Metal Forming Process

Hot working and cold working of metals – Forging

processes – Open, impression and closed die forging
– forging operations.
operations Rolling of metals– Types of
Rolling – Flat strip rolling – shape rolling operations
– Defects in rolled parts. Principle of rod and wire
drawing – Tube drawing – Principles of Extrusion –
Types – Hot and Cold extrusion.
extrusion
 Metal Forming ‐ Introduction
Metal forming is a manufacturing process in which
pp
forces are applied on raw material such that
stresses induced in the material are greater than
yyield stress and less than ultimate stress.

The material experiences plastic deformation to

change the shape of the component and converted
to the desired shape of the component.
Metal Forming ‐ Introduction
 Metal Forming ‐ Examples
A typical automobile uses formed parts such as
wheel rims, car body, valves, rolled shapes for
chassis stamped oil pan,
chassis, pan etc.
etc

In our daily
d l life
l f we use innumerable
bl formed
f d
products e.g. cooking vessels, tooth paste
containers, bicycle body, chains, tube fitting, fan
blades etc.
Metal Forming ‐ Classification
 Metal Forming ‐ Classification
Bulk deformation refers to the use of raw materials
for formingg which have low surface area to volume
ratio.

In bulk deformation processing methods,

methods the nature
of force applied may be compressive, compressive
and tensile,
tensile or a combination of these forces.
forces
 Metal Forming ‐ Classification
Sheet metal forming involves forming and cutting
operations performed on metal sheets, strips, and
coils.

The surface area‐to‐volume

area to volume ratio of the starting
metal is relatively high.

Tools include punch, die that are used to deform the

sheets.
 Cold Working, Hot Working and Warm 
Working
Recyrstallization Temperature
Wh
When a metalt l is
i heated
h t d and d deformed
d f d under
d
mechanical force, an energy level will be reached
when
hen the old grain
rain structure
str ct re (Which is coarse due
d e
to previous cold working) starts disintegrating.
Simultaneously an entirely new grain structure
Simultaneously,
(equi axed, stress free) with reduced grain size
starts forming.
forming This phenomenon is known as
recyrstallization and the temperature at which this
phenomenon starts is called “Recrystallization
temperature”
 Recrystallization Temperature
According to ASM, (American Society of Metals), the
recrystallization temperature is defined as “the
approximate minimum temperature at which the
complete recrystallization of a cold worked metal
occurs within a specified period of approximately
one hour”
 Recrystallization Temperature
Recrystallization decreases the strength and raises the
ductility of the metal
Factors affecting Recrystallization Temperature
yp of Metal
1. Type
For Pure metals Tcr = 0.3 Tm
For alloys Tcr = 0.5
Where Tm = Melting point of the metal
Recrystallization temperature of Lead and Tin is below the
room temperature and that for Cadmium and Zinc it is
room temperature
 Factors affecting Recrystallization 
Temperature
2. Effect of prior cold work
Higher
g the p prior cold work the lower will be the
recrystallization temperature

3. Function of time
The process involves diffusion, movement and
exchange of atoms across grain boundaries

For a constant amount of prior deformation by cold

working, the time required for recrystallization
decreases with increasing temperature
 Factors affecting Recrystallization 
Temperature
4. Smaller grain size before cold working decreases
recrystallization temperature

5. Increasing the rate of deformation decreases the

5
recrystallization temperature

6. Presence of second phase particles decreases

recrystallization temperature
 Cold Working
Plastic deformation of metals performed generally
at room temperature (i.e., below the
recrystallization temperature) is known as cold
working.
In some cases, slightly elevated temperatures may
be used to p
provide increased ductilityy and reduced
strength.
Cold
C ld working
ki offers
ff a number
b off distinct
di ti t
advantages, and for this reason various cold‐
working processes have become extremely
important.
 Cold Working ‐ Advantages
1. Cost: No heating is required and thus cold
workingg is less costlyy

2. Surface qquality:
y There is no scale formation on
the metal. No post process cleaning of the product
q
is required and better surface finish is obtained

3. Product quality: Better dimensional control is

achieved; therefore, no secondary machining
operation is generally needed
 Cold Working ‐ Advantages
4. Product reproducibility: There is better
reproducibility and interchangeability of parts

5. Product properties: Although large energy is

required for deformation; part of this energy is utilized
i increasing
in i i strength,
h fatigue,
f i andd wear properties
i off
products

6. Material quality: No decarburization of the surface

occurs. There is no loss of material, as also negligible
contamination problems

7. Handlingg pproblems: Almost no handlingg p

problems
exist with cold metal
 Cold Working ‐ Disadvantages
1. Limited materials: Brittle materials cannot be
cold worked
2. Limited products: Big and bulky parts cannot be
easily formed.
formed Strain hardening occurs (may require
intermediate annealing)
3. Limited deformation: Metals are less ductile at
room temperature and, so, less deformation is
possible
ibl
q
4. Power requirement: Higher
g forces are required
q
for deformation
 Cold Working ‐ Disadvantages
5. Equipment capacity: Heavier and more powerful
q p
equipment is required
q

6. Surface quality: Metal surfaces before

deformation must be clean and scale‐free

7. Product quality: Undesirable residual stresses

may be present in the component
 Hot Working   (0.5 – 0.75Tm)
Plastic deformation of metal carried out at a
t
temperature
t above
b th recrystallization
the t lli ti temperature
t t i
is
called hot working.

In hot working,
working the temperature at which the
working is completed is critical since any extra heat left
in the material after working will promote grain growth,
leading to poor mechanical properties of material.
 Hot Working   ‐ Advantages 
1. Power requirement: Lesser forces and, therefore,
lesser p
power is needed for deformation

2. Material requirement: All ductile as well as some

2
brittle materials can be formed

3. Material properties: No strain hardening and no

residual
id l stresses
t remain
i in
i the
th material
t i l
 Hot Working   ‐ Advantages 
4. Amount of deformation: Greater ductility of
material is available and,, therefore,, more
deformation is possible. Bulky jobs can be worked
p
upon

5. Product quality: Favorable grain size is obtained,

leading to better mechanical properties of Materials
 Hot Working   ‐ Disadvantages 
1. Power requirement: Heat energy is needed and
thus p
proves to be costlyy

2. Limited materials: Materials which become

brittle at higher temperatures cannot be hot worked

3. Material loss: Scale formation causes loss of

material Surface quality: Poor surface finish of
material due to scale formation
 Hot Working   ‐ Disadvantages 
4. Surface quality: Poor surface finish of material
due to scale formation

5. Surface degradation: Surface of ferrous metals is

decarburized and hardness at surface may be poor

6. Product quality: There is poor accuracy and

dimensional control of parts
 Warm Working:
Metal deformation carried out at temperatures
intermediate to hot and cold formingg is called Warm
Forming .

Compared to cold forming, warm forming offers

several advantages

• Lesser loads on tooling and equipment

• Greater metal ductility
• Fewer number of annealing operation ( because
of less strain hardening )
 Warm Working:
Compared to hot forming, warm forming offers the
following advantages.
• Lesser amount of heat energy requirement
• Better p precision of components
p
• Lesser scaling on parts
• Lesser decarburization of parts
• Better dimensional control
• Better surface finish
• Lesser thermal shock on tooling
• Lesser
L th
thermall fatigue
f ti t tooling,
to t li and
d so greater
t
life of tooling.
Effect of hot working and cold working
 Difference between hot and cold working
S.No Hot Working Cold Working
1 Hot working is carried out above
the recrystallization temperature Cold working is carried out
and below the melting point. below the recrystallization
temperature As
temperature.
Hence the deformation of metal
such, there is no
and recovery take place appreciable recovery.
simultaneously
simultaneously.
2 No internal or residual stresses In cold working process
are set-up
p in the metal in hot internal or residual stresses
working process. are set-up in the metal.
3 If cracks and blow boles are In cold working the existing
present in the metal, they can cracks propagate and new
be finished through hot working. cracks may develop.
 Difference between hot and cold working
S.No Hot Working Cold Working
Close tolerance can not be Better tolerance can be
4
maintained. easily maintained.
Surface finish of hot working
Surface finish of cold
5 process is comparatively not
working process is better.
good.
g
It also results in
It results in improvements of
improvements of
6 properties like impact
properties like impact
strength and elongation.
strength and elongation.
 Difference between hot and cold working
S.No Hot Working Cold Working
If hot working process is
It improves ultimate tensile
performed properly, it does not
strength, hardness, yield
affect ultimate tensile strength,
7 g but reduces the
strength
hardness corrosion resistance
hardness,
corrosion resistance of strength
yield strength and fatigue strength
of the metal.
of the metal.
Since cold working is done
Due to recrystallisation very
below recrystallisation
8 negligible hardening of metal
temperature the metal gets
takes place.
work hardened.
Hot working refines metal grains Most of the cold working
9 resulting in in processes lead to distortion of
improved mechanical properties. grains.
 Difference between hot and cold working
S.No Hot Working Cold Working
Due to higher deformation
The stress required to cause
10 temperatures, the stress required
deformation is much higher.
for deformation is much less.
 Forging 
• It is a deformation process in which the work
piece is compressed between two dies, using either
impact load or hydraulic load (or gradual load) to
deform it.
• It is used to make a variety of high‐strength
p
components for automotive,, aerospace,
p , and other
applications.
• The
Th components t include
i l d engine i crankshafts,
k h ft
connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components jet engine turbine parts etc.
components, etc
Why Forging
 Forging Operations
Upsetting :‐
When a piece of stock is worked in such a way that
its length is shortened and either or both its
thickness and width (or diameter of a circular block)
is increased, the piece is sent to be upset and the
operation is known as upsetting
 Forging Operations
Heading :‐
When the upsetting is done in such a way that the
section of the stock is increased only on one end of
the stock, the operation is called as heading
 Forging Operations
Edging :‐
The function of edging or rolling operation is to
distribute the metal longitudinally by moving the
metal from the portion of the stock where it is in
excess to the portion which is deficient in metal
 Forging Operations
Fullering :‐

IIt is
i theh operation i off
reducing the stock between
the
h two endsd off the
h stockk at
a central place, so as to
i
increase i length.
its l h

The metal flow is outward

and away from the centre
of the fuller.
fuller
 Forging Operations
Drawing down or Cogging operation:‐
Cogging is an open die forging process in which flat
or slightly contoured die are employed to compress
a work piece, reducing its thickness and increasing
its length.
 Forging Operations
Blocking :‐
It is a forging operation which imparts to the forging in
general, but not exact or final shape. This operation is
done just prior to finishing operations.

Swaging
In this process, the diameter of a rod or a tube is
reduced by forcing it into a confining die.

A set of reciprocation dies provides radial blows to

q
cause the metal to flow inward and acquire the form of
the die cavity.
 Forging Operations
The die movements may be of in – and – out type or
y
rotary.

The latter type

yp is obtained with the helpp of a set of
rollers in a cage, in a similar action as in a roller
g
bearing.

The workpiece is held stationary and the dies rotate,

the dies strike the workpiece at a rate as high as 10 ‐
20 strokes per second.
Forging Operations ‐ Swaging

Screwdriver blades and 
g p
soldering iron tips are 
typical examples of swaged 
p
products
 Forging Operations ‐ Coining
Metal coining
Forging process by which very fine and intricate details
can be created on the surface of a work piece.
Coiningg mayy be used to control surface q
qualityy and detail on
parts.
Metal coining is often a finishing process for manufactured
products.
This is a flashless,
flashless precision forging operation,
operation In the coining
process, a large amount of force is exerted on the forging,
over a short distance.
Mechanical presses are often used for these operations.
Forging Operations ‐ Coining
 Forging Operations summary
Upsetting
Heading
Edging
Fullering
Drawing down or cogging operation
Blockingg
Swaging
Coiningg
Trimming
ec g
Piercing
blanking
 Classification of Forging processes 
By equipment

1)) Forging hammer

h or drop
d h
hammer

2) Press forging

Byy p
process

1) Open ‐ die forging

2) Closed ‐ die forging

 Forging Machines ‐ Board Hammer
The upper die and ram are raised by friction
rolls gripping the board.

After releasing the board, the ram falls under

gravity to produce the blow energy.

The hammer can strike between 60‐150 blows

per minute depending on size and capacity.

The board hammer is an energy restricted

machine. The blow energy supplied equals the
potential energy due to the weight and the
height of the fall.
This energy will be delivered to the metal workpiece to produce
plastic deformation.
deformation
Potential energy = mgh
 Drop Hammer 
Provide rapid impact blows to the surface of the
metal.
Dies are in two halves
Lower : fixed to anvil
Upper : moves up and down
with
h the
h TUP.
Energy (from a gravity drop) is adsorbed onto the
metal in which the maximum impact is on the metal
metal,
surface.
Dies are expensive being accurately machined from
special alloys (susceptible to thermal shock).
Drop forging is good for mass production of complex
shapes.
shapes
Potential energy = mgh
 Power Hammer
Power hammer provides greater capacity,
in which the ram is accelerated on the
down stroke by steam or air pressure in
addition to gravity.
Steam or air p
pressure is also used to raise
the ram on the upstroke.
The total energy supplied to the blow in a
power drop hammer is given by
W = mv2 + pAH = (mg pA)H
Where m = mass
v = velocity of ram at start of deformation, g = acceleration of gravity
p = air
i or steam
t pressure acting
ti on ram cylinder
li d on downstroke
d t k
A = area of ram cylinder, H = height of the ram drop
 Power Hammer
An important feature of the power hammer is that the
energy of the blow can be controlled, whereas in the
board hammer the mass and height of fall are fixed.
fixed

Power hammers are preferred over board hammers for

closed die forging

Equipment ranges in sizes from 5 to 200 KN and can

produce forgings ranging in weight from a few Kg to
several tones.
tones

Forging hammer also has the shortest contact time

under pressure, ranging from 1 to 10 milliseconds.
 Hydraulic press
Using a hydraulic press or a mechanical
press to forge the metal, therefore, gives
continuous forming at a slower rate.
Provide deeper penetration.
Better properties (more homogeneous).
Equipment is expensive.
Hydraulic presses are load restricted
machines in which hydraulic pressure
moves a piston in a cylinder.
The full press load is available at any point
during the full stroke of the ram.

Therefore, hydraulic presses are ideally suited for extrusion‐type

forging operation.
 Hydraulic press
Due to slow speed, contact time is longer at the die‐
metal interface, which causes problems such as heat
lost from workpiece and die deterioration.

Also provide close‐tolerance

close tolerance forging.
forging

Hydraulic presses are more expensive than

mechanical presses and hammers.

Hydraulic presses are available in ratings from 500

,
to 18,000 tonnes,, although
g several p presses with
ratings of 50,000 tonnes have been built.
 Mechanical Press Forging
Crank press translates
rotary motion into
reciprocating linear motion
of the press slide.
The ram stroke is shorter
than
h in a hammer
h or
hydraulic press.

Presses are rated on the basis of the force developed at the

end of the stroke.
stroke
The blow press is more like squeeze than like the impact of
the hammer,
hammer therefore,
therefore dies can be less massive and die life
is longer than with a hammer.
 Mechanical Press Forging
Mechanical presses with load ratings 300 to 12,000 tonnes are
available.

Initial cost of a press is much higher than that of a hammer, so that

large productions runs are needed.

The production rate is comparable to that of a hammer, but since

each blow is of equal force, a press may be less suitable for
carrying out preliminary shaping and finishing operations in the
same piece of equipment.

The total energy supplied during the stroke of a press is given by

1 2 2
W= I(ω0 -ω
W ωf )
2
Where I is moment of inertia of the flywheel
Open die Forging Process
 Open die Forging Process
Open die forging is carried out between flat dies or
dies of veryy simple
p shape.p The p process is used
mostly for large objects or when the number of
parts p
p produced is small.

This process is also called Upsetting or flat die

forging

Open die
O di forging
f i is i used
d to
t perform
f th workpiece
the k i
for closed die forging.
 Open die Forging Process
In open‐die forging, barreling occurs. Barreling is caused
primarily by frictional forces at the die ‐ workpiece
interfaces that oppose the outward flow of the
materials at these interfaces.

Barreling can be minimized if an effective lubricant is

used.
used

Barreling can also occur in upsetting hot workpieces

between cold dies.
The material at and near the interfaces cools rapidly,
rapidly
while the rest of the workpiece remains relatively hot.
 Open die Forging Process
Thus, the material at the ends of the workpiece has
g
higher resistance to deformation than the material
at its center.
Consequently,
C l the
h centrall portion
i off the
h workpiece
k i
expands laterally to a greater extent than do its
ends
d
Barreling from thermal effects can be reduced or
eliminated by using heated dies; thermal barriers
such as glass cloth at the die – workpiece interfaces
are also used.
 Closed Die Forging

Starting stage              Intermediate stage     Final stage with flash 
formation 
Closed die forging called as impression die forging is
performed in dies which has the impression that will
be imparted to the work piece through forming.
 Closed Die Forging
In the intermediate stage, the initial billet deforms
partiallyy ggivingg a bulged
p g shape.
p

During the die full closure, impression is fully filled

with deformed billet and further moves out of the
impression to form flash.

In multi stage operation, separate die cavities are

required
i d for
f shape
h change.
h
 Closed Die Forging
In the initial stages, uniform distribution of
properties
p p and microstructure are seen.

In the final stage,

g actual shape
p modification is
observed.

When drop forging is used, several blows of the

hammer may be required for each step.
 Closed Die Forging
Impression die forging is not capable of making
j
close tolerance objects.

Machiningg is ggenerallyy required

q to achieve the
accuracies needed.

The basic geometry of the part is obtained from the

forging process, with subsequent machining done
on those portions of the part that require precision
finishing like holes, threads etc.
Forging a Connecting Rod
 Flashless forging 
In flashless forging,
forging most important is that the work
piece volume must equal the space in the die cavity
within a very close tolerance.
tolerance

If the startingg billet size is too large,

g , excessive
pressures will cause damage to the die and press.

If the billet size is too small, the cavity will not be

filled.
 Flashless forging 
Because off the
B th demands,
d d this
thi process is
i suitable
it bl to
t
make simple and symmetrical part geometries, and
t workk materials
to t i l such
h as Al,
Al Mg
M and
d their
th i alloys.
ll

Coining is a simple application of closed die forging

in which fine details in the die impression are
impressed into the top or/and bottom surfaces of
the work piece.
 Roll forging: 
It is a forming process used to reduce the cross
section of a cylindrical
y or rectangular
g rod byy p
passingg
it through a set of opposing rolls that have matching
ggrooves w.r.t. the desired shape
p of the final p
part.

It combines both rolling and forging, but classified

as forging operation.
Roll forging: 
 Roll forging
Depending on the amount of deformation, the rolls
rotate partially.
p y
Roll‐forged parts are generally stronger and possess
desired grain structure compared to machining that
might be used to produce the same part.
 Roll forging
A particular type of roll forging called skew rolling is
used for makingg spherical
p balls for ball bearings.
g

In this process, the cylindrical bar stock is fed

through the gap between a pair of grooved rollers
which are rotating.

Continuous rotation of the rolls and the stock gives

raise
i to
t formation
f ti off a spherical
h i l shaped
h d blank,
bl k
which is subsequently finished to required
di
dimensions.
i
Roll forging
 Orbital forging: 
In this process, forming is imparted to the
p
workpiece byy means of a cone‐shaped
p upper
pp die
that is simultaneously rolled and pressed into the
work.

The work is supported on a lower die.

Because of the inclined axis of cone, only a small

area of the work surface is compressed at any stage
of forming
Orbital forging: 
 Orbital forging: 
As the upper die revolves, the area under
p
compression also revolves.

Because of partial deformation contact at any stage

of forming, there is a substantial reduction in press
load requirement.
Orbital forging: 
 Isothermal forging: 
It is a hot‐forging operation in which the work is
p
maintained at some elevated temperature duringg
forming.

The forging dies are also maintained at the same

p
elevated temperature.

By avoiding chill of the work in contact with the cold

die surfaces, the metal flows more readily and the
force requirement is reduced.
 Isothermal forging: 
The process is expensive than conventional forging
and is usuallyy meant for difficult‐to‐forgeg metals,,
like Ti, superalloys, and for complex part shapes.

The process is done in vacuum or inert atmosphere

p oxidation of the die material.
to avoid rapid
Forging Defects
 Extrusion
Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the
work metal is forced or compressed to flow through
a die hole to produce a desired cross‐sectional
shape.

Example: squeezing toothpaste from a toothpaste

tube.
tube

Lead, copper, aluminum, magnesium and alloys of

these metals are commonly extruded, taking
advantage of the relatively low yield strengths and
low hot working temperatures.
 Extrusion
Steels, stainless steels and nickel based alloys are far
more difficult to extrude.

Their yield strengths are high and the metal has the
tendenc to weld
tendency eld to the walls
alls of the die and
confining chamber under the required conditions of
temperature and pressure.
pressure

With the development and use of phosphate –

based and molten glass lubricants, substantial
quantities of extrusions are now produced from
high strength, high temperature metals.
 Extrusion
These lubricants are able to withstand the required
temperatures and adhere to the billet, flowing and
thinning in a way that prevents metal – to – metal
contact throughout the process.
Almost any cross sectional shape can be extruded from
the nonferrous metals.
Size limitations are few because presses are now
available that can extrude any shape that can be
enclosed within a 750 mm circle.
In case of steels and the other high strength metals,
the shapes and sizes are more limited
 Extrusion
Advantages :

‐ Variety off shapes

h are possible,
bl especially
ll using hot
h
extrusion

‐ Grain structure and strength properties are

enhanced in cold and warm extrusion

‐ Close tolerances are p

possible, mainlyy in cold
extrusion
 Extrusion
Limitations:

The cross section

Th i off the
h extruded
d d part must be
b
uniform throughout its length.

The force required is high, even when they are hot

extruded.

The tooling cost and setup is expensive for the

extrusion process, but the actual manufactured part
cost is less expensive when produced in significant
quantities.
titi
 Types of Extrusion: 
By Direction

1. Direct
i / Forward
d extrusion
i

2 Indirect / Reverse / backward extrusion

2.

By operating temperature
Hot / Cold Extrusion

By equipment
Horizontal / Vertical Extrusion
 Direct Extrusion
In forward extrusion, the ram travels in the same
direction as the extruded section,, and there is
relative movement between the billet and the
container
 Direct Extrusion ‐ Sequence of operations 
The heated billet and the dummy block are loaded into
the container

The billet is extruded by the force of the ram being

pushed against it.

This upsets the billet, then forces the metal to flow

through the die.

During extrusion,
extrusion a thin shell of material may be left on
the container walls.

Extrusion is halted in order to leave a thin disk of

material (butt) in the container
 Direct Extrusion ‐ Sequence of operations 
The container is separated from the die, the
extruded section with the butt, and the dummy
block

The
h discard
d d (butt)
(b ) is sheared
h d off
ff

The shear die,

die the container,
container and the ram are
returned to their initial (loading) positions
 Making hollow shapes using direct extrusion 
Hollow sections like tubes can be made using direct
extrusion setup shown in the figure.
The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to
its axis.
A the
As h billet
bill is
i compressed, d the
h materiali l will
ill flow
fl
through the gap between the mandrel and the die
opening.
i
 Backward Extrusion
In backward extrusion, the billet does not move
relative to the container,, and a die or p punch is
pushed against the billet to produce solid parts.

Indirect extrusion: solid billet and hollow billet 
 Backward Extrusion
In backward extrusion of a solid workpiece, the die
is p
pushed byy the hollow stem and moves relative to
the container, but there is no relative displacement
between the billet and the container.

As a result, there is no frictional stress at the

billet/container interface; therefore, the extrusion
load and the temperature generated by
deformation and friction are reduced.
 Advantages of Backward Extrusion
A 25 to 30% reduction in maximum load relative to
direct extrusion

Extrusion ppressure is not a function of billet length,

g ,
because there is no relative displacement between
the billet and the container. Therefore,, billet length
g
is not limited by the load required for this
p
displacement but onlyy byy the length
g and stabilityy of
the hollow stem needed for a given container length
 Advantages of Backward Extrusion
No heat is produced by friction between the billet
and the container; consequently, no temperature
increase occurs at the billet surface toward the end
of extrusion, as is typical in the direct extrusion of
aluminum alloys.y Therefore,, in backward extrusion,,
there is a lesser tendency toward cracking of the
surfaces and edges, and extrusion speeds can be
significantly higher

The service life of the tooling is increased, especially

that of the inner liner, because of reduced friction
and temperatures
 Disadvantages of indirect extrusion
The disadvantage of backward extrusion is that
impurities or defects on the billet surface affect the
surface of the extrusion and are not automatically
retained as a shell or discard in the container. As a
result, machined billets are used in many cases. In
addition, the cross‐sectional area of the extrusion is
limited by the size of the hollow stem.
stem
Typical load versus ram displacement curves for 
p
nonlubricated extrusion processes
 Comparison between Direct and Indirect 
Extrusion
Direct Extrusion Indirect Extrusion

In solid backward extrusion the

In this process the slug or the
die is mounted on to the end of
billet is kept in the container
the hollow ram and enters the
portion of the die.
container.
 Comparison between Direct and Indirect
Extrusion
Direct Extrusion
The required force is applied to
the slug by means of the ram
through the pressure plate The
direction in which the material
leaves the die is the same as that
of punch motion, hence the name
forward extrusion
Since there is relative motion
between the wall of the container
and the billet, the frictional forces
g
are higher and the p power
required for extrusion is more
 
Indirect Extrusion
During the travel of the ram the
die applies pressure on the billet
and the deformed metal flow
through the die opening in the
direction opposite to that of ram
motion, hence the name
backward extrusion.
Since there is no relative motion
between the wall of the container
and the billet, the friction forces
are lower and the ppower required
q
is less.
 Comparison between Direct and Indirect
Extrusion
Direct Extrusion
No practical limitations in forward 
extrusion
In hot extrusion,
extrusion the extruded
product is directly exposed to the
atmosphere, hence gets oxidized.
No limitation in the length of the
extruded product
 
Indirect Extrusion
Practical limitations are
requirement of a hollow ram
which limits the loads that can be
applied and the length of the
extruded product.
Extruded products are not
oxidized, since they are protected
by the hollow ram
The length of the product
depends upon the length of the
hollow ram
Sejournet process
 Sejournet process
The Sejournet process is the most commonly used for
the extrusion of steels and titanium alloys.

In this process, the heated billet is rolled over a bed of

ground glass or is sprinkled with glass powder to
provide
id a layer
l off low‐melting
l li glass
l on the
h billet
bill
surface.
Before the billet is inserted into the hot extrusion
container, a suitable lubricating system is positioned
immediately ahead of the die.
die

This lubricating system can be a compacted glass pad,

glass wool, or both.
 Sejournet process
The prelubricated billet is quickly inserted into the
container, along with the appropriate followers or a
d
dummy bl k
block.

The extrusion cycle is then started.

As a lubricant, glass exhibits unique characteristics,

such as its ability to soften selectively during contact
with the hot billet and, simultaneously, to insulate the
hot billet material from the tooling.
tooling

Glass lubricants have p performed satisfactorilyy on a

production basis in extruding long lengths.
 Sejournet process
Lubricants can be classified into two groups,
accordingg to temperature:
p

Below 1000 °CC (1830 °F):

F): Grease lubrication,
lubrication such as
grease, graphite, molybdenum disulfide, mica, talc,
soap bentonite,
soap, bentonite asphalt,
asphalt and plastics (for example,
example
high‐temperature polyimides)

Above 1000 °C (1830 °F): Glass lubrication, such as

glass, basalt, and crystalline powder
Hydrostatic Extrusion
Hydrostatic Extrusion
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
IN HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION, the billet in the
container is extruded throughg the die byy the action
of a liquid pressure medium rather than by direct
pp
application of the load with a ram.

The p process of ppure hydrostatic

y extrusion differs
from conventional extrusion processes in that the
billet is completely surrounded by a fluid, which is
sealed off and is pressurized sufficiently to extrude
the billet through the die.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
Hydrostatic extrusion can be done hot, warm, or
cold and can be used to extrude brittle materials
that cannot be processed by conventional extrusion.

Hydrostatic
H d i extrusion
i also
l allows
ll greater reductions
d i
in area (higher extrusion ratios) than either cold or
conventional
i l hot
h extrusion.
i
 Hydrostatic Extrusion ‐ Advantages
There is no friction between the billet and the
container. Therefore, the pressure at the beginning of
extrusion
t i is i much h lower,
l and
d billets
bill t off any length
l th can
theoretically be extruded

Friction at the die can be significantly reduced by a film

of p
pressurized lubricant between the deformingg metal
and the die surface

The lower extrusion pressures and the reduced die

friction of hydrostatic extrusion allow the use of either
higher extrusion ratios or lower extrusion temperatures
 Hydrostatic Extrusion ‐ Disadvantages
Containment of the fluid under high pressure (up to
2 GPa)) requires
q reliable seals between the container
bore surface and both the ram and die.

The billet is usually machined all over to remove

surface defects that would otherwise reappear on
the extruded product. This is especially true when
cast billets are being used
Miscellaneous Extrusion Process
Impact Extrusion
 Impact Extrusion
Impact extrusion of collapsible tube by Hooker 
p
process

Impact extrusion of collapsible tube by Hooker process
 Impact Extrusion
A process often included in the category of cold
extrusion,, is similar to indirect extrusion.

In impact
p extrusion, the p
punch descends at a high
g
speed and strikes the blank (slug), extruding it
p
upward.

The thickness of the extruded tubular section is a

function of the clearance between the punch and
the die cavity
 Impact Extrusion
The impact extrusion process usually produces
tubular sections with wall thicknesses that are small
in relation to their diameters.

The concentricity between the punch and the blank

is important for uniform wall thickness.
thickness

A typical example of impact extrusion is the

production of collapsible tubes, such as for
toothpaste and shaving creams
 Impact Extrusion
The amount of distance traveled by the punch is
determined byy the settingg of the p
press.

A variety of nonferrous metals are impact extruded

in this manner into various shapes suing vertical
presses at production rates as high as two parts per
second
Lateral Extrusion / Side extrusion 
Lateral Extrusion / Side extrusion 
 Lateral Extrusion / Side extrusion 
A special type of extrusion in which the material
movement is p perpendicular
p or side wards to the
direction of punch travel

This principle is applied to the lead sheathing of

cable.
cable
Extrusion Defects and Remedies
Surface cracking

Extrusion defect

Internal cracking
Internal cracking
 Extrusion Defects – Surface Cracking

If the extrusion temperature, friction, or extrusion

speed is too high, surface temperatures rise
significantly, which leads to surface cracking and
tearing
i (Fir‐tree
(Fi cracking
ki or speed
d cracking)
ki )
 Extrusion defect

The type of metal flow observed in fig. tends to

p
draw surface oxides and impurities toward the
center of the billet, much like a funnel. This defect is
known as extrusion defect, p pipe,
p tailpipe
p p and fish
tailing
 Internal cracking 

The center of an extruded product can develop cracks (variously

known as centerburst, center cracking, arrowhead fracture and
chevron cracking).
cracking)

The major variables affecting hydrostatic tension are the die angle,
the extrusion ratio (reduction in cross sectional area), and friction;
 Rolling
Rolling is a metal forming process in which the
thickness of the work is reduced by compressive forces
exerted by two rolls rotating in opposite direction.

Flat rollingg is shown in figure.

g

Similarly shape rolling is also possible like a square cross

section is formed into a shape such as an I‐beam, I beam L‐
L
beam.
Rolling
 Rolling
Rolling is generally the first process that is used to
convert material into a finished wrought product.

Large
g size startingg stock ((called ingot)
g ) is rolled into
blooms, billets, or slabs.

Slabs can be further rolled to produce plate, sheet,

p
and strip.

These hot‐rolled products are mostly the starting

material
t i l for
f subsequent
b t processing
i such
h as cold
ld
forming, machining, or welding.
 Terminologies
Bloom: A bloom has a square or rectangular cross‐section,
cross‐section
with a thickness equal to or greater than 150 mm and
width ranging between 150 mm to 300 mm.
Billet: A billet is smaller than a bloom and has a square
cross‐section of 40 mm x 40 mm or more but less than
bloom
b oo ssize.
e
Slab: A slab has a rectangular cross‐section with the width
greater than thrice the thickness. Generally, it is of 250
mm width x 40 mm thickness but can also be larger.
Plate: A plate is solid of rectangular cross‐section having a
thickness greater than 6 mm but less than 40 mm.
mm
Sheet: A sheet is generally less than 6 mm thick.
Foil: A foil is a thin sheet (less than 0.01 mm thick)
Terminologies
 Terminologies
Blooms are rolled into structural shapes like rails for
railroad tracks.

Billets are rolled into bars, rods. They become raw

materials for machining, wire drawing, forging,
extrusion etc.

Slabs are rolled into plates, sheets, and strips. Hot

rolled plates are generally used in shipbuilding,
bridges, boilers, welded structures for various heavy
machines, and many other products.
 Terminologies
The plates and sheets are further reduced in
thickness byy cold rollingg to strengthen
g the metal
and permits a tighter tolerance on thickness.

Important advantage is that the surface of the cold‐

rolled sheet does not contain scales and generally
g y
superior to the corresponding hot rolled product.

Later the cold‐rolled sheets are used for stampings,

exterior panels, and other parts used in automobile,
aerospace and house hold appliance industries.
Rolling Mills
 Rolling Mills ‐ Two high rolling mill: 
This type of rolling mill consists of two rolls rotating in
opposite directions.

Roll diameters: 0.6 to 1.4 m

Types: either reversing or non‐reversing.

non‐reversing

Non‐reversing mill: rolls rotate only in one direction, and the

slab always move from entry to exit side.
side

Reversing mill: direction of roll rotation is reversed, after each

pass, so that
h theh slab
l b can beb passed d through
h h in
i both
b h theh
directions. This permits a continuous reductions to be made
through the same pairs of rolls.

usually employed for initial rolling of an ingot.

 Rolling Mills – Three high rolling mill
In this case, there are three rolls one above the other.

At a time,
time for single pass,
pass two rolls will be used.
used The roll
direction will not be changed in this case.

The top two rolls will be used for first reduction and the
sheet is shifted to the bottom two rolls and further
reduction is done.
done

This cycle is continued till actual reduction is attained.

Disadvantage: automated mechanism is required to shift

the slab

used to billet rolling, blooming or finish rolling

 Rolling Mills – Four high rolling mill
This consists of two small rolls for thickness reduction and
two large backing rolls to support the small rolls.

The small rolls will reduce the roll force required as the roll‐
sheet contact area will be reduced.
reduced

The large
g backingg rolls are required
q to reduce the elastic
deflection of small rolls when sheet passes between them.

The common product of these mills are hot or cold rolled 
Th d t f th ill h t ld ll d
sheets and plates.
 Cluster Rolling Mill / Sendzimir Mill
In this type of rolling mill,
mill each of working roller is
backup by two or more of larger backup roller.

This machine is used for rolling hard material.

 Tandem rolling mill 
To achieve higher throughput rates in standard
products,, a tandem rollingg mill is often used.
p

This configuration
g consists of a series of rollingg
stands

Although only three stands are shown in sketch, a

typical tandem rolling mill may have eight or ten
stands, each making a reduction in thickness or a
refinement in shape of the work passing through.
 Tandem rolling mill 
With each rollingg step,
p, work velocityy increases,, and the p problem
of synchronizing the roll speeds at each stand is a significant one.

Modern tandem rolling mills are often supplied directly by

continuous casting operations.

These setups
set ps achieve
achie e a high degree of integration among the
processes required to transform starting raw materials into
finished products.

Advantages include elimination of soaking pits, reduction in floor

space, and shorter manufacturing lead times.

These technical advantages translate into economic benefits for a

mill that can accomplish continuous casting and rolling.
rolling
Planetary Rolling Mill
 Planetary Rolling Mill
In this type of rolling machine, a large backup roller
is surrounded byy various numbers of p planetaryy
working rollers.

Each planetary roll gives constant reduction.

It is used to reduce large thickness in single pass of

steel strip.

Its rolling capacity is more than cluster machine but

less than tandem rolling machine.
Universal Rolling Mill
Mechanics of Rolling / Limiting condition in rolling
 Roll Pass design
i. Box Passes

ii. Diamond Passes

iii Diamond
iii. i d – Square
S series
i

iv Oval – square series

iv.
Roll Pass Design
Roll Pass Design
Billet to bar
OTHER DEFORMATION PROCESSES RELATED TO ROLLING

Thread Rolling

Thread rolling is used to form threads on cylindrical

parts by rolling them between two dies.
 Thread Rolling
It is the most important commercial process for mass
producing external threaded components (e.g., bolts
and screws).
screws)

Most thread rollingg operations

p are p
performed byy cold
working in thread rolling machines.

These machines are equipped with special dies that

determine the size and form of the thread.

The dies are of two types: (1) flat dies, which

reciprocate relative to each other, and (2) round dies,
which rotate relative to each other to accomplish the
rolling action.
 Thread Rolling
Production rates in thread rolling can be high,
g g up
ranging p to eight
g p parts p
per second for small bolts
and screws.

Not only are these rates significantly higher than

g but there are other advantages
thread cutting, g over
machining as well: (1) better material utilization, (2)
stronger threads due to work hardening, (3)
smoother surface, and (4) better fatigue resistance
due to compressive stresses introduced by rolling.
Ring Rolling
 Ring Rolling
Ring rolling is a deformation process in which a
thick‐walled ringg of smaller diameter is rolled into a
thin‐walled ring of larger diameter.

As the thick‐walled ring is compressed, the

deformed material elongates, causing the diameter
of the ring to be enlarged.

Ring rolling
Ri lli is i usually
ll performed
f d as a hot‐working
h ki
process for large rings and as a cold‐working process
f smaller
for ll rings.
i
 Ring Rolling
Applications
A li ti off ring
i rolling
lli i l d ball
include b ll and
d roller
ll
bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and rings
for pipes,
pipes pressure vessels,
vessels and rotating machinery.
machinery

The ringg walls are not limited to rectangular

g cross
sections; the process permits rolling of more complex
shapes.

There are several advantages of ring rolling over

alternative methods of making the same parts: raw
material savings, ideal grain orientation for the
application,
li ti and
d strengthening
t th i through
th h cold
ld working.
ki
Gear Rolling
 Gear Rolling
Gear rolling is a cold working process to produce
certain gears.
g

The automotive industry is an important user of

these products.

The setup in
Th i gear rolling
lli is i similar
i il to thread
h d rolling,
lli
except that the deformed features of the cylindrical
bl k or disk
blank di k are oriented
i d parallel
ll l to its
i axis
i (or
( at
an angle in the case of helical gears) rather than
spiraled
i l d as in
i thread
h d rolling.
lli
 Gear Rolling
Advantages of gear rolling compared to machining
are similar to those of thread rolling: higher
production rates,
rates better strength and fatigue
resistance, and less material waste.
 Roll Piercing
Ring rolling is a specialized hot working process for
makingg seamless thick‐walled tubes.

It utilizes two opposing rolls, and hence it is

grouped d with
h the
h rolling
ll processes.
 Roll Piercing
The process is based on the principle that when a solid
cylindrical part is compressed on its circumference, high
tensile stresses are developed
p at its center.

If compression is high enough, an internal crack is formed.

In roll piercing, this principle is exploited by the setup shown.

Compressive stresses on a solid cylindrical billet are applied
by two rolls,
rolls whose axes are oriented at slight angles ((˜6°)6)
from the axis of the billet, so that their rotation tends to pull
the billet through the rolls.

A mandrel is used to control the size and finish of the hole

created by the action. The terms rotary tube piercing and
M
Mannesmann process are also
l used d for
f this
thi tube‐making
t b ki
operation.
Rolling Defects
Rolling Defects
Edge cracks and centre splits
Alligatoring
 Drawing of Rods, Wires and Tubes
In this bulk forming process, a wire, rod, bar are
pulled through
p g a die hole reducingg their cross‐
section area.
 Drawing of Rods, Wires and Tubes
Difference between wire drawing and rod drawing:
Initial stock size:
‐ The basic difference between bar drawing and
wire drawing is the stock size that is used for
f
forming.
i B drawing
Bar d i isi meantt for
f large
l di
diameter
t
bar and rod,, while wire drawingg is meant for small
diameter stock. Wire sizes of the order of 0.03 mm
are produced in wire drawing.
 Drawing of Rods, Wires and Tubes
Drawing operations involve pulling metal through a
die by means of a tensile force applied to the exit side
of the die.
die

The plastic flow is caused by compression force,

arising from the reaction of the metal with the die.

Starting materials: hot rolled stock (ferrous) and

extruded (nonferrous).

Bar wire and tube drawing are usually carried out at

room temperature, except for large deformation,
which leads to considerable rise in temperature during
drawing.
 Drawing of Rods, Wires and Tubes
• The reduction in diameter of a solid bar or rod by
successive drawing is known as bar, rod, or wire
d
drawing
i depending
d di on the
th diameter
di t off the
th final
fi l
product.

• When a hollow tube is drawn through a die

without any mandrel to support the inside of the
tube, it is known as tube sinking.

• When a mandrel or plug is used to support the

inside diameter of the tube as it is drawn through
g
a die, the process is called tube drawing.
Rod and wire drawing
 Rod and wire drawing
• Rods and tubes, which cannot be coiled, are
produced on draw benches. The rod is pointed
with a swager, inserted through the die, and
clamped to the jaws of the drawhead.

• The drawhead is moved either by a chain drive

or by a hydraulic mechanism.

• Drawbenches with 1MN pull and 30 m of

runout are available. Draw speeds vary from
about
b 150 to 1500 mms‐11
Rod and wire drawing
• The entrance of the die (bell) is
shaped so that the wire entering
the die will draw the lubricant
with it.

• Th
The shape
h off the
h bell
b ll causes the
h
hydrostatic pressure to increase
and p promotes the flow of
lubricant into the die.

• Most drawing dies are cemented

carbide or industrial diamond (for
fine wires).
 Preparation for Drawing 
• Heat treatment 
• Surface Preparation
f
• Pointing
 Tube drawing methods
• Tube drawing without a mandrel (Tube sinking)
• T b d
Tube drawing with a fixed plug
i ith fi d l
• Tube drawing with a floating plug
• Tube drawing with a moving mandrel
Tube drawing without a mandrel (Tube sinking)

• the tube is initially pointed to facilitate feeding through

the die; it is then reduced in outside diameter while the
wall thickness and the tube length are increased.

• The magnitudes of thickness increase and tube

g
elongation depend
p on the flow stress of the drawn part,
p ,
die geometry, and interface friction.
 Drawing with a fixed plug 

• Used for drawingg large‐to‐medium

g diameter straight
g tubes.

• The plug, when pushed into the deformation zone, is pulled

forward by the frictional force created by the sliding
movement of the deforming tube.

• Therefore, the plug must be held in the correct position with

a plug bar.
 Tube drawing with a floating plug

• In drawing long and small diameter tubes, the

plug bar may stretch and even break. In such
cases, it is advantageous to use a floating plug.

• This process can be used to draw any length of

tubing by coiling the drawn tube at speeds as
high as 10 m/s (2000 ft/min).
 Drawing with a moving mandrel 

• The mandrel travels at the speed at which the

section exits the die.
• This process,
process also called ironing,
ironing is widely used
for thinning the walls of drawn cups or shells in,
for example,
example the production of beverage cans or
artillery shells.
Metal Forming ‐ Summary