to dom
mestic use.
Aluuminum salt is i responsible for removal of fluoride frrom  Ecoonomical
waater.
 Cann be used too treat waterr in large quuantities for
com
mmunity usagee.
 Appplicable in battch as well as in continuous operation to
suitt needs.
 Sim
mplicity of design, consstruction, opeeration and
maaintenance.
Demeriits
 Desalination mayy be necessaryy when the tottal dissolved

solids exceed 15000 mg/l.
 Harrdness of the raw
r water in thhe range of 2000 mg/l to 600
mgg/l requires preccipitation softeening and beyoond 600 mg/l
beccomes a cause for rejection orr adoption of desalination.
d
 Genneration of higher
h quantityy of sludge compared
c to
electrochemical defluoridation.
d
 Thee large amountt of alum needeed to remove fluoride.
f
 Carreful pH controol of treated waater is requiredd. .
 Thee daily operatiions require a trained and conscientious
c
Figure2. Op
perational diagrram of nalgond
da technique
opeerator.
Operation off Nalgonda tecchnique starts with
w the selecttion Table3.. Comparison between
b fluoridee removal techn
niques based
of either aluminnium sulphate or aluminium m chloride whhich on
n different paraameters.
deppends upon suulphate and chlloride contentss of raw waterr to
avooid them exceed the permisssible limits. Thhe test water and a Authorrs and Paarameters Activa Bonne Nalgo
thee required dosee of aluminiumm sulphate is thhen mixed rapidly year ted chaar nda
forr a period of 30
3 to 60 secon nds with a speeed of 10-20 rppm. alumin
a
Lim me facilitates formation
f of dense
d flocs for the rapid settling
Siddiqqui A. no daily
d dose of + + -
of insoluble fluooride salts, haaving the dosse as empiricaally H. 1955 chemiccals; (no daily
1/220th of that off aluminium salt
s dose. Bleaaching powderr is worrking load)
addded in a dose ofo 3mg/lt to faacilitate disinfeection. Also alum R. mehhrotra Dosage designed for - - +
is required in approximate doses to obtain water with w et al 1999
1 fluooride conc.
accceptable limit of
o fluoride (<1
1.0 mg/lt). On chemical
c reacttion Indepeendent of unit
tinny flocs are form
med. Then mix x for a period of
o 10-15 min with
w o plant.
or
a speed
s of 2-4 rpm. Water is i allowed to settle and fillter S. kuumar No risk
r of false - - +
thrrough earth candles overniight. Nalgondaa technique was w 20000 treattment due to
preeferable at alll levels becau use of its low w price, ease of brreakpoint.
K. bailey et Removval capacity of - - -
hanndling and higgher versatilityy having appllications for both
al 20000 m
medium is
larrge and small communities.
c indeependent of
fluooride conc.
Journal of Civil
C Engineering and Enviroonmental Technnology
p-ISSN: 2349-8404; e--ISSN: 2349-8779X; Volume 4,4 Issue 5; Julyy-September, 2017
2
Fluoride Removal Techniques from Groundwater: A Review 415
Siddiqui A. No regeneration or - - + [3] Siddiqui, A. H.: Fluorosis in Nalgonda District, Hyderabad -

H. 1955 renewal of medium Deccan. Brit. Med. J. 1955; 2:1408-13 [4] Gupta M. Indian
is required. Journal of Environmental Health, 1994, 36 (1), 43-46.
Sanghratna High removal + + - [5] R. Mehrotra, B. S. Kapoor and B. Narayan, Defluoridation of
S. efficiency can be Drinking Water Using Low Cost Adsorbent, Indian
waghmare ensured. J.Environmental Health, 41(1), 53-58 (1999)
Radheshyam Easy to construct, + + ++ [6] Fluoride in Drinking-water edited by K. Bailey, J. Chilton, E.
et al 1999 even by users. Dahi, M. Lennon, P. Jackson and J. Fawell. (2006)
Sushree Construction + + ++ [7] Thompson J, McGarvey FX. Ion-Exchange Treatment of Water
swaroopa materials are cheap Supplies. Journal American Water Works Association 1953; 45:
tripathy et al and easily available. 145-152.
2006 [8] WHO (World Health Organization) (1984). Fluorine and fluoride
Bersillon et Can be sized for one + + + (volume 36). Geneva: Environmental health Criteria.
al 2006 or several families [9] WHO (World Health Organization) (1996).Guideline for drinking
or e.g. a school water quality. Geneva: world Health Organization.
Radheshyam No risk of medium + - + [10] Wheeler SM, Fell LR. Fluoride in cattle nutrition. Rev Sr B
et al chemicals 1983; 53:741-767.
unacceptability [11] NRC, ‘fluorides’. National Research Council- National
Academy of Science, Washington, DC, 1974
6. CONCLUSIONS [12] P. Mariappan, V. Yegnaraman and T. Vasudevan,
Defluoridation of Water Using Low Cost Activated Carbons,
Fluorosis is an important public health problem in india. IJEP 2002;22( 2 ) :154 - 160
[13] Herschel S. Horowitz and Stanley B. Helfetz. The Effect of
Drinking water is the main source of ingestion of fluoride. The
Partial Defluoridation of a Water Supply on Dental Fluorosis-
various manifestations of chronic fluoride toxicity are mild to Final Results in Bartlett, Texas, AJPH JUNE, 1972; 62(6): 767-9.
severe dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis, crippling fluorosis, [14]. Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), Karaikudi
where visceral organs are involved. Defluoridation should be -630 006, Tamil Nadu, India. Electrochemical Defluoridation.
taken up when there is no alternative source of safe drinking http://www.techno-preneur.net/New-technologies/Food-
water. So far nalgonda technique is the most suitable and agro/food-index.htm
appropriate technique for Indian rural communities. Where [15]. Defluoridation by bone char. Available from: URL:
community defluoridation is not feasible, the residents of the http://www.grad.cmu.ac.htm
endemic fluorosis areas should be educated and motivated to [16]. M.J. Larsen and E.I.F. Pearce. Defluoridation of water at high
pH with use of Brushite, Calcium hydroxide and Bone char. J
adopt domestic defluoridarion techniques. The techniques
Dent Res 1993;72(11):1519-25.
should be economic, adoptable and acceptable to the [17]. Herschel S.Horowitz, Stanley B.Heifetz, and William S.
communities. Priority should be given to the techniques, Driscoll. Partial defluoridation of a community water supply and
which utilize locally available materials as defluoridation dental fluorosis. Health service reports,1972; 87(5): 451-455.
agents. [18] M.J. Larsen, E.I.F. Pearce, Defluoridation of Drinking Water by
Boiling with Brushite and Calcite, Caries Research 2002;36:341-
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 346.
[19]. Fluorosis: Treatment and prevention.
I am very much thankful to my guides Athar Hussain, http://www.krassindia.org/fluoride_tre.htm
Mimansa Gulati and my brother Shashank Shekhar Singh
for constant support and cooperation in preparing this paper.
REFERENCES
[1] Fluoride in water: An overview, Unicef. (Accessed on 29-09-

2007). Available from:
URL:http://www.unicef.org/programme/wes/info/fluor.ht m.
[2] S. Kumar and K. Gopal.A Review on Fluorosis and its Preventive
Strategies. Indian J. Environmental Protection. June
2000;20(6):430-6.

Study of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Ground

Water Quality of Indira Nagar, Gorakhpur
Surya Pratap Singh1 and Sunayana2
1
PG Student, Department of Civil Engg., MMMUT, Gorakhpur
2
Department of Civil Engg. MMMUT, Gorakhpur
E-mail: 1spsingh894@gmail.com
Abstract—In recent 20 years the environmental issues regarding urbanization, frequently discharging industrial effluent,
environmental problem like hazardous waste, global climate change, domestic and solid waste dump causes ground water gets
stratospheric ozone depletion, groundwater contamination, disaster pollute. This pollute water not only affects water quality but
mitigation and removal of pollutant have become the focus of also threats human health, economic development and social
environmental attention.
In this Dissertation work the quality of ground waters from
prosperity. So, the assessment of water quality is very
Indiranagar Gorakhpur and its environs was conducted between important factor for knowing the suitability for various
December, 2016 to March, 2017. This study was undertaken to purposes and continuous monitoring of ground water is
determine physical and chemical parameter of ground water sources necessary for the health of human, animals and crops.
(shallow and deep hand pump) in Indiranagar Gorakhpur, is as a
result physical parameters (pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hence an assessment of the ground water quality in Indira
Electrical Conductivity (E.C), Temperature, turbidity) and chemical Nagar area is taken in the present study as the most of the
parameters (Alkalinity, total Hardness, Acidity, chloride, fluoride) in people are using hand pumps water for drinking. The objective
water resources were determined. Water samples were collected from of present work was to study the water quality of ground water
10 sampling points including 7 shallow hand pumps and 3 deep hand in Indira Nagar area of Gorakhpur district, UP, (India).
pumps (India mark hand pump). The result was compared with WHO,
and IS: 10500-2012 standards. The usefulness of these parameters Water covers about 70 percent of the earth’s surface, only
(Physico-chemical) in predicting ground water quality 2.53 percent is fresh water while the remaining is salt water.
characteristics were studied. Thus an attempt has been made to find The World Water Council also records that of the 3 percent of
the quality of ground water in Indiranagar area of Gorakhpur fresh water, only 0.3 percent is found in rivers and lakes,
suitable for drinking purposes or not, and what its impact on human
health.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is a prime need for human survival and industrial
development. Ground Water quality is very essential in a
sense of practical utility for domestic, agricultural and
industrial purposes and plays significant role in the living
organism that existing in this world water. For many rural and
small scale communities, ground water is the only source of
drinking water. Assessment of ground water for drinking and
irrigation has become a necessary and important task for
present and future ground water quality management. Ground
water quality depends on the quality of recharged water,
atmospheric precipitation, inland surface water and subsurface
geochemical processes. Temporal changes in the origin and Fig. 1 World water scenario
constitution of the recharged water, hydrologic and human
factors may cause periodic changes in ground water quality. 2. AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The geology of a particular area has a great influence on
quality of water and its environment. The quality of ground The study aims to determine the quality of ground water in the
water varies due to a change in chemical composition of the Indira Nagar area in order to evaluate their suitability for
underlying sediments and aquifer. The modern civilization and drinking and domestic use.
Study of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Ground Water Quality of Indira Nagar, Gorakhpur 417
St. PUMP TYPES LOCATION 3.1.2 Location

LATITUDE LONGITUDE
A Shallow hand 26.74234°N 83.38445°E Indira Nagar is located in the Gorakhpur Region of UP. Indira
Pump Nagar is located between latitude 26.768950N and longitude
B India Mark II Hand 26.74140°N 83.38635°E 83.383150E having an approximate circumference area of 5
Pump km and a 2017 estimated population of about 3247. It is
C Shallow hand 26.74088°N 83.38551°E situated on bank of Ramgarh Tal (Big Source of surface water
Pump in Gorakhpur) and 3 km east away from Rapti River.
D Shallow hand 26.74048°N 83.38384°E
Pump
E Shallow hand 26.73895°N 83.38315°E
Pump
F India Mark II Hand 26.74062° N 83.38107°E
Pump
G Shallow hand 26.73852° N 83.37958°E
Pump
H India Mark II Hand 26.73769°N 83.38465°E
Pump
I Shallow hand 26.73602°N 83.37667°E
Pump
J Shallow hand 26.73358°N 83.38317°E
Pump
3. THE SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ARE TO:

Fig. 2 Water Sampling point on Earth Map
1. To examine the water quality with respect to physico-
chemical parameters. Sampling points were carefully chosen in order to assess
2. To investigate Indira Nagar ground water quality variations the general characteristics of ground water quality in Indira
with respect to the Shallow hand pump and India mark –II Nagar and its environs. Out of ten (10) sampling points: seven
hand pump in different locations. are shallow hand pump water bodies (A, C, D, E, G, I and J)
and three India mark-II hand pump samples (B, F and H) were
3. Determining the physical (pH, temperature, turbidity, chosen to investigate the potential source of pollution and
electrical conductivity and TDS) and chemical (Chloride, establish the possible impact on the ground water quality.
acidity, total alkalinity, total hardness and Fluoride)
parameters of the water sources under study. 3.1.3 Experimental Method
4. To understand the degree of pollution by inferring the The water samples were analyzed for various parameters in
physico-chemical parameters of ground water for Indira the laboratory of Environmental Engg. (P.H.E) Madan Mohan
Nagar Gorakhpur. Malaviya University of Technology Gorakhpur. Various
physical and chemical parameters like Temperature, pH,
5. To compare the results of the present study with World Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hardness, Chloride,
Health Organization (WHO) guidelines and IS 10500:2012 Acidity, Alkalinity, Electrical Conductivity, Fluoride have
standards. been monitored for the ground water of different locations by
6. To identify the potential sources of pollution and relative digital/ titration/other methods.
interactions to reduce the measures for controlling
pollutants. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 STUDY AREA 4.1. pH graph
3.1.1 Selection of study area pH value range varies from 6.5 to 7.5 pH units for both
The study area, Indira Nagar was selected for this study shallow hand pump and India Mark II hand pumps (Fig.4.1).
because of the fact that ground water sources are extensively This gives the general indication that the water bodies under
used for drinking and domestic purposes. The ground water study ranges from being weakly acidic to neutral. The highest
quality of Indira Nagar, Gorakhpur appeared to be poor, desirable level for pH stipulated for drinking and domestic
because of extracting the color of ground water which changes purposes is within the range of 6.5 to 8.5 (IS: 10500-2012;
yellowish color in some hours. After therefore, Indira Nagar WHO, 2004) (Fig. 4.1).
area was identified to study the quality of ground water and
check the pollution level and effects on human health.

418 Surya Pratap Singh and Sunayana
pH for shallow handpump Temp for India mark II hand pump

7.6 30
7.5 25
7.4
20
temp(0C)
7.3
December 15
7.2
pH
7.1 10 December
7 January 5
6.9
0 January
6.8
February B F H
6.7
A C D E G I J Sampling Stations February
Sampling Stations March
March
pH for India mark II hand pump
7.6 The temperature value of all the water samples analyzed
7.4 ranged from 180C to 260C (Fig.4.2). There was no (IS: 10500-
7.2 2012; WHO) guideline value for temperature to be compared
7 with. Ground water temperature for both shallow hand pump
December and India Mark II hand pumps (Fig.4.2) ranged from the
pH
6.8
minimum value of 180C (December,2016)to a maximum of
6.6 260C (march,2017) .
6.4 January
6.2 4.3. TDS graph
6 February
B F H TDS for shallow handpump
800
4.2. Temperature graph 700
600
TDS (mg/l)
500 December
temprature for shallow handpump 400
300
30 200
100 January
25 0
20 A C D E G I J
temp (0C)
December February
15 Sampling Stations
10 January March
5
0 February
A C D E G I J

TDS for India mark II hand pump Electrical Conductivity for India
700 mark II hand pump
600 800
500 700
TDS (mg/l)
December 600
400
EC (µS/cm)
300 500
January 400
200 December
300
100 200
February
0 100
January
B F H 0
March
Sampling Stations
B F H
February
Sampling Stations
These TDS values were obtained at Shallow hand pump March

(station-A, D and G) and India mark-II (station-F) respectively
within acceptable limit of IS: 10500-2012 and WHO guideline 4.5. Turbidity graph
value. But Ground water station B, C, E, H, I and J, TDS
concentration level exceed the acceptable limit of IS: 10500-
2012 and WHO guideline value. Ground water concentration
Turbidity for shallow handpumps
values ranged from 330 to 710 mg/l (Fig.4.3). The exceed in
TDS may be attributed to higher percolation of dissolved 80
impurity laden raw water into the shallow aquifer zone. 70
4.4. Electrical Conductivity graph 60
Recorded E.C. values for ground water in the study area 50 December
varied between 432 to 954 μS/cm (Fig.4.4). There was no IS: 40
10500-2012 guideline value for E.C. to be compared for 30
20 January
Ground water E.C., So all the values had been compared with
WHO guideline limit .These values were within the WHO 10
guideline limit of 1000 μS/cm (WHO, 2004) stipulated for 0
February
drinking and domestic water. The conductivity values (all A C D E G I J
stations) are under limit, and there is no problem due to E.C.
March
Electrical Conductivity for shallow

handpump Turbidity for India mark‐II handpumps
Electrical Conductivity (µS/cm)
1200 180
1000 160
140
800 December
120
600 100 December
400 January 80
200 60 January
February 40
0
20
A C D E G I J March 0 February
Sampling Stations B F H
March

Recorded turbidity values for ground water in the study hardness concentration level exceed the acceptable limit of IS:
area varied between 1 to 165 NTU (Fig.4.5).These Turbidity 10500-2012 But within permissible limit of IS: 10500-2012
values were obtained at Shallow hand pump (station-A, D, E and WHO guideline value. The hardness even in shallow hand
and G) and India mark-II (station- not any) respectively pump may be attributed to the contact with soil formations.
within acceptable and permissible limit of IS: 10500-2012 and
4.7. Alkalinity graph
WHO guideline value. And Ground water station B, C, E, F
and J, turbidity concentration level (13 to 44 NTU) exceed the
acceptable limit of IS: 10500-2012 and WHO guideline value. Alkalinity for shallow
But station H & I was highly turbid water, its ranged from 47 handpump
to 165 NTU (Fig.4.5). Thus making aesthetically unfit for
domestic and drinking water purpose, It was very poor quality 400
of ground water. 350
Alkalinity (mg/l)
300 December
4.6. Total Hardness graph 250
200
150 January
Total Hardness for shallow 100
handpump 50 February
600 0
Total Hardness (mg/l)
500 A C D E H I J March
400 Sampling Stations
300 December
200
100 January
Alkalinity for India mark II
0
February handpump
A C D E G I J
350
Sampling Stations March 300
Alkalinity (mg/l)
250
200 December
Total Hardness for India mark II 150
100
handpump January
350 50
300 0
February
250 B F H
TDS (mg/l)
200 December Sampling Stations March

150
100 January
50
Alkalinity concentrations recorded during the study
0 February ranged from 166 to 370 mg/l (CaCO3) (Fig.4.7). Alkalinity
B F H values were obtained at Shallow hand pump (station- A and
D) and India mark-II (station- F) respectively within
March
Sampling Stations acceptable limit of IS: 10500-2012 guideline value. And other
Ground water station B, C, E, F, H, I and J, alkalinity
concentration level exceed the acceptable limit of IS: 10500-
2012 But within permissible limit of IS: 10500-2012 and
Total hardness concentrations recorded during the study
WHO guideline value.
ranged from 130 to 480 mg/l (CaCO3) (Fig.4.6). Total
Hardness values were obtained at Shallow hand pump
(station- D and G) and India mark-II (F) respectively were
within acceptable limits of IS: 10500-2012 guideline value.
And other Ground water station A, B, C, E, H, I and J,

4.8. Chloride graph 4.9. Fluoride graph
Chloride for shallow handpump Fluoride for shallow handpump
100
90 1.6
Chloride (mg/l)
80
70 1.4
Fluoride (mg/l)
60 December 1.2
50 1 December
40 0.8
30 January 0.6
20 0.4
10 January
February 0.2
0
0
A C D E G I J March February
A C D E G I J
Sampling Stations
Sampling Stations
March
Chloride for India mark-II Fluoride for India mark II

handpump handpump
1.6
70 1.4
Fluoride (mg/l)
1.2
60 1
Chloride (mg/l)
50 0.8
40 0.6 December
December 0.4
30 0.2 January
20 0
10 January B F H February
0 Sampling Stations
B F H February March
Sampling Stations
March
Fluoride value ranged varies from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/l for both
shallow hand pump and India Mark II hand pumps (Fig.4.10)
during the study. The highest desirable level for fluoride
Chloride value ranged varies from 14 to 93 mg/l for both
stipulated for drinking and domestic purposes is within the
shallow hand pump and India Mark II hand pumps (Fig.4.9) range of 1 to 1.5 (IS: 10500-2012; WHO, 2004) (Fig. 4.9).
during the study. The highest desirable level for chloride
Fluoride values were obtained at both Shallow hand pump and
stipulated for drinking and domestic purposes is within the
India mark-II (all station) respectively within acceptable &
range of 250 to 1000 (IS: 10500-2012; WHO, 2004) (Fig. 4.9). permissible limit of IS: 10500-2012 guideline value.
Chloride values were obtained at both Shallow hand pump and
India mark-II respectively within acceptable limit of IS: 5. CONCLUSIONS
10500-2012 guideline value. Its indicates that ground water is
protected against certain kind of waste water treatment. In the whole study of this project the contamination of
physico-chemical parameter in groundwater has emerged as
one of the most prominent problems being faced by public
health engineering department, in particular and public at large
in both urban and rural areas. The assessment of the physico-

chemical parameter concentration in groundwater in 5. The appropriate testing facilities and field kits should
Indiranagar, Gorakhpur district revealed the following be made available to the people at reasonable cost.
recommendations and conclusions:
6. Any scheme for intangible from deep-water aquatic
1. The evaluation of physico-chemical parameter
material should be subject to monitoring of both the quality
concentration in 10 groundwater samples (including 7 shallow
and quantity of available resources and for the purposes of
hand pumps and 3 India Mark-II hand pumps) of Indiranagar,
irrigation there should be no intangible to the deep water.
Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India has provided useful
Deep aqueous material can be drained if only a separate layer
insight into the extent of physico-chemical parameter toxicity
of soil separates shallow and deep water and preserves deep
in the study area. It was found that physico-chemical
water for a long period of time.
parameter (5 out of 10) concentration in 3 samples taken from
India Mark-II hand pumps was higher than the Acceptable 7. Deep hand pump should be constructed with adequate
limit of IS:10500-2012 and WHO guideline. And turbidity caution against cross contamination.
concenration India Mark-II hand pumps was higher than the
permissible able limit of IS:10500-2012 and WHO guideline REFERENCES
in With this in view, a detailed investigation about local
[1] Study on Determination of Physicochemical Parameters of
sources of physico-chemical parameter and mechanisms of Ground Water in Industrial Area of Pydibheemavaram,
physico-chemical parameter release is required. Vizianagaram District, Andhrapradesh, India
2. The evaluation of physico-chemical parameters [2] APHA (1998), „Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater‟, 20th edition Washington D.C...
concentration in 7 shallow hand pumps of Indiranagar,
[3] BIS (1992), Indian standard specifications for drinking water. IS:
Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh. It was found that physico- 10500-2012
chemical parameter (5 out of 10) in 4 samples from shallow [4] Physico-chemical quality of ground and surface waters from
hand pumps taken monthly was higher than the Acceptable Bibiani and its environs was conducted between November, 2009
limit of IS:10500-2012 and WHO guideline. The use of and April, 2010 (FRANK'S FINAL THESIS)
groundwater for drinking purposes from contaminated ground [5] Assessment of Physico-chemical Water Quality Parameters of
water hand pumps should be restricted. Surajkund Pond in Gorakhpur City Sushil Kumar Gupta, Dr.
Govind Pandey
3. The test result of physico-chemical parameter [6] Physico-Chemical and Microbiological Analysis of Potable
concentration in 10 groundwater samples (including 7 shallow Surface and Ground Water Samples in Dubti, Amibara and
hand pumps and 3 India Mark-II hand pumps) of Indiranagar, Awash Fentale Woredas of Afar Region Status Of Physico-
Gorakhpur. The results of 3 station out of 10 (station A, D & Chemical Parameter Of Ground Water Of Gorakhpur City U.P.
G) physico-chemical parameter concentration are within (India) Priyanka Chaudhary, Kalawati Shukla, Jitendra kumar
Acceptable limit of IS: 10500-2012 and WHO guideline. But [7] WHO; UNICEF. JPM Technical Task Force Meeting on
Monitoring Drinking-water Quality.
other 7 hand pumps exceed the acceptable limit of IS: 10500-
Available online:
2012 and WHO guideline. It is very big issue for ground water http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Task-
contamination for Indiranagar Gorakhpur. Force- Meeting-on-Monitoring-Drinking-water-Quality.pdf
4. The test results (on the basis of physico-chemical (accessed on 9 July 2013).
parameter) of station E, F, H, I & J is very poor because most
physico-chemical parameter exceed the acceptable limit of IS:
10500-2012 and WHO guideline. The color of these stations is
highly yellowish and turbidity ranges 11 to 165 NTU which
are exceed all standard limits. So this station ground water not
must be taken directly for drinking.

ENERGETICS OF 2,3,5 TRIMETHYL PHENOL –

FORMALDEHYDE REACTION
PS Jassal*
Department of Chemistry, SGTB Khalsa College, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, INDIA
E-mail: psj.sgtb57@gmail.com
Abstract—A kinetic study of the reaction of 2,3,5 trimethyl phenol low temperature and pH, reaction is very slow to study the
with formaldehyde has been made at 345, 350, 355 and 360K and at progress and at high temperature and pH polymerisation of
pH values of 9.8, 10.3, 11.0 and 11.5 using sodium hydroxide as product can occur.
catalyst. An overall second order rate law with the formation of 4,6
dimethylol 2,3,5 methyl phenol. Activation energy, E≠ and entropy Experimental
of activation,  Sobs values were calculated using the linear plots of
log k versus 1/T. Effect of the polar nature of solvents i.e. methanol, Materials: Ethylamine(MEA), diethylamine(DEA) and
ethanol, isopropanol and 1,4 dioxan show that rate of the reaction is triethylamine(TEA) were from Sigma-Aldrich chemicals.
highest in 1,4 dioxan. Catalysis by Lewis bases, ethylamine (MEA), Potassium iodide, AR, was an E. Merck products, 2,3,5
diethylamine (DEA) tri ethylamine and tetra ethyl ammonium trimethyl phenol and tetraethyl ammonium hydroxide(TEAH)
hydroxide (TEAH) exihibit that MEA acts as weak Lewis base and used for kinetic study was a Fluka AG Buchs G (Switzerland)
TEAH as a strong base. A comparative study of the reactivities of products. 1,4 Dioxan and isopropanol were of spectroscopic
different phenols viz 2,4 xylenol, phenol, m-cresol and saligenin- grade (E Merck). Other chemicals sodium hydroxide and 4-
formaldehyde reactions reveal that rate is lowest in the case of 2-
tertiary butyl 3-methyl phenol -formaldehyde reaction and highest in
nitroaniline used were AR grade CDH (India) products. A
saligenin-formaldehyde reaction. The calculated and experimental German thermostat (model NBE) was used for rate studies.
values of second order rate constant at different temperatures and at Thermostat consists of a circular type steel bath and is
pH value of 11.0 agree well within the experimental error. provided with a tubular heating element. An electric motor
was used for stirring the water. The sensitivity of the
Keywords: Kinetic; Deprotonation; Activated complex; and Entropy thermostat was  0.05C.
of activation.
Method:
INTRODUCTION
100 ml of the 2, 3, 5 trimethyl phenol in 1:1, methanol –water
The resinous and non-resinous products formed by the mixture, was taken in a 250 ml round bottom flask .To this
reactions of different phenols with formaldehyde find large flask requisite amount of sodium hydroxide solution was
number of industrial applications. Therefore, a comprehensive added to give the desired pH. In a separate flask 100 ml of
kinetic studies of the reactions of 2,3,5 trimethyl phenol with standardized formaldehyde solution was taken and suspended
formaldehyde, undoubtedly would reveal useful information the flask in the same thermostat. After 5 minutes, when both
regarding the factors controlling the properties and production the flasks attained the temperature of the bath, the solutions
of phenol-aldehyde product and in elucidating the exact were mixed carefully and fitted with a water condenser. After
mechanism of these reactions. A review of literature reveals a definite interval of time 10 ml of reaction mixture was
that research works were mainly concerned with the detection withdrawn and placed in an ice-bath to freeze the reaction.
of major components formed during the reaction and Kinetic study in terms of the estimation of reactants i.e. 2-
preparation of the phenolic resins.1-6 The kinetics study of the tertiary butyl 3-methyl phenol and formaldehyde was made at
reaction of 2, 3, 5 trimethyl phenol with formaldehyde has different temperatures and pHs.
been the subject of slower growth7-14. In present work a
comprehensive kinetic and mechanistic study of 2,3,5 2, 3, 5 trimethyl phenol was separated from the other
trimethyl phenol with formaldehyde has been made at 345, reactants by preparatory TLC and estimated
350, 355 and 360K and pH values of 9.8,10.3,11.0 and 11.5 spectrophotometrically. Yellowish orange colour developed
taking into account the functionality (n) i.e., the number of by the interaction of phenol and diazotised p-nitroaniline was
available reactive positions on reacting phenol. Temperature utilised in the estimation. λmax of 550 mμ was used for the
and pH ranges for kinetic studies are chosen in such a way that estimation15.
the reaction can be studied moderately in the laboratory. At
424 PS Jassal
Prepration of diazotised p-nitroaniline : 0.5% solution of p- 11.0 and temperature of 345, 350, 355 and 360K and
nitroaniline was prepared in 2N HCl and 5ml of this solution comparing the same with the experimental values.The values
was diazotised by adding 0.5 ml of 5.0% aqueous sodium of Arrhenius parameters along with the entropy of activation
nitrite solution to get required indicator. Because of the can be calculated by plotting log k vs. 1/ T (Table 2).
unstability, every time a fresh sample of the indicator solution s
was prepared. Table 1. Overall Rate Constants k, at Different Temperature
and at Different Concentrations of NaOH ._
Estimation of formaldehyde : 10.0 ml approximately 1.0%

solution of formaldehyde was taken in a conical flask. This [NaOH].103 Θ Initial [ K, IInd
was run into 5.0 ml of standardised sodium bisulphite solution. S.N ( 0C ) HCHO ] order rate
The flask was corked and kept at room temperature for 15 (mol.dm-3) (mol.dm-3) constant
minutes. During this time 5.0 ml of sodium bisulphite solution 3.mol—1.s-
was titrated with standardised (N/10) iodine solution. This is 1-)
equivalent to the initial concentration of formaldehyde (a). 1. 4.20 65 0.4017 3.22 x 10-6
Sodium bisulphite left unreacted in the bisulphite- 2. 10.20 65 0.4123 66.15x 10-6
formaldehyde was estimated by titrating with N/10 iodine 3. 16.20 65 0.4225 1.94 x 10-5
4. 22.20 65 0.4076 4.47 x 10-5
solution. This will give amount of formaldehyde reacted at a
5 4.20 70 0.4222 6.25 x10-6
given time (y). The difference between initial concentration of
6 10.20 70 0.4231 9.25 x 10-6
formaldehyde (a) and the amount of formaldehyde reacted (y) 7 16.2 70 0.4317 3.41 x 10-6
at a given time (t) gives the amount of unreacted 8 22.2 70 0 .4025 9.6 x 10-5
formaldehyde left i.e. (a-y)16-19.
Results and Discussion : The study has been summarised as 2) Effect of Different Lewis Bases and TEAH as Catalysts
given below:
Changing the nature of catalysts have been studied in the
1) Effect of Temp. and pH on The 2,3,5 Methyl Phenol
presence Lewis bases i.e. ethylamine (MEA), diethylamine
HCHO Reaction :
(DEA), triethylamine (TEA) and the base tetraethylammonium
Reaction : 2, 3, 5 trimethyl phenol reacts with formaldehyde hydroxide at 345K and pH value of 9.8 were calculated.
in the presence of OH- to form 4-methylol derivative: Due to the inductive effect, MEA, DEA and TEA behave
(CH3)3.C6H3.OH + HCHO → (CH3)3.C6H2.OH.CH2OH as weak Lewis bases in comparison to tetraethylammonium
hydroxide (TEAH) and the rate of the 2, 3, 5 tri methyl phenol
The experimental observations indicate second order rate law – formaldehyde reaction is highest in the latter case. Rate can
for the reaction. be arranged in the following order :
The equation for the reaction rate is: ,
dy/dt = k (na-y) ( b-y) - - --(1)
where a and b are the initial concentrations of and
formaldehyde, y is the amount of formaldehyde reacted at 3) Effect of the Polarity of Different Media
time t and n = 1, is the functionality of 2,3,5 tri methyl ol l
phenol. k is an overall t. The integration of equation (1) gives A study of the effect of different solvents was made on 2, 3, 5
the following expression (2). trimethyl phenol- formaldehyde reaction at pH value of 11.2
and temperature of 345K using methanol, ethanol, isopropanol
k = [2.303 / t (a – b)] [(log b / a){(a – y) / ( b – y)}] ----(
and 1,4 dioxan as solvents in the ratio of 1:1
2)
(v/v) solvent- water mixture. It can be seen from table 5
Results of kinetic studies are carried out at different
that rate is high in the polar solvent 1,4 dioxan and it decreases
temperatures and different pH values using sodium hydroxide
as the polarity of the medium decreases. The second order rate
as catalyst . A plot of [log b/a . (a-y) / (b-y)] versus time (t)
constants could be arranged in the following order :
gives straight line, showing that reaction follows an overall
second order rate law . The overall second order rate constant
values at pH 10.0, 10.4, 10.8 and 11.2 and at temperature 338
K are given in table120-23. As the pH of the system increases,
the rate of 2,3,5 trimethyl phenol – formaldehyde reaction also
increases (Table 1). It shows that rate of the reaction directly
depends upon the hydroxyl ions concentration. The
experimental correctness of the methyl phenol-formaldehyde
reaction is verified by calculating the rate constantst a pH of

ENERGETICS OF 2,3,5 TRIMETHYL PHENOL –FORMALDEHYDE REACTION 425
4) Comparative Rate Study of 2,3,5 Trimethyl Phenol- Activated complex formed is unstable and distorted and
Formaldehyde Reactions : its value is assumed to remain constant. Since Sph for 2,3,5
tri methyl phenolate ion is becoming increasingly negative
A comparative rate study of the overall second order rate
with of increase of pH and SAC has large postive value. The
constant values for 2, 3, 5 trimethyl methyl phenol, 2,4-
net result would be that the entropy of activation ( SObs )
xylenol, m-cresol and saligenin- formaldehyde 24 at 345, 350,
would decreases with increase of pH. The larger values of
355 and 355K reveals that rate of reaction is lowest with 2, 3,
5 trimethyl methyl phenol-formaldehyde reaction due to the energy of activation ( E ) at lower pH show that OH- play an
reason that tertiary butyl group is more electron releasing in important role in the reaction.
comparison to methyl group, so the electron density at the REFERENCES
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easy removal of H+ from the phenol nucleus. Due to ortho and 1) Sebenik A, Osredkar V and I Vizovisck Polymer 22 (1981) 804
para directing effects of methyl group, the approaching 2) I Stepanov J Therm Anal 39 (1993) 1375
electrophile will be directed toward the meta position of the 3) P Christijanson, A Koosel and H Lippmaa ( Estonia) Tallinna
phenol nucleus and which is not susceptible for an Technikaulik Toim 15 (1994) 744 [ CA 284974b (1995) 123
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5) P S Jassal and A K Rakshit Ind J of Chem 39A(2000) 646
and hence rate would be slow. 6) Conner, Anthony H. Journal of Applied Polymer Science (2000),
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methyl phenol in the presence of OH – acquires a negative Zhendong; Lee, Shuit-Tong. Journal of the American Chemical
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11) Tan, Song Ting; Huang, Zeng Fang; Liu, Min Na; Wang, Xia Yu.
ion and form the activated complex with the formaldehyde
Journal of Applied Polymer Science (2006), 99(3), 1269-1276.
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Comparative Study of different Waste Materials

as an Adsorbent for Fluoride Removal from
Groundwater
Anju Gulia1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
1
U.G. Student, Ch. Brahm Prakash Government Engineering College, Jaffarpur, New Delhi-110073
2,3
Ch. Brahm Prakash Government Engineering College, Jaffarpur, New Delhi-110073
E-mail: 1anjugulia205@gmail.com, 2athariitr@gmail.com, 3mimansagulati@gmail.com
Abstract—Fluoride in ground water can cause many health related Shrimp shell waste [5], Banana peel, groundnut shell and
problems and issues. The present study has been undertaken using sweet lemon peel [6], activated alumina [7], Phyllanthus
rice husk (RH), limestone (LS) and brick powder (BP) as locally Emblica [8], Citrus limetta [9], Bleaching powder [10],
available waste materials as an absorbent. The efficiency in terms of Chitosan [11] and other low cost absorbents. Some de-
fluoride removal from groundwater using above mentioned
adsorbents has been studied. Also the effect of pH on fluoride
fluoridation techniques developed to control fluoride in water
removal under different dosing conditions with these adsorbents has are reverse osmosis, adsorption method using sunflower plant,
been observed in this study. Results from the present study indicate bagasse ash, burnt bone powder, etc. as adsorbents. However
that the removal efficiency has been found to be 31%, 67% and 48% due to high cost, lower efficiency or non-applicability on a
using RH, LS and BP as an absorbent for a pH 6. The maximum mass scale, these techniques are not much in use.
removal efficiency of fluoride is observed to be 57% for an optimal Waste materials used as an adsorbent can reduce the cost of
dosing of 11 g/L, 56% for an optimal dosing of 15 g/L and 53% for fluoride removal and also it reduces the pollutants from the
an optimal dosing of 18 g/L for the absorbents RH, LS and BP environment. Various defluorination techniques, such as
respectively. membrane techniques, application of different chemicals and
Keywords: Rice Husk (RH), Limestone (LS), Brick Powder (BP)
adsorption methods have been used to remove fluoride.
Membrane methods effectively reduce fluoride concentration
1. 1. INTRODUCTION to acceptable levels [12]; however, these methods are
complex, require skilled labor, and demand high initial and
Presence of fluoride in the potable water is one of the maintenance costs [13,14]. The different methods so far tried
important environmental issues because of its adverse and for removal of excess fluoride from water can be broadly
toxic effects. Fluorine in the form of the fluoride anion (F-) is classified into four categories. a) Adsorptive methods, b) ion
found in the organic and inorganic compounds of the exchange methods, c) precipitation methods, d) miscellaneous
environment [1]. Fluoride pollution has been observed not methods. The main objective of the comparative study is to
only in various minerals processing but also in some natural estimate the effect of locally available waste material such as
water systems over large areas in Asia, Africa, America, and RH, LS, and BP as an absorbent on the removal efficiency of
Europe where the fluoride concentration can range from 0.01 fluoride from groundwater. The removal efficiency of the
to 3 mg/L in fresh water and 1-35 mg/L in ground water. The fluoride is compared on the basis of various varying
presence of fluoride in groundwater has drawn worldwide parameters like pH and adsorbent dosing.
attention due to its considerable impact on human physiology.
The assimilation of fluoride into the human body from the 2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
ground water at the level of 1.0 mg/L enhances bone
development and prevents dental carriers [2, 3]. Groundwater samples were collected from different areas near
There has been an escalation in daily fluoride intake via the the college premises. Total 5 samples of different fluoride
total human food and beverage chain. Carbonated soft drinks concentration were collected. All the samples collected were
have considerable amounts of fluorides. Beers brewed in tested in the college laboratory and fluoride concentrations
locations with high fluoride water levels may contribute were measured as per standard method [15]. All samples
significantly to the daily fluoride intake and sweetened iced concentrations were measured in triplicates and average of
teas contain significant amounts of fluoride [4]. In absorption these concentrations has been taken. The initial fluoride
method, different absorbents are used for fluoride removal e.g. concentration is shown in Table 1.
Comparative Study of different Waste Materials as an Adsorbent for Fluoride Removal from Groundwater 427
Table 1: Initial fluoride concentration for different samples is observed to be 57% for an optimal dosing of 11 g/L, 56%
collected for an optimal dosing of 15 g/L and 53% for an optimal dosing
of 18 g/L for the absorbents RH, LS and BP respectively.
S.No. Source of sample Initial F- conc. (mg/L)
1 Private Hand pump 1.07 Further increase in the dose of adsorbent does not show
2 Borwell 1.30 any considerable improvement. Final fluoride concentration
3 Borwell 1.29 for different adsorbent dosing is presented in Table 2. The
4 Borwell 0.93 contact time for adsorbent dosing was kept 60 minutes and pH
5 Private hand pump 0.95 was kept at 6. The comparison of fluoride removal by
adsorbent dose is shown in Figure 1. Percentage removal of
fluoride with different dosing of the adsorbent can be shown
Rice Husk, Brick Powder and Lime Stone were used as an
in Table 3. It can be observed that the fluoride removal
adsorbent. The materials used as an absorbent were collected
increases with increase in dosing up to 11 g/L in RH, 18 g/L in
from nearby places.
BP and 15 g/L in LS.
Fluoride removal increases from 26% to 58% for 1-10g/L
Rice husk was carbonized in a laboratory oven at 250°C dosage of RH, 45% to 53% for 1-15g/L dosage of BP and
to 300°C for 4 to 6 hours. The partially carbonized material
16% to 56% for 1-15g/L dosage of LS. The maximum
was then carbonized in a muffle furnace at temperature 500°C
fluoride removal was observed by LS.
to 600°C. The material was cooled to room temperature. The
material was then washed with hot boiling water so as to open Table 2: Final Fluoride concentration for various adsorbent dose.
the pores of carbon. Completely carbonized rice husk was
further treated by acid treatment. Fluoride ion was estimated Dosing (g/L) Fluoride Concentration ( mg/L)
by fluoride ion meter and Batch adsorption studies were made RH BP LS
using jar test apparatus (Scientific Corporation, India) 1 0.962 0.721 1.092
equipped with stirring paddles with provision for controlling 5 0.8502 0.625 0.923
mixing speed [16,17,18]. 10 0.545 0.615 0.689
15 0.623 0.613 0.572
For Brick Powder, bricks were washed with distilled 20 0.848 0.618 0.897
water, dried and grounded to obtain a fine powder. The Brick
Powder was washed several times with distilled water till the
clear water was obtained and was dried in an oven at 110°C Table 3: Fluoride Removal efficiency for various adsorbent dose.
for 10hr.
Dosing (g/L) % of Fluoride
Limestone consists of gypsum. Limestone was properly RH BP LS
washed with distilled water to remove dust and was dried at 1 26 45 16
room temperature in the laboratory. The air-dried sample was 5 35 52 29
crushed and sieved with 0.075 mm diameter opening mesh to 10 58 53 47
obtain particle size <0.075 mm. 15 52 53 56
20 35 52 31
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In order to apply the adsorption technique successfully,
innovation of cheap, nontoxic and easily available adsorbents
are necessary. Bio-adsorbent prepared from agricultural waste
and industrial waste i.e. rice husk, brick powder and limestone
meet these requirements. Adsorption studies were performed
by batch technique to obtain the rate of adsorption. Under
optimum conditions i.e. dose of adsorbent, pH and contact
time for initial fluoride concentration i.e. 1.30 mg/L
Effect of Adsorbent Dose
The effect of adsorbent dose on the removal of fluoride ion
was studied by keeping fluoride ion concentration constant at
1.30rng/L. The response of the adsorbent dose on the removal
of fluoride by RH, BP and LS shows that an increase in the
adsorption occurs with an increase in the dose of adsorbent. Figure 1: Effect of adsorbent dose on the fluoride
The results show the maximum removal efficiency of fluoride concentration by RH, BP and LS

428 Anju Gulia, Athar Hussain and Mimansa Gulati
Effect of pH respectively and decreases afterward. The uptake of fluoride is

possible in the range of pH 5 to 8. The percentage of fluoride
The effect of pH on the removal of fluoride was studied in the
removal was found to be a function of adsorbent dose at a
pH range of 5.0-8.0 and results are shown in Fig.2. It was
given initial fluoride concentration.
observed that percentage of fluoride removal decreases as the
pH of the solution increases. The final fluoride concentration REFERENCES
for RH, BP and LS are shown in Table 4. The maximum
fluoride removal efficiency was observed 31%, 67% and 48% [1] Habuda,S. M., Ravančić, M.E., and Flanagan, A., A review on
at pH 6 shown in Table 5, which decreases as the pH of the adsorption of fluoride from aqueous solution. Materials”, 7,
solution increases for RH, feels sharp as the pH decreases September 2014.
below 6.0 for BP and for LS the fluoride adsorption decreases [2] Shusheela, A.K., “Prevention and control of fluorosis in India.
in basic medium and increases in acidic medium Rajeev Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission”, Ministry of
Rural Development, New Delhi Health, November 9 1993,
pp.20–22.
Table 4: Final Fluoride concentration for various pH values. [3] Tripathy, S.S., Bersillon, J.L., and Gopal, K., “Removal of
fluoride from drinking water by adsorption onto alumimpregnated
pH RH BP LS activated alumina, Separation and Purification Technology”, 50,
5 0.756 1.253 0.356 2006, pp.310–317.
6 0.897 0.673 0.406
7 1.026 0.625 0.566 [4] Roy, S., and Dass, G., “Fluoride Contamination in Drinking
Water – A Review”, Journal of Resources and Environment, 3,
8 1.163 0.659 0.632
2013 , pp.53-58.
[5] Dobaradaran, S., Nabipour, Iraj., Mahvi A.H., Keshtkar, M.,
Table 5: Removal efficiency for various pH values. Elmi, F., Amanollahzade, F., Khorsandf, M., “Fluoride Removal
From Aqueous Solutions Using Shrimp Shell Waste As A Cheap
pH RH BP LS Biosorbent” Research report, 47, July-September 2014, pp.253–
5 42 4 73 257.
6 31 48 69
[6] Mohammad A., and Majumder C.B., “Removal Of Fluoride From
7 21 52 56 Synthetic Waste Water By Using Bio-Adsorbents”, International
8 11 49 51 Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, 3, April
2014, pp.776-785.
[7] Ghorai S., and Pant K.K., “Equilibrium, kinetics and
breakthrough studies for adsorption of fluoride on activated
alumina.”, Sep. Purif. Technol., 42, 2005, pp.265–271.
[8] Veeraputhiran V., and Alagumuthu G., “Treatment of High
Fluoride Drinking Water Using Bioadsorbent”, Research Journal
of Chemical Sciences, 1, 2011, pp. 49-54.
[9] Shubha, D., Prasenjit M., and Chandrajit, B.A., “Removal of
Fluoride using Citrus limetta in batch Reactor: Kinetics and
Equilibrium Studies”, Research Journal of Chemical Sciences, 4,
January 2014, pp.50-58.
[10] Shahjee, P., Godboley, B.J., Sudame, A.M., “Removal Of
Fluoride From Aqueous Solution By Using Low Cost
Adsorbent”, International Journal of Innovative Research in
Science, Engineering and Technology, 2, July 2013, pp.159-164.
Figure 2: Effect of pH on the fluoride concentration by RH, BP [11] Ardekani, M.M.M., Kalantary, R.R., Jorfi, S., Nurisepehr, M.,
and LS “Comparison the Efficiency of Bagas, Modified Bagas and
Chitosan for Fluoride Removal from Water by Adsorption”,
4. CONCLUSIONS Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques , 1, July 2013,
pp. 1-7.
From the present study, it can be observed that fluoride [12] Aravind, A., Varghese, D.K., Arshik, K., Prasad, M.S. and Nair,
removal from groundwater by RH, BP and LS is dependent on V.V. “Defluoridation of water using low-cost bio-adsorbents: A
adsorbent dose, pH and the initial fluoride concentration. The comparative study”, International Journal of Engineering
fluoride removal varies with variations in the Adsorbent Technology Science and Research, 2, 2015, pp.118–126.
dosing. It is observed that the fluoride removal increases with
dosing up to 11g/L, 15g/L and 18g/L for RH, LS, and BP

Comparative Study of different Waste Materials as an Adsorbent for Fluoride Removal from Groundwater 429
[13] Piddennavar, R., and Pushpanjali, K., “Review on

Defluoridation Techniques of Water”, The International Journal
of Engineering And Science, 2, 2013, pp.86-94.
[14] Tomar, V., and Kumar, D., “A critical study on efficiency of
different materials for fluoride removal from aqueous media”,
Chemistry Central Journal, 7, March 2013, pp.1-15.
[15] Apha, A. WPCF, 1998. Standard methods for the examination of
water and wastewater, 20, 1998.
[16] Panchore, K. “Defluoridation of contaminated water by using
low cost adsorbents :A review”, International Journal of
Advanced Science and Research, 1, 2016, pp.28–32.
[17] Telkapalliwar, N.G., and Shivankar, V.M., “Growing approach
in adsorption of fluoride from aqueous solution by using
inexpensive seed based biomass : Review”, Journal of Chemical,
Biological and Physical Sciences, 6, 2016, pp.946–957.
[18] Tomar, V. and Kumar, D. “A critical study on efficiency of
different materials for fluoride removal from aqueous media”,
Chemistry Central Journal, 7, 2013, pp.51.

Anaerobic Co-digestion of Lignocellulosic Waste

Co-Digested with Food Waste under
Mesophillic Conditions
Pushkar Adhikari1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
1
2,3
E-mail: 1pushkaradhikari23@gmail.com, 2athariitr@gmail.com, 3mimansagulati@gmail.com
Abstract—Lignocellulosic waste (LW) is difficult to degrade methane-rich biogas. The methane rich Biogas generation
without pretreatment. Anaerobic Co-digestion helps in degradation of represents the most significant advantage of AD over
LW and hence enhancing the methane production. In the present composting. About 70 to 80% of the energy content of the
study, the optimum conditions for maximum methane production initial organic compounds is preserved in the methane, so
with the help of LW and Food Waste (FW) has been determined.
Biochemical Methane Potential (BMP) study has been conducted
growth in microbial biomass is lower for anaerobic digesting
under mesophillic condition (370C) during summer season with than aerobic, resulting in greater volume and biomass
different ratios of LW and FW, a control solution (inoculum) which reduction [3]. Although anaerobic digestion can be considered
is anaerobic sludge was used to enhance the microbial activities. The to go through in these four stages, all the processes take place
result indicates that, the co-digestion significantly effects the methane simultaneously and synergistically [2]. The ultimate product
concentration in biogas. The methane production is increased about of anaerobic digestion is biogas and digestate. In the present
93% in co-digestion of LW and FW in ratio 1:1.5 as compared to the scenario, anaerobic co-digestion treatment method which
mono-digestion of lignocellulosic waste. includes treatment of different wastes together emerges as an
effective and systematic way to manage organic waste and
Keywords: Lignocellulosic waste (LW), Anaerobic co-digestion,
Biochemical Methane Potential (BMP)
production of renewable energy simultaneously. Anaerobic
co-digestion of LW provides an excellent opportunity to
1. INTRODUCTION convert abundant bioresources into renewable energy.
Anaerobic Microorganisms were not able to digest LW due to
The energy need of rural areas in India is increasingly day by their intrinsic ability to degrade substrate rich in cellulosic
day and to meet this ever increasingly demand the most fiber. However, there are still several challenges that must be
efficient and compatible method, anaerobic digestion is overcome for the efficient digestion of LW [4]. As food waste
adopted. Anaerobic digestion has several advantages as an (FW) is a growing problem, and the disposal of it is
attractive method of waste treatment and energy production: controversial, causing increased food prices and the resources
low operational cost, energy production, pathogen control, and required. It can be utilized as a co-substrate for biogas
environment-friendly operations [1]. Anaerobic digestion production and enhance methane production.
consists of biochemical reactions in which biomass are
Biochemical methane potential (BMP) is a study done for
decomposed into biogas and digested by the help of different
a period of 30 days having a neutral pH, ranging from 6.5 to
microbial population through the biochemical metabolic
7.5, in which the known amount of substrate biodegrade under
pathways in an oxygen depleted environment. The process
optimal anaerobic conditions in the laboratory. The BMP
described in four phases Hydrolysis, Acidogenesis,
study is done in batch mode and in bench scale, measuring the
Acetogenesis, and Methanogenesis [2].In anaerobic digestion,
maximum amount of CH4 or biogas per gram volatile solids
initially, complex organic materials degrade into soluble
(VS) produced by a known quantity of substrate in anaerobic
monomers by hydrolysis and then followed by the acid-
conditions. The result from the analysis shows the
forming phase (Acidogenesis) in which formations of volatile
concentration of organics in a substrate that can be
fatty acids (VFAs) takes place. The next stage Acetogenesis
anaerobically converted to biogas [5]. Lignocellulosic is a
takes place through carbohydrate fermentation and the result
complex formation of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [6]
consists of acetate, CO2, and H2. The final stage,
with a smaller amount of proteins and extractives which is
Methanogenesis is perhaps the most crucial step of anaerobic
soluble non-structural materials such as non-structural sugars,
digestion in which it plays a vital role in the formation of
Anaerobic Co-digestion of Lignocellulosic Waste Co-Digested with Food Waste under Mesophillic Conditions 431
nitrogenous material, and waxes. A lot studies were done to gas produced in the head space of the serum bottles was
enhance the methane concentration of biogas. The co- extract using a 100µL gas tight syringe and was analyzed for
digestion of cafeteria waste and cattle dung was analyzed in methane composition by Gas Chromatography (Agilent
batch mode and it was reported that 75% of organic solids has Technologies 7890A series) equipped with a thermal
retention time of 40 days. The average gas yield was 0.34 m3/ conductivity detector (TCD) and packed with molecular sieve
Kg VS [7].To enhance the digestion of lignocellulic biomass column (PORAPAK Q column) having dimension
the categorized pretreatment methods were mechanical, (6×0.12”×0.85”). The operational temperatures at the injection
thermal, chemical, biological or combination of them. The port, column, oven, and the detector were 750C, 600C, 2200C
benefits of pre-treating the biomass includes high biogas yield, and 2000C respectively. H2 was used as the carrier gas at a
reduction in digestate quantity, reduction in retention time, flow rate of 25 mL/min.
better energy balance and better economical feasibility [8]. As
LW required pretreatment before going under digestion 3. RESULTS
process. On the other side, FW having high carbon content
and result in acid formation which inhibits the growth of The physico-chemical characteristics such as Total Solids
methanogens and a biogas with less concentration of methane (TS), Volatile Solids (VS), Moisture Content (MC) and Ash
is produced [9]. The objective of the present study is aimed to Content were determined before the BMP study. The
find the optimum conditions for maximum methane following observations were calculated and shown in Table 1.
concentration of biogas in different mixing ratios of LW and The comparative study is shown in figure 1.
FW through co-digestion. Table 1: Physico-chemical characteristics of samples.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

S.NO.
Ash in %
VS in %
MC (%)
TS in %
This study mainly focused on the rural area of India. Sample
WW
WW
WW
characterization was done by prescribed method in CPHEEO
Manual 2013. Collected organic solid waste was kept in a
freezer at 4 °C for reducing degradation before use. Greater
particle–substrate surface areas increase contact between Inoculum 95.65 4.3 2.80 0.16
micro-organisms and organic mass [10]. Thus, the microbes FW 68.49 31.51 30.16 0.07
easily degrade the biomass and enhance the rate of
degradation. Before BMP test, the substrate was analyzed and LW 34.53 65.47 50.50 0.76
the parameter like moisture content (MC), total solids (TS),
volatile solids (VS), ash content as well as carbohydrates, Inoculum has the highest moisture content of 95.65%
lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose were find outas prescribed while LW has the lowest moisture among the samples having
by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS No. 10158-1982).The a moisture content of 34.53. Total Solids and Volatile Solids
BMP study was done on Serum bottles of 125 mL with has maximum Concentration in LW.
working volume of 100 mL were used as anaerobic batch
reactors. The known amount of substrate and inoculum was
transferred to each serum bottles. Biogas production in each
serum bottles was measured on daily basis. Blanks (i.e. only
inoculum) were run parallel to these reactors (serum bottles) in
all phases of the study. Biogas collected at room temperature
was normalized to standard temperature and pressure (STP).
All the set-up were kept on the triplicate basis. Average values
were reported. The methane concentration or methane COD is
reported after blank corrections. Based on substrate VS % of
WW, the volume of inoculum was decided and filled into the
serum bottles, and then the substrate was added, and then by Figure 1: Comparative study of Physico-chemical Characteristics
adding the media, bottles were filled up to the working
volume, and remaining space was left blank to fill nitrogen gas BMP Data
to make anaerobic conditions. The experiment was done in
different ratios of samples as Control (Inoculum), LW, FW, The biogas and methane production for different ratios of
LW:FW (1:0.5, 1:1, 1:1.5). All samples were carried out in samples were represented in Table 2. The highest biogas
triplicate. For maintaining the anaerobic conditions, Bottles yields of 519.75 mL/g VS produced in FW while lowest of
were sealed with silicon and aluminum cap. Filled bottles 61.67 mL/ g VS occurs in case of S T. Methane concentration
were kept in an incubator at 37 °C. Total volume of biogas is highest in case of optimum ratio of LW and FW i.e. (1:1.5T)
measured daily with the help of frictionless glass syringe. The

432 Pushkar Adhikari, Athar Hussain and Mimansa Gulati
of 50.70 %. The biogas production and methane concentration

were shown in Figure 2 and Figure 4 respectively.
Table 2: Methane and Biogas production for different samples
Cumulative Biogas
Methane mL/g VS
Methane %
mL/g VS
Sample
Code
LW 40.40 14.20 35.14
1:0.5T 146.22 54.67 37.39 4. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

1:1T 247.93 110.49 44.57 It is concluded from this study of LW and FW and their
1:1.5T 375.04 190.15 50.70
different mixing ratio shows that LW with FW produce
maximum methane production, while FW produces maximum
ST 56.97 16.00 28.09 biogas.Anaerobic digestion of LW can enhance methane
concentration when it is co-digested with another waste
FW 519.75 233.50 44.93 substrate. LW is lignocellulosic substrate so it takes more time
to digest. Thus, the co-digestion of LW with other substrate is
a better option for methane production. Co-digestion of LW
Figure 2: Biogas Production of different samples with FW is also an environmentally friendly step as no
chemicals are used during this process. Also, there is no
energy loss during the process which is generally used at the
time of thermal pretreatment.
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[1]. Suryawanshi, P.C., Chaudhari, A.B. and Kothari, R.M., 2010.

Thermophilic anaerobic digestion: the best option for waste
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[3].Mahony, T., O’Flaherty, V., Colleran, E., Killilea, E., Scott, S.
and Curtis, J., 2002. Feasibility Study for Centralised Anaerobic
Figure 3: Biogas of Co-digested Samples Digestion for Treatment of Various Wastes and Wastewaters in
Sensitive Catchment Areas: Final Project Report. Environmental
Protection Agency.
[4].Sawatdeenarunat, C., Surendra, K.C., Takara, D., Oechsner, H.
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[5]. Kaparaju, P., Ellegaard, L. and Angelidaki, I., 2009.
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[6]. Fan, L.T., Lee, Y.H. and Beardmore, D.H., 1980. Mechanism of
the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose: effects of major structural
features of cellulose on enzymatic hydrolysis. Biotechnology and
Bioengineering, 22(1), pp.177-199.
Figure 4: Methane Production of different samples

Anaerobic Co-digestion of Lignocellulosic Waste Co-Digested with Food Waste under Mesophillic Conditions 433
[7]. Gashaw, A., Libsu, S. and Chavan, R.B., Evaluation of the

Feasibility of Biogas Production from Leftover Foods of Bahir
Dar University Students’ Cafeteria.
[8]. Ariunbaatar, J., Panico, A., Esposito, G., Pirozzi, F. and Lens,
P.N., 2014. Pretreatment methods to enhance anaerobic digestion
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[9]. Zhang, R., El-Mashad, H.M., Hartman, K., Wang, F., Liu, G.,
Choate, C. and Gamble, P., 2007. Characterization of food waste
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[10]. Barlaz, M.A., Ham, R.K., Schaefer, D.M. and Isaacson, R.,
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enhancement techniques and microbial dynamics. Critical
Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 19(6),
pp.557-584.

The Energy Potential of Rice Straw by the

Thermal and Biological Method:
A Comparative Study
Suraj Negi1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
1
2,3
E-mail: 1suraj.negi22c@gmail.com, 2athariitr@gmail.com, 3mimansagulati@gmail.com
Abstract—Rice straw (RS) contains high lignocellulosic materials of thermal decomposition [8]. Any cheap material, with a high
which are difficult to degrade. With a low moisture content of 6% carbon content and low in organics, can be used as a raw
and high C/N ratio of 52.15, it is suitable for thermal decomposition. material for the production of AC [9]. Thermal decomposition
This study compares the heating values of RS by Dulong formula, can be a viable solution for the RS.
Boie formula, Grummel and David formula, and Moot and Spooner
formula. Results presented that the energy recovery potential is 47.31 Anaerobic process is a process in which organic waste is
kW/kg, 51.84 kW/kg, 44.77 kW/kg and 53.82 kW/kg respectively. decomposed by the anaerobic microorganism under the
Also, the study evaluates the methane potential of RS by carrying out presence of an oxygen deficient atmosphere. Anaerobic
a batch study of RS. From Biochemical Methane Potential (BMP)
digestion is more economical and environmentally friendly as
study results, the heating value of the methane (CH4) generated from
RS can be calculated. The results show that the CH4 generated from
compared to the thermal decomposition [10]. AD is globally
the sample is 0.174 m3/kg and the energy potential of the CH4 recognized as a method to control greenhouse gases and use
produced is 8.34 kW/kg. The results indicated that the energy widely for energy generation [11-13]. By AD process, around
potential from the anaerobic digestion of RS is less as compared to 90% of biodegradable organic compounds can be converted
the thermal decomposition of the RS. into biogas [14]. From previous studies, it can be clearly seen
that the temperature, loading rate, design of anaerobic reactor
Keywords: Rice Straw (RS), Lignocellulosic materials, Thermal and inoculum rate and pretreatment methods can affect the
Decomposition, Biochemical Methane Potential (BMP) result of CH4 yield [15-19]. However, the energy potential of
the anaerobic digestion is less as compared to the thermal
1. INTRODUCTION
decomposition.
Due to the low nutrients value present in the RS, open burning The objective of this study is to compare the thermal and
of RS is preferred over animal feeding. Open burning cause biological decomposition. The heating value of the RS is first
many health and environmental problems [1]. With the calculated on the basis of the different formula of calorific
complex lignocellulosic structure of RS, it is intricate to value and then the CH4 production of RS is measured on the
decompose. Thus, RS has not been chosen as a substrate for cumulative basis by bench scale study. The resulted heating
energy generation. But with abundance production and crop value and cumulative CH4 production are then used to
burning of RS which causes a greenhouse effect, RS can no evaluate the energy potential of RS.
longer be overlooked as an energy crop and must be used as a
renewable energy source [2-6]. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
It is difficult to produce and utilize energy from certain The RS is collected from the different rural areas on the
biomass such as RS because of its complex lignocellulosic outskirts of Delhi. The RS sample collected is then ground and
structure and characteristics [7]. Therefore, a proper treatment place in the refrigerator before future degradation. Anaerobic
is required for the abundant RS production. Thermal sludge used as an inoculum for the seeding has been collected
decomposition is a chemical process in which heat is used for from the DJB waste water treatment plant near Pappankalan,
the decomposition of waste materials. Thermal decomposition New Delhi. Before BMP setup, VS, Moisture content and Ash
processes such as gasification, pyrolysis or incineration have content of the samples are determined by the standard method
been widely used to biomass for energy content [8]. Particle given by the Bureau of Indian Standards [20]. Carbon,
size, heating rate and temperature can influence the products Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur and hydrogen are determined by
The Energy Potential of Rice Straw by the Thermal and Biological Method: A Comparative Study 435
the standard method [21]. The values of carbon, oxygen, sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen and Ash present in the RS
sulphur, ash content and hydrogen are used to calculate the respectively. Figure 1 and 2 shows the physical characteristics
heating value of RS. of RS and inoculum respectively.
A bench scale BMP study has been used for the CH4 Table 2: GCV of the RS by different formula
generation. 175 mL BMP bottles is used with a working
volume of 150 mL and anaerobic digestion is carried out with Formula GVC (MJ/kg) Energy potential (kW/kg)
F/M ratio of 0.5. The substrate and inoculum are filled on the Dulong 16.51 47.31
basis of VS concentration and rest of the bottle are filled with Boie 18.09 51.84
media. The bottles are tightly capped with aluminum and Grummel and 15.62 44.76
silicon caps for the anaerobic conditions. The bottles are Davis
placed in an incubator for a temperature of 30 ͦ C. All the Mott and Spooner 18.78 53.82
samples are running on the basis triplicate basis. Blank bottles
(without any substrate) have been running parallel to the RS Biodegradability can be affected by the methodology
bottles. CH4 production is measured on the daily basis and is used, inoculum source, storage conditions and activity of the
collected by the inverted serum bottle method [22, 23]. inoculum. Volatile solids (VS) and Ash content of the RS,
and Inoculum is determined before the beginning of the
3. RESULTS experiment as shown in Figure 1 and 2. It can be observed
from Figure 1 and 2 that the RS has more than thrice the VS
Proximate and elemental analysis of RS is presented in table 1. concentration than the ash content. Inoculum has more than
From results, it can be observed that the RS has low moisture
2.5 times VS concentration than Ash content.
content of 6% and high carbon, and C/N of 42.76% and 52.15
respectively. This shows that the RS has more energy potential
for thermal decomposition than anaerobic digestion.
Table 1: Proximate and elemental analysis of RS
Parameter Weight (%) (dry)

Carbon 42.76
Nitrogen 0.82
Hydrogen 6.32
Sulphur 0.08
Oxygen 39.21
Ash 22.90
Moisture content 6.00
C/N ratio 52.15
Gross calorific values (GCV) of the RS can be calculated [24]

by equation 1-4 and are shown in table 2.
Figure 1: Physical characteristics of RS
Dulong formula
Q= 145.44 C + 620.28 H + 40.5 S - 77.54 (O) …. (1)
Boie formula
Q= 151.2 C + 499.77 H + 45.0 S - 47.7 (O) + 27.0 N
…. (2)
Grummel and Davis formula

Q= [654.3H/ (100-A)]+424.621 [C/3 + H - (O)/8 + S/8] ….
(3)
Mott and Spooner

Q = 144.54 C + 610.2 H + 40.5 S – O [65.88- {30.96(O)/
(100-A)}] …. (4)
Figure 2: Physical characteristics of inoculum
Where, Q is the gross calorific values in Btu/lb which can be
converted to kcal/kg by multiplying with a factor 0.002326. C,
H, S, O, N and A represent the weight of Carbon, hydrogen,

436 Suraj Negi, Athar Hussain and Mimansa Gulati
A BMP study of RS has been carried out for 30 days and [3] Ghosh, A. and Bhattacharyya, B.C. Biomethanation of white
the CH4 production is measured on the daily basis. The data rotted and brown rotted rice straw. Bioprocess and Biosystems
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which is 0.174 m3/kg. It can be observed from figure 3 that the
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RS has low CH4 production. It may be due to the presence of anaerobic-phased solids digester system. Bioresource
lignocellulosic content which is difficult to degrade without technology, 68(3), 1999, pp.235-245.
pretreatment. Also, it can be observed that the CH4 production
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precursors for activated carbon production—a
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[14] Chandra R, Takeuchi H, Hasegawa T. Methane production from
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