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VAN 121- VETERINARY GROSS ANATOMY-II

MYOLOGY

The word ‘Anatomy’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘anatome’ (Ana= up or
through; tome= cutting), which means ‘to cut up’. Anatomy was once cutting up, because the
structure of the body was originally learned through dissecting it or cutting it up. So it is the art
of dissection. It is the branch of biology which deals with the structure and organization of living
things. It can be divided into the animal anatomy or ‘zootomy’ and plant anatomy or
‘phytonomy’.
Myology deals with the muscles and their accessory structures (fasciae and synovial
membranes). The muscles are highly specialized organs, which are characterized by their
property of contractibility, ie. contracting in a definite manner when stimulated by certain stimuli,
usually of nervous origin.
The locomotor apparatus includes all those organs, which provide the body with
stability, which permits independent movement and which, at the same time, provide the basis
for the characteristic confirmation of individual species. The locomotor apparatus consists of
passive and active parts.
The skeletal system or passive part is composed of the bony framework of the body,
which has a considerable weight- bearing capacity. The bones are reinforced by cartilage and
connective tissue elements.
The muscular system or active part consists of skeletal muscle fibres, which are
anchored together by connective tissue. The skeletal muscles are the active organs of motion.
So they are responsible for the movement of the animal.
The contractile part of the muscle is the muscular tissue. Three kinds of muscular tissue
are recognized:

1. Skeletal muscle or striated or striped muscle: These have cross-striations

microscopically. Therefore they are classified as the striated muscles. The muscle cells are
known as fibres. They are syncytial structures with many nuclei surrounded by sarcolemma.
The striated muscles are connected directly or indirectly with the skeleton upon which they act
and are named as ‘the skeletal muscles’. The striated muscles cover the greater part of the
skeleton and play an important part in determining the form of the animal. Some are intimately
associated with and attached to the skin, and are called as ‘the cutaneous muscles’. Each
muscle fibre consists of sarcolemma- the cell membrane; sarcoplasm- the cytoplasm; nuclei;
myofibrils- parallel contractile threads along the long axis; myofilaments- protein filament
component of myofibrils; sarcoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria.
2. Smooth muscle or non- striated or unstriped or smooth muscle: occurs as masses of
spindle-shaped cells. It is seen in the wall of the hollow visceral organs (eg. stomach,
intestines, uterus, urinary bladder), blood vessels, in certain glands (eg. Adrenal gland,
Cowper’s gland, kidneys), spleen, eye ball and hair follicles.
3. Cardiac muscle: It is a specialized variety of striated muscle, which forms the bulk of heart.
These are characterized by the presence of intercalated discs, which are cross-bands following
an irregular or step-wise pattern.
Functionally the muscles are either voluntary or involuntary. Skeletal muscles are voluntary
in function and allow the movement of the body as a whole (locomotion), movement of parts of
the body (body movements) and helps in the maintenance of body posture. Skeletal muscles
help to form the wall of the large body cavities (by intercostal muscles, diaphragm and
abdominal muscles) and thus support the functions of the viscera, like respiratory movements,
alterations in abdominal pressure, etc.
Smooth and cardiac muscles are involuntary and are responsible for breathing, heart beat,
peristaltic movements of the intestine, constriction of blood vessels and many other vital
functions.
Thus the muscles may be categorized as:
1. Skeletal- Striated and voluntary
2. Smooth- Non-striated and involuntary
3. Cardiac- Striated and involuntary
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SKELETAL MUSCLES AS ORGANS

The skeletal muscle fibres form the basis for the skeletal musculature. Together with the
connective tissue and fat they form the reddish brown ‘meat’ of the body. It accounts for about
half the weight of the animal carcass. This proportion varies with species, breed, age, sex and
the method of husbandry.
The skeletal muscles comprise of an active part, ‘the muscle belly’ (venter) and the passive
part the tendons of origin and insertion. Each muscle belly is composed of numerous bundles
of contractile muscle fibers. Each muscle fibre is surrounded by a network of reticular fibres,
the ‘endomysium’. Each end of a muscle fibre is connected to a tendon fibre. Groups of muscle
fibres and their associated tendon fibres are bound together into a primary bundle by a delicate
sheet of connective tissue called as the ‘perimysium’. The primary bundles are bound together
into secondary and tertiary bundles. All these muscle fibre bundles are surrounded by the
‘epimysium’.
The tendon fibres are much more delicate than muscle fibres, so tendons are always
thinner than the muscle. The tendon fibres, which are attached to the ends of the muscle fibres
unite to form primary bundles and like the muscle bundles, these form secondary and tertiary
bundles.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MUSCLES

1. Name: The name is determined by various considerations like the action (eg. levator labii
maxillaris), attachments (eg. brachiocephalicus), shape (eg. deltoideus), position (eg.
supraspinatus), direction (eg. obliquus capitis caudalis), etc. In most cases two or more of
these are combined to produce the name. Eg. flexor carpi radialis, longus colli, obliquus
abdominis externus.
2. Shape and position: The shape may be triangular (eg. pectineus), quadrilateral (eg.
obliquus capitis cranialis), fan shaped (eg. serratus ventralis), fusiform (eg. fibularis tertius),
etc. or long (eg. ulnaris lateralis), broad (eg. obliquus abdominis externus), short (eg. obliquus
capitis cranialis), etc. Orbicular or ring-like muscles circumscribe openings and since the
contraction of such muscles close the orifice; they are termed as ‘sphincters’. Such muscles
are seen at the entrance and exit of internal passage-ways. Eg. digestive and urinary systems.
The position and direction are usually stated with reference to the region occupied and to
adjacent structures. Eg. Brachialis in musculospiral groove, anconeus in olecranon fossa, etc.
3. Attachments: The attachments are mostly to the bone (eg. biceps brachii from supraglenoid
tubercle of the scapula to the radial tuberosity), but many muscles are attached to cartilage
(eg. rhomboideus to scapular cartilage), ligaments (eg. quadriceps femoris to patellar
ligaments), fascia (eg. omotransversarius to fascia of the shoulder), or the skin (eg. cutaneus
muscles).
In all cases the attachment of a muscle is made by fibrous tissue; the muscular tissue not
coming into direct relation with the point of attachment. But when the intermediate fibrous tissue
is not evident to the naked eye, it is termed as a “fleshy attachment” (eg. popliteus). In reality
the muscle fibres are attached to the periosteum by very short tendons. If the intermediate
fibrous tissue - tendon or aponeurosis - is evident, then it is termed as the ‘tendinous
attachment’ or ‘aponeurotic attachment’.
A tendon is a band of dense white fibrous tissue by means of which a muscle is attached.
Eg. In spindle-shaped muscles like biceps brachii. An aponeurosis is a broad, flat, fibrous sheet
by which a muscle attaches. Eg. Flat muscles like abdominal muscles.
Usually there will be two attachments for a muscle. ‘Origin’ is the less movable or more
fixed attachment which remains stationary when the muscle contracts. ‘Insertion’ is the more
movable attachment. With respect to the muscles of the limbs, the proximal attachment is
regarded as the origin and the distal one as the insertion. In the case of the long muscles of
the limbs, the origin is termed the head (caput).
The attachment of the tendon to the bone is brought about by intermingling of its fibres with
those of the periosteum.
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4. Action: The action of a muscle depends on its origin, insertion and its course in relation to
the skeletal parts being moved. In some cases the action is simple, in others complex. There
are muscles acting on a single joint as teres major, whcih acts on the shoulder. The muscles
like biceps brachii act on a two joints, ie. on shoulder and elbow. The muscles like flexor
digitorum superficialis acts on several joints like knee, fetlock and interphalangeal joints.
The muscles, which reduce the angle between two bones on contraction are known as ‘flexor
muscles’. If the muscles cause the angle between two bones to increase on its contraction,
they are referred to as ‘extensor muscles’.
Muscles, which bring a part of the body nearer to the median plane are known as ‘adductors’.
Muscles, which move a part of the body away from the median plane are known as ‘abductors’.
Muscles, which rotate parts of the skeleton are known as ‘rotators’. Rotators, which induce
forwards-inwards rotation are known as ‘pronators’ and those which induce backwards-
outwards rotation are known as ‘supinators’. In pronation, the dorsal aspect or back of the hand
is directed forwards or upwards. In supination palm of the hand is directed forwards or upwards.
There are also several muscles with specialized actions such as sphincters (eg. sphincter
ani externus), dilators (eg. dilator naris lateralis), depressors (eg. depressor labii maxillaris),
and tensors (eg. tensor fascia latae).
Muscles which support each other in action are termed synergists. Those muscles which
have opposite actions are known as antagonists. Thus all the flexors of a joint are synergistic
to each other and antagonistic to the extensors of that joint.

5. Structure: The structure includes the direction of the muscular fibers, the arrangement of
the tendons, the synovial membranes and any other accessory structures. The muscles can
be classified in different ways.
a. Pennate muscle: In most muscles the muscle fibers join the tendon at an acute angle, like
the relation of the barbs of a feather to its shaft; hence the term ‘pennate’ is applied to such an
arrangement. When the fibres are so arranged on one side of the tendon the muscle is
‘unipennate’; while the muscle in which this arrangement exists on both sides is ‘bipennate’.
The structure may be still more complex in a ‘multipennate’ muscle.
b. Parallel muscles: The muscle fibres may have a parallel arrangement, the bundles being
perpendicular, oblique or horizontal with respect to the entire muscle. Eg. sartorius, abdominal
muscles.
c. Fusiform (spindle-shaped) muscle: Fibres of a fusiform muscle converge upon a tendon
at both ends of the muscle. Eg. biceps brachii.
d. Spiral muscles: Here the fibres are arranged in a twisted manner. Eg. Brachialis. They
help rotational movements.
e. Cruciate muscles: In these muscles the fibres are arranged in superficial and deep
planes, crossing like ‘X’. eg. masseter.
f. Digastric muscle is one having two bellies and an intermediate tendon. The muscle is
divided into two by an intervening tendon.
g. Some muscles have two or more heads and are hence designated as biceps, triceps,
quadriceps, etc.
According to the colour of the muscle the skeletal muscles can be classified as Red
muscles and white muscles. Red muscles are red in colour due to presence of more amount
of myohaemoglobin in it. They are generally situated at the deeper aspect of the body. White
muscles are less red, possess abundant sarcoplasmic reticulum and are placed superficially.
Frequently many muscles are intersected by tendinous layers or bands known as
tendinous intersections. Intersecting bands or tracts, which appear on the surface as zig-zag
lines, are termed ‘tendinous inscriptions’.

6. Relations: The relations refer to the description of the adjacent structures. It constitutes a
very important part of anatomical topography and this knowledge is fundamental for the further
study in this respect. Eg. The anterior aspect of the masseter muscle (a lateral muscle on the
cheek) is related to facial artery, facial vein, Stenson’s duct and the communicating branch of
the ventral buccal nerve. In persistent salivary fistula, the preferred site for ligation of stenson’s
duct is lying anterior to masseter about one inch above the ventral border of horizontal ramus
of the mandible.
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7. Blood and nerve supply: The blood and nerve supply are important on clinical grounds.
The muscles have a large blood supply. The nerves to the muscles are motor, sensory and
vasomotor (autonomic) in function.

ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE MUSCLES

The accessory structures associated with the muscles are the synovial membranes and
the fasciae.

1. Synovial membranes are thin-walled sacs, similar to the synovial membranes of a joint,
and having a similar function. Two forms are recognized: synovial bursae and synovial sheath.
a. Synovial bursa is a simple sac, which is interposed at a point of unusual pressure between
a tendon or muscle and some underlying structure, commonly a prominence of the skeleton.
Bursae are of two types: Typical or deep bursae present at birth and atypical or superficial
bursae acquired after birth.
Examples of typical bursae are navicular bursa situated between the tendon of the deep
digital flexor and the os navicularis; bicipital bursa situated between the bicipital groove of the
humerus and the tendon of biceps brachii; and the bursae between the common digital
extensor and the fetlock joint.
Atypical bursae develop over bony prominences (between the bone and overlying skin,
or between a bone and an overlying tendon) when there is constant friction or mild and
repeated trauma. Examples of atypical bursae are subcutaneous bursae lying between the
skin and bony prominences at the elbow, in front of the knee and at the point of hock; atlantal
bursa lying between the ligamentum nuchae and the dorsal arch of the atlas; supraspinous
bursae between the spines of thoracic vertebrae and the ligamentum nuchae.
b. Synovial sheath differs from a bursa in that the sac is folded around the tendon, so that
two layers can be distinguished; the inner one is adherent to the tendon, while the outer one
lines the canal in which the tendon lies. The two layers are continuous along a fold termed the
mesotendon.
These sacs contain synovia-like fluid. Synovia is the lubricating fluid present in a joint. In
the normal state, these sacs cannot be recognized on external examination of the subject. It is
only when they are distended that their presence is evident. The synovial sheath is not to be
confused with the fibrous sheath of a tendon.

2. Fasciae are sheets of connective tissue, composed mainly of bundles of white (collagen)
fibres, mixed with elastic fibers in some cases. At least two layers may usually be distinguished:
superficial and deep layers.
The superficial fascia is subcutaneous and is composed of loose connective tissue,
which usually contains fat. The deep fascia is composed of one or more layers of dense fibrous
tissue. Its deep face may be very slightly adherent to the underlying structures, but in many
places it is attached to the skeleton, ligaments and tendons. In many places laminae are given
off from the deep face of the fasciae, pass between muscles and are attached to bones or
ligaments; such layers are termed ‘intermuscular septa’.
The groove in which a tendon lies is converted into a canal by a band or facial sheet
known as annular ligament. Many fasciae furnish origin or insertion to muscles and thus act as
tendons.
CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES
In domestic mammals, there are about 200-250 paired muscles and a few unpaired
muscles. These muscles are grouped according to their position (eg. abdominal muscles,
sublumbar muscles), function (eg. muscles of mastication) and nerve supply (eg. muscles of
facial expression supplied by facial nerve). The entire skeletal muscular system is divided into
the following main groups:
1. Cutaneous muscles
2. Muscles of the head
3. Muscles of the trunk
4. Muscles of the limbs
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CUTANEOUS MUSCLES/ MUSCULUS CUTANEUS/ PANNICULUS CARNOSUS

The cutaneous muscle is a thin muscular layer developed in the superficial fascia. It is
intimately attached to the skin and has very little attachment to the skeleton. These are usually
lighter coloured than other skeletal muscles. It does not cover the entire body. Its action is to
move and stretch the skin, thus helps to get rid of insects or other irritations. In those domestic
animals, which cannot make use of their forelimbs to groom and clean their coats, this skin-
shaking apparatus is of considerable importance for rough cleansing. Cutaneous muscles may
be divided regionally into those of the head (facial part), neck (cervical part) and trunk
(omobrachial and abdominal parts).
Cutaneous muscles of the head:
1. Cutaneous faciei: It extends over the mandibular space and masseter muscle to the
commissure of the lips. In ruminants and horses it is an independent muscle. In carnivores and
pigs it is in direct contact with the platysma. Its action is to retract the commissures and to
tense the skin of labial, buccal and masseteric regions.
2. Frontalis: It covers the frontal and nasal regions. It is found only in man and ruminants,
being only very weakly developed in pigs. Its action is to move and wrinkle the skin of the
forehead.
Cutaneous muscles of the neck:
1. Platysma: This is a well-developed muscular sheet in carnivores and pigs. It spreads from
the nuchal and dorsal regions of the neck into the facial region and is continued by the facial
and labial cutaneous muscles. The platysma is absent in ruminants and horses. In pigs, the
well-developed platysma muscle completely covers and protects the deeper structures of the
neck, including the external jugular vein. Since the porcine platysma is very thick, the external
jugular veni-puncture is not practiced in the pig. Its action is to tense and move the skin of the
neck and of the masseter region.
2. Cutaneus colli: It is situated in the ventral region of the neck. It is absent in ruminants and
carnivores, but is well developed in horses and pigs. In horses, the cutaneus colli covers the
caudal part of the external jugular vein and becomes thick as the vein approaches the thoracic
inlet. So the preferred site for veni-puncture in horses is in the cranial part of neck.
Cutaneous muscles of the trunk:
1. Cutaneus omobrachialis: covers the lateral aspect of the shoulder and arm. It is continued
by the abdominal part. It is found only in horses and ruminants. Its action is to tense and move
the skin covering the shoulder.
2. Cutaneus trunci: covers a large part of the body behind the shoulder and arm. In horses
and ruminants it is continuous with the omo-brachialis part in front. It is considered to be a part
of the deep pectoral muscle. It is an important muscle, which stretch and move the skin of the
trunk. This muscle is present in all domestic mammals. It is absent in man.

EMBALMING TECHNIQUE

The technique of embalming animal bodies has been practiced for many centuries to
preserve the usual form of the specimen. But these were valueless for studying the structures
in detail.
Intravascular injection of embalming fluid into the arteries was first used by Dr.
Septimus Sisson, College of Veterinary medicine, Ohio University, in 1901, for embalming
large animals to be used by the students in studying gross anatomy of domestic animals.
The widely accepted embalming fluid/ fixative is the ‘formalin’ ie. the formaldehyde
solution. As first used by Dr. Sisson, it consisted of one gallon of formaldehyde to 3 gallons of
water ie. a 25%solution. In 1914, James Daniels Grossmann reduced the amount of
formaldehyde to one gallon to 9 gallons of water ie. a 10% solution.

Mould and other organisms were a problem in many places and to overcome it various
chemicals were used. Phenol was chosen and a 2% solution was used.

The embalming fluid:

Formalin : 10%
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Liquified phenol : 2%
Glycerine : 5%
Water : 83%
--------------------------------------
Total : 100%
--------------------------------------

Permanent Museum Mount:

A Permanent Museum Mount is used to restore the original colour of the specimens.
eg. Kaiserling’s solution developed by Kaiserling, in 1877.

Composition of Kaiserling’s solution:

Formalin : 1 Liter
Potassium acetate : 85g
Potassium nitrate : 45g
Water is added to make up 10 liters.

Procedure of Embalming:

1. Restrain the animal. Administer a general anaesthetic (intravenous) into the jugular
vein. (The common site for i/v injection is the jugular vein in ox). Inhalation anaesthesia
using chloroform is used here.
2. Secure the limbs once the animal lies down.

