1

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

QUESTIONS TACKLED:

1. Define conflict management. Explain 10 sources of conflict in the organisation and

conflict management techniques.

2. Discuss the following learning under behaviourism component

 Classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov

 Social learning theory by Bandura

3 Identify a problem that an individual is facing and clearly show how it has affected

his behaviour, performance and also detail the nature /background of the problem,

effects and strategies to cope up with the vice.

QUESTION 1.

A conflict is a behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of an organization and

peoples’ goals.

It can also be the disagreement within the context of organizational settings between

individual employees, groups or departments between employees and organization.

A conflict can also be a situation when the interests, needs, goals, or values of involved

parties interfere with one another.

Conflict management therefor is the ways adopted by either an individual or an organisation

to deal with the conflict hence resolving it if it occurs.

Conflict management can also be defined as the process of limiting the negative aspects of

conflict while increasing the positive aspects of conflict aiming at enhancing learning and

group outcomes including effectiveness or performance in the organisational setting.

SOURCES OF CONFLICT

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 2

 Interpersonal relationships

When different personalities come together in a work place there is always the

possibility they won’t mesh

Office gossip and rumours can also serve as a catalyst to deterioration of co-worker

relationships.

 Poor communication

Companies or supervisors that don’t communicate effectively can create conflict.

For example, a supervisor who gives unclear instructions to employees can cause

confusion as to who is supposed to do what which can lead to conflict.

 Subpar performance

When a worker is a department is not pulling his weight, it can lead to conflict within

the department perhaps when escalating into confrontation situation

A supervisor who fails to acknowledge or address the situation can add up fuel to the

fire.

 Harassment

Harassment at work place can take many forms: sexual or racial harassment or even

the hazing of a new employee.

For example, if majority of the employees in an organisation are whites and only two

of them are black they are likely to be subjected to harassment maybe in terms of

work and sometimes payment

If the companies don’t have strong harassment policies, then they are going to be

ineffective hence leading to conflict

 Limited resources

All organisational resources are limited thus individuals and groups have to fight for

their share

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 3

The greater the limitation of resources the greater there is potential for conflict.

For example, companies’ assets are limited in supply like the example of office

equipment and so they have to be shared and used with all the employees. If one or

some of the employees keep them for themselves, they are likely going to cause

conflict.

 External changes

When the company slides into a recession or a new competitor swoops in and steals

some of the market shares, it can create tension within the company.

This stress can lead to conflict between employees and even upper level of

management.

 Difference in goal target in the organisation

Some employees may have different goals to achieve which may be contrary to

others’ hence each of them will want his goal to be achieved thereby causing conflict

 Competition between individual employees

Each employee maybe competing with others in the sense that each of them wants to

emerge the winner. This may lead to each employee doing things as he knows and not

as set by the organisation trying to be different from others leading to conflicts among

or between employees.

 Multiple value source

People’s values differ as they come from different backgrounds e.g. different religion,

philosophical or and educational and this can bring about conflict in an organisation

For example, if the manager extends the working days to Saturday he is going to be in

problems with employees from Sabbath Day Adventist because according to them it is

a prayer day and this leads to conflict.

 Nature of ideals and activities

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 4

Interdependence between people or groups within the organisation may cause conflict

of another.

High fatigue Tasks are highly regarded to raise conflict in organisations than less

fatigue tasks.

For example, if the employee is an accountant and the manager give and expects that

at the end of the day the accounting cycle should have been done and he or she should

come up with various statements, the employee will be whacked up and thereby trying

to feign excuses not to work which causes conflict between him and the employer.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Depending on expected outcome of a conflict, a manager can manage conflict by

either:

 Encouraging conflict

When conflict is likely to lead to increased performance then the

management can encourage it through arranging competition contests of jobs

well done and then publicise results to every member of the organisation.

 Preventing conflict

Here the management has to use the set rules and regulations to prevent the

conflict.

The techniques include:

1. Forcing

This is also referred to as competing

An individual firmly pursues his or her own concerns despite the resistance of the

other person

This may involve pushing one view point at the expense of another or maintaining

firm to another person’s actions

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 5

Examples of when forcing maybe appropriate

 In certain situations, when all other, less forceful methods, don’t work or are

ineffective.

 When you need to stand up for your own rights, resist aggression and pressure.

 When the quick resolution is required and using force is justified e.g. in a life

threating situation or and to stop aggression

 As a last resort to resolve a long-lasting conflict.

Possible advantages of forcing include:

 May provide a quick resolution to a conflict

 Increases self-esteem and draws respect when firm resistance or actions were a

response to an aggression or hostility.

Disadvantages of forcing include:

a) May negatively affect your relationship with the opponent in the long run

b) May cause the opponent to react in the same way, even if the opponent did not intend

to be forceful originally

c) Cannot take advantage of the strong sides of the other side’s position

d) Taking this approach may require a lot of energy and be exhausting to some

individuals

2. Collaborating

It is also known as problem solving

It involves an attempt to work with the other person to find a win-win solution to the

problem in hand: the one that most satisfies the concern of both parties.

This approach sees conflict resolution as an opportunity to come to a mutually

beneficial result.