3. Make the animal lie down on its left side. Because of the presence of the esophagus
on left side and in order to avoid the chances of contamination due to the puncturing of
esophagus, right side of the neck is preferred for embalming. The right jugular furrow
is the preferred site.
4. Put a skin incision. Cut through the muscles.

5. Identify the carotid sheath. The carotid sheath is a connective tissue sheath seen on
both the sides of the neck on the ventrolateral aspect. It contains 5 structures, ie. the
common carotid artery, vago-sympathetic trunk, internal jugular vein, recurrent
laryngeal nerve and tracheal lymph duct on the right side. But on the left side, the
carotid sheath carries only 4 structures, ie. the common carotid artery, vago-
sympathetic trunk, internal jugular vein and tracheal lymph duct. The esophagus
separates the recurrent laryngeal nerve from the carotid sheath on the left side. So
recurrent laryngeal nerve is not included in the left carotid sheath.

6. Identify the common carotid artery. Tie the artery using a string at two sites, one at the
end away from the heart and the other at the end near the heart.
7. Puncture the artery between the two tied-points using a scalpel; insert a canula (which
has a short rubber tube attached) and secure it using a string. Untie the string at the
end near the heart. Let the blood flow. An artery is used for embalming because the
veins possess valves, which are internal folds making the complete bleeding
impossible.

8. Bleed the animal to death. Remove the canula. Introduce another tube which is
connected at the other end to an overhead formalin tank.
9. Allow the embalming fluid to flow in. Remove the restraint of the animal. Keep the limbs
of the animal stretched into position.
10. It takes 1-2 hours to embalm a calf. Once the embalming is complete, foam/ froth will
be coming through the nostrils or mouth. Then close the formalin tank, take out the tube
from the artery and tie the vessel tight.
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MUSCLES OF THE LIMBS

The trunk together with the head, the tail, represents a static unit, which is raised off
the ground, supported and propelled by two pairs of fore and hind limbs in quadrupeds.
Since the forwards propulsion in locomotion is mainly brought about by the action of
hind limbs, they are stronger and more muscular. The fore limbs have a much greater load to
bear both at rest and during locomotion. Their main function is to stabilize and support the
trunk which is propelled from behind. The musculature is accordingly much more simply
arranged. The individual muscles are much weaker than those of the hind limbs.
The muscles of the shoulder and the pelvis are divided into:
1. The girdle musculature
2. The intrinsic musculature
The girdle muscles establish a connection between limbs and the trunk. The contraction
of the muscle affects both the limb as a whole and the trunk. The intrinsic muscles unite only
individual parts of the skeleton of the limb and they only move the joints of the fore and hind
extremities.
In all the domestic mammals the pelvic girdle is united to the axial skeleton by the
sacroiliac joint and its ligaments, it is thus an almost immovable part of the overall construction
of the trunk. The pelvic musculature is ill developed because of this. But the prime function of
the shoulder girdle musculature is to support the reduced shoulder girdle. That is to say, it has
to provide the synsarcotic suspensory apparatus which links the trunk and the limbs. The trunk
is therefore suspended by a muscular sling which is attached to the scapula on either side and
the proximal parts of the two forelimbs.
Synsarcosis: (syn = union; sarco = related to the flesh)
In man coracoid and clavicle support the scapula against the trunk, but these bones
are only rudimentary in the domestic animals so that there is no osseous union between
thoracic limb and trunk. In these animals the distal extremity of the scapula is slightly curved
medially so that it can fit compactly against the thoracic wall by means of muscles and
connective tissue. As a result, the thoracic limb helps to form an elastic sling which supports
the weight of the body, a vital factor during locomotion.
So the girdle muscles join the forelimb to the trunk forming a connection known as a
synsarcosis that substitutes for a conventional joint. MUSCLES OF THE THORACIC
LIMB
Muscles of the thoracic limb are of two types:
1. Extrinsic/ Girdle muscles: Extrinsic muscles are the muscles connecting the
thoracic limb to the head, neck and trunk.
2. Intrinsic muscles: Intrinsic muscles are the muscles originating and inserting on the
thoracic limb bones.
The Extrinsic/ Girdle muscles consist of two layers: superficial and deep.
The superficial layer is formed by:
1. Trapezius
2. Omotransversarius
3. Latissimus Dorsi
4. Brachiocephalicus
5. Superficial pectoral muscles
The deep layer consist of:
1. Rhomboideus
2. Serratus ventralis
a. Serratus ventralis cervicis
b. Serratus ventralis thoracis
3. Deep pectoral muscles
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1. Trapezius: (Trapezium = an irregular four-sided figure) It is a wide triangular muscle

extending along the nuchal and supraspinous ligaments from atlas to 12th or 13th thoracic
vertebrae. It consists of two parts.
a. Cervical part: is a thin triangular sheet in the cervical region. Distally unites with
omotransversarius.
Origin: A median raphae extending from the supraspinous process of 1st or 2nd thoracic
vertebrae to the 1st or 2nd cervical vertebra. (‘Raphae’ = the line of union of halves of two
symmetric parts).
Insertion: The scapular spine and deep fascia overlying infraspinatus.
b. Thoracic part: presents a triangular appearance and is less extensive, but thicker.
Origin: The spinous process of all thoracic vertebrae and thoracic fascia.
Insertion: The scapular spine by means of a flat aponeurotic sheet.
Action: The thoracic part draws the scapula caudally and dorsally. The cervical part draws it
cranially and dorsally or incline the head and neck laterally. It serves to lift the scapula dorsally.
Blood supply: Vertebral, deep cervical, dorsal scapular, and dorsal intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: Dorsal branch of accessory nerve
2. Omo-transversarius: is located on the lateral surface of the neck. At first lies under cleido-
occipitalis. In horses, omotransversarius appears to be a part of brachiocephalicus, to which it
is intimately associated ventrally. This muscle in the horse was often referred to as the cleido-
transversarius. But today it is considered as a separate muscle.
Origin: Wing of atlas by an aponeurotic band.
Insertion: The fascia of the shoulder and thus indirectly to the scapular spine.
Action: To move the head and neck laterally, when the shoulder is fixed. To draw the shoulder
and limb cranially, when the neck is fixed.
Blood supply: Vertebral and superficial cervical arteries
Nerve supply: Cervical and accessory nerves
3. Latissimus dorsi: It is a flat triangular muscle covering the lateral surface of the thorax. It
has the form of a right-angled triangle.
Origin: Arises by means of an aponeurosis from thoracolumbar fascia from the 4th thoracic to
the last lumbar spines and lateral surface of the 9th to 12 th ribs.
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Insertion: The cranial fibres are on the tendon of the teres major, the middle part on the medial
surface of the long head of the triceps brachii and the caudal part to the lateral and medial
tuberosity of the humerus in common with deep pectoral.
Action: When the limb is advanced and fixed, it draws the trunk cranially. When the limb is not
supporting weight, it retracts the limb dorsally and caudally. Flex the shoulder. Antagonistic to
brachiocephalicus, because it retracts the limb when the shoulder is flexed.
Blood supply: Thoraco-dorsal and dorsal intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: Thoraco-dorsal nerve
4. Brachio-cephalicus: is a thin muscle extending along the side of the neck from the head to
the arm. It divides into two parts- cleido-occipitalis and cleido-mastoideus (or cleido-
temporalis), which comes into contact with each other at the middle of the neck and then fuse
with cleidobrachialis muscle (the term ‘cleido’ refers to clavicle). At this site of fusion, there is
a transverse strip of tendon (in stead of clavicle), the ‘clavicular tendon’. In carnivores, this
tendon contains a bony rudiment of clavicle.
Sternocleidomastoideus is a flat twin-bellied muscle in man, which arises in the middle of
the neck from the sternum (sternomastoideus) and from the clavicle (cleidomastoideus) to run
obliquely to the mastoid process of the temporal bone. Because of the simplification of the
pectoral girdle and the regression of the clavicle, the cleidomastoideus muscle looses its firm
basis in the domestic mammals. In domestic mammals sternomastoideus forms the
sternocephalicus and cleidobrachialis (a part of deltoideus) and cleidomastoideus forms
brachiocephalicus.
Origin: Cleido-occipitalis (upper division) arises from the occipital bone and nuchal ligament.
Cleido-mastoideus (lower division) is smaller and arises from the mastoid process of petrous
temporal bone, wing of atlas and mandible.
Insertion: The crest of humerus distal to the deltoid tuberosity and fascia of the arm and
forearm.
Action: When acting unilaterally and when the head and neck are fixed, it draws the limb
cranially. When acting bilaterally and when the limb is fixed, it is a depressor of head and neck.
When acting unilaterally and when the limb is fixed, it inclines the head and neck laterally.
Blood supply: Deep cervical, vertebral, superficial cervical and muscular branches of
common carotid artery
Nerve supply: Ventral branches of the cervical, spinal accessory and axillary nerves
5. Rhomboideus: (Rhomboid = in the shape of rhombus). The muscle is roughly triangular
and thick. Consists of cervical and thoracic part. In ox, thoracic part is less developed than
cervical part.
Origin: a. Cervical part: Arises from funicular part of the nuchal ligament and from 2nd cervical
to 2nd thoracic vertebrae.
b. Thoracic part: 2nd to 7th thoracic vertebrae by means of dorsal scapular ligament.
Insertion: Medial surface of the scapular cartilage.
Action: To draw the scapula dorsally and cranially when the neck is fixed.
Blood supply: Branches of deep cervical and dorsal scapular arteries
Nerve supply: Branches of cervical and thoracic spinal nerves
6. Superficial pectoral muscle (Pectoralis superficialis): It extends from the ventral and
cranial part of the sternum to the medial surface of the arm and forearm. It has two divisions,
which are fused together: pectoralis descendens (cranial superficial pectoral) and pectoralis
transversus (caudal superficial pectoral).
a. Pectoralis descendens (Cranial superficial pectoral):
It is a thick muscle. Produce the prominence of the brisket.
Origin: Ventrolateral aspect of the 1st sternebra
Insertion: On the crest of the humerus, in common with the cleido-brachialis and fascia of
the forearm.
Action: Adduction of the limb.
Blood supply: External thoracic and transverse cubital arteries
Nerve supply: Cranial pectoral nerves
b. Pectoralis transversus (Caudal superficial pectoral):
It is a thin, pale coloured muscle.
 10
Origin: From 2nd to 4th or 6th segments and from the corresponding muscle of the opposite
side.
Insertion: into the fascia of the medial aspect of the forearm and continuous along its caudal
edge with cutaneous trunci.
Action: Adduction of the limb.
Blood supply: External thoracic and collateral ulnar arteries
Nerve supply: Cranial pectoral nerves
The superficial pectoral muscle has three heads in man and it is considerably larger than
the deep pectoral. It is termed ‘pectoralis major’ in man. It consists of three parts:
1. Clavicular part, arising from the clavicle.
2. Sternocostal part, originating from the ventral surface of the sternum and first 6 or 7 costal
cartilages.
3. Abdominal part, a slim bundle, taking its origin from the outer layer of the rectus sheath.
The three portions converge as they run laterally and become attached by a stout tendon,
which is curved like a horse-shoe to the greater tubercle of humerus. The superficial pectoral
muscles and deep pectorals make a powerful sling between the trunk and the forelimbs or in
between the ventral chest wall on one hand and the shoulder and brachium on the other.
In domestic mammals the superficial pectoral muscles are less developed than deep. The
abdominal part is absent. So it consists only of two parts. The fleshy part, which arises from
the manubrium sterni corresponds to the clavicular part of man and is the pectoralis
descendens. That part arising ventrally from the region of first to the third costal cartilages
(carnivores) or the first to sixth (pigs, ruminants and horses) correspond to the sterno-costal
part of man and is the pectoralis transversus. Often in dogs, the two parts are extensively fused
with each other. Otherwise, in domestic animals, the pectoralis descendens is inserted on the
crest of the greater tubercle of the humerus. The pectoralis transversus ends at the elbow in
the fascia of forearm. In dog, as in man, both muscles are inserted on the crest of the humerus.
The pectoral muscles enclose the so called axillary space from the elbow.
7. Deep pectoral muscle (Pectoralis ascendens): It is a large muscle, better developed than
the superficial pectoral muscle, but is partly covered by the superficial pectoral. In man, it is
smaller than the superficial pectoral and therefore named as the ‘pectoralis minor’.
Origin: A median raphae along the ventral surface of the sternum and abdominal tunic.
(Abdominal tunic = Deep fascia of the abdomen, also known as ‘the tunica flava abdominis’.
Bright yellow in colour and covers obliquus abdominis externus).
Insertion: Greater and lesser tubercles of humerus in ox and horse; on greater tubercle in
carnivores; and on lesser tubercle in pigs.
Action: To retract the limb caudally. The trunk may be pulled forward as in walking.
Blood and nerve supply: External thoracic and caudal pectoral nerves
8. Serratus ventralis: (Derives its name from the serrated ventral border of the thoracic part).
Large fan shaped muscle, located on the lateral aspect of the neck and thorax. Its fibres diverge
to the dorsal part of the medial surface of the scapula, where they are attached in the region
known as the ‘facies serrata’ (serrated face). It is the most important weight bearing element
of the pectoral girdle and in the large ungulates, especially in the horse, it is richly interwoven
by collagen fibres and covered laterally by a powerful sheet of tendon. It consists of cervical
and thoracic parts: serratus ventralis cervicis and serratus ventralis thoracis, respectively.
a. Serratus ventralis cervicis:
Origin: Transverse processes of the last 4 or 5 cervical vertebrae.
Insertion: A large triangular area on the cranio-dorsal part of the costal surface of the
scapula.
Action: To pull the limb craniad.
b. Serratus ventralis thoracis: Covers the cranial half of the lateral thoracic wall. Ventrally
presents six prominent interdigitations.
Origin: Lateral surface of the thorax on the first 8 or 9 ribs.
Insertion: On the muscular line at the caudal angle of the scapula.
Action: The two muscles suspend the trunk between two scapulae. It pulls the limb caudad.
It also acts as a muscle of forced inspiration.
Blood supply: Supreme intercostal, dorsal scapular, deep cervical and vertebral arteries
 11
Nerve supply: 5th to 8th cervical spinal nerves, long thoracic nerves passes between the
two portions.
Subclavius: A small round muscle of fleshy fibres. It is poorly developed in ox, where it is slim
and extends from the first costal cartilage to the clavicular tendon. It is very prominent in goat.
Origin: Sternal end of cartilage of first rib.
Insertion: Medial surface of brachiocephalicus (on clavicular tendon).
Blood supply: Superficial cervical artery
Nerve supply: Cranial pectoral nerves

INTRINSIC MUSCULATURE OF THORACIC LIMB

1. Muscles of shoulder joint

2. Muscles of elbow joint
3. Muscles of radio-ulnar joint
4. Muscles of carpal joint
5. Muscles of digit
1. Muscles of shoulder joint:
a. Lateral muscles of shoulder
Supraspinatus, infraspinatus, deltoideus, teres minor
b. Medial muscles of shoulder
Subscapularis, teres major, coracobrachialis (and Articularis humeri seen in horse and
occasionally pig seen at the flexor aspect of shoulder joint)
2. Muscles of elbow joint
Brachialis, biceps brachi, triceps brachi, anconeus, tensor fasciae antebrachii
3. Muscles of radio-ulnar joint
Pronator teres (Brachioradialis, supinator, pronator quadratus in carnivores)
4. Muscles of carpal joint
Extensor carpi radialis, extensor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi radialis and flexor carpi ulnaris
5. Muscles of the digits
a. Long muscles of the digits:
Long extensors of the digits – Extensor digitorum communis, extensor digitorum lateralis,
extensor carpi obliquus (and extensor pollicis longus et indicis in carnivores)
 12
Long flexors of the digits – Flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor digitorum profoundus (and
interflexori in carnivores)
b. Short muscles of the digits – Interosseous muscle (and lumbricales and flexor digitorum
brevis in carnivores)

SHOULDER- LATERAL ASPECT

1. Supraspinatus: Fills the supraspinous fossa. It is completely covered by trapezius,

omotransversarius and brachiocephalicus. Extends beyond the cranial margin of scapula.
Origin: Supraspinous fossa, the scapular spine and the ventral part of the scapular
cartilage.The tendon of origin passes cranial to the axis of rotation of shoulder joint and
therefore it extend the shoulder.
Insertion: Two tendons- Medial and lateral. Lateral one attaches to the summit of the lateral
tuberosity and the medial one to the anterior division of the medial tuberosity of the humerus.
It inserts by one tendon on greater tubercle of humerus in man and carnivores; by means of a
branched tendon on greater tubercle in pigs and ruminants and on the medial and lateral
tuberosities in horse.
Action: Extend the shoulder joint.
Blood supply: Suprascapular and superficial cervical arteries
Nerve supply: Suprascapular nerve
2. Infraspinatus: Fills the entire infraspinous fossa, the scapular spine and the scapular
cartilage. (Infraspinatus and subscapularis supplement the collateral ligaments of shoulder
joint).
Origin: Infraspinous fossa, the scapular spine and the scapular cartilage.
Insertion: Medial or short tendon to the caudal part of the lateral tuberosity of the humerus.
Long tendon to the prominent rough area lateral and distal to the lateral tuberosity.
Action: To abduct the scapula and rotate it outwards. Acts as the lateral collateral ligament of
shoulder joint.
Blood supply: Caudal circumflex humeral artery
Nerve supply: Suprascapular nerve
 13
3. Deltoideus: is a small ‘v’ shaped muscle lying behind the shoulder. Resembles the letter
delta. Deltoid muscle arises from the spine of scapula, the acromion and the clavicle in man.
In domestic mammals, the clavicular part fuses as the cleidobrachialis, with the cleidocephalic
(cleidomastoid) muscle to form the brachiocephalicus muscle. It is divided into acromion and
scapular parts. In animals without a distinct acromion (pigs and horse), the two parts are fused
and has one head of origin and arises in part by a strong aponeurosis on the spine of the
scapula and in part by a fleshy attachment on the caudal border of scapula near the caudal
angle.
Origin: 1. Acromion part from the acromion process of the scapula
2. Scapular part from the spine of the scapula by means of the aponeurotic covering of the
infraspinatus and caudal border of the scapula.
Insertion: Both parts join to attach to the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus
Action: Flex the shoulder joint and to abduct the limb.
Blood supply: Caudal circumflex humeral and subscapular arteries
Nerve supply: Axillary nerve
4. Teres minor: (Teretes= a long cylindrical muscle) It is covered by the infraspinatus and
deltoideus.
Origin: The rough lines at the distal part of the infraspinous fossa and caudal border of the
scapula.
Insertion: By a short tendon to the teres minor tubercle, ie. the tubercle at the upper part of the
curved line extending from the deltoid tuberosity towards the neck of the humerus
Action: Flex the shoulder joint and to abduct the arm.
Blood supply: Caudal circumflex humeral artery
Nerve supply: Axillary and suprascapular nerves

SHOULDER- MEDIAL ASPECT

1. Subscapularis: It consists of 3 parts (cranial, middle and caudal) with a common tendon of
insertion.
Origin: Scapular cartilage and subscapular fossa.
Insertion: (Posterior part of) Medial tuberosity of the humerus.
Action: To adduct the arm. It acts as the medial collateral ligament of shoulder joint. ie.
Infraspinatus and subscapularis supplement the lateral and medial collateral ligaments of
shoulder joint.
Blood supply: Subscapular artery
Nerve supply: Subscapular nerve
2. Teres major: is a flat muscle extending from the caudal border of the scapula to the teres
tubercle of the humerus.
Origin: Caudal border and caudal angle of scapula.
Insertion: Teres tubercle (teres major tuberosity) of humerus.
Action: To flex the shoulder joint.
Blood supply: Subscapular artery
Nerve supply: Nerves to teres major

ARM- MEDIAL ASPECT

1. Coracobrachialis: is a flat muscle and lies on the medial surface of the shoulder joint and
the arm.
Origin: Coracoid process of the scapula by a narrow tendon.
Insertion: By two tendons: 1. Short tendon attaches to a small area above the teres tubercle.
2. Long tendon attaches to the distal third of cranial surface of humerus.
Action: To adduct the arm and flex the shoulder.
Blood supply: Cranial circumflex humeral artery and subscapular artery
Nerve supply: Musculo-cutaneous nerve
2. Biceps brachii: is a strong muscle which lies on the cranial surface of the humerus. In man
it presents two heads, long and short, therefore named as biceps (= having two heads).
 14
Origin: Supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula.
Insertion: By two attachments: Short tendon to the radial tuberosity (Radial tuberosity is
situated at the cranio-medial aspect of the proximal extremity of radius). Long (superficial)
tendon blends with the fascia of the forearm and tendons of extensor carpi radialis on
metacarpal tuberosity. In ox, the tendon to the extensor carpi radialis is less distinct. The latter
tendon is more conspicuous in horse and is known as ‘lacertus fibrosus’, which transmits the
action of biceps into the carpal joint. It contributes to the passive stay apparatus in fixing the
carpal joint.
Action: To extend the shoulder joint and to flex the elbow.
Blood supply: Brachial and cranial circumflex humeral arteries
Nerve supply: Musculo-cutaneous nerve
3. Triceps brachii: Fills the angle between the caudal border of scapula and humerus.
Strongest muscle in the forelimb. Strongest extensor of the elbow. It has 3 heads: long head,
Medial head and lateral head. The caudal margin of triceps brachii forms a distinct line, which
ascends from olecranon to withers, known as ‘margo tricipitalis’. In all animals except horse,
there is a fourth head, ‘the caput accessorium’, which originates caudally near the head of
humerus.
Long head: is the largest.
Origin: The caudal border of scapula.
Insertion: Lateral and caudal parts of the olecranon tuberosity of ulna.
Lateral head: Lies on the lateral surface of the arm.
Origin: Deltoid tuberosity and the curved line extending from the deltoid tuberosity upwards
towards the neck of the humerus.
Insertion: Lateral surface of the olecranon tuberosity of ulna and the tendon of the long head.
Medial head: lies on the medial surface of the arm.
Origin: Medial surface of the humerus caudal to the teres tubercle.
Insertion: Medial and cranial parts of the olecranon tuberosity of ulna.
Action: Long head flexes the shoulder joint and extends the elbow. All heads together serve
as an extensor of the elbow.
Blood supply: Caudal circumflex humeral and deep brachial arteries
Nerve supply: Radial nerve
4. Anconeus: is a small muscle which occupies the olecranon fossa. Anconeus can be
considered as a part of triceps brachii. It is often fused with the lateral head of the triceps in
horse and ox. In carnivores and pigs a separate muscle.
Origin: Caudal surface of the distal third of the body of humerus and edge of olecranon fossa.
Insertion: cranial border and lateral surface of the olecranon.
Action: To extend the elbow joint and to raise the joint capsule.
Blood supply: Collateral ulnar and collateral radial arteries
Nerve supply: Radial nerve
5. Tensor fasciae antebrachii: long thin muscle lying along the caudal border and somewhat
medial to the long head of triceps, ie. caudomedially on triceps. It is absent in man.
Origin: The caudal border of scapula.
Insertion: Medial aspect of the olecranon.
Action: Extend the elbow joint.
Blood supply: Caudal circumflex humeral and deep brachial arteries
Nerve supply: Radial nerve

ARM- LATERAL ASPECT

1. Long head of Triceps brachii.
2. Lateral head of Triceps brachii
3. Brachialis: Occupies the musculospiral groove of the humerus.
Origin: Proximal third of the caudal surface of the humerus.
Insertion: Distal to the medial tuberosity and on the medial border of the radius.
Action: To flex the elbow joint.
Blood supply: Caudal circumflex humeral and transverse cubital arteries
Nerve supply: Musculo-cutaneous branch of median nerve
 15

FOREARM- CRANIO-LATERAL ASPECT

The extensor muscles are grouped cranio-laterally and flexors caudally. So the medial
aspect of the skeleton of the forearm has no covering of muscles. Therefore known as the
‘planum cutaneum’.
1. Extensor carpi radialis: is the largest and cranial-most muscle of the extensor group and
lies upon the cranial surface of the radius. Strongest extensor of the forearm. In man and
carnivores the muscle is divided into extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis.
Origin: Lateral epicondyloid crest of the humerus and (a depression lateral to) radial fossa
(Radial fossa is situated cranially above the distal articular area of the humerus. It receives the
coranoid process of radius during extreme flexion of elbow joint).
Insertion: Metacarpal tuberosity (situated on the medial aspect of the proximal extremity of
large metacarpal) by means of a broad flat tendon.
Action: To extend and fix the carpal joint and flex the elbow joint.
Blood supply: Transverse cubital and cranial interosseous arteries
Nerve supply: Radial nerve
2. Extensor digitorum communis (Common digital extensor): Consists of two bellies-
Lateral (Extensor digitorum communis) and medial (Medial digital extensor or extensor digiti
III). It presents 4 bellies in carnivores and man; 3 in pigs; 2 in ruminants and one in horses. In
horses a small rudimentary muscle of Philips is detached laterally and corresponds to that
part of common digital extensor of man attached to 4th and 5th digits. In pigs and ruminants
m.extensor indicis (muscle of Thiernesse) is associated with common digital extensor.
Lateral belly: is slender and consists of superficial and deep heads. Both the heads converge
at about the middle of the forearm and the tendon together with the tendon of the medial belly
continues and descends over the dorso-lateral aspect of the carpus to the metacarpal region.
At the fetlock joint it divides into two.
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus, proximal third of the caudo-lateral aspect of the radius
and cranio-lateral aspect of the ulna. Its deep head arises from the lateral tuberosity of radius.
Insertion: Extensor process of the third phalanges of the third and fourth digits.
Medial belly: It is thick, courses along the craniolateral surface of the forearm. It terminates
into a long flat tendon of insertion just proximal to the distal end of the radius. Both the medial
and lateral tendons are enclosed in one carpal sheath. Near the fetlock joint the tendon of
lateral belly is re-inforced by the interosseous muscle coursing through the interdigital space.
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: To the 2nd and 3rd phalanges of the third digit.
Action: To extend the carpal and the digital joints and flex the elbow joint.
Blood supply: Transverse cubital and cranial interosseous arteries
Nerve supply: Radial nerve
3. Extensor digitorum lateralis: is the caudal muscle functioning as an extensor. It presents
3 bellies in cat and 2 bellies in dog.
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus, lateral border and lateral tuberosity of the radius and
caudo-lateral aspect of the ulna.
Insertion: Axial tendon to the dorsal surface of the proximal extremity of the middle phalanx
and distal phalanx of the IV digit. The tendons of insertion are 4 in cat (ie. on the 3rd phalanges
of 2nd to 5th digits); 3 in dog (3rd to 5th) and 2 in pig (4th to 5th).
Action: to extend the lateral digit and the carpus and to flex the elbow joint.
Blood supply: Transverse cubital and cranial interosseous arteries
Nerve supply: Radial nerve
4. Extensor carpi obliquus (abductor digiti I longus): is a thin flat triangular muscle lying
deep to the other extensors. In man it is named as the abductor pollicis longus or long abductor
of the thumb. ‘Pollex’ is the 1st digit, ie. thumb in man.
Origin: Lateral surface of the distal half of the radius, cranio-lateral edge of the ulna distal to
the proximal interossous space.
Insertion: Medio-palmar surface of the proximal extremity of the large metacarpal bone (ie. 1st
metacarpal in dog; 2nd in pig and 3rd in ruminants).
Action: to extend the carpal joint and carpal sheath. It also abducts the first digit in carnivores.
 16
Blood supply: Cranial interosseous arteries
Nerve supply: Radial nerve
Carpal sheath or carpal canal: It is formed by palmar carpal ligament (palmar part of the joint
capsule of carpal joint) and medial collateral ligament. This canal is lined by synovial
membrane and serves for the passage of tendons of superficial and deep flexor muscles,
median nerve, median artery and median vein.

FOREARM-PALMAR ASPECT
1. Pronator teres: is represented by a weak narrow band of muscle situated on the medial
surface of the elbow extending to the medial border of the radius. In dog, it is better developed.
In other domestic animals in which the capacity to pronate the forelimb is lost or reduced, the
pronator teres is vestigeal.
Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: Medial border of radius.
Action: To produce slight flexion of the elbow.
Blood supply: Brachial and median arteries
Nerve supply: Median nerve

2. Flexor carpi radialis: lies along the caudo-medial surface of the forearm.
Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus caudal to pronator teres.
Insertion: Medio-palmar surface of the proximal extremity of the large metacarpal bone. In man
and horse 2nd metacarpal; in carnivores 2nd and 3rd metacarpals; in ruminants and pigs 3rd
metacarpal.
Action: To flex the carpal joint and extend the elbow.
Blood supply: Collateral ulnar and brachial arteries
Nerve supply: Median nerve
3. Flexor carpi ulnaris: is a wide, very thin flat muscle derived from two origins: the (weak)
ulnar head and (strong) humeral head and lies superficially on the caudomedial aspect of the
forearm. The ulnar head is absent in pigs and tendinous in sheep.
Origin: Ulnar head arises from the caudal and medial surfaces of the olecranon and the
humeral head from the medial epicondyle of humerus, just caudal to the flexor carpi radialis.
Insertion: In common with the tendon of ulnaris lateralis into the accessory carpal bone.
Action: To flex the carpal joint and extend the elbow.
Blood supply: Collateral ulnar, cranial interosseous and brachial arteries
Nerve supply: Ulnar nerve
4. Ulnaris lateralis: Extensor carpi ulnaris is the old name. In carnivores it inserts to 5th
metacarpal. In pig, it presents an additional branch to accessory carpal. This secondary tendon
becomes stronger in ruminants and horses, as their main insertion is on the accessory carpal.
Therefore extensor carpi ulnaris acts as a flexor in ruminants and horses and the term is a
misnomer since the muscle is also located on the palmar aspect and it does not extend the
carpus. In fact, it is a flexor of carpus located on the lateral aspect; all others in the flexor group
being situated caudo-medially.
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: to the accessory carpal bone and to the lateral surface of the proximal extremity of
the large metacarpal bone.
Action: To flex the carpal joint and extend the elbow.
Blood supply: Collateral radial (transverse cubital), brachial, common interosseous and
cranial interosseous arteries
Nerve supply: Radial nerve
4. Flexor digitorum superficialis (superficial digital flexor, flexor perforatus) divides into
two bellies: superficial and deep in pigs and ruminants. Single belly in horses and carnivores.
Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus. The superficial tendon perforates the metacarpal fascia
and joins the deep tendon about the middle of the metacarpus. The conjoined tendon
bifurcates; each branch receives a reinforcing band from the interosseous muscle and forms
near the fetlock, a ring for the deep digital flexor tendon.
 17
Insertion: Proximal extremity of the palmar surface of the middle phalanx of the 3rd and 4th
digits. Insertion is by 5 tendons in cat, 4 in dog, 2 in pigs and ruminants; one in horse.
Action: To flex the digits and carpus and extend the elbow.
Blood supply: Collateral ulnar, brachial, caudal and cranial interosseous arteries
Nerve supply: Ulnar nerve
5. Flexor digitorum profundus (deep flexor of digits, deep digital flexor, flexor
perforans): consists of 3 heads, radial (deepest), humeral (largest) and ulnar (lateral).
Origin: Radial head: caudal surface of the proximal extremity of the radius.
Humeral head: medial epicondyle of the humerus.
Ulnar head: Medial, caudal and lateral surfaces of the proximal end of the ulna.
The large humeral head is divided into large and a small head. The radial head is small and
thin. The ulnar head is thin. The humeral head joins the other tendons at the carpus, passes
distally through the carpal canal being included in the carpal synovial sheath. In the metacarpus
it passes between the interosseous muscle and the superficial flexor. Above the fetlock, it
divides into two tendons, passes through the ring, formed by superficial digital flexor tendon,
then over the sesamoid group and the flexor surface of the distal sesamoid.
Insertion: The flexor tubercle of the distal phalanx of the third and fourth digits. Insertion is by
5 tendons in carnivores, 4 in pigs; 2 in ruminants; 1in horse.
Action: To flex the digits and carpus and extend the elbow.
Blood supply: Collateral radial, collateral ulnar, brachial, common interosseous and
caudal interosseous arteries
Nerve supply: Median and ulnar nerves

METACARPUS AND DIGITS (DORSAL ASPECT)

1. Extensor carpi radialis
2. Extensor carpi obliquus
3. Extensor digitorum communis (medial and lateral)
4. Extensor digitorum lateralis

METACARPUS AND DIGITS (PALMAR ASPECT)

1. Flexor digitorum superficialis
2. Flexor digitorum profundus
3. Interosseous medius muscle (suspensory ligament): It is composed of both fleshy and
tendinous tissue. It lies in a groove on the palmar surface of the metacarpal bone. It arises
from the palmar surface of the carpus and proximal extremity of the metacarpus. At the distal
third of the metacarpus, it divides into 3 branches. These again give rise to 5 subdivisions
either by bifurcation of the lateral and medial branches or trifurcation of the middle branch. The
two lateral and two medial bands ends on the proximal sesamoid bone and distal end of the
large metacarpal bone and detach slips to the extensor tendon. The middle band passes
through the groove between the two divisions of the metacarpus and divides into two branches,
which join the extensor tendons. At the middle of the metacarpus, the interosseous muscle
detaches a band which unites distally with superficial digital flexor to form the ring.
Action: Flex the fetlock joint of the supporting digits in carnivores and pig. In ruminants and
horses as the interosseous medius muscle, it develops into passive supporting structures,
which with distal sesamoidean ligaments help to fix the fetlock joint. The ‘stay apparatus’
(‘fetlock support’) carries a great proportion of body weight and especially at fast gait, it prevent,
over-extension of that joint.
Blood supply: Median artery
Nerve supply: Ulnar nerve
4. Lumbricales: are absent, unless we regard as such the muscular bellies, which arise on
the flexor digitorum profundus and are inserted into the superficial digital tendon at the carpus.
 18

ABDOMEN

General terminologies

The term ‘abdomen’ has been perhaps derived from latin terms abdere (= to hide) or
adeps (= fat). The muscles of abdominal wall can be divided into ventrolateral (muscles of
flank and abdominal floor) and dorsal (sublumbar) groups.

Flank (‘latus’) is that part of the lateral abdominal wall which is formed only of soft structures.
The triangular depression on its dorsal part is termed paralumbar fossa. This fossa is
bounded by lateral border of longissimus muscle dorsally, dorsal border of obliquus
abdominis internus ventrally and last rib rostrally.

Tunica flava abdominis:

It is the deep fascia of abdomen. In large herbivores the abdominal wall is reinforced
by this tunic, which fuses with the aponeurosis of obliquus abdominis externus. It is made
highly resilient by the deposition of much elastic tissue within its make up. It is especially
strong in horses, weak in pig, and absent in carnivores. In carnivores the deep fascia of
abdomen is purely collagenous in nature.
The superficial fascia of the abdomen is fused dorsally with thoracolumbar fascia
cranially with the fascia of the shoulder and arm and caudally with that of gluteal region. At
 19
the ventral part of the flank, it forms a fold, which is continuous with the fascia of the thigh
and medially it blends with the linea alba. It contains the cutanious trunci.
The deep fascia forms the abdominal tunic (tunica flava abdominis), which is bright
yellow tunic and cover the obliquus abdominis externus.
Function: to aid in supporting the weight of the abdominal viscera.

Linea alba: is a white fibrous raphae that extends from the xiphoid cartilage to the prepubic
tendon. It results from the union of the aponeurosis of the oblique and transverse abdominal
muscles. The linea alba is the ventromedian suture, where the ventral abdominal wall was
closed during development. It forms a fibrous ring, the annulus umbilicalis in its middle
portion, which later becomes the scar-like umbilicus. The umbilicus is slightly caudal to the
middle of the linea alba.

Surgical importance: In dogs and cats abdominal surgery is performed commonly and most
abdominal incisions are median or paramedian. Excisions through linea alba spare muscles,
vessels and nerves. Parietal peritoneum does not retract from the edges of a median incision
as it may happen elsewhere. Umbilical hernias are associated with overwide linea alba and
hypoplastic rectus muscles.

Cutaneus trunci:
It is the cutaneous muscle of the trunk. In ruminants, it is thick over the lower parts of
the flank, but thins dorsally and does not extend over the flank fold. It ends in an aponeurosis
over the lateral aspect of the thigh.

ABDOMINAL MUSCLES

The muscles of the abdominal wall can be divided into ventrolateral (muscles of the
flank and abdominal floor) and dorsal (sublumbar) groups. The abdominal muscles are four
in number. They are listed (from outer to inner) as:
1. Obliquus abdominis externus
2. Obliquus abdominis internus
3. Rectus abdominis
4. Transverse abdominis

1. Obliquus abdominis externus: It is the most extensive and most superficial of the
abdominal muscles. It is a broad sheath, irregularly triangular in shape and its fibres are
directed ventrally and caudally. Its cranial interdigitations alternate with those of the serratus
ventralis thoracis. It is covered by deep (tunica flava) and superficial fascia of the trunk and
cutaneus trunci.
Origin: The caudal boarder and a lateral surface of the last eight ribs and fascia over the
intercostal muscles (ie. thoracolumbar fascia).
Insertion: By means of the aponuerotic tissue to the coxal tuber (by inguinal ligament),
prepubic tendon (cranial pubic ligament) and linea alba.
Action: Compression of the abdominal viscera thereby aiding in “abdominal press”. Flexion
and lateral bending of the vertebral column.
Blood supply: Lumbar and dorsal intercostal and deep circumflex iliac arteries
Nerve supply: Muscular branches of 1st and 2nd lumbar nerves, lateral cutaneous
femoral nerve, last 4 or 5 intercostal nerves and costo-abdominal nerve.
The aponeurosis of this muscle at its insertion to the prepubic tendon detaches a fibrous
expansion, Poupart’s inguinal ligament, which extends on the medial face of the thigh and is
inserted to the lateral angle of the ilium.
The aponeurosis of obliquus abdominis externus divides into two parts or tendons before
its insertion. The larger abdominal (medial) tendon terminates on the linea alba. The smaller
pelvic tendon (lateral tendon/ inguinal ligament) attach on the pelvic brim lateral to insertion
of rectus abdominis (prepubic tendon). The inguinal region is cranial to inguinal ligament.
The inguinal ligament extends between tuber coxae and prepubic tendon.
 20

2. Obliquus abdominis internus: is situated beneath the obliquus abdominis externus. Its
fibres are directed ventrally and cranially and triangular in shape.
Origin: As a strong fleshy sheet from tuber coxae and proximal part of inguinal ligament and
the deep lumbar fascia (thoracolumbar fascia) at the lateral border of the longissimus
lumborum.
Insertion: The caudal border of the last rib, the prepubic tendon and the linea alba.
Action: Compression and support of the abdominal viscera.
Blood supply: Lumbar and dorsal intercostal and deep circumflex iliac arteries
Nerve supply: Vventral branches of 1st two lumbar nerves and last few thoracic nerves

Cremaster externus: of the male may be regarded as a detached portion of the obliquus
abdominis internus which separates as a slip of fleshy tissue to enter the inguinal canal. It
arises by a thin aponeurosis and descends through the inguinal canal.
Insertion: The internal spermatic fascia covering the vaginal tunic.
Blood supply: Cremaster artery
Nerve supply: Genitofemoral nerve

3. Transverse abdominis: is seen on the deep face of the obliquus abdominis internus and
rectus abdominis. Its fibres run transversely and at right angles to those of rectus abdominis.
It is the deepest abdominal muscle at the flank region.
Origin: The deep lumbar fascia, the first five lumbar transverse processes and the medial
surface of the false ribs.
Insertion: The linea alba (the aponeurotic insertion is intimately associated with the
peritoneum).
Action: To retract the ribs and compress the abdominal viscera.
Blood supply: Deep circumflex iliac, musculo-phrenic, dorsal intercostal and lumbar
arteries
Nerve supply: Ventral branches of lumbar nerves and last 6 or 7 intercostal nerves

4. Rectus abdominis: is confined to the ventral abdominal wall. It is a broad muscle band
relatively stronger in dog, ox and horse. Lies on either side of the linea alba. The two muscles
are separated except near the pelvis, by an interval of 5 to 10 cm. The umbilicus lies in a
transverse plain to the third lumbar vertebra. There are 5 tendinous intersections in the
cranial two-third of the muscle. There is a foramen near the 2nd intersection for the passage
of the superficial cranial epigastric vein (milk vein).
Origin: The ventral and lateral surface of the sternum at the 3rd or 4th costal cartilage.
Insertion: Prepubic tendon.
Action: to arch the dorsum and to aid in all functions, which are dependant upon ‘abdominal
press’. (Urination, defecation, parturition and expiration).
Blood supply: Cranial and caudal epigastric arteries
Nerve supply: Thoracic and first 2or 3 lumbar nerves

Rectus Sheath: consists of tendinous connective tissue layer, which surround the rectus
abdominis muscle on both sides. The outer layer of the sheath is formed by fusion of
abdominal tendon of obliquus abdominis externus and terminal aponeurosis of obliquus
abdominis internus. The inner layer by aponeurosis of transverse abdominis.

Milk Well: This is the point of penetration of ‘milk vein’ (superficial cranial epigastric vein /
cranial mammary vein) on the abdominal wall near the second tendinous intersection on the
rectus abdominis. This point can be palpated with finger. The vein is large in lactating/ dairy
animals. The vein drains into internal thoracic vein.

Prepubic tendon: It is the tendon of insertion of two rectus abdominis muscles. But it also
serves as the common tendon of insertion for abdominal muscles and linea alba. It also
 21
incorporates part of tendons of origins of adductor muscles of thigh like pectineus and
gracilis.

Inguinal canals-are paired slit like oblique passage between the two oblique abdominal
muscles, through the caudal part of the abdominal floor on either side of the prepubic tendon.
The canal begins at the deep inguinal ring and extends obliquely ventro-medially to end at
the superficial inguinal ring. The wall of the canal is formed by the obliquus abdominis
internus cranially and obliquus abdominis externus caudolaterally. Deep inguinal ring is the
abdominal opening of the inguinal canal. Superficial inguinal ring is a well-defined slit in the
aponeurosis of obliquus abdominis externus lateral to the prepubic tendon. The canal lodges
the spermatic cord in the male. In the female the canal is very narrow containing the
mammary vessels and nerves.

Spermatic cord:

Spermatic cord is the duct from testis and associated structures within an outpouching
of peritoneum. Structures included in the spermatic cord are:
1. Testicular artery/ spermatic artery
2. Testicular vein
3. Testicular lymphatics
4. Testicular plexus of nerves (of the autonomic system)
5. Cremaster internus muscle (bundles of smooth muscle associated with blood vessels
included in the spermatic cord)
6. Vas deferens
7. Tunica vaginalis
Therefore the spermatic cord contains the duct from testis and associated structures
within an out-pouching of peritoneum.
In both sexes, inguinal canal also transmits the external pudental artery and vein,
efferent vessels from superficial inguinal lymph nodes and genitofemoral nerve.
Inguinal canal provides a possible route for herniation of intestines that may even reach
the scrotum. This is a common sequel (after effect) to castration in horses. It is infrequent in
cattle but common in male sheep.

Layers of scrotum (from outer to inner):

1. Skin
2. Dartos:- a fibro-elastic tissue mixed with smooth muscle
3. Three layers of scrotal fascia:-
a. Inter columnar/ external spermatic fascia– derived from aponeurosis of obliquus
abdominis externus
b. Cremasteric fascia and cremaster muscle- derived from aponeurosis of
obliquus abdominis internus
c. Infundibuliform fascia/ Internal spermatic fascia– extension of aponeurosis of
transverse abdominis
4. Tunica vaginalis:- is an evagination of parietal peritoneum, passing through inguinal
canal into scrotum. It has the shape of a long flask with narrow proximal part and distended
distal part. The distended part contains testis and epididymis, whereas the proximal part
contains spermatic cord.

Actions of abdominal muscles:

1. When the abdominal muscles are contracted against a fixed diaphragm, the animal is
said to strain. The resulting increase in the intra abdominal pressure reinforces the efforts of
visceral muscles to expel urine, faeces or a foetus. The use made of straining varies with the
species and conditions. Those animals that adopt a squatting posture for micturation (eg:
goat) or defecation (eg: dog) obviously use the abdominal muscles to assist expulsion; other
 22
species adopt no special posture for these functions and presumably do not require their
assistance.
When the diaphragm is fixed in inspiratory position and abdominal muscles contract,
the volume of abdominal cavity is decreased. The muscular contraction exert a pressure on
abdominal and pelvic organs and their organs. This action which depends on the positon of
diaphragm is known as the ‘abdominal press’.
So the abdominal muscles play an important role in defecation, micturation and
expulsion of foetus during parturition, inspiration and expiration.
2. The abdominal muscles form the main fibromuscular support to the ventral and lateral
walls of the abdomen. Rigidity of the abdominal wall produced by contraction of these
muscles may be used to protect the viscera. Due to horizontal position of the trunk in
domestic animals, they carry considerable weight of the abdominal viscera especially in
herbivores (eg: ruminants and horses). Therefore ventral wall is formed by tough tendinous
sheets.
3. Play a static and dynamic part in the construction of the trunk, since it forms a strong and
flexible connection between thorax, lumbar regions and pelvic girdle. So the abdominal
muscles aid in the adjustment of posture and in progression. Acting unilaterally the muscles
of the flank bend the trunk to that side. Acting bilaterally, these may assist in arching the
back, a movement of great importance in bounding gaits.

MUSCULATURE OF THE TORSO

The word ‘torso’ is a general term describing the axial part of the body, which comprises
trunk, neck and tail. Anatomically the body is completed, when the head is appended to the
torso together with the limbs on either side, which are connected partly by joints and partly
by connective tissue and muscular tissue.
Most of the body’s internal organs are accommodated within the torso. In the cervical
region, they are lodged between muscles, but in the trunk they are contained within separate
embryologically formed serous cavities (thoracic, abdominal and pelvic). The tail region
quickly loses the tissues it contained during early embryonic life such as the caudal limit of
the hind gut.
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Functions of musculature of the torso:

1. Form walls of the cavities, which house viscera and participate in a number of functions
such as deglutition, respiration, defecation, urination and parturition.
2. Through their complex connections with the axial skeleton, they are of static importance
in weight transfer and maintenance of balance.
3. They play a vital role in general locomotion.

MUSCLES OF THE TAIL

Classified into two groups:

I. Originate from the vertebral column and are considered to be continuation of the long
muscles of trunk.
II. Originate from pelvis.

Group I muscles are classified as elevators, depressors and lateral flexors of the tail.

1. Elevators: seen on the dorsal aspect of caudal vertebrae. They extend either from the
sacrum or last lumbar vertebra (in carnivores) to the middle or distal caudal vertebrae. These
include:

a. Sacrococcygeus (sacrocaudalis) dorsalis medialis: Lies along the dorsal median

aspect of the tail in contact with its fellow from the opposite side. It is the caudal continuation
of the multifidus system and in pig it is not easy to separate the two systems.
Origin: lateral surface of the sacral spines and the lateral sacral crest and tendinous fibres in
the lumbar area.
Insertion: dorsal surface of the caudal vertebrae.
Action: extensors of the tail.

b. Sacrococcygeus (sacrocaudalis) dorsalis lateralis: Lies immediately lateral to the

sacrococcygeus dorsalis medialis. It is the caudal continuation of the longissimus muscle.
Origin: Tendon from the cranial articular processes of 6th lumbar and the caudal articular
processes of the 5th lumbar vertebra.
Insertion: Transverse processes, spine and lateral surface of the caudal vertebrae.
Action: Extensors of the tail and lateral flexion.

2. Depressors: Arise from the ventral surface of the sacrum, runs along the ventral surface
of the caudal vertebrae to the tip of the tail.

a. Sacrococcygeus (sacrocaudalis) ventralis medialis

b. Sacrococcygeus (sacrocaudalis) ventralis lateralis: lies on the ventral aspect of the

sacrum and caudal vertebrae.
Origin: ventral surface of the sacrum.
Insertion: ventral surface of the caudal vertebrae.
Action: Flexion of the tail and lateral movement.

3. Lateral flexors:

a. Intertransversarii caudae: are composed of muscle bundles which lie between the
transverse processes of caudal vertebrae. They consist of short bands occupying the spaces
between the transverse process to which they are attached. Rudimentary in pig. Well
developed in ox and horse. In carnivores, there are dorsal and ventral intertransversarii
caudae muscle.
Action: lateral flexion of the tail.
Blood supply: (for all caudal muscles) – Caudal/(coccygeal) arteries
Nerve supply: Caudal/(coccygeal) spinal nerves
 24

Group II muscles:
1. Coccygeus
2. Levator ani

MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC OUTLET

Pelvic outlet is closed about the terminal parts of the digestive and urogenital tracts by
a portion of the body wall known as the perineum. The projection of the perineum on the skin
outlines the perineal region. Its principal features are the anus and the vulva. In cow, dorso-
caudal part of the udder is also included.
In human anatomy, the structures that occupy the pelvic outlet are said to form a floor
to the pelvis. In quadripeds, the floor is provided by the pelvic girdle. The difference in posture
not only affects the appropriate use of vernacular terms and also modifies the function of
homologous structures.
The principal component of the dorsal part of the perineum is the pelvic diaphragm, an
arrangement of striated muscles contained between fasciae, which closes about the
anorectal junction. The ventral part of perineum the urogenital diaphragm closes about the
vestibule.
Pelvic diaphragm consists of two muscles: lateral one is coccygeus and medial one is
levator ani.

1. Coccygeus: is a thin flat muscle, lying between sacrotuberal ligament and the rectum. It
is included in the fold of tail.
Origin: Medial side of the ischiatic spine and sacrotuberal ligament.
Insertion: On the transverse processes of the first 3 caudal vertebrae.
Action: depress the root of the tail and to incline the tail laterally.
Blood supply: Internal pudendal artery and caudal branch of the urogenital artery
Nerve supply: 3rd and 4th sacral spinal nerves

2.Sphincter ani externus: is a broad ring of striped muscle around the anal opening.

3. Levator ani (retractor ani): is a thin band like muscle.

Origin: By means of narrow tendon attached to the medial side of the ischiatic spine near the
lesser ischiatic foramen.
Insertion: By means of 3 main bands the fibres are continous with the fibres of the sphincter
ani externus and inserted on the dorsal, middle and ventral parts of the sphincter.
Blood supply: Internal pudendal artery and caudal branch of the urogenital artery
Nerve supply: 3rd and 4th sacral spinal nerves

Ischiorectal fossa:

On each side there is a space that is enclosed by the pelvic girdle but excluded from
the pelvic cavity by pelvic diaphragm. This space is pyramidal and has a cranial apex, a
lateral wall furnished by ischiatic tuber and sacrotuberal ligament, a medial wall furnished by
pelvic diaphragm, a ventral wall by pelvic floor and a base directed towards the skin. This
fossa is normally occupied by fat. When this fat is depleted, a pronounced sinking of the skin
to the side of the anus is apparent (except in horse and pig, in which the vertebral head of
the semimembranosus covers the region).
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SUBLUMBAR MUSCLES

Muscles of the sublumbar region are not confined to this region, but extend beyond
both cranially and caudally. Because of the very slight mobility of the sacro-iliac articulation,
the muscles of pelvic girdle are much reduced and almost all muscles of this group extend
to the femur or even to the leg.

1. Psoas minor: is the most medial of the sublumbar muscles.

Origin: The bodies of the 12th or 13th thoracic to the 5th lumbar vertebrae.
Insertion: As a glistening tendon to the psoas tubercle of ilium.
Action: Acting bilaterally, to arch the dorsum; acting unilaterally to flex lumbar region laterally.
Blood supply: Lumbar arteries
Nerve supply: Lumbar nerves
2. Psoas major: is the largest and most lateral of the sublumbar muscles. Origin of this
muscle is fleshy, caudal part lies in a deep groove formed in the iliacus (with which it is partly
united).It terminates by a strong tendon common to psoas major and iliacus. On account of
the intimate union between psoas major and iliacus, these two are considered as a single
muscle, the ‘iliopsoas’.
Origin: The vertebral ends of the last two ribs, the ventro-lateral aspect of the body and the
ventral surfaces of the transverse processes of all the lumbar vertebrae.
Insertion: Medial / lesser trochanter of the femur in common with the iliacus.
Action: To flex the hip joint and rotate the thigh laterally.
Blood supply: Ilio-lumbar, deep circumflex iliac, deep femoral and femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Lumbar and femoral nerves
3. Iliacus: is a round muscle. Situated ventrolaterally to the body of the ilium. The belly of
iliacus muscle is so deeply grooved to accommodate the caudal part of psoas major. So it
gives the appearance of being completely divided into medial and lateral parts. When the
psoas major is removed, it is seen that the two heads are not entirely separated. So it
presents two parts, medial and lateral. Medial part is seen medial to and lateral part lateral
to psoas major. The lateral head is larger.
Origin: The body of the 6th lumbar vertebra, the ventro-lateral surface of the ilium, the ventral
sacro-iliac ligaments and sacrum.
Insertion: Medial (lesser) trochanter of the femur, in common with psoas major.
Action: To flex the hip joint and rotate the femur laterally.
Blood supply: Ilio-lumbar, deep circumflex iliac, deep femoral and lateral circumflex
femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Lumbar and femoral nerves
4. Quadratus lumborum: is a thin, flat bundle of muscles located deeply to the psoas major.
Lies on the lateral part of the ventral surface of the lumbar transverse processes.
 26
Origin: Ventro-lateral surface of the last 4 thoracic vertebrae, caudal border of the last rib and
ventral surface of the lumbar transverse processes.
Insertion: The cranial border of the transverse processes of the succeeding vertebra, the
ventral sacroiliac ligaments and the ventral surface of the wing of the ilium.
Action: To flex the lumbar region.
Blood supply: Lumbar arteries
Nerve supply: Lumbar nerves

5. Intertransversales lumborum: Extends between the transverse processes of the

lumbar vertebrae.
Blood supply: Lumbar arteries
Nerve supply: Lumbar nerves

INTRINSIC MUSCULATURE OF THE HIND LIMB

Their bellies are very large and concentrate mainly on the proximal part of the limb.
Most of these intrinsic muscles act on several joints. Compared with muscles of the thoracic
limb, the muscles of the pelvic limb are much more stronger and their arrangement and
structure are more complex.

I. MUSCLES OF THE HIP JOINT:

1. Outer hip and croup muscles/ Gluteal muscles
2. Muscles of the buttock/ Muscles of the caudal group/ Hamstring muscles
3. Medial muscles of the thigh
4. Deep muscles of the hip joint

1. Outer hip and croup muscles/ Gluteal muscles:

a. Gluteus superficialis
b. Gluteus medius/ Middle gluteus
c. Gluteus profundus/ Deep gluteus
d. Tensor fasciae latae
e. Caudofemoralis (abductor cruris cranialis) seen in cat.
f. Piriformis seen in man and carnivores.

2. Muscles of the buttock/ Muscles of the caudal group/ Hamstring muscles:

a. Biceps femoris
b. Semitendinosus
c. Semimembranosus
d. Abductor cruris caudalis ( in carnivores)

3. Medial muscles of the thigh (‘Adductor muscles of the thigh’):

a. Sartorius
 27
b. Gracilis
c. Pectineus
d. Adductor
e. Obturator externus

4. Deep muscles of the hip joint:

a. Obturator internus
b. Gemelli
c. Quadratus femoris
d. Articularis coxae (in carnivores and horses)

II. SPECIAL MUSCLES OF THE STIFLE JOINT:

1. Quadriceps femoris
2. Popliteus

III. MUSCLES ACTING ON TARSAL JOINT:

a. Flexors of the hock are located craniolaterally:
1. Fibularis tertius
2. Fibularis longus
3. Tibialis cranialis (and fibularis brevis in man and carnivores)
b. Extensors of hock are on the caudal aspect of the crus:
1. Gastrocnemius
2. Soleus

IV. MUSCLES OF THE DIGITS

1. Long muscles of the digits:
a. Long extensors of digits: Extensor digitorum longus, extensor digitorum lateralis (and
extensor hallucis longus, the long extensor of 1st digit is present as a separate one in
man, carnivores, pigs and sheep. In other animals it is fused with tibialis cranialis).
b. Long flexors of digits: Flexor digitorum superficialis and profundus.

2. Short muscles of digits: Extensor digitorum brevis, flexor digitorum brevis (in man
and carnivores associated with flexors of digits), interflexorius muscles (in carnivores
associated with superficial flexor), lumbrical muscles (carnivores and horses),
interosseous muscles and quadratus plantae muscles (carnivores).

Extensors of digits are located craniolaterally and flexors of digits are located
caudally on the crus.
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HIP (LATERAL ASPECT, GLUTEAL REGION)

1. Tensor fascia latae: Makes the cranial edge of the thigh (except in carnivores). In
ungulates (pigs, horses and ruminants) it is connected caudally with superficial gluteal
muscle.
Origin: Tuber coxae and strong fibrous tissue ventral to it and gluteal fascia.
Insertion: Fascia lata and femoral fascia.
Action: To tense the fascia lata, flex the hip joint and extend the stifle joint; abducts the limb.
Blood supply: Deep circumflex iliac and lateral circumflex iliac arteries
Nerve supply: Cranial gluteal nerve
Fascia lata: is the powerful lateral fascia of the thigh.
Femoral fascia: Medial fascia of the thigh.

2. Gluteobiceps (Biceps femoris): It is a very expansive muscle situated in the lateral

aspect of the hip and thigh superficial to the gluteus medius. In domestic mammals, the
biceps presents a strong cranial portion (vertebral head) from sacrum and sacro-tuberal
ligament and a smaller caudal portion (pelvic head) from ischiatic tuber. In ungulates (pigs
and ruminants), gluteus superficialis is fused with the cranial portion of biceps to form the
‘gluteo-biceps’. In man, biceps presents long and short heads.
Origin: Sacral spine, sacro-tuberal ligament, ischium and tuber ischii and gluteal fascia.
Insertion: By a strong tendon cranially to the lateral patellar ligament, to the fascia latae and
crural fascia, patella and cranial border of tibia.
Action: To extend the stifle and hip joint as well as hock. To extend the limb as in kicking and
to abduct it.
Blood supply: Cranial and caudal gluteal, medial circumflex femoral, lateral circumflex
femoral, caudal femoral and popliteal arteries
Nerve supply: Caudal gluteal and ischiatic nerves

3. Gluteus medius: It is a thick, fleshy muscle, filling the space between tuber coxae and
greater trochanter. It is composed of a large superficial head, the gluteus medius and a
smaller deep head, the gluteus accessorius.
Origin: The dorsal and lateral sacro-iliac and broad sacrotuberal ligament, gluteal surface of
the ilium and gluteal fascia.
Insertion: The greater trochanter and trochanteric crest of the femur. Its deep part, the gluteus
accessorius, inserts by a strong tendon into the femur distal to the greater trochanter.
Action: To extend the hip joint, abduct the limb and rotate the femur.
Blood supply: Cranial gluteal, deep circumflex iliac, medial circumflex femoral and
lateral circumflex femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Cranial gluteal and ischiatic nerves

4. Gluteus profundus (Deep gluteus): It is a fan shaped muscle over the hip joint.
Origin: Tuber coxae and the body of the ilium, ischiatic spine and sacro-tuberal and sacro-
iliac ligaments.
Insertion: The neck of the femur near the greater trochanter and a strong tendon to the cranio-
lateral edge of the greater trochanter.
Action: To abduct the thigh and rotate it medially.
Blood supply: Cranial gluteal and lateral circumflex femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Cranial gluteal nerve

Buttock muscles/ Hamstring muscles: The buttock region lies between the ischium and
the crus. The tendons of insertion of biceps femoris and semitendinosus present two string-
like tendons, the ‘hamstrings’, behind the thigh in human beings, thus deriving the name for
this group. This group consists of biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus.
Other than its pelvic heads, these muscles can also have vertebral heads (biceps femoris in
pigs, ruminants and horses; semitendinosus in pigs and horses and semimembranosus in
 29
horses). These vertebral heads are especially well developed in horses, accounting for the
characteristic rounded contour of the buttock of this animal as against the angular
appearance of the region in the ruminants and carnivores.

Superficial gluteal muscle is weaker in animals than in man. It forms the gluteus maximus
and represents the most superficial and the most powerful of the gluteal muscles in man.
The superficial gluteal muscle in animals appears to correspond in size, position and
topography to gluteus maximus of man. The superficial gluteal is a separate structure only in
carnivores. In pigs and ruminants, fused with the cranial portion of biceps, it forms the gluteo-
biceps. In horse, it is connected with caudal portion of tensor fascia latae.

THIGH- MEDIAL ASPECT

Muscles of the medial aspect of the thigh are arranged in three layers:
1. Superficial layer- Sartorius and gracilis
2. Middle layer- Pectineus, adductor and semimembranosus
3. Deep layer- Quadratus femoris, obturator internus and obturator externus.

1. Sartorius: It is a strap-like muscle coursing across the cranio-medial surface of the thigh
to the stifle. It is the longest muscle in the body in man. Also known as the ‘tailor’s muscle’
(Sartor = tailor).
Origin: It arises by two close origins. The cranial portion arises by the tendon of the psoas
minor and iliac fascia and the caudal from the body of the ilium. The origin extends from tuber
coxae in carnivores and man or from the ilium in pigs, ruminants and horses.
Insertion: Aponeurotic to the proximal medial surface of the tibia and to medial patellar
ligament.
Action: To flex the hip joint and adduct the limb.
Blood supply: Deep circumflex iliac, femoral and saphenous arteries
Nerve supply: Femoral nerve

2. Gracilis: In domestic animals it is a broad, flat muscle lying superficially on the medial
aspect of the thigh. It deserves its name (gracile= slender) only in man.
Origin: The ventral median raphae of pelvis formed by the symphyseal tendon and the
prepubic tendon. Gracilis originates by means of an aponeurosis from the pelvis symphysis
and the tendon of insertion of the rectus abdominis. This aponeurosis of origin of covers the
adductor muscle and unites in the median plane with its fellow of the opposite side forming
a double lamella. The lamella is known as the ‘symphyseal tendon’.
Insertion: Medial patellar ligament, medial surface of tibia and crural fascia.
Action: To adduct the limb, flex the stifle joint and extend the hock joint.
Blood supply: Saphenous and medial circumflex femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Saphenous and obturator nerves

3. Pectineus: It is a large, fleshy, triangular muscle. It is the ‘perching muscle’ in birds.

Origin: Prepubic tendon and cranial border of pubis.
Insertion: A thin line at the middle of the caudo-medial border of the femur and medial
epicondyle of the femur.
Action: to adduct the limb and flex the hip joint.
Blood supply: Medial circumflex femoral, deep femoral, saphenous and femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Saphenous and obturator nerves

Femoral canal: is a muscular canal formed between the sartorius in front, pectineus behind,
gracilis medially and vastus medialis and iliopsoas laterally. It is for the passage of femoral
artery, vein and saphenous nerve. In horse the deep inguinal lymph nodes are also located
in the femoral canal. In carnivores the femoral artery is superficial enough here for feeling
the pulse. Entrance to the canal from the abdominal cavity is called ‘annulus femoralis’.

4. Adductor: It is a thick fleshy muscle. The shape of the adductor muscle can be of practical
importance in determining the sex of eviscerated carcasses, because in slaughtered animals
 30
(pigs and bovines) the carcasses are split in paramedian plane and the cut surfaces have
different shapes in males and females. In males the muscle is triangular in shape, while in
females it is round or bean-shaped.
There are 3-4 adductor muscles in man: adductor longus, brevis, magnus and minimus.
These are fused with pectineus in domestic mammals. Adductor longus is seen as a separate
muscle only in cat. In all other species, it is fused with pectineus. The adductor magnus and
brevis are separate in carnivores and horses, but in cloven-footed animals, they are fused to
form a single adductor magnus et brevis.
Origin: Ventral surface of ischium and pubis.
Insertion: Caudal surface of the femur (‘Facies aspera’ of femur), just lateral to that of the
pectineus and a small insertion to the tendon of gastrocnemius (ie. on the medial epicondyle).
Action: to adduct the limb and extend the hip joint. Rotate the femur medially.
Blood supply: Medial circumflex femoral and femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Ischiatic or tibial and obturator nerves

5. Semimembranosus: Long, thick fleshy muscle, which lies on the caudal aspect of the
rump (medial aspect of the buttocks). It has a vertebral head only in horses from sacrotuberal
ligament.
Origin: The ventral surface of the ischiatic tuber and the ventral surface of the ischium and
the pelvic symphysis.
Insertion: Insertion is divided: (a) cranial part to the medial epicondyle of the femur (b) caudal
part to the medial articular margin of the tibia (to the tibial condyle).
Action: To extend the hip joint and adduct the limb.
Blood supply: Deep femoral, medial circumflex femoral, saphenous, popliteal, cranial
tibial and femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Ischiatic nerve

THIGH- LATERAL ASPECT

1. Tensor fascia latae
2. Gluteobiceps
3. Semitendinosus: It is a long, fleshy, fusiform muscle lying on the caudo-lateral aspect
of the rump. It forms the caudal contour of the thigh. It has a vertebral head from 1st caudal
vertebra only in horse and pig.
Origin: Caudo-ventral surface of the ischiatic tuber, near the origin of gluteobiceps.
Insertion: By flat aponeurotic tendon to the cranial border of tibia and to the fascia
surrounding the tendons of the gastrocnemius and superficial digital flexor.
Action: To extend the hip and hock joint and flex the stifle joint and rotate the leg medially.
Blood supply: Deep femoral and medial circumflex femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Caudal gluteal and Ischiatic nerves

4. Gemellus: (Gemel = twin). A twin bellied muscle in man. It is a triangular muscle

extending from the ventrolateral aspect of the ischium to the trochanteric fossa of the femur.
Origin: Ventro-lateral part of the ischium at the level of the lesser ischiatic notch.
Insertion: Trochanteric fossa along with the insertion of obturator externus.
Action: To rotate the femur laterally.
Blood supply: Caudal gluteal artery Nerve supply: Ischiatic nerve

5. Quadratus femoris: It is a small muscle lying ventral to the gemelli.

Origin: Ventral edge of the ischium near the caudo-lateral angle of the obturator foramen.
Insertion: Distal to the inter-trochanteric crest and the femur near the lesser trochanter.
Action: To extend the hip joint and adduct the limb.
Blood supply: Medial circumflex femoral artery
Nerve supply: Obturator and ischiatic nerves

6. Obturator externus: is a fan shaped muscle lying on the ventral surface of the ischium.
 31
Origin: Ventro-lateral part of the ischium and pubis, caudal and ventral to the borders of the
obturator foramen.
Insertion: Trochanteric fossa.
Action: To adduct the limb and rotate it laterally.
Blood supply: Medial circumflex femoral artery
Nerve supply: Obturator nerve

Intrapelvic part of obturator externus:

In pigs and ruminants, the origin of obturator externus extends from the inner surface
of pelvis (and in pig, even from the body of ilium and the sacrum). This Intrapelvic part of
obturator externus is not homologous with the internal obturator muscle, since its nerve
supply and course are different. Its tendon passes through the obturator foramen rather than
lesser ischiatic foramen. This muscle is being supplied by the obturator nerve.
7. Obturator internus: It is a thin sheet of muscle which is present only in carnivores and
pigs. It originates around the obturator foramen from the inner surface of the pelvis (in the
horse also from the body of the ilium) and its tendon of insertion leaves the pelvic cavity
through the lesser ischiatic notch to end in the trochanteric fossa. It is being supplied by the
ischiatic nerve.
THIGH- ANTERIOR ASPECT

1. Quadriceps femoris: is a large muscle composed of four divisions, which are

separated at their origin, but joined distally. It occupies the area along the cranial, lateral and
medial aspects of the thigh. It is the strongest and the principal extensor of the stifle joint.
One division, rectus femoris, arises from the shaft of the ilium, immediately cranial to the
acetabulum. The others, vastus medialis, lateralis and intermedius are from the medial,
lateral and cranial aspects of femoral shaft, respectively. The common tendon appears to be
on the patella, but is actually on the tibial tuberosity, since the muscle is continued distal to
the patella by patellar ligaments. The patellar ligaments are considered to be the tendons of
insertions of the quadriceps femoris muscle and patella is their sesamoid bone.
a) Vastus lateralis:
Origin: The lateral surface of the greater trochanter and caudolateral face of the femur.
Insertion: The lateral edge of the patella and the lateral patellar ligament.
Action: With the vastus medialis to extend the stifle joint.
b) Rectus femoris:
Origin: Prominent tendons from the os coxae proximally, cranial to the acetabulum and a
tendon on the ventral aspect of the ilium.
Insertion: the base and cranial surface of the patella.
Action: extends the stifle and flexes the hip.
c) Vastus medialis:
Origin: Tendinous from the neck of femur; from the middle of the caudal surface of the femur.
Insertion: The caudo medial surface of the patella and the medial patellar ligament.
Action: To extend the stifle joint.
d) Vastus intermedius:
Origin: Extensive from all surfaces of the femur except caudal.
Insertion: On either side of base and cranial surface of patella including femoropatellar
ligaments.
Action: extends the stifle joint and raises the femoropatellar capsule.
Blood supply: Lateral circumflex femoral and caudal femoral arteries
Nerve supply: Femoral nerve

Articularis genu: is only a part of the vastus intermedius.

Subluxation of patella: It is caused by the over extension of the stifle joint above 1450. The
patella gets locked above the medial ridge of trochlea of femur. The medial patellar ligament
is overstretched. The stifle can not be flexed so that the limb is rigidly extended backwards
and dragged with the dorsum of the toes touching the ground. The symptoms are more
pronounced after a period of rest but as the animal walks for a few steps the patella slips to
 32
its normal position and the stifle is flexed with a gerk or spasm. So the characteristic condition
is described as ‘the lameness becomes worst after a period of rest, but improves with
exercise’. The condition can be relieved by the surgical correction known as ‘the patellar
desmotomy’, ie. cutting the medial patellar ligament.

LEG- DORSOLATERAL ASPECT

1. Soleus: is a thin, ribbon like slip along the cranial edge of the flexor digiti I longus.
2. Fibularis tertius (Peroneus tertius): ‘Perone’ means fibula. Fibularis tertius is a
superficial fusiform muscle. Long and spindle-shaped muscle, which may be entirely
tendinous in horses called ‘tendo-femoro-tarseus’. A fleshy muscle in pigs and ruminants. In
all domestic mammals blends with extensor digitorum longus. Most important in horses,
because it constitutes an essential component of the reciprocal mechanism. The ‘reciprocal
apparatus’ in horse consists of two tendinous cords extending between femur and stifle, The
superficial flexor on caudal aspect and fibularis tertius on the cranial aspect. Flexion/
extension of the stifle/ tarsus causes a similar movement in the other joint due to these two
cords.
Origin: By a strong round tendon from the extensor fossa of the femur in common with the
extensor digitorum longus.
Insertion: proximal end of the large metatarsal bone and 1st tarsal bone.
Action: To flex the hock joint.
Blood supply: Cranial tibial artery
Nerve supply: Deep fibular and fibular nerves

3. Extensor digitorum longus: is a complex extensor of the digits. It is a thin, fusiform

muscle lying on the cranio-lateral surface of the leg and covered by the fibularis tertius. Its
tendon crosses the dorsal surface of the hock, where it is held by retinacula. In man, horse
and for most part in carnivores it is superficial. In pigs and ruminants it is covered by fibularis
tertius. It consists of two bellies: the medial belly (medial digital extensor or extensor digiti III)
and the lateral belly (extensor digitorum longus).
Origin: Extensor fossa of the femur.
Insertion: Lateral belly- Extensor process of the distal phalanges of 3rd and 4th digits. Medial
belly-2nd and 3rd phalanges of 3rd digit. There are four tendons in man and carnivores from
2nd to 5th digits on distal phalanx. 3 bellies in pig. In horse only one belly.
Action: To extend the digits and flex the hock.
Blood supply: Cranial tibial artery
Nerve supply: Deep fibular and fibular nerves
4. Fibularis longus (Peroneus longus): Absent in horse. It is a long, triangular muscle
situated superficially on the lateral surface of the leg.
Origin: Proximal extremity of fibula, lateral collateral ligament of stifle joint, lateral condyle of
tibia and lateral meniscus.
Insertion: First tarsal and proximal end of the large metatarsal bone.
Action: to flex the hock joint and rotate it medially.
Blood supply: Cranial tibial artery
Nerve supply: Deep fibular and fibular nerves
5. Extensor digitorum lateralis: lies on the lateral surface of the leg. It is located under
peroneus longus in dog and behind in pigs and ruminants. 2 bellies and 2 tendons in pigs
(on 4th and 5th digits).
Origin: Lateral condyle of the tibia and head of fibula.
Insertion: Base and dorsal surface of the middle and 3rd phalanx of the 4th digit.
Action: to extend the 4th digit.
Blood supply: Cranial tibial artery
Nerve supply: Superficial fibular and fibular nerves

6. Tibialis cranialis: is the deepest in the extensor group and is a thin muscle lying on the
cranio lateral side of the tibia. It is the most medial muscle in man and carnivores. It lies
directly under the crural fascia and skin. In pigs, ruminants and horses partly covered by
 33
fibularis tertius and extensor digitorum longus. The tendon of insertion is branched in horses.
The medial tendon of insertion of tibialis cranialis in horse is known as the ‘cunean tendon’.
It is often resected to relieve pain due to bone spavin (‘tarsal osteo-arthropathy’) in horses.
Origin: arises by two heads: cranial head arises from the lateral surface of the tibial tuberosity
and the cranial border of tibia. The caudal origin is from the lateral condyle of tibia and fibula.
Insertion: The first tarsal bone and fused 2nd and 3rd tarsal bones and large metatarsal bone.
Action: to flex the hock.
Blood supply: Cranial tibial artery
Nerve supply: Deep fibular and fibular nerves

LEG- POSTERIOR ASPECT

1. Gastrocnemius: is a large, fleshy muscle composed of medial and lateral heads which
are partially fused. In carnivores, each tendon of origin contains a sesamoid bone, ‘Vesali’s
sesamoid’. Fabella (= beans) is a sesamoid bone embedded in the tendon of origin of both
heads of gastrocnemius of carnivores.
Origin: Lateral head- the lateral supracondyloid tuberosity and the cranial border of the lateral
epicondyle of the femur.
Medial head- distal most portion of the medial supracondyloid tuberosity and the medial
epicondyle of the femur.
Insertion: by very strong tendons to the calcaneul tuber (tuber calcis).
Action: to flex the stifle joint and extend the hock.
Blood supply: Femoral, caudal femoral and popliteal arteries
Nerve supply: Tibial nerve

2. Soleus: is a thin muscle. Insignificant except in cat. Absent in dog. Flat broad muscle in
man and pig (‘Sole’ is a flat sea fish, which is eaten as food).
Origin: Lateral surface of the head of the fibula.
Insertion: the tendons of insertions of the lateral head of the gastrocnemius or in the common
calcaneal tendon.
Action: to assist the gastrocnemius in extending the hock.
Blood supply: Popliteal artery
Nerve supply: Tibial nerve

Calcaneal tendon or Achilles tendon:

It comprises the tendon of triceps surae (ie. Medial and lateral heads of gastrocnemius and
soleus). Achilles was a Greek hero. The infant Achilles was dipped into the sacred river Styx
by his mother to render him impervious to wounds. She held him by his heel, which remained
vulnerable and it was in the heel that he was fatally wounded by an arrow at the battle of
Troy.

Common calcaneal tendon/ Hamstring tendon:

It is the aggregated tendon including the calcaneal tendon and the tendons of the flexor
digitorum superficialis, biceps femoris and semitendinosus muscles.

3. Flexor digitorum superficialis: is embedded in the deep face of the gastrocnemius. Its
tendon later winds round the medial border of gastrocnemius tendon to gain a more
superficial position. It forms a broad cap, the ‘calcaneal cap’, over the point of hock and
continuies over the plantar aspect of calcaneus to enter the foot. It is then disposed like the
corresponding tendon of forelimb.
Origin: Supracondyloid fossa of the femur.
Insertion: Plantar surface of the middle phalanges of 3rd and 4th digits.
Action: to extend the hock and flex the digits.
Blood supply: Medial plantar, caudal femoral and caudal tibial arteries
Nerve supply: Tibial nerve
 34
4. Popliteus: is a fleshy, triangular muscle on the caudal aspect of the stifle joint.
Origin: Popliteal fossa on the lateral condyle of the femur.
Insertion: A triangular area on the caudo-medial aspect of the proximal extremity of the tibia.
Action: to flex the stifle.
Blood supply: Caudal and cranial tibial and popliteal arteries
Nerve supply: Tibial nerve

5. Flexor digitorum profundus: is composed of 3 heads.

a. Medial head (flexor digitorum longus)- fleshy origin.
b. Superficial head (tibialis cranialis)- thin and flat muscle.
c. Deep/ Lateral head (Flexor digiti I longus)- largest head.
Origin: Caudal edge of the lateral condyle of the tibia, caudo-lateral surface of the tibia, fibula
and interosseous ligament.
Insertion: Flexor tubercle of the distal phalanges of 3rd and 4th digits.
Action: to flex the digits and extend the hock joint.
Blood supply: Caudal and cranial tibial and popliteal arteries
Nerve supply: Tibial nerve

METATARSUS (DORSAL ASPECT)

1. Extensor digitorum brevis: is a very small muscle located on the dorsal surface of
the tarsus. A thin muscle in ruminants and horses. Well developed in carnivores and pigs.
Origin: Dorsal surface of the tarsus (proximal to the trochlear surface of the tibial tarsal)
Insertion: To the tendon of the extensor digitorum longus at the level of the proximal
metatarsus.
Action: to extend the digits by assisting the extensor digitorum longus.
Blood supply: Dorsal Metatarsal artery III and dorsal pedal arteries
Nerve supply: Deep fibular nerve

METATARSUS (PALMAR ASPECT)

1. Superficial flexor tendon

2. Flexor digitorum profundus
3. Suspensory ligament
 35

RESPIRATORY MUSCLES

The muscles of respiration include all those that are actively concerned in the mechanism of
expansion and compression of thoracic cavity ie. the muscles, which bring about inspiratory
and expiratory movements of chest wall and diaphragm. Since the pleural cavity is devoid of
air, the lungs follow the movement passively by virtue of their elasticity. When thoracic cavity
is expanded by external air pressure the lung surface progressively follows the enlarging
chestwall (inspiration). When thoracic cavity contracts the lung passively follows and the air
inside the repiratory tract is partially expelled (expiration). Thus all the repiratory muscles must
be attached either to the bony thorax, the movable ribs or rib cartilages; so, they are also
involved in forming the wall of the thorax itself. By virtue of this, they are also known as the
muscles of the chest wall or thorax. According to their function, these can be named as the
muscles of inspiration or the muscles of expiration. Therefore, the muscles of the thoracic wall
are primarily concerned with respiration. The former turns the ribs outward and forward and
 36
enlarge the thoracic cavity causing the air to flow into the lungs. The latter turns the rib inward
and backward and diminish the cavity, expelling the air. They comprise the muscles that fill the
spaces between ribs, certain small units placed lateral to the ribs and the most important the
diaphragm. The respiratory muscles/ muscles of the thorax include:

I. Inspiratory muscles:
1. Serratus dorsalis cranialis II. Expiratory muscles:
2. External intercostals 1. Serratus dorsalis caudalis
3. Levatores costarum 2. Internal intercostals
4. Rectus thoracic 3. Transversus thoracis
5. Diaphragm 4. Longissimus costarum
Intercostal muscles are theoretically arranged in layers that correspond to the layers of
the abdominal wall. ie. external intercostals, internal intercostals, transversus thoracis and
rectus thoracis.

1. External intercostals: These are the outer ones in the intercostal spaces and each of
these is confined to a single intercostal space. Each arises from the posterior border of the rib
in front and is inserted to the anterior border and external surface of the rib behind. They fill
the space from the upper end of the costo-chondral junction and sometimes beyond these but
to fail to reach the sternum.
Action: draw ribs forwards in inspiration.
Blood supply: Intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: Intercostal nerves

2. Internal intercostals: It is situated inner to the external intercostals and also extend to the
interchondral spaces. Each arises from the anterior border of the rib and is inserted to the
posterior border of the rib in front and its cartilage. Fibres run downward and forward.
Action: Assist in expiration especially forced expiration.
Blood supply: Intercostal and internal thoracic arteries
Nerve supply: Intercostal nerves

3. Transversus thoracis: It is a triangular muscle (apex points cranially), on the dorsal face
of the sternum. It orginates from the sternal ligament and is inserted to the cartilage of ribs. It
is morphologically the equivalent of the ventral part of the transverse abdominis. The sternal
ligament is on the thoracic surface of the sternum, extending from its 1st to the last segment.
Action: Assist in expiration
Blood supply: Internal thoracic artery
Nerve supply: Intercostal nerves

4. Rectus thoracis: so named because it is considered as the cranial continuation of the rectus
abdominis muscle. It is a thin quadrilateral muscle, which lies on the cranio-ventral aspect of
the thorax. It orginates from the ventral half of the caudo-ventral aspect of the first rib and is
inserted to the costal cartilage of 3rd and 4th rib. It is placed over the lower end of the first four
ribs in apparent continuation of rectus abdominis.
Action: By drawing the cartilage and ribs cranially and laterally it assist in inspiration.
Blood supply: External and internal thoracic arteries
Nerve supply: First five intercostal nerves

5. Serratus dorsalis: lies over the dorsal part of the rib. The two parts are some times widely
separated.
 37
a) Serratus dorsalis cranialis: arise from the thoraco-lumbar fascia by an aponeurosis to the
deep fascia. It is inserted to the cranial and lateral surface of the 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th ribs. Directed
caudo-ventrally.
Action: Aids in inspiration by drawing the ribs cranially and laterally.
Blood supply: 5th to 7th Intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: 5th to 7th thoracic spinal nerves

b) Serratus dorsalis caudalis: is poorly developed, arises from thoraco-lumbar fascia and
inserted to the caudal border of last three ribs. Directed cranio-ventrally (opposite directions of
the muscles indicate antagonistic functions).
Action: Assists in expiration by drawing the ribs caudally.
Blood supply: 10th to 13th Intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: 10th to 13th thoracic spinal nerves

6. Scalenus: has an attachment to first rib. In some species, it also passes quite extensively
over the rib cage. It consists of two divisions: scalenus ventralis and scalenus dorsalis.
Scalenus dorsalis is absent in sheep.
Origin: Scalenus ventralis originates from the transverse process of the 3rd to 7th cervical
vertebrae. Scalenus dorsalis from the transverse processes of 4th to 6th cervical vertebrae.
Insertion: Scalenus ventralis on the first rib. Scalenus dorsalis to the 4th rib in the ox and to the
2nd rib in goat.
Action: to flex the neck laterally. If the neck is fixed, the muscles may perform a respiratory
action by pulling the ribs cranial.
Blood supply: Vertebral and intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: Cervical spinal nerves

7. Longissimus costarum (Iliocostalis thoracis et lumbarum): is a slim muscle arising from

the crest of ilium and fascial sheet (Bogorodsky’s “tendon”) which separates longissimus and
iliocostal muscles. It covers the vertebral ends of ribs. It passes over the angle of ribs upto the
cervical vertebral column under cover of serratus dorsalis muscle. It is composed of many
fascicles that overlap; for the most part they span about four vertebrae. Its lateral position
makes it also effective in bending the trunk to the side. The fibres are directed forwards,
downwards and outwards. The complete muscle comprises numerous bundles which span
several segments usually ending in a medial or lateral tendon. Topographically it can be divided
into a lumbar and thoracic parts.
a) Iliocostalis lumborum: is an independent muscle only in carnivores; in pigs and horses.
It is fused with lumbar longissimus muscle.
b) Iliocostalis thoracis: is present in all domestic mammals and is characterized by its
glistening lateral tendons. They take a cranio-lateral course close together and they span two
or four (or occasionally more) intercostal spaces to end laterally on the caudal border of ribs at
the iliocostal tuberosities.
Origin: from lateral angle of ilium (ie, tuber coxae), lumbar transverse processes, anterior
borders and external surfaces of last six ribs.
Insertion: to the posterior border of all ribs and transverse process of the last cervical vertebrae.
Action: It is an expiratory muscle. It acts to fix or stabilize the lumbar and thoracic parts of
vertebral column and when acting unilaterally to help in lateral flexion of the column. In the
carnivores, where the lumbar portion is so well developed, it is also a part of mechanism used
in forward propulsion of body when running and jumping. It is thus a powerful extensor of
dorsally curved lumbar vertebral column.
Blood supply: Lumbar and intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: Lumbar and thoracic spinal nerves

8. Levatores costarum: It lies in the same direction as external intercostals and there is no
sharp line of demarcation between the two. It consists of ten to eleven small oblique bundles
situated at the upper part of intercostal spaces. Each bundle extends from transverse process
of dorsal vertebra to anterior border of rib behind.
Action: draw ribs forwards in inspiration.
 38
Blood supply: Intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: Intercostal nerves

9. Multifidus dorsi: consists of small, segmented muscles lying along the sides of the vertebral
spines (lumbar and dorsal) and are directed obliquely forward and upward.
Blood supply: Lumbar and intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: Lumbar and thoracic spinal nerves

10. Diaphragm: It is a broad unpaired, dome or cupola (Cupola = point of maximum convexity)
shaped muscle, which forms a partition between the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Its
thoracic surface is convex (bulges cranially under cover of the ribs to enlarge the abdominal
cavity at the expense of thoracic cavity) and is covered by the pleura. The abdominal surface
is concave and is lined by peritoneum. It parts are:
1. The heart-shaped ‘central tendon’ or tendinous center (trefoil or clover- shaped in the dog)
2. The muscular rim or muscular periphery consisting of sternal and costal parts
3. Two crura or lumbar part, which arises from lumbar vertebra.
The central tendon is the most cranial part and forms the vertex (= highest or top; apex).
In the neutral position between full inspiration and full expiration it reaches the level of lower
part of the sixth rib (or following intercostals space) and is thus only a little behind the plane of
the olecranon if the animal is standing square. Knowledge of this fact and of the line of the
costal attachment is indispensable to appreciate the extend of the thoracic cavity. In ruminants,
pigs and horses the central tendon resembles the outline of sole of horse’s hoof. In carnivores
it is like a bootjack. The tendinous centre is pierced to the right by foramen vena cavae. The
caval foramen is at the apex of the cupola.
The peripheral ring of muscle is closed in carnivores but is incomplete dorsally in the
other species. The costal part is attached in a straight line from the last rib above its middle to
the junction of the 8th rib and its cartilage. The sternal part is attached along the cartilage of 8th
rib and across the abdominal face of the xiphoid cartilage.
The lumbar part consists of right and left crura. Each is followed by a tendon or pillars,
crus dextrum and crus sinistrum by means of which it attaches to the vertebrae. Left crus is
undivided. The right crus is larger and divides into two branches, which circumscribe the hiatus
oesophagii, situated below the 8th thoracic vertebra. The right crus is attached to the bodies of
first four lumbar vertebrae, while the left is attached to the first two lumbar vertebrae.
The diaphragm has 3 openings:
1) Hiatus aorticus
2) Hiatus oesophagii
3) Foramen venacavae or “caval foramen” or “foramen dextrum”
The aortic hiatus is the most dorsal one among the three openings and is ventral to the
last thoracic vertebrae and is between the crura. The hiatus aorticus is for the passage of the
aorta, vena hemiazygous and cisterna chyli (thoracic duct). Hiatus oesophagi is ventrally
located and transmits oesophagus and its vessels and the dorsal and ventral vagal trunks.
Action: It is the chief repiratory muscle. Diaphragm is the most important muscle of inspiration.
When it is fixed in inspiratory position it can also maintain abdominal pressure.
A sudden increase in the abdominal pressure, as produced by the compression in
traffic accidents, may tear the diaphragm and allow the abdominal viscera to enter the thoracic
cavity causing diaphragmatic hernia.
Blood supply: Phrenic and musculo-phrenic arteries
Nerve supply: Phrenic nerve
 39

MUSCLES OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN

These muscles are considered as the specific activators of cervical, thoracic and
lumbar vertebrae. This group lies immediately dorsal, lateral and ventral to this movable region
of the vertebral column. Some muscles in this group are elongated muscles, which extend for
a considerable distance along the cervical and lumbar regions, being attached to different
vertebrae by tendons or small muscular digitations.
Other muscles of the group are small and short, extending only from one segment to
the other. The majority of the muscles are arranged in layers on the dorsal arches of the
vertebrae between the transverse and spinous processes in the manner of the overlapping
tiles of a roof.
From functional point of view, the specific muscles, which activate the cervical, thoracic
and lumbar vertebral series are divided into two groups, according to their position and
innervation.

1. Epaxial division is placed dorsal to the line of transverse processes of vertebrae and receives
its nerve supply from dorsal branches of spinal nerves. These muscles elevate, laterally flex
 40
and rotate cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. By virtue of their embryonic origin, they are
also recognized as the muscles of the axial zone.

2. Hypaxial division lies ventral to the transverse processes and is supplied by the ventral
branches of spinal nerves. Only a few muscles, which activate cervical and thoracic regions
(longus colli and scalenus) lie ventral to transverse processes and are recognized
embryologically as muscles of the lateral zone. It also includes the muscles of thoracic and
abdominal walls in addition to those placed closely on the vertebrae. These muscles depress
the vertebral column.

EPAXIAL MUSCLES are classified into:

a. Long muscles of neck and back
b. Short muscles of neck and back.
‘Back’ means the region of the vertebral column between withers and lumbosacral junction.
It is divided into a thoracic part, supported by the thoracic vertebrae and a lumbar part,
supported by the lumbar vertebrae.

a. Long muscles of neck and back: are those that elevate or dorsally flex and stabilize the
cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebral column.
These include:
1. Splenius muscle (Superficial layer)
2. Iliocostal and Longissimus (middle layer/ lateral layer)
3. Spinalis, Semispinalis and Multifidus (deep layer/ medial layer)
Since the mobility of vertebral column increases cranially, these muscles show a greater
degree of cranial differentiation and show some tendency to fuse over the loins and to split into
additional units in the neck. They are the extensors of the vertebral column and are relatively
more powerful in animals (eg. dog) that make use of a bounding gait, when traveling at speed.

b. Short muscles of neck and back: assist the long muscles of neck and back in elevating,
rotating and flexing cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebral column.
1. Intertransversarii
2. Interspinalis
3. Rotators
 41
1. Intertrasversarii colli: occupy the spaces between the articular and transverse processes
on the lateral surface of the cervical vertebrae.
Action: to flex the neck laterally.

LONG MUSCLES OF NECK AND BACK

I. SUPERFICIAL LAYER:
1. Splenius: It is a triangular muscle placed under the cervical rhomboideus. It extends
between the withers, the funicular part of ligamentum nuchae (or in carnivores, the tendinous
raphae), the cervical vertebrae and occipital bone. The deeper nuchal muscles lie medially,
while laterally the muscle is covered by trapezius, rhomboideus and brachiocephalicus.
Origin: From the spinous processes of the first 3 or 4 thoracic spines.
Insertion: To the occipital bone, wing of atlas and the transverse process of axis. The first part,
the splenius capitis, is inserted on the occipital bone and wing of atlas. The second part,
splenius cervicis, is inserted on the transverse process of axis and the more cranial cervical
vertebrae.

Action: To elevate the head and neck. Acting singly, it inclines the head and neck to the side
of contraction. The splenius is responsible for the pronounced movements of the neck, when
the animal is galloping. It also helps to maintain balance especially, when the animal jumps.
Blood supply: Deep cervical artery
Nerve supply: Cervical spinal nerves except 1st two.
II DEEP/ MIDDLE/ LATERAL LAYER: The middle layer represents the lateral system of long
muscles of neck and back. It takes the form of a massive bundle of four muscles, which
occupies the space between the spinous and transverse processes of cervical, thoracic and
lumbar vertebrae. The bundle extends from pelvis and sacrum to the occipital bone and in the
thoracic region, it is also related to vertebral extremities of the ribs. In the lumbar region muscle
bundle divides into lateral iliocostal and medial longissimus muscle.

1 Iliocostalis or longissimus costarum: It is composed of many fascicles that overlap; for

the most part they span about four vertebrae. Its lateral position makes it also effective in
bending the trunk to the side. It is divided into lumbar and thoracic parts.
 42
a. Iliocostalis lumborum: is an independent muscle only in carnivores; in pigs and horses it is
fused with longissimus lumborum.
b. Iliocostalis thoracis: Present in all domestic mammals. It is characterized by its glistening
lateral tendons.
Origin: Lateral angle of transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae and anterior bodies and
external surface of last 6 ribs and inserts on the more cranial lumbar vertebrae and ribs with a
weaker continuation into the neck.
Insertion: Posterior border of all ribs and transverse process of last cervical vertebra.

2. Longissimus dorsi: the longissimus dorsi consists of the capitis et atlantis, cervicis, thoracis
and lumborum portions. It is the largest and longest muscle in the body extending from the
sacrum and ilium to the neck. It fills the space between the spines medially and the lumbar
transverse process and the dorsal end of ribs ventrally.
It is strongest and can be followed into the neck even to the head. It runs the entire
length of neck and back extending from sacrum and ilium to occipital bone
Loin eye: is the appearance of cross section of longissimus dorsi muscle in a carcass of pigs,
important in determining the meat-bone ratio of the carcass. It is indicative of the muscle
content of the carcass.
a. Longissimus thoracis et lumborum: It is best developed in the lumbar region, where it
lies under the thoracolumbar fascia. Thereafter it gradually diminishes in size as it runs towards
the head.
The segmental arrangement (digitations) are as like the tiles of a roof. The parts are
stacked successively upon one another so that the more caudal portion is inserted medial to
the succeedingly more cranial part.
Origin: the crest and the cranio-ventral surface of ilium and sacral, lumbar and thoracic
spines.
Insertion: transverse process of all lumbar, thoracic and last 3 or 4 cervical vertebrae.
Action: a powerful extensor of the dorsum also tends to elevate the neck.
The weight bearing capacity of the vertebral column is increased through its providing
a firm base for the swing phase of the limbs during forwards or backwards propulsion (which
is of particular significance in ungulates).
This muscle also dorsally flexes head and neck, when acting bilaterally. This is
important for carnivores because the elevation of head exerts a powerful pull on the dorsally
arched back, stretching forwards when the animal is running. At the same time, when the
hindquarters are fixed, contraction of the muscle lifts the cranial part of the trunk (as in rearing);
when the forequarters are fixed, the back flexes ventrally and hind part of the trunk is lifted (as
in kicking). Unilateral action flexes the vertebral column, and especially the neck, laterally and
helps rotate the head around atlanto-axial joint.
b. Longissimus cervicis: is a thin, highly tendinous muscle, largely covered by the
longissimus thoracis and the serratus ventralis cervicis on the lateral side.
Origin: from the transverse processes of the first to 7th thoracic vertebrae.
Insertion: transverse processes of the 3rd to 7th cervical vertebrae.
c. Longissimus capitis et atlantis: presents two narrow bands lying under the splenius. It
arises from the articular processes of the cervical vertebrae except the first 2 or 3 and
transverse processes of the first two dorsal vertebrae and is inserted to the wing of atlas and
mastoid process.
Blood supply: Deep cervical, vertebral, lumbar and intercostal arteries
Nerve supply: Cervical, lumbar and thoracic spinal nerves
 43
III. DEEP/ MEDIAL LAYER: In this layer, some of the fibres run in a sagittal direction. Others
are directed from caudo-ventro-lateral to a cranio-dorso-medial direction, ie. in effect, in
contrasting directions to those of the lateral system. The system is made up of three extremely
powerful bands of muscle:

1. Spinalis: Its fibres are confined to the spaces between spinous processes and they
sometimes traverse several segments.

2. Semispinalis: The fibres of semispinalis run from transverse and mamillary processes to
the spinous processes usually fusing with the fibres of spinalis muscle as they do so. Because
of this, they can be termed spinalis et semispinalis.

3. Multifidus: from the deepest layer on the vertebral surface.

In domestic animals there is much less regional differentiation (i.e. into cervical and thoracic
divisions) since the cervical and thoracic part of the spinalis and semispinalis muscles tend to
merge with one another. Only pig and horse have a true spinalis thoracis et cervicis; at the
same time the semispinalis group is absent. There is a semispinalis thoracis in carnivores and
ruminants. Since the latter muscle fibres are also blended with those of spinalis muscle, they
are regarded as being ‘spinalis et semispinalis thoracis et cervicis’. This latter muscle is also
related to thoracic longissimus muscle in the caudal thoracic region through the medium of a
tendinous sheet, which is inserted between the two and gives rise laterally to longissimus fibres
and medially to spinalis fibres. There is no independent cervical spinalis muscle in domestic
mammals, but they all have a semispinalis capitis muscle.

1. Spinalis or spinalis et semispinalis thoracis et cervicis: Comprises either the spinal

components, which run only between spinous processes as in the pig and horse, or it can
receive muscle fibres from mamillary and transverse processes. Since the back part of the
muscle extends into the cervical part and the neck part originates in the region of the back, the
mass of muscle lying between the multifidus muscles and longissimus is generally considered
as a single functional unit. It is therefore, termed the spinalis or spinalis et semispinalis thoracis
et cervicis (or medial part of longissimus dorsi –old name).
 44
Action: When acting together to extend and stabilize the back, and to elevate the neck; acting
unilaterally to flex the neck and back laterally. The muscle also has a synergistic action with
the longissimus muscle.
Mamillary process: Located between cranial articular process and transverse process in caudal
thoracic and cranial lumbar vertebrae.

2. Semispinalis capitis (complexus): It is the largest muscle dorsal to the cervical vertebrae.
The muscle is divided into two parts. The dorso-medial portion is the biventer cervicis and the
ventro-lateral portion is the complexus. The two are distinctly separate in carnivores and pigs,
very much so in ruminants; while in horse, they are fused together as a single bundle.
Origin: Transverse process of the first ten thoracic vertebrae, the articular processes of the last
five cervical vertebrae and the nuchal ligament.
Insertion: The occipital bone near the attachment of the funicular part of the nuchal ligament.
Action: to extend the head. Acting singly, to turn and raise the head.
Blood supply: Deep cervical and occipital arteries
Nerve supply: Cervical spinal nerves

3. Multifidus: The markedly segmental arrangement of multifidus muscles is evident in all the
domestic species. These extend from sacrum to 2nd or 3rd cervical vertebrae and they are
applied directly to dorsal arches of lumbar, thoracic and cervical vertebrae.

Multifidus cervicis:
Origin: bundles arise from caudal articular processes of each cervical vertebra.
Insertion: to the caudal border of the caudal articular processes and the spine of the preceding
vertebra.
Action: extends the neck.
Blood supply: Deep cervical and occipital arteries
Nerve supply: Cervical spinal nerves except the 1st two

HYPAXIAL MUSCLES
1. Longus colli
2. Rectus capitis ventralis
3. Longus capitis
4. Scalenus
5. Ventral muscles of tail
6. Muscles of pelvic girdle ie. Sublumbar muscles
 45
NECK- VENTRAL ASPECT

1. Sterno-cephalicus: is a long muscle extending from the manubrium sterni to the skull. It
consists of two divisions: sterno-mandibularis and sterno-mastoideus. Sternomandibularis is
the superficial part of the sternocephalicus.
Origin: Manubrium sterni and the first costal cartilage.
Insertion: Sterno-mandibularis on the ventral boarder of the mandible at the angle of the jaw.
Sterno-mastoideus to the mastoid process of the temporal bone.
Action: to flex the head and neck. Mandibular part aids in opening of the mouth by depressing
the mandible acting singly turn the head to one side.
Blood supply: Common carotid artery
Nerve supply: Spinal accessory nerve

Jugular Furrow: Jugular furrow is found on the ventro-lateral aspect of the neck. The external
jugular vein lies in the furrow. This vein is used for venipuncture in horse and ruminants. The
jugular furrow is bounded by:
1. Sterno-mandibularis in front (ventrally). In sheep, sternomandibularis is absent. So the
jugular furrow is deficient ventrally.
2. Cleidomastoideus (brachiocephalus) behind (dorsally).
3. Sternomastoideus forms the medial boundary in ruminants. In horse, the medial
boundary is formed by omohyoideus.

Long hyoid muscles:

1. Sternohyoideus
2. Sternothyroideus
3. Omohyoideus
The long hyoid muscles lie ventral and lateral to trachea and topographically they are the
part of ventral musculature of the neck. Functionally, being inserted directly or indirectly onto
hyoid with larynx as intermediate point, they are grouped with auxiliary muscles of the tongue.
To prevent wind- sucking (a vice) the long muscles of hyoid are cut.

1. Sternothyrohyodeus: only the terminal part of the muscle is seen. This muscle arises from
the manubrium sterni passes forwards on the ventral aspect of the trachea. About the middle
of the neck it divides in to two parts.
a. Sterno- thyroideus and b. Sterno- hyoideus
The hyoid bands are medial and close together and are inserted to the body of the hyoid
bone. Thyroid bands are lateral to the hyoid bands and are attached to the lamina of the thyroid
cartilage of larynx.
Action: Retract the hyoid bone, base of the tongue, larynx and aids in deglutition.
Blood supply: Carotid artery
Nerve supply: 1st and 2nd cervical spinal nerves

2. Thyrohyoideus – It is an extrinsic muscle of larynx. It lies on the lateral surface of the thyroid
cartilage, deeper to the sternohyoideus. It arises from the body of the thyroid cornu of hyoid
bone and ends on the lamina of the thyroid cartilage.

3. Omohyoideus- Only part of this muscle is seen. Its origin is by aponeurotic tendon from the
2nd and 3rd cervical vertebrae under cover of the brachiocephalicus. The muscle passes
forwards and medially from under the sternohyoideus. The muscles of both the sides converge
the body of the hyoid for insertion. It is absent in carnivores.
Action: Synergistic to sternohyoid muscle.
Blood supply: Carotid artery
Nerve supply: 2nd cervical spinal nerve
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Hyiod bone: is situated between vertical rami of mandible. It extends obliquely downwards
and forwards. It consists of a body, lingual process and four pairs of cornuae.

VENTRAL FLEXORS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The number of ventral flexors of the vertebral column is small compared with the
elevators or dorsal flexors, lateral flexors and rotators. They are mainly confined to the cervical
region although there are powerful muscles on the ventral aspect of the caudal thoracic and
lumbar vertebrae. This facilitates the arching of lumbar segment and the back. These muscles
find attachment either on pelvis or femur and so are classified with muscles of pelvic girdle.
The only area in which the ventral aspect of vertebral column is completely devoid of muscles
is the mid-thoracic region. Certain muscles of shoulder girdle and abdominal muscles are also
involved in the ventral flexion of vertebral column.
1. Longus colli
2. Scalenus

1. Longus colli: lies on the ventral surface of the cervical and first 5 to 6 thoracic vertebrae.
Origin: The bodies of the first six thoracic vertebrae and the ventral surface of the transverse
processes of the cervical vertebrae except the atlas.
Insertion: The muscles of the thoracic part insert on the bodies and transverse processes of
the 6th and 7th cervical vertebrae, where as the cervical part inserts to the bodies of the cervical
vertebrae and the ventral tubercle of the atlas.
Action: to flex the neck ventrally.
Blood supply: Subcostal and vertebral arteries
Nerve supply: Cervical and dorsal spinal nerves

SPECIFIC ACTIVATORS OF HEAD

The specific muscles, which move the head provide the connection between the head
and trunk and they are especially responsible for initiating movements of atlanto-occipital and
atlanto-axial joints. Apart from them there are several other muscles which run between the
head and trunk and these too are responsible either directly or indirectly for moving the head.
These are sternocephalicus, brachiocephalicus, longissimus capitis and semispinalis.
The truly specific activators of head only run between cranial cervical vertebrae and
occipital bone. They are:
1. Rectus capitis dorsalis major
2. Rectus capitis dorsalis minor
3. Obliquus capitis cranialis
4. Obliquus capitis caudalis
5. Rectus capitis ventralis
6. Rectus capitis lateralis
7. Longus capitis

1. Rectus capitis dorsalis major: extends from the occipital to the axis.
Origin: Spine of the axis.
Insertion: Squamous occipital bone near the external occipital protuberance.
Action: to extend the head or the neck, ie. to raise the head.
Blood supply: Occipital artery
Nerve supply: 2nd cervical spinal nerves

2. Rectus capitis dorsalis minor: small and lies under the preceding.
Origin: from the dorsal arch of the atlas.
Insertion: to the supraoccipital.
Blood supply: Occipital artery
Nerve supply: 1st cervical spinal nerves
 47
In all domestic animals this muscle consists of a superficial and deep part, the latter
also being known as ‘Rectus capitis dorsalis intermedius’. It lies either in the midline, where it
is united with its fellow from the other side (carnivores and pig) or it is applied to the lateral
aspect of funicular part of the ligamentum nuchae (ruminants and horses).

3. Obliquus capitis cranialis: is a short, strong quadrilateral muscle, which fills the space
between atlas and the occipital bone. It is covered by splenius and brachiocephalicus muscles.
Origin: arises from the cranial border and ventral surface of the wing of the atlas.
Insertion: to the mastoid and jugular processes.
Action: extend the head, ie. dorsal flexion.
Blood supply: Occipital artery
Nerve supply: 1st cervical spinal nerves

4. Obliquus capitis caudalis: forms the cranial continuation of the multifidus system and is a
thick, quadrilateral muscle between the axis and wing of atlas.
Origin: From the spine of the axis and its caudal articular processes.
Insertion: Dorsal surface of wing of atlas.
Action: Acting unilaterally, it rotate the axis, ie. head around dens of axis. Bilateral action is to
fix the atlanto-axial joint.
Blood supply: Occipital artery
Nerve supply: 2nd cervical spinal nerves

5. Rectus capitis ventralis (Ventral straight muscle of the head): Short and weak. Lies
dorsolateral to longus capitis and runs between ventral arch of atlas and base of the skull being
inserted immediately behind the attachment of longus capitis.
Action: To assist the ventral flexion of atlanto-occipital joint.
Blood supply: Occipital artery
Nerve supply: 1st cervical spinal nerves

6. Rectus capitis lateralis (Lateral straight muscle of the head): It is a weak muscle.
Origin: From the ventral arch and wing of atlas.
Insertion: Paracondylar process.
Action: To flex the atlanto-occipital joint and incline the head obliquely.
Blood supply: Occipital artery
Nerve supply: 1st cervical spinal nerves

7. Longus capitis (Rectus capitis ventralis major): forms the continuation of the longus colli
in the region of the head and connects almost the entire ventral surface of the cervical vertebral
column to the base of the skull.
Origin: On the 6th to 3rd or 2nd cervical transverse processes.
Insertion: Basilar tubercle of the occipital bone.
Action: A strong flexor of the atlanto-occipital joint and a depressor of the head.
Blood supply: Vertebral and occipital arteries
Nerve supply: Cervical spinal nerves

FACIAL REGION

The muscles of the head are classified into six large groups on the basis of
topographical position, innervation and embryonic origin.
1. The muscle of the face or muscles of facial expression supplied by facial nerve.
2. The muscles of mastication innervated by the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve.
3. The extrinsic muscle of the eye innervated by oculomotor, trochlear and abducent nerves.
4. The laryngeal muscles supplied by vagus nerve.
5. The pharyngeal muscles innervated by the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
6. The extrinsic muscle of the tongue supplied by hypoglossal nerve.
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MUSCLES OF THE FACE

According to their embryonic development, facial muscles can be divided into a

superficial and a deep group (even though the latter may have lost its original relationship with
any facial structures).
1. Superficial facial muscles are innervated by different branches of facial nerve and are
associated with the movable skin of lips, cheeks, nose, eyelids and pinna of ear, which is very
movable in most mammals. These are called as the ‘mimetic muscles’ or ‘muscles of facial
expression’, even in animals. Facial nerve is known as the ‘nerve of expression’.
2. The deep branches of the facial nerve supplies the deep muscles of the face. This group
includes:
a. The caudal belly of digastricus (in carnivores and pigs this is not distinctly separated
from the rostral belly, which is supplied by trigeminal nerve).
b. Occipito-hyoid and stylo-hyoid muscles
c. Stapedius.

FACIAL MUSCULATURE

According to their position and function the facial muscles can be divided into 4 groups:
1. Muscles of lips and cheeks
2. Muscles of nose
3. Muscles of eyelids
4. Muscles of pinna of ear
1. MUSCLES OF LIPS AND CHEEKS

The muscles of lips and cheeks define rima oris and participate in the formation of lateral
wall of mouth cavity and sometimes external nares. They are usually insignificant muscles and
their size is largely dependant upon the use to which they are put into by different species of
animals.

a. Orbicularis oris: It forms much of the basic structure of the lips and so helps to outline the
rima oris. It is located between the skin and the mucus membrane and acts as a sphincter
muscle of the lips. It is almost circular in shape.
Action: to close the mouth and exert pressure on the labial glands.
Blood supply: Superior and inferior labial arteries
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

b. Levator nasolabialis: is a flat, thin extensive muscle. It extends from frontal and nasal
regions to the upper lip and lateral wing of nostrils. It is continuous above with the frontalis.
Action: to elevate upper lip and in carnivores, ruminants and horses to dilate nostrils.
Blood supply: Facial, dorsal, labial and malar arteries
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

c. Levator labii maxillaris (Levator labii superioris): arises from the facial tuber and
terminates by several tendons in the muzzle.
Action: To elevate the muzzle and the maxillary lip.
Blood supply: Superior labial artery
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

d. Caninus (Dilator naris lateralis): is located between the levator and depressor labii
maxillaris
Origin: facial tuber.
Insertion: lateral walls of nostrils.
Action: to pull back the upper lip or snout and dilate nostrils.
Blood supply: Superior labial artery
Nerve supply: Facial nerve
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e. Depressor labii maxillaris (Depressor labii superioris):
Origin: facial tuber and maxilla.
Insertion: to the upper lip and ventral portions of the nostrils.
Action: to depress the upper lip, snout or nasolabial plane.
Blood supply: Superior labial artery
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

f. Depressor labii mandibularis: absent in carnivores and in other domestic mammals it is

associated with the buccinator muscle. It lies along the ventral border of the buccinator with
which it is blended posteriorly.
Origin: It originates beneath the caudal portion of the chin.
Insertion: to the lower lip and adjacent skin of the chin.
Action: It retracts and depresses the lower lip and skin of chin.
Blood supply: Ventral labial artery
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

g. Zygomaticus: is a strong muscle.

Origin: from the zygomatic arch passing over the masseter and buccinator.
Insertion: to the angle of the mouth.
Action: to retract and raise the angle of the mouth. In carnivores it also pulls the scutiform
cartilage forwards and moves the skin of jowl.
Blood supply: Facial artery
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

h. Buccinator: (Bucca= cheek) It is broad flat muscle which forms the basis or major portion
of the cheek. It covers the buccal region between the maxilla and mandible. Its caudal part is
covered by masseter and in ungulates, it is divided into superficial and deep molar parts.
Origin: alveolar border of the maxilla and mandible from the angle of the mouth to the ramus.
Insertion: the fibres blend with orbicularis oris at the angle of the lips.
Action: to retract the angle of the mouth and flatten the cheek. It assists in mastication.
Blood supply: Facial and buccinator arteries
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

i. Incisive muscles: These are slender sheets lying immediately under labial mucosa. Each
incisive muscle comprises a larger, maxillary incisive muscle and a mandibular incisive muscle.
Origin: in the incisor region of the mandible and the incisive bone along the alveolar and
interdental border.
Insertion: in the orbicularis oris muscle.
Action: when acting together, to press the lips against the arch of incisor teeth and so exert
pressure on labial glands. Otherwise maxillary incisive muscle raises upper lip and mandibular
incisive muscle pulls the lower lip down.
Blood supply: Superior and inferior labial arteries
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

j. Mentalis: is considered to be an incomplete branch of labial part of the buccinator muscle. It

forms the greater part of fibromuscular pad of prominence of chin.
Action: to raise and corrugate the skin to which it is attached.
Blood supply: Mental artery
Nerve supply: Mental nerve

2. MUSCLES OF NOSE

Apart from muscles of the lips, which are also related to lateral wing of nostril (levator
nasolabialis and caninus), there are special nasal muscles in ruminants and horses. These are
either rudimentary or absent in carnivores and pigs.

1. Dilator naris apicalis: it is a small bundle of muscle fibres in the muzzle region.
 50
Origin: arise from the body of the incisive bone (premaxilla).
Insertion: curve obliquely upward and outward to the medial wing of the nostril.
Action: dilate nostrils.
Blood supply: Naso-labial artery
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

2. Lateralis nasi (lateral nasal muscle): Most powerful among the nasal muscles and it
consists of superficial and deep layers. The superficial layer is stronger and it arises from lateral
surface of nasal process of incisive bone to be inserted with branched tendons on lateral wall
of nostril. Deep layer runs from the apical part of ventral lateral cartilage of the nose to the
outer surface of the accessory nasal cartilage. It is completely covered by the superficial layer.
Blood supply: Facial and infraorbital arteries
Nerve supply: Facial and infraorbital nerves

3. Medial levator (dilator naris medialis): is smaller and blends with fibres coming from
dorsum of nose.
Origin: from the lateral nasal cartilage and in part from tendon of insertion of levator of upper
lip.
Insertion: It runs to the dorsal angle and dorsal part of medial wall of nostril.
Action: All the nasal muscles dilate the nostrils and the terminal part of upper respiratory tract.
Therefore they are responsible for the so-called ‘flaring’ of nostrils in horse.
Blood supply: Facial and infraorbital arteries
Nerve supply: Facial and infraorbital nerves

3. MUSCLES OF EYELIDS
1. Orbicularis oculi: is a flat elliptical sphincter muscle of the eyelids. The muscle fibres are
attached to the skin of the eyelids and the palpebral ligament at medial canthus. It consists of
a deeper and more powerful ‘orbital’ part, which lies directly against the rim of the orbit and a
smaller, superficial ‘palpebral’ part, which is situated within the eyelid itself.
Action: to reduce the interpalpebral space and close the eyelids.
Blood supply: Alar and frontal arteries
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

2. Levator anguli oculimedialis: The ‘medial levator of angle of eye’ was originally known as
‘corrugator supercilii’ or ‘superciliaris’. It is a small muscle, which is most well developed in
carnivores. It is replaced by frontalis muscle in ruminants.
Origin: from the frontal fascia.
Insertion: in the middle part of upper eyelid.
Action: to raise the medial half of the upper eyelid and to erect the tactile hairs in the region.
Blood supply: Frontal artery
Nerve supply: Facial nerve

3. Retractor anguli oculilateralis: The ‘lateral retractor of angle of eye’ is found only in
carnivores. It is a small muscle.
Origin: from temporal fascia.
Insertion: between the fibres of orbicularis oculi muscle at the lateral canthus of eye.
Action: to retract the lateral angle or canthus of eye when the lids close.

4. Malaris: is considered to be the palpebral part of deep sphincter colli muscle mostly in dog.
It is a broad thin muscle, which spreads out on the fascia over the buccinator and masseter.
Located rostral and ventral to the eye. The muscle is well developed in ox. But in other species
it takes the form of a thin sheet, which arises from the deep fascia of the face or in ruminants
from masseteric fascia to fan out from below into the lower eyelid.
Action: to depress the lower eyelid and in ruminants to raise the cheek.

5. Levator palpebrae superioris: situated in the orbit above dorsal rectus muscle.
 51
Origin: pterygoid crest opposite to the optic foramen
Insertion: upper eye lid.
Action: to raise the upper eye lid.
Blood supply: Ophthalmic artery
Nerve supply: Oculomotor nerve

3. MUSCLES OF EXTERNAL EAR

It is unnecessary for the human ear to be mobile because of great mobility of the head.
On the other hand, though the ears vary in size in different domestic mammals, they tend to
project from the head to act as ‘sound trumpets’ which can be rotated at their base in all
directions in the manner of a ball and socket joint. These animals therefore have a large
number of well developed auricular muscles, which arise in part from the skull and in part from
the scutiform cartilage. The scutiform cartilage is a triangular or rectangular cartilaginous plate
which lies on the temporal muscle in front of the base of the conchal cartilage. These muscles
radiate onto the concha from before, medially, from behind and laterally.

Extrinsic Muscles:
1. Roastral group:
a. Zygomatico-auricularis b. Scutuloauricularis superficialis and profundus
c. Fronto-scutularis d. Zygomatico-scutularis
2. Dorsal Group:
a. Parieto-auricularis b. Intersctularis
3. Caudal group:
a. Cervico-scutularis b. Cervicoauricularis superficialis, medius and profundus
4. Ventral group:
a. Parotido-auricularis

Intrinsic Muscles:
a. Tragicus b. Antitragicus c. Helicis d. Oblique and transverse auricularis

1. Parotido auricularis: is a superficial well developed fibrous sheet covering the parotid
gland.
Origin: the fascia of the ventral and the rostral parts of the parotid gland.
Insertion: on the ventro lateral aspect of the base of the auricular cartilage in common with the
zygomatico-auricularis

2. Zygomatico-auricularis: it arises from the zygomatic arch caudal to the lateral prominence
of the auricular cartilage.

3. Parieto auricularis: It covers the temporalis.

Origin: arises from the frontal crest and occipital bone.
Insertion: inserted to the auricular cartilage on its medial aspect.

4. Cervico-auricularis:
Origin: from the ligamentum nuchae and cervical fascia.
Insertion: to the medial face of the base of the concha.
Blood supply: External carotid, superficial temporal and occipital arteries
Nerve supply: Facial nerve and 1st and 2nd cervical spinal nerves

MUSCLES OF MASTICATION

These are situated in the mandibular region and they effect the movements of lower jaw
on the skull. Unlike the facial muscles, the muscles of mastication are extremely powerful and
 52
they exhibit considerable variations from species to species in regard to their development and
topography, depending on the arrangement of teeth and mandibular joint as well as the actual
mechanism involved in mastication.

1. Masseter: is strong broad flat muscle located on the lateral surface of the ramus of the
mandible. It is an extremely powerful muscle particularly in herbivores.
Origin: The facial tuber of maxilla and zygomatic arch.
Insertion: lateral surface of mandible.
Action: to close the jaw and move the mandible rostrally to assist in rumination.
Blood supply: Transverse facial, masseteric, external maxillary and deep temporal
arteries
Nerve supply: Mandibular nerve

2. Pterygoideus: Pterygoid muscles are weaker than masseter muscles but they complement
their actions. They take origin from palatine, sphenoid and pterygoid bones and are inserted
on the medial surface of mandible. They comprise a small dorso-laterally situated ‘lateral
pterygoid’ muscle and a much larger ‘medial pterygoid’ muscle which lies rostro-medially.
These muscles form the lateral wall of pharyngeal cavity with the mandibular nerve passing
between them.
Action: The medial pterygiod muscle is synergistic to masseter, while the lateral pterygoid pulls
the lower jaw forwards.
Blood supply: Pterygoid branches from internal maxillary artery
Nerve supply: Mandibular nerve

3. Temporalis: Powerful in carnivores. It lies in the temporal fossa covered by glistening fascia,
where it is partly covered by the muscles of the ear. Its insertion is on coranoid process of
mandible.
Action: To raise the mandible against maxilla and keep the two bones in tight apposition.
Blood supply: Deep temporal artery
Nerve supply: Mandibular nerve

4. Digastricus: As the name indicates it has two bellies- rostral and caudal, only in man and
horse, in which they are bound together by an intervening tendon. In ruminants, the rich
network of tendons in the middle part of digastric muscle gives it the appearance of having two
bellies, when in fact it has only one. In all domestic animals the muscle runs rostroventrally
between paracondylar process and inner surface of body of mandible. Shortly after its origin in
horse, the ventral belly gives rise to the occipito-mandibular part or muscle, which runs to the
angle of mandible.
Origin: from the jugular process of the occipital bone.
Insertion: on the medial surface of the body of the mandible.
Action: To depress the mandible, ie. to pull the mandible downwards and backwards and so
as to open the mouth. In the horse, it also helps in elevating the hyoid bone by tensing the
tendon of insertion. The rostral bellies are connected beneath the root of the tongue by a layer
of transverse mandibulae.
Blood supply: External maxillary artery
Nerve supply: Facial and mandibular nerves

5. Mylohyoideus: The two muscles fill up the intermandibular space in front of hyoid and form
a sling to support the tongue. It is an extrinsic muscle of the tongue. The muscles are situated
immediately below the skin of mandibular space and they are characterized by a raphae, which
conjoins them in the midline. Each muscle has a rostral and a caudal part in all species except
carnivores.
Action: to elevate the tongue and press it against hard palate.
Blood supply: Sublingual artery
Nerve supply: Mandibular nerve
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MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE

The bulk of the tongue consists of muscle, usually divided into intrinsic and extrinsic
groups. 3 pairs of extrinsic muscles exist.
Geniohyoideus: passes from incisive part of the mandible to the body of the hyoid bone. It
lies below, rather than within the tongue. Acts to draw the hyoid and thus tongue forward.
Extrinsic muscles:
1. Genioglossus: arises more dorsally than geniohyoideus and first runs back below the floor
of the mouth before dividing into bundles that fan upward in the sagittal plane. Those bundles
that turn forward to apex of tongue retract this part. Those that pass towards the root draw the
whole tongue forward. The middle group passes toward the upper surface (dorsum), it may
depress the dorsum.
2. Hyoglossus: originates from basihyoid, runs forward, lateral to genioglossus.
3. Styloglossus: takes origin from stylohyoid still more laterally.
Hyoglossus and styloglossus draw the tongue back. In addition to this, the styloglossus
tends to elevate it.
Intrinsic muscles: The intrinsic muscles (lingual muscle proper) are arranged in bundles that
run longitudinally, transversely and vertically. Simultaneous contraction of transverse and
vertical or perpendicular bundles stiffen the tongue. The intrinsic muscles consist of:
1. Deep longitudinal muscle bundles
2. Superficial longitudinal muscle bundles
3. Transverse muscle bundles
4. Perpendicular (vertical) muscle bundles

Longitudinal bundles extend in both superficial and deep layers from apex to root of the
tongue. Transverse fibres from side to side and perpendicular fibres have a dorso-ventral
orientation. Acting either singly or combined these muscles alter the shape of the tongue. The
simultaneous contraction of vertical and transverse fibres, lengthen tongue (if longitudinal
fibres are relaxed). Simultaneous contraction of longitudinal fibres, shorten the tongue
(transverse and vertical fibres are relaxed). Simultaneous contractions of all these groups
produce rigidity of tongue.
PHARYNGEAL MUSCLES
These are striated and consists of a series of bilateral pairs. They function under the
swallowing reflex and are not under direct voluntary control. Except for stylopharyngeus
caudalis, which is a dialator, all the pharyngeal muscles are constrictors and are all inserted
on pharyngeal raphae (ie. Median ridge in the pharynx).

A. CONSTRICTORS OF PHARYNX:

I. Rostral pharyngeal constrictors:

1. Pterygopharyngeus:
Origin : pterygoid bone.
Insertion: pharyngeal raphae.

2. Palatopharyngeus
Origin: from edge of palatine and pterygoid bones.
Insertion: rostral border of thyroid cartilage and pharyngeal raphae.
3. Stylopharyngeus rostralis: often absent.
Origin: medial suface of rostral end of stylohyoid.
Insertion: pharyngeal raphae.
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4. Hyopharyngeus: (middle pharyngeal constrictor)

Origin: caudal end of thyrohyoid.
Insertion: pharyngeal raphae.

II. Caudal pharyngeal constrictors:

1.Thyropharyngeus:
Origin: oblique line of thyroid lamina.
Insertion: pharyngeal raphae

2. Cricopharyngeus:
Origin: lateral surface of cricoid cartilage.
Insertion: pharyngeal raphae.

B.DILATOR OF PHARYNX:

Stylopharyngeus caudalis: arises from medial surface of dorsal third of stylohyoid, passes
rostroventrally between hyopharyngeus and caudal pharyngeal constrictrors and end in the
lateral wall of pharynx.
MUSCLES OF LARYNX

The cartilages of larynx are cricoid, thyroid, arytenoid and epiglottis.

I. Extrinsic muscles:
1. Thyrohyoideus
2. Hyoepiglotticus
3. Sternothyroideus
Together with hyoid muscles move the entire larynx especially during swallowing.

II. Intrinsic muscles:

Pass from one laryngeal cartilage to another and move them in relation to one another.
1. Cricothyroideus
2. Cricoarytenoideus dorsalis
3. Arytenoideus transversus
4. Cricoarytenoideus lateralis
5. Thyroarytenoideus
6. Ventricularis (in dog and horse) contained in ventricular fold (arises ventrally from thyroid
lamina to arytenoid cartilage).
7. Vocalis (dog and horse) lies inside vocal fold (arises ventrally from thyroid cartilage and
ends on arytenoid cartilage and also on vocal process).

INFRAORBITAL MUSCLES OF THE EYE (EXTRINSIC MUSCLES OF EYEBALL)

Straight muscles
1. Superior rectus (Dorsal rectus)
2. Inferior rectus (Ventral rectus) Oblique muscles
3. Medial rectus (Internal rectus) 1. Superior oblique
4. Lateral rectus ( External rectus) 2. Inferior oblique
Retractor muscle

1. Posterior rectus (Retractor bulbi)

Blood supply: Ophthalmic artery
Nerve supply: Oculomotor nerve supplies all muscles except superior oblique,
lateral rectus and retractor. Trochlear nerve supplies superior oblique. Abducent nerve
supplies and retractor.
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HYOID MUSCLES

I. DORSAL HYOID MUSCLES:

1. Mylohyoideus
2. Geniohyoideus– long fusiform muscle lying in the intermandibular space under cover
of mylohyoideus. It extends from incisive part of mandible to basihyoid (the lingual process
in ruminants and horses).
3. Stylohyoideus – from stylohyoid to thyrohyoid.
4. Occipitohyoideus – from paracondylar process to dorsal end of stylohyoid.
5. Ceratohyoideus – under hyoglossus; from ceratohyoid to thyrohyoid.
6. Hyoideus transversus – connects the two ceratohyoids.

II. VENTRAL HYOID MUSCLES:

1. Sternohyoideus
2. Sternothyroideus
3. Omohyoideus

MUSCLES OF SOFT PALATE

(Velum palatinum, palatum molle)

1. Palatinus: A median muscle from the free border of palatine bones to the caudal border
of soft palate. It shortens the soft palate. It is homologous to uvula of man.

2. Tensor veli palatini: from muscular process of tympanic part of temporal bone. It
accompanies the auditory tube. Its tendon is reflected around the hamulus of pterygoid
bone. The tensor tenses and straightens the rostral part of soft palate.

3. Levator veli palatini: originates with tensor from temporal bone, enter soft palate to
unite with the contralateral muscle in the median plane. The levator raises the soft
palate towards the base of the cranium.

These 3 paired muscles are responsible for the movement of soft palate.
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