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 6

It includes identifying the underlying concerns of the opponents and finding an

alternative which meets each party’s concerns.

Examples of when collaborating may be appropriate include:

I. When consensus and commitment of other parties is important

II. In a collaborative environment

III. When you need to work through hard feelings animosity

IV. When you don’t want to have full responsibility

Possible advantages of collaborating include;

a. Leads to solving the actual problem

b. Leads to a win-win outcome

c. Reinforces mutual trust and respect

d. Builds a foundation for effective collaboration in the future

e. You earn the reputation of a good negotiator

Disadvantages of collaborating

a) Requires a commitment from all parties to look for a mutual acceptable solution

b) May require more effort and more time than some other methods. a win-win solution

may not be evident

c) For the same reason collaborating may not be practical when timing is crucial a quick

solution or fast response is required

3. Compromising

It looks for an expedient and mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfies

both parties.

It involves reaching a point of agreement between what each party wants

Conflicting parties meet half way so as to dialogue: each party raises its demand

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 7

Examples of when compromising may be appropriate

 when the goals are moderately important and not worth the use of more assertive or

more involving approaches, such as forcing or collaborating

 To reach temporary settlement on complex issues

 To reach expedient solutions on important issues

 When collaborating or forcing do not work

Advantages of compromise

a. Faster issue resolution. compromising may be more practical when time is a factor

b. Can provide a temporary solution while still looking for win-win solution.

c. Lowers the levels of tension and stress resulting from the conflict

Disadvantages of using compromise

 May result in a situation when both parties are not satisfied with the outcome

 Does not contribute to building trust in the long run

 May require close monitoring and control to ensure the agreements are met

4. Withdrawing

It is also referred to as avoiding

This basically involves ignoring problems and hoping they will go away

It works well only when the conflict is of minimal intensity

It happens when a person does not pursue his /her own concerns or those of the

opponent.

He or she does not address the conflict, sidesteps, postpones or simply withdraws

Examples of when withdrawing may be appropriate

a. When the issue is trivial and not worth the effort

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 8

b. When more important issues are pressing and you don’t have time to deal with it

c. When you see no chance of getting your concerns met or you would have to put forth

unreasonable efforts

d. When you would have to deal with hostility

e. When you are unable to handle the conflicts (e.g. if you are too emotionally involved

or others can handle it better

Possible advantages of withdrawing

 When the opponent is forcing you may choose to withdraw and postpone your

response until you are in a more favourable circumstance for you to push back

 Withdrawing is a low stress approach when the conflict is short

 Gives you time to better prepare and collect information before you act

Some disadvantages of withdrawing

 May lead to weakening or losing your position; not acting may be interpreted as an

agreement. Using withdrawing strategies without negatively affecting your own

position requires certain skill and experience.

 When multiple parties are involved, withdrawing may negatively affect your

relationship with a party that expects your action.

5. Smoothing

It is also known as accommodating

This is similar to avoidance but here thee manager acknowledges the existence of

conflict while developing its importance

Examples of when smoothing may be appropriate

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 9

1) When it is important to provide a temporary relief from the conflict or buy time until

you are in a better position to respond

2) When the issue is not as important to you as it is to the other person.

3) When you accept that you are wrong

4) When you have no choice or when continued competition would be detrimental

Possible disadvantages of smoothing

 There is a risk to be abused. i.e. the opponent may constantly try to take advantage of

your tendency towards smoothing

 May negatively affect your confidence in your ability to respond to an aggressive

opponent

 It makes it more difficult to transition to win-win solution in the future.

QUESTION 2

a) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING BY IVAN PAVLOV

This is a type of conditioning in which an individual respond to some stimulant that

would not ordinarily produce such response.

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian scientist interested in studying how digestion works in

mammals.

He observed and recorded information about dogs and their digestive system and

process. He started to study what triggers dogs to salivate. it should have been an

easy study; mammals produce saliva to help them break down food, so the dogs

should have simply began drooling when presented with food. But what Pavlov

discovered that when he observed the dog was that drooling had a much more far

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 10

reaching effect than he thought. this grew as an experiment to teach dogs to salivate

in response to ringing of the bell.

When Pavlov presented the dog with a piece of meat the dog exhibited a

noticeable increase in salivation. when he withheld the presentation of meat and

merely rang the bell the dog did not salivate.

He proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell and after repeatedly

ringing the bell and giving back the food, the dog began to salivate

After some time, the dog would salivate at the sound of the bell even if no food was

offered.

In effect the dog had learnt to respond to salivate to the bell. He said that the dogs

demonstrated classical conditioning. He summed up as follows:

There is a neutral stimulus the bell, which by itself will not produce a

response. There is a non-neutral or unconditioned stimulus; the food which will

produce an unconditioned response; salivation.

In an organization setting e.g. at one manufacturing plant, every time the top

executives from the head office were scheduled to visit a unit, the plant management

would clean up the administration office and wash the windows. This went for years,

eventually employees would turn on their best behaviours in those instances when the

cleaning was not ordered by the top executives.

b) SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY BY ALBERT BANDURA

In this theory, Bandura agrees with the classical theory but adds up two important ideas.

 Mediating process occur between stimuli and response

 Behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of

observational learning

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 11

This theory states that people learn new behaviour through overt reinforcement or

punishment or via observational learning of the social factors in their environment.

Observational learning

Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. the individuals that are

observed are called models .in the society, children are surrounded by many influential

models such parents and teachers and also the character on children TV. Children pay

attention to some of these models and encode their behaviour and imitate or and copy. if

people observe positive desired outcomes in the observed behaviour they copy and model. It

states that people can learn through observation and direct experience.

Mediational processes

It focuses on mental factors and how the mental factors are involved in learning. Bandura

believes that humans are active information processors and think about relationship between

their behaviour and its consequence.

The mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine whether aa new response is

required. There are four mediation processes proposed by Bandura;

 Attention

The extent to which we are exposed. For a behaviour to be imitated, it has to grab

our attention. attention is there for an extremely important in whether a behaviour

influences other imitating it.

 Retention

How well the behaviour is remembered. it is important there for that a memory of

the behaviour is formed to be performed later by the observer

Much of the social learning is not immediate

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 12

Even if the behaviour is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a

memory to refer to.

 Reproduction

This is the ability to perform the behaviour that the model has just demonstrated.

This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not.

 Motivation

This is the will to perform the behaviour

The rewards and punishment that follow a behaviour will be considered by the

observer.

If the perceived reward outweighs the perceived costs, then the behaviour will be

more likely to be imitated by the observer

If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be more important enough to the

observer, then they will not imitate the behaviour.

General principles of social learning theory

 People can learn by observing the behaviour of others and the outcomes of

those behaviours

 Learning can occur but no change in behaviour. Behaviourists say that

learning Has to be represented by a permanent change in behaviour, in

contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through

observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their

performance. learning may or not result in a behaviour change

 Cognition plays a role in learning. over 30 years, social learning theory has

Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can

have a major effect on the behaviour that people exhibit

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 13

 Social learning theory can be considered as a bridge or a transition between

behaviourist and cognitive learning theories.

How the environment reinforces and punishes modelling;

I. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example, a student who

changes a dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong

likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by the group

II. The observer is reinforced by a third party or person. The observer

might be modelling actions of someone else, for example, an

outstanding leader or student. the teacher notices this and

compliments and praises the observer for modelling such behaviour

thus reinforcing that behaviour

III. The imitated behaviour itself leads to reinforcing consequence. Many

behaviours that we learn from others produce satisfying or

reinforcing results. For example, a student in a multimedia class

could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This

student in turn would do the same extra work and also receive

enjoyment.

IV. Consequences of the models behaviour affect the observer’s

behaviour vicariously. This is also known as vicarious reinforcement.

This is where the model is reinforced for a response and them the

observer shows an in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by

having students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown

doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for such

actions. Without being reinforced, the children in the group began to

hit the doll.

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 14

QUESTION 3

The problem is addiction to drugs.

It well said that and individual cannot just start taking drugs out of his own

will. It can either be because of the peer pressure or at a point the child was

neglected or neglected in the family. Peer pressure: a child might be in a

certain group of peers who take drugs and maybe may good lack he doesn’t

but at the end, due to the reinforcement by the group ,for he or she to be part

of the group he must take the trend and start taking drugs which he will in

future find it hard to leave .when a child is brought upon in a family where

he is neglected and hence he or she does not get the parental love ,the child

will feel he is not needed and he is not of any importance to the family

which then taking of drugs becomes the solution to his problem. He or she

takes drugs hence being addicted thereby finding it hard to leave. In this case

addiction to drugs is linked to the child being neglected and or peer pressure.

How addiction to drugs Has affected the behaviour and performance of

the individual

The child who was ones neglected will leave to hate others and never want

to associate himself with other family members.

If the solution isn’t found, then the child will tend to run away from the

family and maybe join his peers and never associate himself with his

relatives

If he was neglected by his mother, then he is going to hate all ladies and if

he was neglected by his father he is going to hate all men in his life

The boy will always keep things for himself because he sees no importance

of sharing with the people around him.

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 15

If the adult is now employed, he won’t see any importance of because he

likes doing things on his on hence he is likely to raise an alarm in the

organization.

leads to incompetence and laziness at work because he isn’t sober most of

his working hours which can lead to his demotion or even suspension at

work

The employee won’t be involved in most of the decision making process in

the organisation when the manager comes to know of his problem

Strategies to cope up with the vice

 Frequent pieces of advice

The individual has to be advised by those round him telling him the

effects if he still be in the same situation

 Ensuring that the individuals around him can offer him love

If the employee or the individual was never loved by his parents,

then the colleagues should show him concern and even have fun

times with him which will make his perception to change

 Ensuring good social upbringing of children in the society

around him

This problem may be spread to the next generation if not properly

addressed. Parents should be told of its effect and then advised to

take good care of the children

 Creating awareness on the effects of drugs and coming up with

rehabs

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 16

Students in schools should be taught on the effects of drugs and the

community also should be made aware of these effects. In addition to

that t, there should be rehabs for the affected where they are retained

until they change.

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 17

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 18

HBC 2302: BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE