Dictionary of

Ceramic Science
and Engineering
SECOND EDITION
 Dictionary of
Ceramic Science
and Engineering
SECOND EDITION

Ian J. McColm
University of Bradford
West Yorkshire, England

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
McColm, I. J.
Dictionary of ceramic science and engineering 1 Ian J. McColm.-2nd cd.
p. CDl.
Filst edition was written by Loren S. O'Bannon.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4419-3235-8 ISBN 978-1-4757-2321-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-2321-2
1. Ceramics-Dictionaries. I. O'Bannon, wran S., date. Dictionary of ceramic sci-
ence and engineering. II. Title.
TP788.M38 1994 93-26152
666'.03--dc20 CIP

ISBN 978-1-4419-3235-8

© 1994, 1984 Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1994
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
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 To David, Tom, and Julia
who have never been short of words
 Preface
Ceramics always was a broad field and now as the
boundaries continue to expand it is one of the truly
interdisciplinary areas. This publication, in its re-
vised form, must reflect this. The trend is toward
more utilization of ceramics as integrated materials
together with polymers, metals, and other ceramics,
for both structural and electronic applications. Thus,
new fabrication technology is providing the new
vocabulary of this growth; areas like thin-film proc-
essing, sol-gel techniques, as used by the electronics
industry; fiber forming, weaving, and ultrahigh vac-
uum and temperature methods must be included in a
glossary of vocabulary purporting to deal with ce-
ramics and their science.
The excellent basis of the original O'Bannon diction-
ary has been retained containing as it does the emphasis
on traditional ceramic areas. In order to limit the expan-
sion of the text some of the cross-referenced entries have
been removed or reduced; for example, various clays
are listed under their preceding adjective, e.g., ball clay,
fat clay, etc., once and not again as: clay, ball, etc. A
more concentrated effort has been made to include
important aspects of the vocabulary of materials sci-
ence, testing methods, and the high-earning areas of
magnetic, electrical, and electronic ceramics exampled
by the explosion of interest in the field of high-tempera-
ture superconductors which depend for their develop-
ment and exploitation on the science and technology of
ceramics.
In order to cross the many boundaries of modem
ceramics this new dictionary encourages only the use
of SI units but original O'Bannon tables are retained
in the Appendix.
vii
Like my predecessor I have provided only defini-
tions. No effort has been made to include pronuncia-
tion, derivations, or syllabication of entries. A large
number of acronyms and abbreviations have been
included. The text is in fact somewhat hybrid because
many of the entries appear similar to those in an
encyclopedia while struggling to remain concise.
Reemphasizing the interdisciplinary nature of mod-
em ceramics, and the varied backgrounds of those
who are interested in or work in the industry, striking
a balance between the many allied disciplines con-
tributing to ceramics and the hope of being compre-
hensive but yet concise has been a difficult task. I
have learned much on the way as I first revised the
original work and then combed a wide range of
technical and scientific journals, textbooks, trade
papers, and other glossaries. It is my sincere hope that
I have built well on the sure foundation of Dr. O'Ban-
non and that this will be a reference text used by those
active in the ceramics industry from boardroom to
broom cupboard, to scientists and technologists in
industry worldwide, and of course to students whom
I have always sought to serve.
My deep thanks go to Miss M. Cobb, Mr. D.
Mistry, and Miss L. Collins who have enthusiasti-
cally and devotedly typed and prepared the text.
Their questions provided me with interest and in-
sights.
I. J. McColm
Professor of Ceramic Materials
University of Bradford
Bradford, England
 Contents

Dictionary ............................................................. .

Appendix .............................................................. 365

Table A.I. Basic SI Units ............................................. 365

Table A.2. Prefixes for Units of Measure ................................. 365

Table A3. Acceptable Metric SI Units ................................... 366

Table A4. Conversion from English/American to Metric Units 367

Table A5. Conversion from Metric to English/American Units 368

Table A6. Capacitor Color Code ....................................... 369

Table A7. Resistor Color Code ...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 370

Table A8. Chemical Elements ......................................... 371

Table A9. Temperature-Conversion Table ................................ 372

Table AlD. Weights and Measures: Metric System ......................... 373

Table A.lI. Weights and Measures: United States System ................... 374

Table A12. Weights and Measures: Comparison of the Metric and U.S.
Systems ....................................................... 375

Table Al3. Weights and Measures: Comparison ofthe Metric and U.S.
Systems (continued) ......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 376

Table A14. Conversion Table for Volumes and Weights .................... 377

Table AlS. End Points of Orton Pyrometric Cones ......................... 378

Table A16. Some Factors for Calculating Properties of Glass Composition. . . . .. 379

Table A.17. Ceramic Colors ........................................... 380

ix
CONTENTS x

Table A.l8. Weight and Approximate Thickness of Sheet Steel United States
Standard Gauge for Sheet and Plate Steel ................. . . . . . . . . . . .. 382

Bibliography ........................................................... 383

 Dictionary of
Ceramic Science
and Engineering
SECOND EDITION
 A
A. Symbol used for angstrom unit.
aa. A volcanic rock found in angular blocks witb a very
rough surface formed from molten lava.
abampere. The cgs unit of current; equivalent to 10
amperes. It is tbe constant current that, when flowing
through two parallel straight infinitely long conductors
1 cm apart, will produce a force between them of2 dyne
cm- t •
Abbe value. A number designating the dispersion of
light waves by an optical glass, expressed as the recip-
rocal dispersive power oftbe glass by tbe equation v =
(nD - 1) (/IF - nc)' in which v is tbe Abbe value, nD is
tbe index of refraction of tbe glass for tbe sodium line
at 589.3 nm, and nF and nc are the indices for tbe
hydrogen lines at 486.1 and 656.3 nm, respectively.
Also known as Abbe number, nu value, and constrin-
gence.
abherent. A coating which prevents surfaces from ad-
hering to each otber. Such materials are also known as
release agents or abhesives.
ab initio. Calculations, often of molecular structure,
made from first principles witbout empirical data. For
solid state calculations this usually involves the
SchrOdinger equation and the method of self-consistent
fields.
ablation. The process of wearing or wasting away of the
surface of an object by erosion, melting, evaporation,
or vaporization.
ablative generation. The production of acoustic emis-
sion by rapid vaporization of surface material by tbe
recoil force of laser pulses impinging on the surface.
ablative material. A body or a coating of low thermal
conductivity, such as a ceramic or a glass-reinforced
plastic, from which the surface layer is removed by a
pyrolytic process, tbereby resulting in the absorption or
dissipation of heat from a substrate.
1
abopon. A viscous liquid sodium borophosphate com-
plex used in porcelain-enamels and glazes as a suspen-
sion agent and binder.
ABR. Abbreviation for abrasive.
Abrams's law. The strengtb of a concrete or mortar, with
given concrete materials and conditions of tests, is
governed by the quantity of mixing water employed, so
long as the mix is of workable plasticity; it may be
calculated by the equation S = AIBr , in which S is tbe
strength, and A and B are constants, and r is the water-
to-cement ratio of the compacted cement.
abrasion. The wearing, grinding, or rubbing away of tbe
surface of a solid by friction induced by moving solids,
liquids, or gases.
abrasion hardness. The relative hardness of a solid sub-
stance in terms of its capacity to scratch or abrade
another solid material or itself be scratched or abraded.
See also Brinell test, Knoop hardness, Mohs hardness,
Rockwell hardness, Vickers hardness.
abrasion resistance. A measure of the ability of a mate-
rial to resist wear by friction. Samples may be evaluated
on the basis of loss in weight, loss of gloss, or by tbe
degree of permanence of discoloration when a lead
pencil, dye, or fine powder of constrasting color is
drawn or rubbed across tbe abraded area.
abrasion tester. A laboratory device, usually provided
with a scouring, cascading, or jet-propelled abrasive
acting on tbe surface of a solid, employed in the evalu-
ation of tbe abrasion-resistant properties of tbe surface.
See Kessler abrasion tester, Tabor abrader.
abrasion-wear index. The comparative degree of wear
on the surface of a solid material produced by constant
test conditions.
abrasive. Any substance which, by virtue of its hardness
or other property, is used for grinding, cutting, or pol-
ishing, such as diamond, silicon carbide, alumina, sand,
ceria, rouge, etc.
ABRASIVE BELT
abrasive belt. A band or endless loop of cloth, paper,
leather, or sheet of other flexible substance to which an
abrasive product has been bonded for use in grinding
and polishing operations.
abrasive cloth. A strong, usually pliable fabric or cloth
to which an abrasive has been bonded, and which is used
in manual or mechanical grinding and polishing opera-
tions.
abrasive cone. A solid, cone-shaped, bonded abrasive
product mounted on a spindle for use in high-speed
grinding and machining operations.
abrasive disk, bonded. See bonded abrasive disk.
abrasive disk, coated. See coated abrasive disk.
abrasive-jet cleaning. The process of removing dirt and
soil from a solid surface by the impingement of an
abrasive-bearing stream of liquid or gas on the surface
of the solid.
abrasive,levigated. See levigated abrasive.
abrasive machining. The technique of forming or shap-
ing a solid item by grinding, drilling, or some similar
mechanical process.
abrasive, mild. See mild abrasive.
abrasive paper. A paper sheet of high tear strength to
which an abrasive has been glued; used in grinding and
polishing operations; sandpaper and emery paper are
examples.
abrasive sand. A sharp-grained sand, usually graded to
a mesh size, used as an abrasive.
abrasive tumbling. A process to improve the surface
finish or to deburr solid materials by tumbling in a
rotating cylinder containing abrasive particles.
abrasive wheel. A grinding wheel or disk composed of
an abrasive grit and an appropriate bonding material
used for the grinding, polishing, shaping, or cutting of
a solid surface.
absolute density. The weight of a unit volume of a pore-
free substance under specified conditions of pressure
and temperature.
absolute electric constant. EO; a constant in Coulomb's
Law when it is expressed in SI units; value 8.854 x
10-12 farad m-I. Also known as the absolute permittiv-
ity of free space.
absolute humidity. The weight of water vapor contained
in a unit volume of air.
absolute specific gravity. The ratio of the weight of a
given volume of a substance in a vacuum at a given
temperature to the weight of an equal volume of water
in a vacuum at the given temperature.
absolute temperature. Thermodynamic temperature.
Temperature measured from absolute zero on an ac-
cepted scale of temperature measurement, such as the
Celsius (Kelvin) or the Fahrenheit (Rankine) scale.
2
absolute zero. Temperature characterized by the com-
plete absence of heat, or at which all particles whose
motions constitute heat cease to move: believed to be
equivalent to -273.16°C.
absorbency. The ability of a fluid material to penetrate
into another material; specified as the weight of fluid
absorbed to the weight or volume of the dry specimen.
absorption. The process in which fluid molecules are
taken up by, and distributed through, a solid or another
liquid.
absorption characteristics. A combination of factors
affecting the ability of a ceramic to absorb infrared
radiation, e.g., crystal structure, reflectivity, and trans-
missivity.
absorption coefficient. A parameter, J.l, characteristic of
the interaction of a beam of radiation with the matter
under investigation. 1= loe-lU, where I is the beam
intensity measured at a distance x inside the matter.
absorption-dye, test. See dye-absorption test.
absorption rate. The amount of water absorbed by a
brick or other body during partial or complete immer-
sion for a specified period, usually 1 minute; expressed
in grams per unit of time for a sample of specified size.
absorption ratio. The ratio of the weight of water ab-
sorbed by a masonry unit during immersion in cold
water to the weight absorbed during immersion in boil-
ing water for an equivalent period of time. See absorp-
tion test (2).
absorption test. (1) See dye-absorption test. (2) A test in
which a body is immersed in a selected or specified
solution for a designated time and temperature, and the
ratio of the weight of solution absorbed to the weight or
the volume of the dry specimen is reported as the
absorbency of the body.
absorption, x-ray. See x-ray absorption.
absorptivity. The fraction of the incident radiant energy,
at a given wavelength, absorbed by a unit area of
surface. A black body has absorptivity of unity. If the
absorptivity varies with wavelength, the surface is
termed colored.
abutment. The portion of a structure which receives the
thrust or pressure of the arch in a furnace or kiln, and
which generally consists of a skewback brick and steel
support.
AlC. Abbreviation for asbestos cement.
ac. Abbreviation for alternating current.
acacia gum. A water-soluble gum derived from various
acacia plants which is used as a binder in porcelain-
enamel and glaze slips; also known as gum arabic, gum
Senegal, and gum Kordofan.
accelerated-service life. The elapsed time required to
reach the end point in a service test conducted under
 3 ACID FROSTING
conditions more severe than those which will be en-
countered during the normal use of a product.
accelerated test. Any test of a property which is con-
ducted under conditions more severe than will be en-
countered during the normal life of a product or
material.
accelerator. (1) A chemical admixture introduced into a
batch of concrete, stucco, mortar, plaster, or similar
material as a catalyst to hasten hydration or other reac-
tion, thereby causing the batch to develop strength more
rapidly than normally would be attained; examples are
the alkali carbonates, potash alum, and powdered gyp-
sum. (2) A device that increases the speed and thus the
energy of charged particles.
acceptability. The quality of a product in terms of its
ability to meet minimum standards specified for its use.
acceptance level. The maximum and minimum limits of
quality standards between which a product is consid-
ered to be acceptable for its intended use.
acceptance limits. The test levels used in the sorting of
specimens that establish the rating group into which a
material or product under test should be assigned.
acceptance number. The maximum number of defec-
tive pieces allowable in a sample of specified size.
acceptance standard. A specimen of a material or prod-
uct selected to be used as a reference standard to indi-
cate the acceptable measure of quantity, weight, extent,
value, or quality of a material or product.
acceptance test. A test to determine the conformance of
a product to a purchase order or contract, or to determine
the degree of uniformity of the product, as a basis for
its acceptance by the purchaser.
acceptor. Impurity atoms added to semiconductors. An
acceptor is in a lower periodic group ego boron when
added to a group IV semiconductor. Called acceptors
because they have energy levels in the forbidden zone
just above the valence band, thus creating holes in the
electronic structure when thermal energy raises elec-
trons into them.
accessory mineral. A mineral found in a subordinate
quantity in another mineral, but which is not essential
and which does not affect the character or the properties
of the parent mineral.
accuracy. The degree of precision existing between an
experimentally determined value and an accepted ref-
erence value.
ACE. Acronym for amethyst contrast enhancer; a type of
optical glass filter used to improve color discrimination.
A normal spectacle glass composition to which a mix-
ture of rare earth oxides are added. Works by selectively
positioning transmission in the blue, green, and red
spectral region.
A. Cer. S. The official abbreviation for The American
Ceramic Society.
acetylene black. A very pure form of graphitic carbon
pigment made by controlled combustion of acetylene in
air under pressure.
Acheson process. An industrial process for the manufac-
ture of graphite and/or silicon carbide by heating coke
and clay mixtures in an arc furnace. First SiC is pre-
pared which loses silicon at 4150°C to yield graphite.
Patented in 1896.
Acheson SiC. Silicon carbide lump and powder made by
the Acheson process.
achromatic glass. A glass which will transmit light
without dispersing it into its constituent colors.
achromatic lens. A combination of two or more lenses
of different focal powers which will transmit light free
of undesired colors.
acicular. Needlelike in shape.
acicular interlocking. A microstructural description of
some glass-ceramics where interlocking rod- or blade-
like crystals serve as a toughening and strengthening
system.
acid. In the ceramic context, an oxide, RxOy , in which R
represents an element with a high charge and small size
such as silicon, titanium, zirconium, tin, or boron that
will react chemically as an acid.
acid annealing. A process for preparing metal shapes for
porcelain-enameling in which the metal is coated with
acid followed by annealing to remove oils, rust, and
other soil from the surface by scaling, and to relieve
stresses in the metal prior to application of the enamel
coating.
acid bottom and lining. The exposed bottom and lining
of a steel-making furnace composed of materials such
as silica brick, sand, siliceous rock, or other refractories,
which will react as an acid with the molten metal and
slag at operating temperatures. See acid open-hearth
furnace, acid refractories, acid slag, acid steel.
acid clay. A clay which will release hydrogen ions on
contact with water.
acid embossing. The process in which the surface of
glass is obscured by treatment with hydrofluoric acid or
its compounds. See frosted.
acid etching. Used to obtain translucent surfaces on
glassware by immersing it, or an area of it, in solutions
containing hydrofluoric acid. Patterns are obtained by
covering some glass areas with wax resist.
acid-extractable material. Substances which may be
dissolved and removed from a material by treatment
with an acid, usually under specified conditions.
acid frosting. The etching of glass, particularly glass
tableware, by treatment with hydrofluoric acid or its
compounds.
ACID GOLD
acid gold. A decoration of gold applied to the surface of
a glaze which previously was etched with hydrofluoric
acid or other fluoride to improve adherence.
acidic oxide. Any oxide which will display acidic prop-
erties, such as Si02, Ti0 2, zr02, Sn02' Ce02' Ge02,
Pr02, Sb20 3 , As 20 3, B 20 3, and P20 S'
acid open-hearth furnace. An open-hearth furnace
lined with a highly siliceous refractory brick, the lining
sometimes being coated with a fritted layer of silica
sand.
acid polishing. The process of polishing glass surfaces
by means of an acid treatment to minimize roughness.
acid refractories. Refractories containing substantial
amounts of silica which may react with basic refracto-
ries, slags, or fluxes at high temperatures.
acid· refractory furnace. A furnace or cupola lined with
an acid-type refractory, such as silica brick.
acid resistance. The degree to which porcelain-enamels,
glazes, glasses, and other ceramic surfaces are resistant
to attack by acids.
acid-resisting brick. A fired clay brick with high resis-
tance to corrosion by acids. This situation is achieved
by use of raw materials with low alkaline content and
by firing to high vitrification such that low-water ab-
sorption is achieved.
acid-resisting enamel A porcelain-enamel exhibiting
high resistance to attack by acids, particularly house-
hold cleaners, fruit, and cooking acids.
acid scaling. The process of dipping or spraying raw
metal with acid followed by annealing at a red heat as
a means of removing oils, rust, and other soils prior to
the application of a porcelain-enamel to the metal.
acid slag. Slag in which the silica content is greater than
the content of basic ingredients, such as lime and mag-
nesia.
acid spar. A fluorspar containing 98% or more of cal-
cium fluoride and I % or less of silica.
acid steel. A grade of steel produced in furnaces lined
with silicate refractories.
acid, white. See white acid.
ACL kiln. A type of traveling-grate preheater employed
to preheat a portland cement batch before it is charged
into the rotary cement kiln as a means of minimizing
the length of the kiln required for the catching opera-
tion.
acmite. NaFe(Si0 3h; an iron containing fibrous silicate.
acoustic emission testing. A nondestructive test method
which monitors energy released when cracks nucleate
and move or when phase changes occur; wave fre-
quency and amplitude are monitored.
acoustic impedance. Z.; the ratio of the sound pressure
in a medium to the rate of alternating flow of the
4
medium through a specified surface due to the sound
wave.
acoustic insulation. Foamed or highly porous plaster,
tile, or other product of very low density employed to
diminish the intensity of sound.
acoustic microscopy. A technique used to study features
beneath the surface of light-opaque materials. Sound
waves generated by a piezoelectric transducer are fo-
cused by a sapphire crystal through water onto a reflect-
ing object. The reflected sound wave is used to build up
a structural picture electronically.
acoustic plaster. A plaster having a chemically or me-
chanically textured or roughened surface which will
absorb or prevent the transfer of sound.
acoustic streaming. Constant displacement in liquid
particles caused by ultrahigh-frequency agitation that
leads to production of ultrasound.
acoustic tile. A thin, decorative tile of plaster, ceramic,
fiber, or other material having sound-absorbing proper-
ties, which is used as a covering for walls, ceilings, and
other surfaces.
acoustophoretic measurement. An ultrasonic tech-
nique used to study acoustic mobility, AM, and zeta
potential, ~, through the expression ~ = (AM)l1/E, where
11 and E are the viscosity and dielectric constant, respec-
tively, of water. The ceramic powder is suspended in
water and subjected to a compressive ultrasonic wave
of 200 kHz which induces periodic polarization of the
Stem layer and this alternating potential is measured
and used to derive AM.
acrylic polymer. A thermosetting resin used as a binder
in laminated products; made by polymerization of
acrylic acids, acrylates, etc.
actinic glass. A glass that transmits more of the visible
components of light and less of the infrared and ultra-
violet components.
actinide series. Elements of atomic number 89 to 103.
actinolite. CaFes(Si40 11 MOH,Fh; a natural fibrous
amphibole silicate, useful as as reinforcing fiber in
plastic matrices. See jade.
activated alumina. A highly porous, granular form of
Al20 3 made by thermal decomposition of gibbsite,
Al(OHh, at 350-400°C, used as a catalyst, catalyst
carrier, and absorbent. It is chemically inert to most
gases, will not swell, soften, or disintegrate in water;
exhibits high resistance to thermal and mechanical
shock abrasion, and will hold moisture without change
in form or properties.
activated carbon. A family of highly porous carbona-
ceous substances of high surface area per unit of vol-
ume; manufactured in powdered, granular, or pelletized
form by processes that develop high absorptive proper-
ties. Also known as activated charcoal.
activated carbon, granular. See granular activated
carbon.
 5 ADIABATIC COOLING
activated clay. A clay, such as bentonite, which is
treated with acid to improve its bleaching and adsorp-
tive properties.
activation. Any process, such as chemical treatment,
heat, or radiation, which is employed to improve the
reactivity or absorptive properties of a material.
activation analysis. A sensitive technique for the identi-
fication of trace elements based on the induced radia-
tion characteristics of a specimen exposed to neutrons
in a nuclear reactor. The energy of the x rays identifies
the element and their flux gives the composition.
activation energy. The minimum energy required for a
chemical reaction to take place. It is the energy barrier
that has to be overcome for reaction to proceed. It
determines the way in which the reaction rate varies
with temperature.
activator. (1) Ions which are photon emitters. (2) Chemi-
cal used to initiate a polymerization process.
active current. The component of an electric current in
a branch of an alternating current circuit that is in phase
with the voltage. Also known as watt current.
active site. A position on the surface of a solid catalyst
at which activity occurs.
active substrate. A semiconductor or ferrite material in
which active elements are formed; also a mechanical
support for the other elements of a semiconductor de-
vice or integrated circuit.
activity. (1) A general term describing the ability or
capacity of a material to absorb or to react in a desired
manner. (2) The effective concentration of an aqueous
electrolyte solution which empirically accounts for the
interactions between molecules that interfere with the
behavior of the solutes.
actuator. A ceramic crystal with piezoelectric or elec-
trostrictive properties, such as PZT, in which strains can
be very accurately generated by using controlled elec-
tric fields. Such strains are used in devices to position
semiconductor chips to tolerances of 0.1 11m for surface
treatment.
adamantine luster. A surface showing a brilliant ap-
pearance like a diamond.
Adams and Walrath test. A mechanical test used on
composites involving double cantilever beam loading.
Adams chromatic value system. A color measurement
method based on lightness, the amount of red or green,
and the amount of yellow or blue in the color being
measured.
adapter. (1) A type of flange used to mount a grinding
wheel on a shaft of smaller diameter than the center hole
in the wheel. (2) A device or attachment designed to
connect or attach two disimilar sized parts in an appa-
ratus.
adaptive structure. A load-bearing structure whose
geometrical configuration and inherent structural char-
acteristics can be changed in order to adapt to environ-
mental changes.
ADC. Acronym for analogue-to-digital converter, a de-
vice for presenting data to a digital computer from an
input varying directly with the property being moni-
tored.
addition. A material added in relatively small quantities
to a ceramic coating, body, or other composition to
influence the manufacturing, working, or performance
properties of the composition.
additive. A substance added in relatively small quanti-
ties to bring about a change in, or to enhance, the
properties of another substance.
adherence. (1) In general ceramic usage, the bond or
union developed at the interface between two sub-
stances by fusion or by chemical or physical reaction
during fusion. (2) The degree to which a porcelain-
enamel, glaze, or other ceramic coating adheres to its
substrate. (3) A measure of the stress necessary to cause
one material to separate from another at their interface.
adherence failure. The separation of a porcelain-
enamel from its base metal, usually exposing bright
metal in the fractured area; the traditional measure of
the degree of failure is the ratio of bright metal to
adherent enamel fragments remaining in an indented
area which was deformed by a plunger in a specified
manner to a specified size.
adherence promoter. Oxides added to glass enameling
frits to ensure the correct conditions at the iron or
steel-glass interface. They provide available oxygen by
a reduction process; they lower the saturation concen-
tration value for the substrate metal oxide in the glass
and speed up dissolution of substrate oxide; CoO and
Ti0 2 are common examples.
adhesion. (1) The degree or strength of attachment of a
material in contact with another. (2) Any mutually
attracti ve force holding together two magnetic bodies.
adhesion-type ceramic veneer. Thin sections of a ce-
ramic held in place by the adhesion of a mortar to the
unit and to the backing without the use of metal or other
fasteners.
adhesive. A mucilaginous or cementltIous substance
placed or spread between two solid surfaces to bind the
surfaces together; usually a colloidal solution which
gels.
adhesive strength. The stress required to separate two
bonded surfaces.
adiabatic. An occurrence which takes place without the
loss or gain of heat, such as the expansion or contraction
of bodies during drying at constant temperature.
adiabatic compression. A reduction in volume of a sub-
stance without heat flow, in or out.
adiabatic cooling. A process in which the temperature
of a system is reduced without any heat being ex-
changed between the system and its surroundings.
ADIABATIC DEMAGNETIZATION
adiabatic demagnetization. Also known as magnetic
cooling; a method for producing very low temperatures,
below 10- 2 K, whereby a cooled salt such as ferric
ammonium alum is first magnetized isothermally and
then demagnetized adiabatically.
adiabatic envelope. A surface enclosing a thermody-
namic system in an equilibrium which can be disturbed
only by long-range forces or by motion of part of the
envelope; intuitively, this means that no heat can flow
through the surface.
adiabatic process. Any thermodynamic procedure
which takes place in a system without the exchange of
heat with the surroundings.
adiabatic vaporization. Vaporization of a liquid with
virtually no heat exchange between it and its surround-
ings.
adlattice. Structure formed in two dimensions by ad-
sorbed atoms or molecules on the surface of an adsorb-
ing solid.
admixture. A material added in small quantities to a
batch to alter the working or performance charac-
teristics of the batch in a desired manner.
adobe. (1) A structure made of unfired brick or clay. (2)
A clay from which unfired brick is made. (3) Large,
roughly molded, sun-dried brick of varying dimensions
which sometimes are reinforced by the incorporation of
straw in the batch.
adsorbate. Any substance which, in molecular, atomic,
or ionic form, will condense on, penetrate into, and be
retained by another liquid or solid.
adsorbed water. A water layer, one or more molecules
thick, held on the surface of a solid by molecular forces.
adsorbent. Any solid or liquid, such as charcoal, acti-
vated alumina, silica, water, and mercury, having the
ability to attract and concentrate significant quantities
of another substance on its surface and to be penetrated
by this substance.
adsorption. The attraction and adhesion, in extremely
thin layers, of molecules, atoms, or ions of gases, liq-
uids, or dissolved substances to the surface of solid or
liquid materials in which they come in contact.
adsorption, anion. See anion adsorption.
adsorption, cation. See cation adsorption.
adsorption, chemical. See chemical adsorption.
adsorption coefficient. This is the C term in the BET
equation (see nitrogen surface area) which relates the
difference between the energy of adsorption of a vapor
onto a pristine surface, E I' and the energy of liquefac-
tion E L: EL·C = exp(E1 - EL).
adsorption, countercurrent. See countercurrent ad-
sorption.
adsorption, heat of. See heat of adsorption.
6
adsorption, hydraulic. See hydraulic adsorption.
adsorption, integral heat of. See integral heat of ad-
sorption.
adsorption, irreversible. See irreversible adsorption.
adsorption isotherm, Freundlich. See Freundlich iso-
therm.
adsorption isotherm, Langmuir. See Langmuir iso-
therm.
adsorption, preferential. See preferential adsorption.
adsorption, reversible. See reversible adsorption.
adsorption theory, Langmuir. See Langmuir adsorp-
tion theory.
adsorption, Van der Waals. See Van der Waals ad-
sorption.
adsorption zone. The area on an adsorbent in which the
concentration of an adsorbate in a fluid decreases from
the influent concentration to the lowest detectable con-
centration.
adsorptive capacity, dynamic. See dynamic adsorptive
capacity.
adsorptive capacity, equilibrium. See equilibrium ad-
sorptive capacity.
adularia. KAlSi30 g; a white variety of orthoclase with a
prismatic habit.
adulterate. To debase by adding inferior material.
advanced composite (AlC). A combination of stiff
strong, usually ceramic, fibers, with a compatible resin
system.
advanced local oxidation. LOCOS; the effect caused in
very local areas of a silicon semiconductor wafer when
it is ion bombarded with 0+ ions to produce localized
insulating mesas.
AEA. Acronym for air-entraining agent.
aeolian rock. Formed from wind-deposited dusts.
aerate. To introduce air into a slurry by stirring or other
means of agitation.
aerated concrete. Concrete contammg a substantial
amount of entrapped air which was introduced into the
mass by foaming or other process.
aeration of concrete. The process by which air or other
gas is introduced into concrete to produce a product
having a density substantially less than that of normal
concrete, and to reduce bleeding and segregation in the
concrete; the gas-forming ingredients usually are intro-
duced into the cement clinker during grinding or into
the concrete batch during mixing.
aerator. A machine for breaking down lumps in a sand
mixture.
 7 AIR BRICK
aerogel. The porous product obtained when alcogel is
dried under supercritical conditions.
aerosol. A colloidal dispersion of a solid or liquid in a
gas.
AES. Acronym for Auger electron spectroscopy. See
Auger effect.
AFA rammer. A device consisting of a 6.35-kg weight
falling from a height of 5.1 cm onto a plunger of a
5.1-cm mold to form test specimens of particulate re-
fractory compositions, foundry sands, and similar ma-
terials or products.
AFM. Abbreviation for atomic force microscope; a new
scanning technique capable of imaging crystal surfaces
as they grow with a resolution of about 0.3 nm.
after-expansion or after-contraction. The permanent
linear change measured on a refractory material re-
heated to a specified temperature for a prescribed time;
reported as a percentage of the original length.
afterglow. The glow in a material after removal from an
external ignition source.
agalmatolite. AI 2(Si 20 5}z(0H}z(H20)x; sp. gr. 2.8-2.9;
hardness (Mohs) 1-2; a natural hydrous aluminum sili-
cate of the pyrophyllite family.
agate. A variegated chalcedony, Si02, with its colors
arranged in stripes, blended in clouds, or displaying
mosslike forms; sp. gr. 2.65; hardness (Mohs) 6.5-7.0;
used in the production of agate mortars and pestles, as
grinding balls in ball miJJs, and as a burnisher or
polisher of gold in ceramic-ware decorations.
agate glass. A multicolored glass resembling natural ag-
ate in appearance; made by blending glasses of two or
more colors while in the molten or highly viscous state,
or by rolling a transparent glass into other glasses of
various colors.
agate mortar and pestle. A highly polished, blemish-
free, abrasion-resistant mortar and pestle made of natu-
ral quartz; resistant to all acids and alkalies except HF
and NaOH; used to pulverize materials when minimal
contamination is required.
agateware. Ceramic and porcelain-enameled ware char-
acterized by veins of color distributed through the body
or coating in a pattern resembling the appearance of
natural agate.
agglomerate. An association of individual powder crys-
tallites within which the interfacial area is small and the
total binding forces are weak.
aggregate. (1) An inert material, such as sand, gravel,
slag, shell, or broken stone, which is to be mixed with
cement to form concrete or mortar. (2) In powder mak-
ing it is an association of individual powder crystallites
with either a large interfacial boundary area or very
strong bonding forces across the crystallite boundaries.
aggregate, coarse. See coarse aggregate.
aggregate, expanded. See expanded aggregate.
aggregate, exposed. See exposed aggregate.
aggregate, fine. See fine aggregate.
aggregate, beavy. See heavy aggregate.
aggregate, lightweigbt. See lightweight aggregate.
aggregate, reactive. See reactive aggregate.
aggregate, separated. See separated aggregate.
aggregation. An irreversible physical process in which
initially dispersed basic units, such as particles, stick
together to form characteristic structures whose size
increases with time.
aging. (1) The storage of porcelain-enamels, glazes,
slips, slurries, or frit powders before use. (2) The change
occurring in slips, slurries, or frit powders with the
passage of time. (3) The curing of prepared ceramic
materials by storage for a definite period under control-
led conditions. (4) The curing of mortars and cements
for periods of sufficient duration to develop necessary
strength before exposure to severe conditions of use.
Also known as maturing, souring.
agitator. An instrument or apparatus employed to stir,
shake, or mix.
A-glass. High-alkali glass used to form single-filament
glass fibers; a general-purpose reinforcing glass
cheaper than E-glass, used mainly with plastic matrices;
composition (wt. %): Si0 2 (72.7), Al20 3 (1.5), CaO
(8.3), MgO (3.5), Na20 + Kp (14.0).
AGR cores. Graphite bricks formed into annular shapes
I meter long with internal and external diameters of 240
and 380 mm, respectively, together with smaller inter-
stitial bricks, held together by keys. The whole is the
center of advanced gas-cooled nuclear reactors.
agricultural pipe. A conduit used to drain water from
agricultural land.
agricultural tile. An unglazed porous tile of tubular
shape designed for burial in the ground to form a piping
system to drain excess water from agricultural lands.
air. The mixture of gases that forms the earth's atmos-
phere; sea level density 1.226 kg m-3 ; consists of
78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.03%
carbon dioxide, water vapor varies between 0 and 4%,
and very small quantities of ozone and other inert gases.
air bells. A defect in optical glass consisting of irregu-
larly shaped bubbles formed during pressing and mold-
ing operations.
airborne seal. A repair in which a refractory powder is
blown and collected in a defective or leaking area of a
hot retort to stop the leak.
air brick. A fired brick essentially of standard size in
which holes are formed through its length, as opposed
to its depth, to permit the circulation of air in structures.
AIRBRUSH
air brush. British terminology for a spray gun.
air chain. A chain or string of air bubbles or inclusions
contained in glass, glaze, porcelain-enamel, a vitreous
or near-vitreous body, or similar product, usually as a
defect.
air classification. The separation and grading of solid
particles of a material by density or size by a technique
of progressive suspension or settling as in a rising
stream of air at a controlled velocity, each grading being
reported as a percentage of the original sample.
air content. The volume of voids in a cement paste,
mortar, or concrete, excluding the pore space in the
aggregate particles; expressed as a percentage of the
total volume of the paste, mortar, or concrete.
air conveyor. A device which transports powdered or
granular material through a pipe by means of high-ve-
locity air or by vacuum.
air-cooled blast-furnace slag. Molten blast-furnace
slag cooled under normal atmospheric conditions or
cooled in an accelerated manner by the application of
water to the solidified slag surface.
air drying. The removal of moisture from a material,
glaze, porcelain-enamel, or body by exposure to air.
aired ware. Defective ceramic ware on which the glaze
has become partially devitrified or some volatilization
of glaze ingredients has occurred.
air elutriator. A device designed to remove impurities
from the air, as by washing or filtering.
air-entrained concrete. A concrete containing purpose-
fully introduced air bubbles of minute sizes as a means
of improving its durability and other properties. See
aeration of concrete.
air-entraining agent. A material or admixture, such as
a soap, resin, or grease like substance, which reduces the
surface tension of water in concrete to facilitate the
entrapment of minute bubbles of air in the batch as a
means of improving the durability or other properties of
the concrete; the agent sometimes may be added to the
cement during grinding.
air-entraining hydraulic cement. An hydraulic cement
containing a sufficient amount of air-entraining agent
to cause air to be entrained in the mortar.
air-floated. Clays and other materials which are finely
milled and separated or graded by density or size by the
use of an air classifier. See air classification.
air-fuel ratio. The ratio of the air supply to the fuel
supply during combustion, expressed in terms of vol-
ume or weight.
air-hardening refractory cement. A finely ground, re-
fractory cement containing admixtures to promote set-
ting of mortars and cements at temperatures at or above
room temperature but below vitrification temperature.
8
air inclusions. (I) Small bubbles of air or other gas en-
closed in glass, glazes, porcelain-enamels, or bodies
which become evident after firing; usually a defect but
sometimes intentional as a form of decoration. (2) Gase-
ous inclusions in mica which appear as grayish areas in
transmitted light and as silvery areas in reflected light.
air jet loom. A loom using a jet of air to move the yam
through the process.
airless drying. A new drying method in which the air
atmosphere in the dryer is recirculated and raised in
temperature so that it is progressively replaced as the
heat transfer medium by superheated steam produced
from the moist product. No air is permitted to enter the
dryer during the drying process. The main advantages
lie in the reduction of heating costs, and in heat recovery
from the steam produced by the ware.
air line. (I) A fine, elongated cord or bubble having the
appearance of a hairline which is considered a fault in
glassware, particularly in glass tubing. (2) A system of
pipes and tubing moving compressed air from one point
to another.
air permeability. The measure of the rate of flow or
diffusion of air through a porous ceramic; expressed as
a unit of volume or pressure gradient per unit of area.
air pocket. A sizable bubble of air found in clay bodies
during wedging or throwing.
air, primary. See primary air.
air ramming. The shaping of refractory or other ceramic
products by means of pneumatic hammers.
air-relief valve. A small automatic or manually operated
valve placed at a high point in a pipe line to exhaust air
or other gases from the line.
air, saturated. See saturated air.
air seal. A moving curtain of air across the entrance or
exit of a furnace or other enclosed area as a means of
minimizing heat loss or to minimize the movement of
air in or out of the area.
air, secondary. See secondary air
air separator. A device in which a stream of air at a
controlled velocity is used as a means of separating
particles of solid material as they remain suspended in
the stream or settle from the stream.
air set. The property by which a material develops
strength during the process of losing moisture by evapo-
ration.
air.setting binder. A term used to describe any binder
that will harden when exposed to the air at room tem-
perature; however, it is commonly used to describe
oil-oxygen binders which require baking to complete
the hardening.
air·setting cement. A cement or mortar which develops
high strength in air during the loss of moisture by
evaporation.
 9 ALKALI-RESISTING ENAMEL
air-setting refractories. Refractory mortars, ramming
mixes, gunning mixes, cements, and similar composi-
tions which are tempered with water for placement; the
mixtures develop a strong bond and strength on drying
which is retained during subsequent service at elevated
furnace and kiln temperatures.
air-swept ball mill. A continuous ball mill in which the
finely milled particles of the mill charge are removed
by a current of air as the coarser particles continue to be
ground.
air, tertiary. See tertiary air.
air twist. A process in which twisted capillaries are in-
corporated in the stems of glass tableware to produce a
pleasing decorative effect.
air void. An air-filled space of irregular shape some-
times occurring in freshly mixed concrete; the voids are
larger in size than intentionally entrained air bubbles,
and are considered to be defects.
akermanite. A discrete ionic silicate with composition
Ca2MgSi207'
alabandite. Naturally occuring manganese sulfide;
MnS; has rock-salt structure.
alabaster. Compact, fine-grained white or delicately
shaded gypsum, CaS04·2H20.
alabaster glass. A glass containing inclusions of materi-
als having different indices of refraction, and which
shows no color reaction to light; resembles alabaster or
onyx in appearance.
Albany slip. A clay of high flux content and fine particle
size found in the vicinity of Albany, New York; the clay
fires in the temperature range of cones 6 to 9; it is used
as a glaze for electrical porcelain and stoneware bodies,
and as a bond in the manufacture of vitrified grinding
wheels.
albedo. The fraction of incident electromagnetic radia-
tion reflected by a surface.
albite. Na(Alo.2SSio.7S02)4; a soda feldspar used as an
ingredient in ceramic bodies and glazes, and as a sub-
stitute for Cornish stone. Sometimes known as white
feldspar, soda spar, white schor!, sodaclase. Weathers
in basic conditions to form kaolinite clay.
albolite. A plastic cementitious material composed es-
sentially of silica and magnesia.
alborex. An alumina-based, boron-containing, reinforc-
ing whisker material 0.5-1.0 /lm in diameter and 10-30
/lm in length with a composition around
AI1.633BO.36303·
alcogel. The rigid product obtained in sol-gel processing
when metal alkoxide-organic solvent solutions are hy-
drolyzed.
alcoholate. A salt formed by replacing the H in OH
groups of organic alcohols by metal cations, for exam-
ple Ti(OC 2Hs)4; usually soluble in organic solvents and
as a result are used extensively in sol-gel powder manu-
facture and processing. See alkoxide.
alcorit. Porous commercial refractory, designed to have
high thermal shock resistance for kiln furniture con-
struction. Consists of mullite plus cordierite; working
temperature 1350°C.
alcove. The narrow channel through which molten glass
flows from the fining chamber to the forehearth, or to a
revolving pot, for gathering by an Owens machine. See
Owens process.
alginates. Hydrophilic, colloidal salts of the alginic ac-
ids, chiefly sodium or ammonium alginate; used as
binders and suspension agents in ceramic bodies,
glazes, porcelain-enamels, and similar slurries, and as
a waterproofing agent in concretes.
algorithm. A set of numerical operations designed to
undertake a specific mathematical task.
aliquot. A representative sample of a large quantity of a
material.
alite. Ca3(Si04)0; in cement notation C3S; a constituent
of portland-cement clinker. An ionic orthosilicate
where regions of Ca2+ and 0 2- packing can be seen
reminiscent of the CaO structure. Several polymorphs
exist depending on the degree of isomorphous replace-
ment of Ca2+ by Mg2+. Develops compressive strength
rapidly when hydrated, i.e., 70% of final value in 28
days.
alkali. A general term applied to the oxides, hydroxides,
and carbonates of sodium and potassium, the alkaline
earth metals, and other alkaline metals; used primarily
as fluxing agents in ceramic compositions.
alkali-aggregate reaction. A deleterious reaction be-
tween the siliceous parts of aggregates and the alkalies
contained in portland cement, the reaction usually oc-
curring in concrete after it has hardened. See concrete
cancer.
alkaline earths. The oxides of barium, calcium, magne-
sium, strontium, radium, and beryllium; the oxides of
barium and calcium are used primarily as fluxes in
porcelain-enamels and glazes, and magnesium oxide is
used extensively in refractories. Barium oxide is an
essential component in oxide superconductors. (See
superconductor.)
alkaline glaze. Glazes containing high percentages of
alkaline materials, such as Na20, K20, Li20, CaO,
MgO, BaO, etc.
alkali resistance. The relative degree to which porce-
lain-enamels, glazes, and other ceramic surfaces will
resist attack by aqueous alkaline solutions, the term
most frequently referring to the resistance of these
products to alkaline materials used in the home, e.g.,
alkaline-resisting enamel.
alkali-resisting enamel. An enamel with overall com-
position close to a typical porcelain which requires a
high application temperature; shows a high resistance
ALKALI-SILICA REACTION
to dulling from frequent applications of detergents,
soaps, and general alkaline cleaning products.
alkali-silica reaction. A major cause of concrete dete-
rioration caused by volume expansion when ordinary
portland cement, OPC reacts with acidic aggregate. See
also concrete cancer.
alkoxide-fonning. A way to process ceramic fiber-ce-
ramic matrix composites by infiltrating the matrix as an
alcoholate (alkoxide) powder into the fiber preform as
the whole is hot pressed.
alkoxysilanes. Materials such as CH2CHCH2Si(OCH3)3
which can be gelled by adding water and then heated to
prepare SiC powders.
alkyd. Any of a group of thermoplastic resins prepared
by the reaction of some polybasic alcohols, such as
glycol or glycerine, with dibasic acids or anhydrides,
such as phthalic anhydride; used extensively as adhe-
sives for glass fibers.
aUemontite. (As,Sb); a rare natural alloy of variable
composition with all properties intermediate between
arsenic and antimony; found in lithium-rich pegmatites.
alligator hide. A defect characterized by an extreme
roughness of a porcelain-enamel surface which resem-
bles the hide of an alligator in appearance; it is some-
what analogous to a severe case of orange peel.
allochromatic. A material, usually a mineral, which can
occur in a variety of colors.
allochthonous. An adjective to describe rocks or mineral
deposits found in a place other than where they or their
constituents were produced.
allomerism. Similarity of crystalline structure in sub-
stances of different chemical composition.
allomorph. Any of two or more different crystalline
forms of a mineral.
allophane. AI20 3·Si02·nH20; sp. gr. 1.8-1.9; hardness
(Mohs) 3; a gel-like, naturally occurring amorphous
hydrous aluminosilicate clay mineral sometimes con-
taining appreciable amounts of Fe203' When the iron
oxide content is 30-40% it is called hisingerite, and iron
allophane when it contains 15-20% Fe203'
allotrope. Different physical forms in which an element
can exist; diamond and graphite are allotropes of carb-
on.
allowed energy bands. The restricted regions of possi-
ble electron energy levels in a solid.
allowed transitions. A transition between two atom en-
ergy states which is permitted by the selection rules and
which consequently has a relatively high priority.
alloy. A fused mixture of two or more materials most
commonly encountered in metallurgy but some ceramic
composites are alloys of oxides.
10
aUoyed junction. A semiconductor junction formed by
alloying metal contacts, which act as emitter and col-
lector regions, to a semiconductor base wafer.
alluvial clay. A brickmaking clay deposited in or near
river beds by flowing water; more plastic, less refrac-
tory, and darker in color than residual clays.
alluvial fan. A fan-shaped accumulation of silt, sand,
gravel, and boulders deposited by fast-flowing moun-
tain rivers when they reach flatter land.
alluvium. Fine-grained sand and silt deposited by flow-
ing water.
almandine. The most common iron aluminum silicate
garnet found in the mineral almandite; used in a variety
of industrial applications mainly in the abrasives area;
hardness (Mohs) 7.5-8; fracture by lamellar parting to
give constant sharp edges.
almandite. A mineral in the garnet family which frac-
tures to give very sharp edges and is therefore used as
a coated abrasive. See almandine.
alpha activity. The spontaneous emission of doubly
charged helium ions from the nucleus.
alpha alumina. a-AI20 3; occurs naturally as corundum
and is obtained by heating alumina hydrates to tempera-
tures in excess of 9OO·C but never to the melting point,
2050·C; the hardest, most chemically stable form of
alumina. See alumina.
alpha phase. Rhombohedral quartz polymorph; stable
below 573·C.
alpha particle. A positively charged helium-4 nucleus
emitted by several radioactive materials.
alternating current losses. Conventional superconduc-
tors exhibit losses in alternating current applications,
such as in 60-Hz power transmission or in microwave
devices. Although little is known about the alternating
current characteristics of the new high-temperature su-
perconductors, there is no reason to expect that the new
materials will exhibit lower alternating current losses
than other superconducting materials. Recent measure-
ments on thin films in parallel applied fields show the
presence of a large surface barrier for the entry of flux,
which indicates that hysteresis losses would be small.
alumina. A120 3; mp 2030·C; sp. gr. 3.4-4.0; hardness
(Mohs) 9; 22 GN m- 2 Vickers hardness; an amphoteric
material second only to silica in importance to the
ceramic industry; acts as a refractory in low-tempera-
ture products and as a flux in high-temperature compo-
sitions; used extensively in the manufacture of
abrasives, refractories, whitewares, refractory coatings,
protective surfaces for transistors, glass, and cermets;
examples of specific products include thread guides,
clutch and brake linings, spark plugs, mill linings, blast-
ing nozzles, welding-rod coatings, color modifiers,
jewel bearings for watches and scientific instruments,
electron tubes, infrared windows, resistors, semicon-
ductors, lasers, gas-turbine parts, radomes, rocket
equipment, and prosthetics, such as artificial teeth and
 11
bones. When pure and unhydrated only one polymorph,
a-AI20 3, exists. It has a hexagonal crystal structure.
Other important forms are ternary phases, see alumina-
beta and alumina-gamma. Technical forms of alumina,
described as A-I to A-16 dependent on particle size and
Na20 content (up to 0.4%), contain a, ~ and yforms.
alumina, activated. See activated alumina.
alumina-alumina composites. Ceramic alumina fiber
preforms are infiltrated from the vapor phase by AICI 3
which is oxidized into an alumina matrix.
alumina balls. (I) High-density, abrasion-resisting balls
used as grinding media in ball mills where contamina-
tion by iron or other metallic grinding media is to be
avoided. (2) Spheres ranging from 6.25 to 18.75mm in
diameter which exhibit high heat and chemical resis-
tance when used in reactor or catalytic beds.
alumina-based fiber. Fibers with> 60 wt. % AI20 3 usu-
ally prepared by extruding an aqueous gel through
spinnerets, drying and then firing to 1200°C; high
strength z 2340 MN m-2 preserved to temperatures up
to l000°C.
alumina-beta. An ionically conducting ceramic of over-
all hexagonal structure in which each unit cell has,
perpendicular to the c-axis, two mirror planes of 02-and
M n+ ions separated by a spinel-like block formed by
four layers of close-packed 0 2- ions with A1 3+ in octa-
hedral and tetrahedral sites. In ~-AI203 the Mn+ ions are
Na+ with an idealized formula of Na20 ·IIAI20 3. Many
variations exist by changing the Mn+ ions and by
varying the size of the spinel blocks along the c-axis.
Nomenclature is ~l, ~ll, ~lll, etc., depending on x in
M 20·xAI 20 3• Conductivity is 2-D in the mirror planes
and not along the c-axis direction. Applications in high-
temperature, high-energy-density electrochemical cells
such as the sodium-sulfur battery.
alumina brick. Refractory brick containing 50% or
more of A120 3 ; used in high-temperature applications,
such as liners for kilns and furnaces, particularly in
areas where the service conditions are severe.
alumina bubble brick. A lightweight, insulating refrac-
tory product made by pressing the brick or other shapes
from AI20 3 into which air bubbles have been intro-
duced by passing a stream of air through a molten Al 20 3
batch.
alumina, calcined. See calcined alumina.
alumina cement. A hydraulic cementitious product
formed by sintering mixtures of bauxite with limestone;
the main constituent is CaAI 20 4 , CA in cement nota-
tion, which hydrates to CAH 10; transformations of the
hydrate can lead to very porous structures based on
C3A. This cement will set to maximum strength in about
24 hours; used where a cement resistant to elevated
temperatures is required. Consists of AI 20 3 (40%), CaO
(40%), Si0 2 (10%) plus 10% impurities; sp. gr. 3.0.
alumina, exploded. See exploded alumina.
ALUMINA WHITEWARE
alumina fiber. A strong, usually short thread or fiber of
Al 20 3 used in the production of plastic-bonded insulat-
ing products and dielectrics. Most alumina fiber is in
fact a form of aluminosilicate.
alumina, friable. See friable alumina.
alumina, fused. See fused alumina.
alumina-gamma. The name given to a number of phases
which arise during the decomposition of hydrated, ge-
latinous Al(OH)3 and AIO(OH). Structures are spinel-
like stabilized by protons; occurs as an intermediate in
the kaolin-to-mullite transformation.
alumina, hydrated. See hydrated alumina.
alumina, microcrystalline. See microcrystalline alu-
mina.
alumina, natural abrasive. See natural alumina.
alumina porcelain. A high-grade, dense, strong porce-
lain made of bodies in which Al 20 3 is a major compo-
nent; used in manufacture of spark plugs and electric
insulators.
alumina, reaction-bonded. See reaction-bonded alu-
mina.
alumina, regular. See regular alumina.
alumina, ruby. See ruby alumina.
alumina, semifriable. See semi friable alumina.
alumina-silica refractories. A class of refractories con-
sisting essentially of alumina and silica, including the
high-alumina, fireclay, and kaolin refractories.
alumina, single-crystal. See corundum.
alumina, sintered. See sintered alumina.
alumina substrate. Sheet of sintered Al 20 3 made from
powder with particle sizes in the range 1-4 11m and
usually made by the doctor blade method from suspen-
sion. Alumina substrates have advantages, such as high
insulation resistance, stability in the presence of mois-
ture, good thermal diffusivity.
alumina, tabular. See tabular alumina.
aluminate. A salt formed when Al(OH)3 or y-A1 20 3 is
dissolved in solutions of strong bases. Compounds of
various metal oxides with alumina, and having the
general formula M x Oy·xAI20 3 in the old notation but
more usefully as (M n+)5In[Al0415- or (M n+)9In[Al0 619-
to indicate the anions present. These compounds are
characterized by high-strength and oxidation resis-
tance; melting points ranging from approximately
1400°C to 2140°C; employed most widely in structural
applications. See appropriate metal aluminates.
alumina, white. See white alumina.
alumina whiteware. Any ceramic product with an es-
sentially white body, such as artware, dinnerware, wall
ALUMINOSILICATE
tile, sanitary ware, spark plugs, and other products in
which AI20 3 constitutes a major phase.
aluminosilicate. A compound in which some of the sili-
con in [Si04]4- tetrahedra have been isomorphously
replaced by AI 3+; the resultant negative charge increase
in the solid is compensated usually by intercollating
other metal ions into the structure or occasionally by
oxygen vacancies. The most refractory aluminosilicate
is mullite; see mullite.
aluminous cement. See alumina cement.
aluminum antimonide. AISb; zinc blende structure; mp
1080°C; used in the production of semiconductors,
transistors, rectifiers, and similar electronic products.
One of the III-V compound semiconductors, energy
band gap 1.52 eV; significant hole conductivity.
aluminum borate. (1) AI4 0 3(B0 3h·3H20; dissociates
at approximately 1035°C; employed as an ingredient in
glass and other vitreous and semivitreous products. (2)
Al1S02S(B02)4; mp about 1950°C; employed in bodies
requiring good thermal-shock resistance and refractori-
ness under load.
aluminum boride. Covers several special hard ceramics
(I) AIB 2; mp 1654°C; Knoop hardness 9.75 ON m- 2;
dissociates at about 980°C; sp. gr. 3.16. (2) AIB lO ; mp
about 2421°C; sp. gr. 2.54; Knoop hardness 26.5
ON m-2. (3) AlB 12 ; mp 2163-2213°C; sp. gr. 2.56-
2.60; Knoop hardness 22.5-24.5 ON m- 2. These borides
are distinguished by the degree of covalent bonding
between the boron atoms in the structure, e.g., AlB12
contains B12 icosahedral units connected at their cor-
ners to form a cubic close-packed arrangement; the A13+
occupy interstices in this structure. These, like most
borides, have covalent + ionic + metallic components
in their bonding and so have metallic appearance.
aluminum carbide. A14C 3; mp about 2704°C; sp. gr.
2.99; an ionic carbide in which the carbon atoms are
isolated and so known as a methanide.
aluminum enamel. A relatively low-melting porcelain-
enamel formulated specifically for application to alu-
minum and aluminum alloys.
aluminum fluoride. AIF3; sublimes at about 1260°C;
sp. gr. 2.89; employed as a source of alumina and as a
source of fluorine for its fluxing and opacifying prop-
erties.
aluminum fluoride hydrate. AlF3·3~H20; sometimes
used in the production of white porcelain-enamels.
aluminum fluosilicate. Al2(Si04)(OH, Fh; sp. gr. 3.49-
3.57 known as topaz and as a gemstone is Mohs hard-
ness standard 8; brittle with perfect cleavage in one
direction; sometimes used in porcelain-enamels and
glass manufacture.
aluminum hydroxide. AI(OHh·xH20; loses water at
300°C, sp. gr. about 2.4; a white gelatinous precipitate
used in the manufacture of glassware and glazes.
12
aluminum metaphosphate. Al(P03~; mp aboot 1537°C;
used in porcelain-enamels, glazes, and glasses, and as a
high-temperature insulating cement.
aluminum monohydrate. Also called diaspore AIOOH
sp. gr. 2.4; used as an inorganic thickener and suspen-
sion agent, coating material, binder, high-temperature
adhesive, and as a source of alpha alumina or corundum
in bodies formed by hot pressing.
aluminum nitride. AIN; mp 2000°C special ceramic
with low coefficient of friction; sp. gr. 3.26; hardness
(Mohs) 6-7; used as a component in the manufacture of
crucibles for the melting of aluminum.
aluminum oxide. A120 3; mp 2030°C; sp. gr. 3.4-4.0;
hardness (Mohs) 9; used in the natural form, or as a
prepared compound, as a component in abrasives, re-
fractories, electrical insulators and electronic products,
crucibles and laboratory ware, whitewares, and a wide
variety of ceramic products in which strength, tough-
ness, thermal durability, chemical resistance, and simi-
1ar properties are of primary importance. See also
alumina, bauxite, corundum.
aluminum oxide, hydrous. See hydrous aluminum ox-
ide.
aluminum phosphate. A general name for phases oc-
curring in phosphate-bonding agents arising from the
reaction of phosphoric acid with oxides and siliceous
materials at elevated temperature. The main phases up
to 400°C are AIH3(P04 h·3H20, AI(H2P04h and
Al(HP04)3 which are acid phosphates. Above 400°C
aluminum orthophosphate, AIP04, is the main phase
along with Al(P0 3h and AI4(P20 7h. The orthophos-
phate AIP04 has several polymorphs isostructural with
tridymite and cristobalite. They are used as binders in
refractories and dental cements, and as partial replace-
ment for Si02 to reduce liquidus temperature and batch
costs.
aluminum phosphide. AlP; mp 1500°C; fairly wide
band gap 2.5 e V, n-type semiconductor with zinc blende
structure; bulk modulus 86 ON m- 2.
aluminum silicate refractories. Two crystalline phases
found in the AI-Si-O system of variable composition and
structure: (1) mullite AI[Si2 _ xAlxO(lll2) _ (xI2)] where x
varies from 1.25 to 1.40; stable at high temperatures;
mp 1810°C but softens at 1650°C; sp. gr. 3.15; long
acicular crystals which give strength to pottery and fired
refractories; used in the manufacture of various refrac-
tory products and laboratory ware. (2) Sillimanite, ky-
anite and andalusite all have the same composition,
AI 20Si04, and are stable up to 181O°C when they
decompose into mullite needles and silica.. Porcelain
made from these minerals has high mp, low thermal
expansion and low electrical conductivity and therefore
found as spark plugs. (3) A more general term used to
describe ceramic materials composed essentially of alu-
minum, silicon and oxygen atoms; prepared from such
materials as bauxite, andalusite, diaspore, gibbsite, ky-
anite, sillimanite and blends of AI2 0 3 and Si02 •
 13
aluminum silicofluoride. AI 2(SiF 6h; salt containing
complex hexafluorosilicon ions found in molten cryolite
alumina mixtures.
aluminum sodium sulfate. AlNa(S04}z·12H20 called
soda alum; occurs in clay bearing rocks.
aluminum titanate. AI2Ti05; mp 1860°C; stable from
1260 to 1865°C, sp. gr. 3.68; used in the production of
special ceramics resistant to thermal shock.
alum minerals. A large and diverse group of chemical
salts having the general formula Mi MlIl(S04}z·12H20.
Some have industrial use, e.g., NaAl(S04)2·l2H20 and
medical use as styptic pencil KAl(S04}z·12H20.
Alundum. A trade name for fused alumina used as an
abrasive or refractory material.
alunite. KAI3(S04h(OH)6; the source of commercial
alums; sp. gr. 2.6-2.8; hardness (Mohs) 3.5-4.0; a
calcined material employed in the production of high-
alumina refractories.
alunogenite. AI 2(S04)3 ·18H 20; a mineral used in the
paper industry which when heated produces alumina.
amber glass. A glass tinted to colors ranging from pale
yellow to brown or reddish brown by the addition of
iron oxide and sulfur compounds to the batch.
amber mica. Another name for the magnesium bearing
mica, phlogopite.
ambetti. A translucent antique glass containing minute
opaque specks of crystallized particles from the molten
batch.
ambient. Surrounding; a term describing the conditions
or character of an encompassing environment, such as
the atmosphere or fluid, in terms of its temperature,
composition, pressure etc.
amblygonite. K(Li,Al}z(F,OH}z(Si3Al)4010; another
name for lepidolite; mp 1170°C; sp. gr. 3.1; hardness
(Mohs) 6; used as a flux in low-temperature porcelain-
enamels and to promote opacity in glass dinnerware; in
ceramic bodies the F and Li decrease expansion and
increase their strength; normally white with pearly lus-
ter but can be pink, blue or pale green.
Amer. Ceram. Soc. Abbreviation for the American Ce-
ramic Society.
American bond. The bond in which a header course of
brick is used every fifth, sixth, or seventh course, with
stretcher courses being used between the header
courses. Also known as common bond.
American hotel china. A heavy, moderately translucent
dinnerware of high strength and a water-absorption
value of less than 0.3%; the ware is coated with a glaze
highly resistant to commercial soaps and detergents,
food chemicals, and physical damage.
amethyst. A purple or violet transparent variety of quartz,
Si0 2·
AMOSITE
amethyst contrast enhancer. See ACE.
ammonia. NH 3; important base used to precipitate hy-
droxides; when added to iron oxide bodies of the sgraf-
fito-decorated type it deflocculates and controls the
segregation of iron oxide and stabilizes the red color
over a firing range wider than normal.
ammonium alum. AlNH4(S04}z·12H20; used to in-
crease the set of porcelain-enamel ground coats and
acid-resisting cover coats.
ammonium bicarbonate. (NH4)HC0 3; used with fluo-
rine compounds in an etching bath to produce frosted
surfaces on glass, such as obtained on electric light
bulbs.
ammonium bifluoride. NH4HF; used in combination
with hydrofluoric acid to produce frosted surfaces on
glassware.
ammonium dawsonite. NH4Al(OH}zC0 3; a source of
alumina powder; thermal decomposition yields
monosized, highly dispersed Al 20 3 powder that is good
for slip casting in a porous plastic mold before low-tem-
perature, < l200°C, sintering to high density.
ammonium metavanadate. NH4V0 3; sp. gr. 2.3; used
as a colorant to produce yellow, green and turquoise
glazes and porcelain-enamels, frequently in conjunc-
tion with the oxides of tungsten, molybdenum, and
zirconium.
ammonium molybdate. (NH4)6MoP24·4H20; decom-
poses on heating; sp. gr. 2.38-2.95; sometimes used as
an adherence-promoting agent in clear and white por-
celain-enamel ground coats.
ammonium paratungstate. (NH 4)IO W 12041·IIH20;
very insoluble; sp. gr. 2.3; used in the production of
tungsten trioxide by calcination at 600°C.
ammonium stearate. C 17H 35 COO(NH4); employed as a
waterproofing additive in hydraulic cements.
amorphic diamond. The name is short for amorphous
ceramic; a class of diamond prepared in vacuum by laser
ablation of graphite at intensities in excess of 1011 W
cm- 2. When condensed onto substrates nodules of
amorphous diamond are formed as both the cubic and
hexagonal modification of diamond intergrow. It con-
sists of sp3-bonded carbon in a matrix of sp2-type car-
bons. Great potential as a protective coating material.
amorphous. Having only short-range order leading to no
discernible crystalline structure.
amorphous graphite. A form of natural graphite
formed by metamorphosis of coal seams exposed to
high pressure and moderate temperatures. Not accu-
rately described as amorphous but rather as cryptocrys-
talline; soft and black in appearance.
amosite. Fe5.5Mgl.5[Si4011h<0H}z; also known as
grunerite, an amphibole type fibrous silicate used at
35% level in calcined calcium silicate matrix as tiles for
thermal insulation, also mixed with magnesia or sodium
silicate as thermal tiles; pale fawn in color.
AMPELITE
ampelite. A carbonaceous schist containing alumina, sil-
ica, and sulfur; sometimes used as a refractory.
ampere. The unit of electric current in the rationalized
meter-kilogram-second system of units; defined in
terms of the force of attraction between two parallel
current-carrying conductors. Abbreviated a; A; amp.
Ampere currents. A postulated "molecular-ring" cur-
rent used to explain the phenomena of magnetism, as
well as the apparent nonexistence of isolated magnetic
poles.
Ampere law. A law giving the magnetic induction at
a point due to given currents in terms of the current
elements and their positions relative to the point. Also
known as the Laplace law. A law giving the line
integral over a closed path of the magnetic induction
due to given currents in terms of the total current
linking the path.
ampere meter squared. The SI unit of electromagnetic
moment. Abbreviated A m2.
ampere-minute. A unit of electrical charge, equal to the
charge transported in I minute by a current of I ampere,
or to 60 coulombs. Abbreviated A min.
ampere per square inch. A unit of current density, equal
to the uniform current density of a current of I ampere
flowing through an area of I square inch. Abbreviated
Alin2 •
Ampere rule. The rule which states that the direction of
the magnetic field surrounding a conductor will be
clockwise when viewed from the conductor if the direc-
tion of current flow is away from the observer
ampere square meter per joule second. The SI unit of
gyromagnetic ratio. Abbreviated A m2 r l S-I.
Ampere theorem. The theorem which states that an
electric current flowing in a circuit produces a magnetic
field at external points equivalent to that due to a
magnetic shell whose bounding edge is the conductor
and whose strength is equal to the strength of the cur-
rent.
ampere-turn. A unit of magnetomotive force in the SI,
defined as the force of a closed loop of one turn when
there is a current of I ampere flowing in the loop.
Abbreviated amp-turn.
amphibole. Any member of a large group of mineral
silicates containing calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium,
and aluminum often with acicular crystal habit, dark in
color. From the Greek amphibolos meaning uncertain.
See amphiboles.
amphiboles. Double-chain silicate minerals formed
from Si04 tetrahedra sharing corners in 2-D chains. Part
of the Si can be replaced by AI. They commonly contain
OH-, p, or 0 2- ions. Examples are asbestos, horn-
blende, and tremolite. The basic structural unit consists
of infinite chains formed from two single [(Si0 3)2-1 n
chains that share oxygen ions to form [(Si 40 Il OH)7-1 n •
14
amphibolite. A metamorphic rock containing mainly
amphibole and plagioclase.
amphichroic. A system producing two colors, one in an
acid environment and the other in an alkaline medium.
amphiphilic. Having a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic
end.
amphora. A large ceramic jar with a narrow neck and
with two handles that rise almost to the level of the
mouth.
amphoteric. A substance which is capable of reacting
either as an acid or as a base; for example, A120 3,
Fe203' and Cr203'
amplifier. A device which increases the amplitude of a
signal at its input to give a larger signal at its output.
amplitude. The maximum displacement above or below
the zero point of a wave or wave function. The energy
of a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
amplitude modulation. One of the main methods of
transmitting audio or visual information; the amplitude
of a radio frequency carrier wave is modulated by the
information that is to be transmitted while the frequency
of the carrier wave remains unchanged.
ampoule. A small bulbous glass container which may be
filled and then sealed by fusion of the neck.
amu. Abbreviation for atomic mass unit.
amygdale. An oval shaped pore in a solid formed by
escaping gas on cooling that has subsequently become
filled with another phase of lighter colored appearance.
anacoustic. Unable to support the propagation of sound.
analcite. NaAlSi20 6 ; a cubic mineral also called zedite,
a sodium aluminosilicate; white or colorless.
analog. Something similar to something else, particu-
larly in terms of features or properties on which com-
parisons may be made.
analog signal processor. High-speed analog signal
processors performing such functions as filtering, con-
volution, correlation, Fourier transformation, and ana-
log-to-digital (A-to-D) conversion are important for
many applications. Various high-speed A-to-D convert-
ers have been tested successfully at 4.2 K. If high-qual-
ity Josephson junctions can be fabricated from the new
superconductors, these devices should perform compa-
rably at 77 K. At this temperature, integration of the
superconducting devices with some semiconducting de-
vices (for example, complementary metal oxide semi-
conductors) becomes feasible, and new hybrid systems
may well result in the fastest A-to-D converters avail-
able.
analysis. The separation and measurement of the con-
stituents of a substance, and the interpretation of these
results. Also identified as chemical content, mineral
content, physical properties.
 15
analysis, gravimetric. See gravimetric analysis.
analysis, mechanical. See mechanical analysis.
analysis, optical. See optical analysis.
analysis, proximate. See proximate analysis.
analysis, qUalitative. See qualitative analysis.
analysis, quantitative. See quantitative analysis.
analysis, screen. See screen analysis.
analysis, size. See size analysis.
analysis, statistical. See statistical analysis.
analysis, ultimate. See ultimate analysis.
analysis, volumetric. See volumetric analysis.
analysis, x-ray. See x-ray analysis.
analytical-reagent grade. A classification adopted by
the American Chemical Society to designate the quality
of a chemical or chemical reagent in terms of its com-
position and degree of purity.
anamorphism. Metamorphism in rocks in which com-
plex minerals are formed from simpler ones.
anatase. Ti02; mp about l885°C; sp. gr. 3.9-4.2; hard-
ness (Mohs) 5.5-6 and Vickers 9.5 ON m-2 ; the tetrago-
nal form of Ti02; is used as an opacifier and pigment in
porcelain-enamels, glazes, and glass; the first poly-
morph to crystallize in enamels containing Ti02 but on
annealing it changes to rutile. See titanium dioxide,
rutile, brookite.
anchor. An L-shaped supporting device used to mount
glass, masonry, concrete, or other panels or units to a
wall or other surface.
anchored-type ceramic veneer. Any ceramic panel or
sheet laid superficially over a permanent backing and
then anchored in place.
anchor, storm. See storm anchor.
andalusite. AI20Si04 ; sp. gr. 3-3.5; hardness (Mohs)
7-7.5; a subsaturate mineral which dissociates to yield
principally mullite on firing at l350°C; used as a com-
ponent in refractories, spark plugs, insulators, and
whiteware bodies. See also kyanite and sillimanite.
andesine. A soda-lime feldspar in which the principal
constituents are albite, NaAlSi 30 S' and anorthite,
CaA12Si20 s·
andesite. An amphoteric igneous rock of intermediate
silica content and small grain size formed extrusively
by volcanism.
Andrades creep law. Flow under constant stress when
the strain is characterized by £ = ~t 1/3, where t is the
elapsed time and ~ is a constant. It occurs at the begin-
ning of creep tests where transient flow predominates.
ANGLE TILE
Andreasen sedimentation pipette. An instrument in
which differences in settling rate are employed as a
means of determining the particle size distribution in
clays and materials of similar character.
Andrews elutriator. A device consisting of a sequence
of classifiers and a graduated cylinder for use in making
particle-size analyses. See classifier.
Andrieux-Weiss process. An electrochemical method
involving the electrolysis of fused masses of carbonates
to produce carbide and oxide mixtures from which the
oxide can be chemically removed to leave behind re-
fractory carbide material.
anelasticity. Time-dependent strain in the elastic region.
aneroid barometer. A barometer in which variations in
atmospheric pressure are measured by fluctuations of a
thin elastic metal covering a partially evacuated cham-
ber and indicated by a pointer on a calibrated dial.
anfractuous. Convoluted; characterized by twists and
turns.
angle bead. A slender, curved item of ceramic tile de-
signed to finish the internal or external comers of a wall
tile installation.
angle brick. A brick shaped to fit a comer.
angle of deviation. The angle between the refracted ray
and the incident ray when a ray of light passes from one
medium to another.
angle of drain. After dipping ware in a porcelain-
enamel slip, the angle at which ware is placed on a rack
to drain to obtain a desired thickness.
angle of incidence. The angle between a ray of light at a
surface and a line perpendicular to that surface.
angle of nip. The maximum angle of the jaws, rolls,
mantle, or ring of a jaw crusher which will accept and
grip a solid mass for crushing.
angle of reflection. The angle a beam of reflected radia-
tion makes with the normal to a surface at the point of
reflection.
angle of refraction. The angle made by the refracted
part of a light ray with a line perpendicular to the surface
of the refracting medium through the point of incidence
of the refracted ray.
angle of repose. The maximum angle to the horizontal
that heaps of powders, aggregates, etc., will make be-
fore becoming unstable and sliding.
angle of winding. The angle of the roving band with
respect to the mandrel.
anglesite. Oxidized layer of galena deposits, PbS04 ; a
source of lead oxide in ceramics.
angle tile. A tile designed or cut for placement in an
angular space.
ANGSTROM UNIT
angstrom unit. A; I x 10-10 m; used primarily to ex-
press wavelengths in the x-ray region and to denote the
size of x-ray unit cell dimensions of crystal structures.
angular acceleration. The rate of change of angular ve-
locity.
angular frequency. ro; equals 21tV or 27tCIi.., where A. is
the wavelength, C is the velocity of propagation of the
electromagnetic wave, and ro is the angular frequency;
used in mathematical treatments of electromagnetic
waves.
angular momentum. The product of the momentum of
a rotating body and its distance from the axis of rotation.
angular velocity. The velocity of a body rotating about
a fixed point measured as the rate of change of the angle
subtended at that fixed point by the path of the body.
anharmonicity, electrical. See electrical anharmonic-
ity.
anharmonicity, mechanical. See mechanical anhar-
monicity.
anhedral. A solid having no planar surfaces.
anhydride. An oxide which on addition of water pro-
duces an acid or a base.
anhydrite. CaS04; natural deposits formed by evapora-
tion of sea water above 25°C; mp 1450°C; sp. gr. 2.96;
hardness (Mohs) 3-35; used as a drying agent, as a
substitute for gypsum in cement, and in the manufacture
of ammonium sulfate fertilizer.
anhydrous. Without water, both free water and water of
crystallization.
anion. A negatively charged ion.
anion adsorption. The adsorption of anions onto free
surfaces.
anionic exchange. A type of ionic exchange in which the
negative ions in a solution are exchanged with the
negative ions in a solid, the superficial physical struc-
ture of the solid being unaffected. This process is pre-
ceded by anion adsorption.
anionic exchange capacity. A measure of the ability of
a solid substance, such as a clay, to exchange or adsorb
ions; usually expressed in milliequivalents of ion per
100 grams of solid.
anisometric. Having unequal measurements.
anisotropic. Physical properties that are dependent on
the direction in which they are measured. Even materi-
als with the cubic crystal structure can have some
anisotropic properties.
ankerite. A chemical variety of dolomite in which con-
siderable isomorphous replacement of Mg2+ and Ca2+
by iron has occurred.
annabergite. Ni 3(As04 h·8H20; a green, monoclinic
mineral; also called nickel bloom.
16
anneal. (l) A process of heating and cooling glass on a
prescribed schedule to prevent or release stresses which
contribute to brittleness. (2) The heating of metal shapes
to a red heat or above as a means of removing scale,
rust, and other surface contaminants prior to cleaning
and pickling the ware. (3) Quenched or cold-worked
solids will contain a considerable amount of strain
energy stored in the crystals arising from the array of
dislocations. If the material is heated to a temperature
near the melting point, recrystallization can take place.
This treatment, known as annealing, allows the grains
to re-form themselves in strain-free distributions.
annealing, abrasive. See abrasive annealing.
annealing, acid. See acid annealing.
annealing, bright. See bright annealing.
annealing, fine. See fine annealing.
annealing fire. (l) The heat treatment of glass and met-
als to remove internal stresses. (2) The heat treatment
of metal shapes prior to cleaning for porcelain-enamel-
ing to bum off scale, dirt, grease, and other contami-
nants' and sometimes to temper the metal.
annealing furnace. The furnace or oven in which the
temperature, and sometimes the atmosphere, are con-
trolled for the annealing of glass or metal.
annealing, glass. See glass annealing.
annealing point. The temperature, or the temperature-
time relationship, at which internal stresses in a glass
are substantially reduced or relieved.
annealing, porcelain·enameling. See annealing fire
(2).
annealing range. The range of temperatures in which
the inherent internal stresses in glass can be reduced or
relieved, and which generally is at a rate considered
feasible for commercial production.
annealing temperature. Any temperature within a tem-
perature range at which internal stress in a glass can be
substantially reduced or relieved, usually for commer-
cially practical purposes, within a matter of minutes. In
order to achieve this the viscosity of the glass must be
close to 1012 N s m-2.
annealing twin. See twinned crystal.
annular coil. An electromagnetic coil of the encircling
type.
annular kiln. A kiln of the type in which ware is placed
in stationary compartments, and the firing zone is
moved through each compartment in a successive man-
ner by adjustment of the fuel input.
annular nozzle. A nozzle equipped with a ring-shaped
orifice.
anode. The positive, electron-deficient electrode in an
electrochemical circuit.
anodic cleaning. See anodic pickling.
 17
anodic pickling. The electrolytic process for cleaning
and pickling metal for porcelain-enameling, or any
other finishing treatment in which the metal is used as
the anode in the cleaning and pickling bath. Also known
as anodic cleaning.
anomalous. Deviating from the normal or the expected
value.
anomalous dispersion. The existence of a large discon-
tinuity in the dispersion curve of a material because at
longer wavelengths the material has higher values of
refractive index.
anorthite. CaAI2Si 20 8 ; low-thermal-expansion alumi-
nosilicate; sp. gr. 2.74-2.76; hardness (Mohs) 6.0-6.5;
a calcium feldspar used in concretes, porcelain-enam-
els, glazes, abrasives, abrasive bonds, artificial teeth,
glass, insulating compounds, and conventional ceramic
bodies. Also known as calcium feldspar.
anorthoclase. A feldspar of a composition between al-
bite and orthoclase formed by rapid cooling to yield a
perthite, therefore metastable, but persists indefinitely
at normal temperatures; occurs only in lavas. Also
known as soda orthoclase, soda microcline, anorthose.
antenna. A device to transform electromagnetic energy
from a conducted mode to a radiated mode or vice versa.
anthophyllite. Mg7[Si4011hCOH,F}z; a natural fibrous
mineral of the amphibole class used as a reinforcing
fiber.
anthracite-coal-based refractory. A refractory compo-
sition containing appreciable amounts of calcined an-
thracite coal as a source of carbon.
anthracite duff. Briquets composed of mixtures of pow-
dered anthracite and bituminous coals sometimes used
in chain-grate stokers for cement kilns.
antibonding orbital. An orbital which when occupied
tends to induce dissociation; viewed as being formed
when electron waves of positive and negative ampli-
tudes overlap.
antifatigue. The effect of increased strength observed
for glass objects that have been immersed in water with
the absence of applied stress and then dried before
testing.
antiferroelectric. A polar ceramic with equal numbers
of dipoles aligned in opposite directions.
antiferromagnetic material. A weakly magnetic mate-
rial because nearly equal magnetic moments in the
structure are lined up anti parallel to each other.
antifogging compound. A chemical compound which
will prevent or minimize the condensation of moisture
on windshields, lenses, and other glass products, such
as a mixture of castor oil, Na2Si03' kaligen, KN0 3, and
water.
antimicrobial agent. A chemical which will inhibit the
growth of microbial organisms in ceramic slips, glazes,
porcelain-enamels, and other slurries during storage.
APATITE
antimonate of lead. See lead antimonate.
antimony oxide. Sb20 3; colloquially called antimony;
sp. gr. 5.2-5.7; used as an opacifier in porcelain-enam-
els and as a minor adherence-promoting agent in white
porcelain-enamel ground coats, as a constituent in
Naples yellow pigments, as a decolorizer and fining
agent in glass manufacture, and as a component in glass
which is transparent to infrared radiation.
antimony sulfide. Sb 2S3; mp 546°C, sp. gr. 4.6; used as
an aid in the production of ruby and amber glasses, to
promote opacity in opal glasses, and occasionally as a
minor adherence promoting agent in porcelain-enam-
els. Also known as stibnite, antimony orange, antimony
black, antimony needles, antimonous sulfide.
antimony yellow. See lead antimonate.
antioch process. A technique for the production of pIas-
ter casting molds in which an aqueous slurry of plaster
of Paris is poured over a mold, following which the
mold is steam-treated, allowed to set in air, oven-dried,
and then cooled for use.
antique glass. A type of glass similar in appearance and
character to the medieval glasses used in stained-glass
windows, which usually is produced in the form of
hand-blown cylinders that are cut in the soft or plastic
state and allowed to sag to flatness on a suitable, smooth
or textured surface.
antiscale compound. A preparation applied to alloy
burning tools to protect them from oxidizing and scaling
during the firing of porcelain-enamels.
antiskid finish. A textured or intentionally roughened
surface on porcelain-enamel, tile, concrete, or other
facing area to prevent or minimize the possibility of
accidental slipping or skidding.
antistatic tile. Floor tile containing a material, usually
carbon, which will dissipate or disperse charges of static
electricity, particularly for use in areas where sparking
may be hazardous.
anti-Stokes bands. See Raman effect.
Antonoff's rule. A statement that the surface tension at
the interface between two saturated liquid layers at
eqUilibrium is equal to the difference between the indi-
vidual surface tensions of similar layers when exposed
to air.
anvil. A piece of wood, a pebble, or other hard substance
used to prevent the distortion of a pot during forming
by pressing the anvil against the inside wall at the point
opposite the point where the forming or shaping pres-
sure is applied.
AP. Acronym for annealing point.
apatite. Ca5(F,CI,OH)(P04h; sp. gr. 3.1-3.2; hardness
(Mohs) 5; a natural calcium phosphate used as an opaci-
fier in the manufacture of opal glass and as a substitute
for bone ash in whiteware bodies; the major constituent
of teeth and bones in mammals.
APLASTIC
aplastic. (I) Showing aplasia, that is, failure to develop,
to show growth, or to change. (2) A noncommittal term
describing a mineral or similar substance difficult to
identify, or appearing to be essentially a fine gravel.
aplite. A granitic mineral consisting mainly of quartz and
feldspar; used as a source of alumina in glass, porcelain
and whitewares, pottery, and porcelain-enamel.
apochromat. Objective lenses in microscopes and cam-
eras which have been carefully color corrected by mak-
ing the lens of three or more elements of different types
of glass designed to bring light of three different colors
to the same focal point.
apochromatic. A lens almost free from spherical and
chromatic aberration.
apophylUte. KCa4(Si20sMF,OH)·8Hp; a white, col-
orless, pink, or green, sheet silicate mineral of rare
tetragonal structure in which the Si04 tetrahedra form
4- and 8-membered rings as opposed to the usual hex-
agonal sheet structure of 6-membered Si04 rings. ' effective surface energy, the crack will progress
apparent dc resistance. The reciprocal of de conduc-
tance.
apparent dc surface resistance. The reciprocal of ap-
parent dc surface conductance.
apparent dc volume resistance. The reciprocal of ap-
parent dc volume conductance.
apparent density. The weight per unit volume of a ma-
terial, including voids present in the material. See ap-
parent specific gravity.
apparent initial softening point. The initial or lowest
temperature at which softening or viscous flow of a
body, such as glass, glaze, porcelain-enamel, etc., be-
gins, and the physical rigidity of the body is overcome.
apparent porosity. The ratio of the open pore space of a
body to its bulk volume, expressed in percent; calcu-
lated by the formula P = [(Ws - Wf)/Vl x 100, where P
is the apparent porosity, W. is the weight of the water-
saturated specimen in kilograms, Wf is the weight of the
original fired specimen in kilograms, and V is the vol-
ume of the specimen in cubic meters.
apparent solid volume. The total volume occupied by a
body, including open and sealed pores.
apparent specific gravity. The ratio of the weight of a
unit volume of a body to an equal volume of water at
the same temperature determined by the formula
G = Wf IV (W. - Wf ), where G is the apparent specific
gravity, Wf is the weight of the fired specimen in kilo-
grams, V is the volume of the fired specimen in cubic
meters, and W. is the weight of the water-saturated
specimen in kilograms. Also known as apparent den-
sity.
apparent volume. The volume of a body, including its
sealed pores, as indicated by the equation
Va = Vt + V. = D/da, where Va is the apparent volume,
Vt is the true volume, V. is the volume of the sealed
18
pores, D is the dry weight, and d a is the apparent density
or apparent specific gravity.
application weight. The weight of an application of a
porcelain-enamel coating per unit of area covered, usu-
ally expressed in grams per square meter for cover coats
(one side of test panel) or grams per square meter (both
sides of test panel) for ground coats; normally, the term
refers to dry weight unless specifically indicated to be
wet weight.
applicator. That part of a microwave or radio frequency
heating installation in which the product is heated. It
consists of an electrode system, which with the sample,
constitutes a tuned circuit coupled inductively with the
generator output.
applied stress intensity factor. Kr; a function of applied
load and preexisting crack size which denotes stress at
the tip of a crack. KI increases with load and when it
attains the critical value, KIc' which has a value equal
to (2Eyj)II2, where E is Young's modulus and'Yi is the
abruptly and rapidly.
apron. (1) A protective refractory shielding arrangement
designed to protect the undercarriage of kiln cars from
hot gases emanating from the firing chamber of a tunnel
kiln situated immediately above the cars; the system
consists of vertical metal plates attached to the sides of
the kiln car which slide through sand contained in
troughs along the bottom of the inside walls of the kiln.
(2) A slab of concrete, metal, wood, or other material
over the opening to a cistern, barrel, drum, or similar
vessel. (3) A platform of concrete, metal, wood, or other
material protecting an item of machinery.
apron conveyor. A conveyor consisting of a series of
metal or wood plates mounted at right angles on an
endless chain to transfer materials or products from one
location to another.
apron feeder. A modification of an apron conveyor de-
signed to feed pulverized materials to a process or
packaging unit at a controlled rate.
AQL. Acronym for acceptable quality level.
aqua regia. A powerful oxidizing solution which is a
mixture of three parts by volume of concentrated nitric
acid, one part of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and
one part water.
aqueous solution. A solution in which water is the sol-
vent.
aquifers. Water-bearing rocks.
arabesque. An ornate type or style of decoration consist-
ing of flowers, foliage, animals, and figures applied to
pottery and artware by painting, low-relief carving, etc.,
so as to produce intricate patterns of interlaced lines.
Arabian luster. A pottery overglaze containing carbon-
ates or sulfides of copper or silver which are reduced
during firing to produce a metallic appearance.
arabic, gum. See gum arabic.
 19
aragonite. A metastable polymorph of CaC0 3; decom-
poses at 825°C; sp. gr. 2.93; hardness (Mohs) 3.5-4.0;
used in refractories, whitewares, glass, electronic bod-
ies, and similar products.
arbor. A spindle or shaft on which a grinding wheel,
cutting tool, or other rotating part is mounted.
arbor hole. The hole in the center of a grinding wheel,
cutting tool, or other rotating part by which the part is
mounted on the spindle or shaft of a machine.
arc. (I) The luminous discharge of electricity between
two electrodes separated by a small gap and a high
potential difference. (2) Something curved in shape.
arc furnace. A furnace in which the heat is generated by
means of an electric arc.
arc furnace, direct. See direct arc furnace.
arc furnace, indirect. See indirect arc furnace.
arch. (I) A curved structure spanning an open space such
as the working zone in a furnace or kiln, thereby form-
ing the roof of the furnace or kiln. (2) To heat a crucible
or glass-melting pot in a pot furnace.
archaeomagnetism. A technique used to date clay ob-
jects by measuring the extent to which they have been
magnetized by the earth's magnetic field after firing
destroyed the original magnetization.
arch, bearer. See bearer arch.
arch brick. (1) A wedge-shaped brick designed for use
in an arch. (2) An extremely hard-fired or overburned
brick from an arch of a kiln.
arch, catenary. See catenary arch.
arch, chimney. See chimney arch.
arch, cooling. See cooling arch.
arch, curtain. See curtain arch.
arch, drop. See drop arch.
arch, flat. See flat arch.
arch furnace. A furnace or kiln having a curved roof
which spans and which is supported by two walls.
arch, ignition. See ignition arch.
Archimedes principle. A body immersed in a liquid un-
dergoes an apparent loss in weight equal to the weight
of the fluid it has displaced.
Archimedes screw. A spiral tube around an inclined axis
or an inclined tube containing a tight-fitting broad-
threaded screw originally designed to raise water from
one level to another. Part of extruder equipment.
architectural concrete. A concrete of particularly high
quality and free from blemishes; used as the exposed
surface on the interior or exterior faces of buildings and
other structures.
ARC SPRAYING
architectural glass. Glass used in the building industry.
architectural terra cotta. Hard-fired, glazed or un-
glazed clay building units generally larger than brick or
conventional facing tile; the units may be machine-ex-
truded or hand-molded, and they may be plain or orna-
mental.
architrave. A molding around a doorway, window, or
other opening.
archive sample. A sample retained for purposes of re-
cord.
archivolt. A decorated molding round an arch.
arch, jack. See jack arch.
archless kiln. An updraft kiln having no permanent parts
which is constructed with walls of either burned or
unburned brick; after loading, the kiln is covered with
brick, earth, or ashes and fired with solid, liquid, or
gaseous fuels.
arch, main. See main arch.
arch, pot. See pot arch.
arch, relieving. See relieving arch.
arch, rider. See rider arch.
arch rise. The vertical distance between the spring line
and the highest point of the undersurface of the arch.
arch, rowlock. See rowlock arch.
arch, saddle. See saddle arch.
arch, segmental. See segmental arch.
arch, sprung. See sprung arch.
arch, suspended. See suspended arch.
arc-image furnace. A furnace which produces very high
temperatures by focusing the rays of an electric arc into
a relatively small area by means of lenses and mirrors.
arc light. An intense light source produced by striking an
arc between two carbon electrodes.
arc material transfer. The movement of contact mate-
rial by the action of an electric arc.
arc melting. The melting of a substance in or by means
of an electric arc.
arc of contact. The portion of a grinding wheel in con-
tact with the material or object being ground.
arc plasma spraying. Fine ceramic powder is injected
into a plasma jet which heats and accelerates it onto a
surface. Not all particles are melted since conventional
spray guns inject the powder orthogonally and some
particles remain in the cooler outer layers of the plasma
flame.
arc spraying. The deposition of molten refractory mate-
rials, such as oxides, carbides, nitrides, and silicides, on
ARCUATE
ceramic or metal surfaces by blowing them in an atom-
ized state at high speeds as obtained by the use of a
plasma jet.
arcuate. Bent like an arc or bow.
arcuation. An arrangement of arches.
area, nitrogen surface. See nitrogen surface area.
area, surface. See surface area.
arenaceous. Composed of sand and sandstone.
arenaceous clay. Sandy clay; sometimes known as
arenite or sandstone.
arenite. Any arenaceous rock; a sandstone.
Argand diagram. Two perpendicular axes, the x-axis,
called the real axis, and the y-axis, called the imaginary
axis, on which a complex number z = x - iy can be
represented as a point.
argentite. Ag2S; a dark gray mineral with a cubic crystal
structure.
argil. Clay, especially potter's clay.
argillaceous. Adjective meaning composed of very fine
material such as clay; being derived from sedimentary
rocks.
argilliferous. Containing or yielding clay.
argillite. Mudstone or any sedimentary argillaceous
rock.
argon. An inert gas used as a protective atmosphere
surrounding materials which are sensitive to atmos-
pheric gases during firing; used in plasma-jet torches
during the application of highly refractory materials to
metals and in arc furnaces.
aridized plaster. Plaster treated with calcium chloride
during hydration as a means of increasing its strength
and the uniformity of its properties.
ark. A large container or vat used for the mixing and
storage of clay slips.
arkose. A sedimentary sandstone composed of frag-
ments containing a high ratio of feldspar and quartz.
Also known as feldspathic sandstone.
Armco iron. A relatively pure grade of iron made by the
open-hearth process; used in porcelain-enameling.
armor ceramics. Ceramic materials used to neutralize
and absorb kinetic energy threats to personnel and ve-
hicles; B4C, and siliceous core materials are examples.
armoring. A metal encasement for refractory brick
which is used to protect brick exposed to corrosive
atmospheres at the top of the stack of a blast furnace.
Arrentine ware. See Samian ware.
20
arris. The short edge or angle at the junction of a building
brick and a ridge tile at the hip or ridge of a roof,
molding, or raised edge.
arsenic. In the ceramic context, a term for arsenic oxide,
As20 3·
arsenic acid. H3As04 ·iH20; sometimes used as a source
of arsenic in glass. See arsenic oxide.
arsenic oxide. As 20 3; sublimes at 193°C; used as a fin-
ing agent and decolorizer in glass and as an opacifier in
glazes. Also known as arsenious oxide, arsenic trioxide,
white arsenic.
artificial discontinuity. Discontinuities such as
grooves, notches, or holes which are introduced into
bodies intended to be used as reference standards to
provide accurately reproducible sensitivity levels for
electromagnetic test equipment.
artificial weathering. A test, frequently accelerated, to
estimate the resistance of a material or product to weath-
ering in which specimens are subjected to infrared
radiation, water, salt water, ultraviolet radiation, and
other conditions simulating those encountered in na-
ture.
Artuff. Commercial name for a family of advanced ce-
ramic composite materials made from Al20 3 matrices
reinforced with SiC whiskers.
asbestine. A fibrous variety of talc exhibiting properties
similar to asbestos.
asbestos. A group of impure minerals mainly amphiboles
which occur in fibrous form, such as amosite, tremolite,
actinolite, crocidolite, etc.; used for fireproofing, heat
and electrical insulations, building materials, and simi-
lar applications. Chrysotile is a rolled sheet silicate
variation.
asbestos board. A fire-resistant board made of mixtures
of asbestos, portland cement, and water.
asbestos cement. A mixture of asbestos and portland
cement used in the production of fire-resistant flat and
corrugated sheets, shingles, tile, piping, siding, wall-
board, and similar products.
asbestos cement pipe. A pipe manufactured from asbes-
tos cement for use in drainage applications and in cor-
rosive environments.
asbestos felt. Asphalt-impregnated asbestos; used as a
vapor barrier for concrete.
asbestos fiber. Milled and screened asbestos in fiber
form.
asbestos insulation. A fibrous asbestos used as thermal
insulation at temperatures above 815°C; frequently
bonded with clay and sodium silicate.
asbestos shingle. A shingle resistant to weather, fire, and
general deterioration which is formed by compressing
mixtures of asbestos fiber and portland cement; used as
 21
roofing, siding, and similar applications in building
construction.
asbolane. See asbolite.
asbolite. (Co,Mn)O·2Mn02-4H20; an impure earthy
mixture of cobalt and manganese oxides used in the
production of underglaze blue colors when fired under
reducing conditions. Also known as asbolane, black
cobalt, cobalt ocher, earthy cobalt.
ash. The noncombustible solid residue remaining from
the burning of a fuel or other organic material.
ashes. The residue of burned trees, land plants, bones,
seaweed, and marsh plants; sometimes used as a flux in
high-temperture bodies and glazes.
ash furnace. A fritting furnace used in the production of
materials used in the production of glass. See frit.
ashlar brick. A brick produced with a rough-hackled
face resembling the appearance of stone.
ashlar masonry. A type of masonry construction of
fired-clay block of a size larger than conventional brick,
and with the exposed faces of square or rectangular
shape, laid in mortar in a uniform pattern; sometimes
sawed, dressed, tooled, or quarry-faced stone is used in
place of the ceramic block.
as-is basis. A material or product offered and accepted
in the condition or shape in which it exists at the time
without making changes.
aspect ratio. A term used to define chopped strand fibers
by dividing the fiber length by its diameter.
asperity. Roughness of a surface.
asphalt. Any of several black semisolid mixtures con-
taining bitumen and inert mineral material; occurs natu-
rally or is the residue from petroleum distillation; used
as a waterproofing material, in paints and dielectrics,
and, mixed with gravel, is a road surfacing material.
asphalt felt. A sheet of feltlike material impregnated
with asphalt for use in roofing and waterproofing appli-
cation, frequently in conjunction with asbestos-cement
products.
asphalt rock. A porous rock such as sandstone or dolo-
mite, which has become impregnated with asphalt in its
natural location.
aspirating screen. A sieve through which particles are
drawn by a combination of vibration and suction.
ASR. Acronym for the alkali-silica reaction that occurs
between silica in some aggregates and alkali in con-
crete. The cause of concrete cancer.
assay. A qualitative or quantitative measurement of the
components of a material.
assay, chemical. See chemical assay.
assay, physical. See physical assay.
ATOMIC UNITS
assembly, joint. See joint assembly.
assurance, quality. See quality assurance.
asteriated. A starlike effect produced when light is dis-
persed about a sixfold axis in a transparent crystal.
asterism. The appearance of starlike figures in a trans-
parent mineral when viewed in transmitted light. Phlo-
gopite shows this effect well.
ASTM. Acronym for the American Society for Testing
and Materials.
astringent clay. A clay containing an astringent salt such
as alum.
Astroquartz. A commercially available continuous
quartz fiber; sp. gr. 2.2; Young's modulus 69 GN m-2
and strength 3.45 GN m-2.
atactic. A random arrangement.
ATB. Abbreviation for aluminum tertiary-butoxide.
ATH. Abbreviation for alumina trihydrate.
atmosphere. (I) The gaseous mass surrounding the earth
which is composed of 21 parts of oxygen and 78 parts
of nitrogen by volume (23 parts of oxygen and 77 parts
of nitrogen by weight), 1% of argon, 0.02% of carbon
dioxide, and some aqueous vapor. (2) The gaseous
environment existing in a furnace or kiln, particularly
in the zone in which ware is being fired. (3) A unit of
pressure equal to 1.013259 x 105 N m-2, the air pressure
at mean sea level.
atmosphere, controlled. See controlled atmosphere.
atmosphere, neutral. See neutral atmosphere.
atmosphere, oxidizing. See oxidizing atmosphere.
atmosphere, reducing. See reducing atmosphere.
atom. The smallest particle of an element that will enter
into the composition of a molecule.
atomic absorption spectrometry. The measurement of
light absorbed by the unexcited atoms of an element as
a means of identifying the composition and properties
of a substance.
atomic number. Z; the number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom; locates an atom in the periodic table.
atomic orbital. The wave function for an electron in an
atom and so describes the distribution of electron den-
sity in an atom.
atomic units. Scales of measurement, introduced to sim-
plify the constants in the Schrtidinger equation, in
which the mass of the electron is 1.0, charge is a
multiple of the proton's charge, length is a multiple of
the Bohr radius, energy is in multiples of twice the
ionization potential of the hydrogen atom, and velocity
is in mUltiples of the velocity of light.
ATOMIC WEIGHT
atomic weight. More correctly the atomic mass; the
mean weight of an atom of an element in relation to one
atom of carbon isotope having a standard weight of
12.0.
atomization. The process of converting liquids and sol-
ids to a fine spray, minute particles, or a fine dust.
atomized oil. Fuel oil combined with air under pressure
to facilitate its combustion.
atomizing air. A stream of fast-moving air employed to
convert liquids or solids to fine sprays or dusts.
ATP. Abbreviation for acceptance test procedure.
attapulgite. Mg5Sis020(OHh·8H20; a white fibrous
clay mineral; used as a suspension agent in various
ceramic slips; large deposits at Attapulgus, Ga. Also
known as palygorskite.
attenuate. To reduce in size, strength, density, or other
value.
attenuation. The loss of energy of radiation as it passes
through matter as a result of scattering or absorption.
attenuation duct. Short tunnels, of small aperture, sited
at inlet and outlets of continuous radio-frequency and
microwave ovens and furnaces to prevent excessive
leakage of radio-frequency and microwave energy.
attenuator. Any device that is designed to reduce the
power of a wave without distorting it.
attic order. A low pilaster of any order set into the
cornice of a building.
attribute sampling. A method of quality-control inspec-
tion in which sampled ware is classified only as pass-
able or defective.
attribute testing. A reliability test procedure in which
specimens are evaluated and classified on the basis of
qualitative properties or characteristics.
attrition. Wear and disintegration of a surface by rub-
bing or friction. Also known as scouring, scoring.
attrition mill. A machine in which materials are pulver-
ized between toothed metal disks rotating in opposite
directions.
at. wt. Abbreviation for atomic weight.
a. u. Abbreviation for atomic unit.
audibility. The minimum effective pressure of sound
waves capable of producing a sensation in the ear.
auger. A machine which forces or extrudes moist clay
and similar bodies through a die by means of a revolving
screw contained in a closed cylinder or barrel.
Auger effect. A radiationle~s transition from an excited
state to a dissociative state which diminishes the inten-
sities of x rays by removing electrons from solids. If the
energy of the Auger electron is measured information
22
about the energy levels of electrons in solids can be
obtained; See Auger electron spectroscopy.
Auger electron spectroscopy. AES; a surface analysis
method used to identify elements and their oxidation-
state by measurement of excited low-energy secondary
electrons.
augite. A series of solid solutions formed between the
pyroxenes, diopside and hedenbergite.
aurichalcite. CU5_xZnx(OH)6(C03)z; a copper-zinc ba-
sic carbonate mineral that when heated to 450°C con-
verts to a copper-covered ZnO catalyst material able to
convert CO2 to CO in the water-gas shift reaction.
Aurivillius phases. A group of layered perovskite mate-
rials characterized by Bi 20 2 layers in their structure
which separate blocks of the perovskite structure,
(An_1Bn03n+l)2-, in antiphase relationship with each
other. In the general formula, n is the width of the
perovskite block in octahedra, A is Bi3+, Ba2+, Pb2+,
La3+, Ca 2+, K+, Na+, and B is Nb5+, M06+, W6+; many
are ferroelectrics and may have high-temperature su-
perconducting properties.
austenite. Face centered cubic iron.
autoclave. An airtight vessel in which materials are sub-
jected to high pressure. One variant uses high-pressure
steam.
autoclave cure. A means of accelerating the curing reac-
tions of concrete, asbestos cement, and similar products
at elevated temperatures and pressures in saturated
steam, particularly when siliceous materials have been
incorporated in a cementitious matrix such that a hy-
drothermal reaction takes place between the silica and
the cement.
autocombustion. An automatic system designed to im-
prove the efficiency of oil combustion by means of
electric or electronically controlled impulses.
autogeneous grinding. Grinding in a rotating cylindri-
cal mill without the use of balls or rods, the grinding
media being incoming additions of the coarse material
to be ground.
autogeneous healing. (1) A self-healing of cracks in
concrete under favorable conditions of temperature,
moisture, and lack of movement. (2) The self-healing
of cracks, pinholes, etc., in porcelain-enamels and
glazes under the influence of heat.
autogenous mill. A closed, rotating cylinder or mill in
which the grinding medium is the coarse feed of incom-
ing material to be ground.
automatic dryer. A dryer in which the temperature and
atmosphere are controlled by means of an appropriate
control device.
automatic snagging. The removal of surface defects and
excess metal from a product by the use of automatic or
semiautomatic grinding machines, where the pressure
between the grinding surface and the work, as well as
the traverse wheel over the work, is controlled mechani-
 23
cally or hydraulically from a control station away from
the grinding wheel.
automaton. A mechanical device operating under its
own power system; a robot.
auto radiograph. A photograph showing the distribution
of radioactive substances in a specimen.
autotransformer. A transformer in which all or part of
the winding is common to both primary and secondary
circuits.
autoxidation. Oxidation by exposure to atmospheric
oxygen.
autunite. Ca(U02}z(P04)2·l2H20; a yellowish, fluores-
cent, tetragonal mineral with radioactive properties.
available energy. Energy existing in bodies or systems
under conditions in which work may theoretically be
obtained from them.
available heat. The amount of heat per unit mass of a
substance that may be transformed into some form of
work, such as in an engine or other system, under ideal
conditions.
avalanche. A group of ions arising from the collision of
a single ion with some other form of matter.
AZURITE
aventurine. (I) A glass or glaze contammg colored,
opaque spangles of nonglassy materials such as copper,
gold, chrome, or hematite which give the glaze a shim-
mering, usually green, appearance. (2) A variety of
quartz containing red or green particles of iron oxide or
mica. (3) A translucent form of orthoclase feldspar
containing red-gold particles of iron compounds; also
known as suns tone.
average coefficient of cubical expansion. The average
change in the unit volume of a body or substance per
unit change in temperature over a prescribed tempera-
ture range.
average coefficient of linear expansion. The average
change in the unit length of a body per unit change in
temperature over a prescribed temperature range.
average particle size. The average of the dimensions of
particles of a material or a mixture of materials.
Avogadro's constant. N A ; defined as Avogadro's num-
ber per mole, i.e., N A = No mole-I.
Avogadro's number. No; the number of atoms in 12 g of
12C.
azurite. CU3(OH)z(C03h; sp. gr. 3.77-3.83; hardness
(Mohs) 3.5-4.0; a basic carbonate of copper used as a
blue pigment. Also known as blue copper, blue mala-
chite, chessylite.
 B
Babinet compensator. A crystal plate of variable thick-
ness with faces cut parallel to the optic axis used to
produce or analyze elliptically polarized light. Quartz
crystal is commonly used.
bacile. A deep ceramic dish or basin.
back bond. A chemical bond between an atom in the
surface layer of a solid and an atom in the second layer.
back draft. A slight undercut in a mold which makes
removal of the molded part difficult.
backer strip. An asphalt-coated felt strip employed as a
water-repellent backing for the vertical joint between
asbestos-cement shingles.
background. In the detection of nuclear radiation, that
part of the signal which arises from natural radioactivity
or cosmic rays.
background fluorescence. The fluorescent residues ob-
served on the surface of a test specimen during fluores-
cent-penetrant inspection.
backing. (1) The portion of a wall or structure installed
behind a facing course to attain a particular property in
the structure, such as strength, insulation, or economy.
(2) A backing material such as cloth, paper, fiber, etc.,
used as the backing for coated abrasives. (3) The flex-
ible carrier for the magnetic oxide coatings employed
on magnetic tapes.
backing plate. A plate used to support the cavity blocks
and guide pins in injection molding.
backing sand. In molding it is any sand mixture used to
fill the flask after the facing sand mixture is in place.
back-off. To remove a cutting tool or grinding wheel
from contact with an item being processed.
back pressure. (1) The resistance to forward flow of
plastic material in an extruder. (2) In molding the vis-
cous resistance encountered when the mold is closing.
24
back stamp. A mark made on the back or bottom of a
product to identify its origin or manufacturer; a hall-
mark.
back wall. The wall at the charging end of a glass-melt-
ingfurnace.
backwear. A worn condition on the back of an abrasive
belt caused by high speed, high pressure, or both, which
results in friction between the belt and its backup at the
point of contact with a work piece.
baddeleyite. Naturally occurring monoclinic form of
zr0 2 ; mp 2850°C; sp. gr. 5.5-6.0; used in refractory
and corrosion-resistant applications such as furnace
linings and muffles and as an ingredient in low-expan-
sion ceramic bodies.
badging. The marking of glassware and other ceramic
products to identify the manufacturer, ownership, ca-
pacity, composition, or other information.
baftle. (1) A partition consisting of a panel, plate, screen,
wall, or other device designed to check, regulate, or
deflect the flow of something, such as a shield placed
in a position to protect ware from combustion gases in
a furnace or kiln during firing. (2) The part of a glass-
forming mold designed to shut off the delivery of mol-
ten glass into the mold.
baftle mark. A mark or seam line visible on a bottle or
other glass product caused by the joint between the
mold and the baffle.
baftle wan. A wall constructed in a furnace or kiln to
protect items being fired from flames and combustion
gases.
bagasse. The crushed fibrous material remaining after
the juice is extracted from sugarcane; employed as a
reinforcement and filler in plaster products, such as
acoustic tile.
bag rIlter. An apparatus containing porous cloth, paper,
or felt bags designed to collect dust from dust-laden
gases passed through the apparatus.
 25
baghouse. A chamber containing an arrangement of bag
filters for the removal of airborne particles from air or
gas streams emanating from furnaces, drymixers, or
other dust-producing equipment or operations.
bag molding. A process whereby a flexible bag is used
to apply uniform pressure over the surface of a fiber
laminate during matrix impregnation.
bag wall. A refractory wall in a furnace or kiln designed
and placed to deflect a flame to prevent it from striking
ware being fired.
Bailey meter. A flowmeter of helical vane construction
used to measure the weight of powdered or granular
materials passing through an essentially vertical shaft
or other enclosed passage.
bainite. A mixture of iron carbide, Fe3C, and iron present
in incompletely hardened steels annealed at tempera-
tures between the pearlite and martensite range, 250-
550°C.
bait. A tool dipped into a bath of molten glass to start a
drawing operation.
baked core. A molded mass of a sand mixture to be used
as a core which has been baked.
baking. Heat processing sufficient to promote bond for-
mation of binder constituents.
balance. A weighing device consisting essentially of a
horizontal beam having a fulcrum at the center with a
pan suspended from each end, one holding the object
being weighed and the other holding equivalent
weights.
balanced design. In a filament wound composite it is a
winding pattern for the ceramic fiber so designed that
all filaments have equal stresses.
balanced-in-plane contour. The contour of the head in
a filament wound composite in which filament orienta-
tion within a plane and the radii of curvature are ad-
justed to balance the stresses along the filaments with
loading pressure.
balanced laminate. A composite laminate in which all
lamina angles except 0° and 90° occur only in + or -
pairs symmetrically about a center plane.
balanced runner. A runner system from an injection
molder made to place all cavities at the same distance
from the sprue.
balance, dynamic. See dynamic balance.
balance, material. See material balance.
balance, static. See static balance.
balancing. Testing for balance by adding or subtracting
weight to put a grinding wheel or other rotating part into
either static or dynamic balance. See static balance,
dynamic balance.
balas. A red variety of spinel often called balas ruby.
BAND
ball charge. Volume of balls loaded in a ball mill. Com-
monly one-third the total mill volume.
ball clay. A clay that has been transported by water from
where it was formed to give secondary deposits in
sedimentary layers. A kaolinic type of clay charac-
terized by high plasticity, fine-grained particles, high
dry strength, long vitrification range, and a white-to-
cream color after firing; employed in ceramic bodies to
provide plasticity during forming and to induce vitrifi-
cation during firing, as a suspension agent in porcelain-
enamels and glazes, and as a bonding agent in
nonplastic refractories. The colloquial name is believed
to come from the fact that plastic clay was mined in
lumps or balls weighing 14 kg.
ball, grinding. See grinding ball.
balling. The tendency of a material to agglomerate or
cluster, particularly during mixing.
ballistic limit. The maximum velocity of a threat that a
given amount of ceramic armor will defeat.
ball mill. A closed-end rotating cylinder, usually con-
sisting of a steel jacket with an abrasion-resistant por-
celain or porcelainlike lining and containing pebbles or
porcelain balls as the grinding media, in which materi-
als are wet or dry ground as a means of mixing or
reducing the particle size. The mill and grinding media
may be of steel or alloy compositions if contamination
is not a factor.
ball mill, air-swept. See air-swept ball mill.
ball milling. Using a ball mill to prepare materials.
ball mill, Krupp. See Krupp ball mill.
ball mill, vibrating. See vibrating ball mill.
ballotini. Minute glass spheres, 1-60!lm diameter, made
to reflect light by flame-drawing and then allowing the
molten glass to fall in an air jet.
ball test. (1) A test in which a ball of specified size and
weight is dropped or forced onto the surface of a body,
glaze, porcelain-enamel, or other material under pre-
scribed conditions as a means of evaluating a property
such as resistance to impact, degree of adherence, etc.
(2) An on-site test of the consistency of concrete.
Balmer series. The series of lines in the visible part of
the spectrum of hydrogen which can be represented by
the formula in = R(0.25 - IIn 2 ), where n = 3, 4, 5, etc.,
in is the wave number, and R is the Rydberg constant
for hydrogen.
bamboo ware. A type of brownish or cane-colored
stoneware.
Banbury mixer. A heavy-duty mixer consisting of two
rotors, the faces of which turn in opposite directions;
used in mixing viscous compositions and pastes.
band. A restricted range in which the energies of elec-
trons in solids lie, or from which they are excluded, as
understood in quantum-mechanical terms.
BANDGAP
band gap. The energy difference from the top of the
valence band to the bottom of the conduction band in
semiconductor electron energy level diagrams. It is
typically in the range 0.2 to 4.0 eV. The wider the gap,
the more colorless the material, e.g., diamond 5.6 eV,
SiC 3.1 eV is blue-green and Si l.l eV is opaque.
banding. The application of a decorative line or band of
color to the edges, sides, and facial surfaces of china-
ware, pottery, and similar products.
band width. The width of a filament-wound band.
bank kiln. A kiln constructed on a slope or bank of earth,
the incline serving in place of a flue for the removal of
combustion gases.
bank run. Concrete aggregate in the condition as exca-
vated from banks or pits.
banks. The sloping refractory section of an open-hearth
furnace located between the hearth and the front and
back walls.
bank sand. A sand of low clay content used in making
casting cores.
bannering. The leveling of saggers in a kiln to facilitate
stacking.
bar. A cgs unit of pressure equal to 106 dyne cm-2 or lOS
N m-2; approx. 0.987 atm.
Bardeen-Cooper-SchrietTer theory. See BCS theory.
bare glass. Glass fiber yarns, rovings, etc. from which
the sizing or other finish has been removed.
bar graph. A graph consisting of vertical or horizontal
bars whose lengths are proportional to amounts.
barilla. An impure mixture of sodium carbonate and
sodium sulfate obtained from the ash of plants, such as
kelp.
barite. BaS04; an orthorhombic mineral; mp 1580°C;
sp. gr. 4.3-4.6; hardness (Mohs) 2.5-3.5; employed in
glasses as a flux to reduce seeds, increase toughness,
improve brilliance, and reduce annealing time. Also
known as barytes and blanc fixe.
barium aluminate. (1) Ba3A1206; employed as a source
of barium oxide in glass compositions to decrease the
solubility and increase the brilliance of the glass; also
used in cathode coatings for vacuum tubes. (2) BaAI20 4
barium aluminum spinel; mp 1998°C; sp. gr. 3.99. (3)
BaAI 120 19 ; mp 1860°C; sp. gr. 3.64.
barium aluminum silicate. BaAI 2Si20 S; mp 1716°C;
sp. gr. 3.21-3.30.
barium boride. BaB 6; mp 2270°C; sp. gr. 4.32; hard-
ness (Vickers) approximately 30 GN m-2.
barium calcium silicate. BaCa2(Si03)3; a pyroxene;
mp 1320°C.
barium carbide. BaC 2; mp > I 760°C; sp. gr. 3.57; an
acetylide containing (C-C)2- units; source of acetylene.
26
barium carbonate. BaC03; mp 1360°C; sp. gr. 4.4; em-
ployed as a flux in porcelain-enamels and glazes and to
improve elasticity, brilliance, mechanical strength, and
acid resistance and to prevent scumming; used as an
ingredient in flint glass, pressed tableware, television
tubes, and laboratory glassware to lower the melting
point, improve workability, improve brilliance and
hardness, and to improve dielectric constants and resis-
tivity; used to obtain maximum flux density in hard-
core permanent magnets; used in structural clay
products to prevent scum and efflorescence; and em-
ployed in steatite, forsterite, zircon porcelain, and ti-
tanate electronic components to reduce dielectric loss.
barium cerium oxide. BaCe03; a perovskite oxide de-
veloped as a proton-conductor in the 200-900°C
range;used as a hydrogen sensor device.
barium chloride. BaCI2; mp 960°C; sp. gr. 3.097; used
as a set-up agent and scum preventative in porcelain-
enamels by precipitating soluble sulfates as insoluble
barium sulfate.
barium chromate. BaCr04 ; sp. gr. 4.5; used in the pro-
duction of yellow and pale green overglaze colors.
Sometimes known as chrome yellow.
barium crown glass. An optical crown glass containing
barium oxide as a major component. See optical crown
glass.
barium diuranate. BaU20 7 ; an orange-yellow powder
used as a ceramic colorant, particularly for porcelains.
barium ferrite. BaFe12019; magnetic ceramic with a
hexagonal magnetoplumbite structure; it has a high
value of uniaxial anisotropy field and high coersive
force which makes it stable in strong demagnetizing
fields; a high resistivity 106 ohm m. Used as magnets in
TV tubes. Many trade names: Feroba, Magnadur, M-
compounds.
barium flint glass. An optical flint glass containing bar-
ium oxide as a major component. See crown glass
optical.
barium fluoride. BaF2; mp 1280°C; sp. gr. 4.83; used as
an opacifier and flux in porcelain-enamels.
barium fluosilicate. BaSiF6; decomposes at 300°C; sp.
gr. 4.3; used as a flux and an opacifier in porcelain-
enamels and glazes. Also known as barium sili-
cofluoride.
barium glass. A glass in which part of the calcium oxide
is replaced by barium oxide.
barium metaphosphate. Ba(P03h; mp 849°C; used as
a precoating treatment for metals to prevent primary
boiling in sheet steel enamels, and as an ingredient in
glass.
barium molybdate. BaMo04 ; mp > 1300°C; sp. gr.
4.65; used as an opacifier and adherence-promoting
agent in porcelain-enamel.
 27
barium monohydrate. Precipitated barium hydroxide
Ba(OHh· H20; used in the manufacture of barium fer-
rite magnets.
barium niobate. Ba6Nb2011; mp 1927°C; sp. gr. 5.98.
An electroceramic.
barium nitrate. Ba(N03h; mp 575°C; sp. gr. 3.244;
used to improve homogeneity and opacity in porcelain-
enamels and as an ingredient in optical glasses. Also
known as nitrobarite.
barium octahydrate. Ba(OHh·8H 20; loses water of
crystallization at 78°C; mp of anhydrous Ba(OHh
408°C; sp. gr. 1.656; used in ceramics as a source of
high-purity BaO. Also known as barium hydroxide.
barium oxide. BaO; a yellowish-white solid; mp
1923°C; sp. gr. 5.72; hardness (Mohs) 3.3; used as a
fluxing ingredient in glass and in the Brin process to fix
oxygen because when heated in air it goes reversibly to
Ba02' Also called baryta.
barium peroxide. Ba02; mp 450°C; decomposes at
800°C; sp. gr. 4.58; limited use in glass manufacture;
strong oxidizing agent; source of hydrogen peroxide
when added to sulfuric acid.
barium phosphate. Ba3(P04h; an orthophosphate; mp
1727°C; sp. gr. 4.1; gunnable refractory.
barium phosphide. Ba3P; sp. gr. 3.18; hardness
(Knoop) 30.8 ON m-2.
barium propoxide. Ba(OC 3H7 h; an alkoxide soluble in
propanol which can be used to prepare gels.
barium silicate. Several ionic and sheet structured sili-
cates: (I) BaSi0 3; a pyroxene chain silicate containing
2-D chains of Si0 4 tetrahedra sharing two comers; mp
1640°C; sp. gr. 4.4. (2) Ba2Si04; a discrete ionic ortho-
silicate containing (Si04)4- tetrahedral anions; mp ap-
prox. 1755°C; sp. gr. 5.20. (3) BaSi 20 S; a 2-D sheet
silicate structure; mp 1640°C; sp. gr. 4.4. (4) Ba2Si308;
a fibrous silicate; mp 1449°C; sp. gr. 3.93.
barium stannate. BaSn03·3H20; loses H20 at 280°C;
used as an additive to barium titanate bodies to decrease
the Curie point for use as capacitors of high dielectric
constant; also used in glass-enamels to improve alkali
resistance.
barium sulfate. See barytes.
barium sulfide. BaS; mp 1660°C; may be fired in bodies
at 1450°C, but will vaporize at 1600°C; sp. gr. 4.25;
used in the manufacture of crucibles for the melting of
cerium and uranium.
barium tantalum oxynitride. BaTa02N; deep-brown
colored, new perovskite dielectric capable of being
sintered in a reducing atmosphere which allows the use
of metals other than Pt as electrodes to be sintered in
place during processing.
barium thorate. BaTh03; mp 2299°C; sp. gr. 7.66.
BARRIER
barium tin borate. BaSn(B03)2; a low-sintering-tem-
perature metaborate used as a multilayer substrate.
barium titanate. A general name for several barium ti-
tanium oxides used in devices involving piezoelectric
effects and magnetic properties such as guided missiles,
ultrasonic generators, electronic filters, accelerometers
etc. Compositions are: (I) BaTi03; a perovskite; mp
1618°C; high dielectric constant; used in piezoelectric
devices. (2) BaTi 20 s ; mp 1320°C. (3) BaTi 30 7 ; mp
1356°C. (4) BaTi 40 9 ; mp 1420°C; sp. gr. 4.6; a dielec-
tric resonator ceramic with frequency 40Hz. (5)
Ba2Ti 90 20 ; a dielectric resonator ceramic.
barium titanium silicate. (I) BaTiSiOs ; mp 1398°C.
(2) BaTiSi2~; 1248°C; discrete ionic silicate contain-
ing the double tetrahedral (Si20 7)6- anion.
barium tungstate. BaW0 4 ; sp. gr. 5.04; used as a white
pigment and as a phosphor in uv radiation.
barium zirconate. BaZr03; mp 2620°C; sp. gr. 2.63;
another perovskite used as an addition to barium titanate
bodies to improve their dielectric properties.
Barker-Truog clay treatment. An alkali treatment for
clay to obtain pH values ranging from 7 to 10, depend-
ing on the original acidity of the clay; such clays exhibit
improved plasticity for use in the shaping of brick.
Barkhausen effect. The succession of abrupt changes in
magnetization occurring when the magnetizing force
acting on a magnetic material is varied.
Barlow's formula. Used to calculate wall thickness in
composite laminate pipes t = P·dI2cr, where t is the wall
thickness, P the working pressure, d the pipe inside
diameter, and cr the design stress.
bar mat. A mat of preassembled steel bars for installa-
tion as a reinforcement in a concrete slab, usually a
paving slab.
bar mold. A mold in which the inlets are arranged in
rows on separate bars, each of which may be removed
individually.
barn. b; a unit of nuclear cross section equal to 10-28 .
barometer. An instrument designed to measure the pres-
sure of the atmosphere.
barrel. (I) A unit of measure of cement equal to 170.9
kg or four sacks. (2) The cylindrical portion of an
extruder or injection molding machine containing the
screw plunger.
barrel finishing. Improving the surface or removing
burrs from the edges of work by tumbling the work in
a rotating cylinder containing suitable particles or
grains of abrasives.
barrier. A panel, wall, or other structure designed to bar
or deflect the passage of something, such as a baffle
placed to deflect combustion gases in a furnace from
impinging on ware being fired.
BARRIER VOLTAGE
barrier voltage. Vgb ; the voltage drop across the grain
boundary caused by the application of an extended
voltage to a varistor; typically 2-4 volts/grain bound-
ary.
barrier, moisture. See moisture barrier.
bar, runner. See runner bar.
bars, Holdcroft. See Holdcroft bars.
baryon. Elementary particle involved in strong interac-
tions which has a spin of 112. Baryons include protons
and neutrons.
baryta. (I) Ba(OH)z; a white solid mp 408°C. See bar-
ium octahydrate. (2) Common name for barium oxide,
BaO.
barytes. BaS04; mp 1580°C; sp. gr. 4.3-4.6; hardness
(Mohs) 2.5-3.5; used as a flux in glasses to reduce
seeds, increase toughness, improve brilliance, and re-
duce annealing time; also used in ceramic bodies,
glazes, and porcelain-enamels to minimize or prevent
scumming. Also known as barite and blanc fixe.
basal plane. The plane perpendicular to the c-axis in a
hexagonal or tetragonal structure. In the hexagonal
system denoted as (0001), packing such planes in the
sequence ... ABABAB ... generates an ideal close-
packed hexagonal structure such that the cia ratio is
1.633.
basalt. A crystalline basic high-silica-content volcanic
rock composed essentially of soda-lime feldspar, py-
roxene, magnetite, olivine, magnesite, and ilmenite, all
with very small grain sizes.
basalt, fusion-cast. See fusion-cast basalt.
basalt lava. Ground volcanic lava which melts into a
dark brown glass at stoneware temperatures; used as a
basis for colored and lenmoku glazes.
basalt ware. A hard, black, unglazed vitreous ware hav-
ing an appearance similar to that of basalt rock.
base. (I) An alkaline substance, either ionic or molecu-
lar, which tends to accept a proton from another sub-
stance or which will react with an acidic material. (2)
The bottom of a container, bottle, or other item. (3) The
compacted earth or granular material upon which a
paving slab is placed. (4) The foundation that supports
a printed circuit or the pins, leads, or other terminals of
a bulb or tube to which an external electrical or elec-
tronic connection is to be made.
base coat. A fired coating over which another coating is
applied.
base course. The concrete foundation over which a wall,
pavement, or other structure is to be erected or placed.
base exchange. A surface property exhibited by colloi-
dal inorganic materials, such as clays, whereby certain
anions are replaced by other ions from a surrounding
medium.
28
base metal. The metal to which porcelain-enamel is ap-
plied.
basic brick, direct-bonded. See direct-bonded basic
brick.
basic brick, pitch-bonded. See pitch-bonded basic
brick.
basic brick, pitch-impregnated. See pitch-impreg-
nated refractories.
basic fiber. Untreated glass fiber as it is obtained from
the forming equipment.
basic-lined. A furnace, kiln, converter, or similar struc-
ture lined with basic refractory shapes made of materi-
als such as lime, magnesite, chrome ore, etc.
basic open-hearth furnace. An open-hearth furnace
constructed of basic refractories covered with magne-
site or burned dolomite, and which is employed in the
production of basic pig iron.
basic oxide. A metallic oxide which will react chemi-
cally with acidic materials.
basic refractory. A refractory composed of basic refrac-
tory materials, such as lime, magnesite, chrome magne-
site, etc., and which will react with acidic slags and
fluxes at elevated temperatures.
basic slag. A slag rich in basic ingredients produced as a
by-product in the steel-making process; used in fertil-
izer formulations.
basket, pickle. See pickle basket.
basket weave. One of the weaving formats where two or
more warp yams are threaded through two or more fill
yarns. Fabrics with these weaves are more pliable and
easily formed to curved shapes.
basket-weave checkerwork. An arrangement of corro-
sion-resistant refractory brick serving as flues in regen-
erators and other structures in which the ends of each
brick are placed at right angles to the center of each
adjacent brick to form a pattern resembling the weave
of the splints in a basket.
bas-relief. A type of artware in which the figures project
slightly above the background surface.
basse taille. A process in which transparent or translu-
cent porcelain-enamels are applied and fired over a
metal background which has been carved in low relief.
bastard ganister. A mineral which has the appearance
of ganister but having substantially different properties.
bat. (I) A plaster slab or disk upon which clay is worked,
or upon which ware is formed and dried. (2) A fireclay
slab upon which ware is placed and fired in a kiln. (3)
A fragment of hardened clay or brick. (4) A slab of
moist clay. (5) A brick cut transversely so as to leave
one end whole. (6) A sheet of gelatin used in bat
printing.
 29
batch. A quantity of raw materials blended together for
subsequent processing, such as a glass batch or fumace
charge.
batch blending. Stepwise changes in the composition of
a batch to arrive at a desired composition of a final
product.
batch charger. A mechanical device employed to intro-
duce a batch into a smelter of melting tank.
batch dryer. A periodic dryer in which the ware being
dried remains stationary in a circulating stream of air,
usually warm or hot, until dry.
batcher. A type of equipment in which the ingredients of
a batch are measured and collected before discharging
into a process operation, such as a ball mill or concrete
mixer.
batch feeder. A mechanical device, such as an auger,
employed to charge a glass or porcelain-enamel batch
into a melting tank or smelter.
batch·free time. The time needed to complete the melt-
ing reactions in a glass melt. Consists of the time to heat
the batch to reaction plus the time to complete the
vigorous initial melt, plus the time to dissol ve the resid-
ual sand grains.
batch furnace. A furnace into which ware is charged,
fired, and removed before the introduction of another
charge.
batch house. The area in a factory in which materials are
received, stored, handled, weighed, and mixed prepara-
tory for movement to a subsequent manufacturing op-
eration.
batching sequence. The process of introducing raw ma-
terials into a batch mixer or process in an ordered,
stepwise sequence.
batch operation, contact. See contact batch operation.
batch process. A manufacturing operation or process
which is carried to completion before the same opera-
tion or process is repeated; that is, the process is not
continuous.
batch, raw. See raw batch.
batch smelter. A periodic smelter or glass-melting tank
into which a charge is introduced, melted, and dis-
charged as a unit process in accordance with a pre-
scribed time and temperature cycle.
batch truck. A dump truck in which the body is parti-
tioned into compartments for the transport of weighed
batches of cement and aggregate from the weighing
areas to the mixer.
batch·type mixer. A machine into which all ingredients
of a batch are weighed, mixed, and discharged as a unit
operation before introduction of a subsequent charge.
bath. (1) A liquid preparation, such as water, cleaner,
acid, neutralizer, or other solution, in which something
BCSTHEORY
is immersed for treatment. (2) Liquid penetrants into
which parts are immersed for inspection.
batholith. Large igneous body in the central core of
major folded mountain ranges. During the cooling of
these bodies major sulfide ore deposits are made.
batt. An alternative spelling of bat.
batten. A thin strip of material employed to seal, con-
ceal, or reinforce a joint as, for example, a strip of flat
or corrugated asbestos cement used to conceal butt
joints of flat or corrugated asbestos-cement sheets.
batter. The upward slope or the angle at which the outer
face of a wall slopes from the vertical.
batt printing. A process for printing on ceramic ware in
which a design is transferred from an engraving plate to
ware by means of a bat of solid glue or gelatin.
bat wash. A slurry of refractory materials applied to kiln
setters to prevent the sticking of ware during firing.
Baume. Either of two calibrated hydrometer scales to
estimate the specific gravity of liquids. For liquids
lighter than water, the specific gravity equals 140/(130
+ °Be) at l5.6°C; for liquids heavier than water, the
specific gravity equals 145/(145 - °Be) at 15.6°C.
Bauschinger effect. The observation that if a specimen
is lightly deformed in one direction and then immedi-
ately reloaded in the opposite direction it begins to flow
in this direction at a reduced yield stress.
bauxite. Rocks consisting largely of hydrates of alumina,
together with varying amounts of iron and titanium
oxides, silica, and other impurities. Bauxites fuse at
1800°C and above, and have specific gravities varying
from 2.45 to 3.25. As a major source of alumina, baux-
ites are employed extensively in the manufacture of
grinding wheels, abrasive stones, abrasive cloth and
paper, polishing and grinding powders, refractories for
kilns and glass tanks, electroceramics, and quick-set-
ting alumina cements.
bauxite clay. A natural mixture of bauxite and clay con-
taining not less than 47% nor more than 65% of alumina
on a calcined basis.
bayerite. a-Al(OH)3; a-aluminum trihydroxide which
in old notation was called beta alumina trihydrate.
Structure contains Al(OH)6 octahedra in layers, stacked
in hexagonal sequence with the layers linked together
by hydrogen bonds; rarely found in nature but made by
several commercial methods.
Bayer process of alumina extraction. A process in
which alumina ores are digested in hot solutions of
caustic soda and aluminum is removed as soluble alu-
minates.
B·basis. Any stated mechanical property value above
which 90% of all test values should fall within a confi-
dence limit of 95%.
BCS theory. A theoretical explanation of the theory of
superconductivity formulated by Bardeen-Cooper and
 30
Schrieffer in 1976. An electron moving through a crys-
tal creates a small distortion in a nearby atom position
by coulombic interaction. The distortion persists long
enough for a second electron to have its passage helped.
Thus bound pairs carry the current; they are called
Cooper pairs. Pair formation involves creation of an
energy gap in what would normally be a continuum of
electron energy states in a partly filled band. The elec-
trons in the pairs have opposite spins and momenta.
Once excited above the energy gap, single electrons
cannot decay to their normal states and they become
free to move through the structure without scattering by
ion cores.
°Be. Symbol for Baume.
bead. (I) An enlarged, rounded edge of a glass tumbler
or other glass article. (2) An excess of porcelain-enamel
slip or powder along the edge of a coated ware. (3) An
application of porcelain-enamel, usually of a contrast-
ing color to the edge or rim of a porcelain-enameled
article. (4) A small piece of glass tubing used to enclose
a lead wire. (5) A ceramic insulator through which
passes the inner conductor of a coaxial transmission line
and by means of which the inner conductor is supported
in a position coaxial with the outer conductor.
beader. An operator who applies a beading enamel to a
porcelain-enameled article.
beader-off. An operator who removes a bead of excess
porcelain-enamel or smoothes the edges of the coating
on porcelain-enameled ware.
beading. (I) The process of applying porcelain-enamel,
usually of a contrasting color, to the edges of rims of
porcelain-enameled articles. (2) The removal of excess
slip from the edge of dipped ware.
beading enamel. Any of the special porcelain-enamels
applied as a beading on ware for purposes of decoration
and protection of exposed edges of the ware.
bead test. A test of the softening and flow characteristics
of glaze, glass, and porcelain-enamel compositions in
which a bead or buttonlike specimen of specified size
and shape is compared with standard compositions at
elevated temperatures.
bead thermistor. A thermistor consisting of two wire
leads cemented together by a molten droplet of a semi-
conducting material, such as nickel oxide, NiO.
beam, reinforced. See reinforced beam.
bearer arch. One of a series of arches that supports the
checkerwork in a regenerator or heat exchanger which
heats air or gas before combustion.
bearing zone. The middle region of a fiber or wire draw-
ing die where the final diameter and surface finish of
the wire or fiber are determined.
Becquerel. Bq; the unit of radioactive decay; one Bq is
equal to one radioactive decay per second.
bed. (I) The layer of mortar upon which brick and stone
are laid. (2) The prepared base or foundation upon
which ware is placed for processing, such as the floor
of a kiln.
bed depth, critical. See critical bed depth.
bedder. A plaster-of-paris shape for forming a bed of
powdered alumina on which bone china is fired.
bedding. The process of placing ceramic ware in a suit-
able refractory grain or powder as a support to prevent
warpage during firing.
bedding course sand. A well-graded, free-draining, me-
chanically resistant sand placed below clay pavers in
flexible pavements to provide a uniform support for the
pavers and prevent stress concentrations which could
cause damage.
bed, expanded. See expanded bed.
bed, fluidized. See fluidized bed.
bed, intermittent-moving. See intermittent-moving
bed.
beehive kiln. A circular beehive-shaped kiln charac-
terized by a domed roof and fired through chambers
stationed around the circumference.
Beer-Lambert law. Layers of equal thickness of a ho-
mogeneous material absorb equal proportions of light.
This is expressed as I = loe-ad where I is the intensity of
the transmitted light, d is the layer thickness, and a is a
constant known as the absorption coefficient; a is de-
pendent on the wavelength of light used and the struc-
ture and composition of the material.
Beevers-Ross site. Positions formed by hexagonally
packed 0 2- ions on the mirror planes of I3-AI203; two
types exist and are occupied by the Mn+ ions, one is
directly above an 0 2- in the spinel layer and one above
an interstitial site in the spinel layer. Movement of
Mn+ within these sites is responsible for fast ion con-
duction in the oxide.
beidellite. (All.S3Feo.2Mgo.2S)(Si3.88Alo.12)01O(OH)2; a
montmorillonite three-sheet 2: I layer lattice clay min-
erai in which magnesium substitutes for aluminum in
octahedral sites and some silicon is substituted by alu-
minum in tetrahedral sites.
bel. The bel is a unit of power ratio. Thus, if two power
levels to be compared are PI and P2 the power ratio is
loglO(P2IP I ) bels (B). Since the bel is particularly large
it is more common to use a subunit, the decibel: IO
loglO(P2IP I ) = IdB.
Belgian kiln. A longitudinal-arch, side-fired kiln in
which the fire is directed to grates stationed at regular
intervals along the bottom of the structure.
belite. One of the main constituents of portland cement
and is the name used to describe one of the four known
polymorphs of the orthosilicate Ca2Si04 that reacts
with water to form a paste able to develop compressive
strength.
 31
bell. (1) The enlarged end of a concrete or other pipe
which overlaps the end of an adjoining pipe. (2) A
refractory funnel placed to receive molten steel from the
nozzle of a ladle.
bellarmine. A fat, narrow-necked, salt-glazed bottle or
jug usually having a bearded face stamped or engraved
on the neck as a decoration.
bell damper. A bell-shaped, sand-seal type of damper
frequently used in annular kilns.
bell dresser. A tool consisting of rotating metal cutters
employed in the truing, shaping, and dressing of grind-
ing wheels.
Belleek china. A thin, highly translucent chinaware hav-
ing zero water absorption which is composed of a body
containing substantial amounts of frit, and which nor-
mally is coated with a soft luster glaze. Named after the
town in Ireland where it was first made.
belly. (1) The side of a clay pot. (2) The section of a
converter in which steel is collected before it is poured.
(3) The widest section of a blast furnace.
belshazzar. A wine bottle of approximately 16-quart
capacity or 15.1 liters.
belt. An endless flexible band passing around two or
more pulleys; used to convey materials or objects, or to
transmit motion from one pulley to one or more other
pulleys.
belt conveyer. An endless belt running between head
and tail pulleys used to transport loose materials or
products from one point to another.
belt drive. A mechanism actuating a ball mill or other
item of equipment by means of a friction belt rotating
around a pulley mounted on a rotating shaft.
belt feeder. A mechanical device which delivers raw
materials from one point to a processing station by
means of a moving belt.
belt grinding. Grinding the surface of a material or prod-
uct by means of a continuous abrasive-coated belt.
belting. A finishing operation for concrete pavement in
which a wide belt is dragged back and forth across a
fresh slab of concrete and advanced along the slab.
belt kiln. A kiln through which ware being fired is trans-
ported by means of an endless, high-temperature-resis-
tant alloy belt.
belt marks. Marks made on the bottom of glass articles
as they ride through the lehr on a slightly overheated
chain belt.
belt, segmented. See segmented belt.
bench. The floor of a pot furnace, often called siege.
bench grinder. An offhand grinding machine supported
on a bench, the grinding mechanism consisting of one
or two grinding wheels mounted on a horizontal spin-
dle.
BERYLLIDES
bench marks. Striations on a fatigue fracture surface
showing where the crack front was held between moves
forward.
bench molding. The hand tool production of small
molds at a bench.
bench scale. A process, test, or other procedure carried
out on a small scale as on a laboratory bench or work-
table.
bend. A pane of glass which has been bent to fit an
opening. See bending.
bending. The manipulation of glass in a kiln, particularly
flat glass, to form curved shapes or bends.
bend test. (I) A measure of the transverse or cross-bend-
ing strength. (2) A test in which bisque or fired porce-
lain-enameled panels are distorted by bending to
determine the resistance of the coating to cracking or
fracture.
beneficiation. Any process of upgrading or improving
the physical or chemical properties of a material to
enhance its use, such as washing, flotation, etc.
benitoite. BaTiSi30 9 ; a ring silicate containing
(Si30 9)6- discrete ions formed from three corner-shar-
ing (Si04)4- tetrahedra.
bent glass. Flat glass that has been shaped into cylindri-
cal, curved, or other shapes while hot.
bentonite. A clay derived from volcanic ash and charac-
terized by an extremely fine grain size. Its chief constitu-
ent is montmorillonite (AI3.33Mgo.67(Si20sMOH)4)
plus 5 to 10% of alkalies or alkaline earth oxides. One
type, which will absorb large quantities of water, will
swell enormously; used to increase dry and fired
strengths and reduce absorption in whiteware bodies;
also used as suspension agent in porcelain-enamel slips.
berlinite. AlP04; a phosphate with the quartz structure.
bertrandite. BeSi 20S·H 20; a major ore of beryllium in
the form of hydrated beryllium disilicate.
beryl. A ring silicate. Be3A12Si601S; mp 141O°C; sp. gr.
2.64-2.80; hardness (Mohs) 7.5-8; inert to most re-
agents except hydrofluoric acid; employed as a dielec-
tric, to reduce firing shrinkage, and to improve
transverse strength, resistance to thermal shock, and
improve resistance in spark plug bodies; used in mat
glazes for talc bodies, as a green colorant in other
glazes, and in the production of glass windows for x-ray
tubes.
beryllia. BeO; mp 2570°C; sp. gr. 3.016; exhibits high
thermal conductivity, excellent dielectric charac-
teristics, good resistance to wetting, relatively good
physical strength; employed in microwave parts, solid-
state devices, gyroscopes, as a moderator, reflector
material, and matrix for fuel elements in nuclear appli-
cations. Also known as beryllium oxide. Toxic material.
beryllides. Intermetallic compounds in which one ele-
ment is beryllium, the general formula being Me)3e y;
BERYLLIOSIS
characterized by high melting temperatures ranging
from approximately 1427°C to 2080°C; excellent resis-
tances to oxidation up to 1260°C and some to as high
as 1540°C, high strength and strength retention at ele-
vated temperatures, and excellent thermal-shock resis-
tance; reported specific heats range from 796 to 1600
J kg- I oC-'; thermal conductivities range from 0.44-
1.41 J s-I °C-I between 371 and 1483°C; linear thermal
expansions of about 2% at 1371°C; bend strengths of
about 173 MNm-2 between 21 and 1231°C;Vickers
hardness values between 5 and 13 GN m-2 and Young's
moduli around 258 GN m-2 at 21°C; potential materials
for use in structural applications and spark-resistant
tools.
berylliosis. An incapacitating lung disease caused by the
inhalation of beryllium containing dusts.
beryllium aluminate. BeAI20 4; an olivine even though
formula suggests a spinel; mp 1870°C; sp. gr. 3.50-
3.84; hardness (Mohs) 8.5. Also known as chrysoberyl.
beryllium boride. BeB 2; Be2B; BeB 6 . Other properties
not reported. See borides.
beryllium carbide. Be2C; decomposes above 2950°C;
unstable in oxygen above 982°C; sp. gr. 1.90; hardness
(Mohs) approximately 9; modulus of rupture 0.11 x 109
N m-2; compressive strength 72.4 GN m-2; employed
as a neutron moderator in nuclear applications and in
applications where hardness, toughness, elasticity, and
corrosion resistance at moderately high temperatures
are important.
beryllium nitride. Be3N2; mp 2200°C; sp. gr. 2.71; oxi-
dizes in air above 600°C; used in incandescent mantles
and in applications where hardness, elasticity, corrosion
resistance and toughness at temperatures in the range
600-1400°C are required.
beryllium oxide. BeO; mp 2570°C; sp. gr. 3.016; hard-
ness (Mohs) 9; exhibits excellent dielectric properties;
good physical strength and resistance to wetting by
metals and nonmetals, and high thermal conductivity;
employed in rocket nozzles, crucibles, insulators, rado-
mes, thermocouple protection tubes, microwave parts,
solid-state devices, gyroscopes, as a moderator, reflec-
tor material, and matrix for fuel elements in nuclear
applications. Also known as beryllia. Poisonous vapor.
beryllium silicate. Be2Si04; mp 1560°C; sp. gr. 2.99.
Also known as phenacite.
Bessemer converter. A refractory-lined vessel in which
steel is produced by the Bessemer process.
Bessemer process. A process for making steel by blow-
ing air through molten pig iron, whereby most of the
carbon and impurities are removed by oxidation.
BET. Acronym for Brunauer-Emmett-Teller equation.
beta activity. A form of radioactivity in which the
atomic nucleus emits an electron or positron accompa-
nied by an uncharged anti-neutrino, or neutrino respec-
tively.
beta-alumina. See alumina-beta.
32
beta particle. An electron, of either positive or negative
charge, which has been emitted by an atomic nucleus or
neutron in the process of transformation.
beta phase. A polymorph of a material. See quartz inver-
sion; cristobalite; tridymite.
betatron. Machine consisting of an evacuated circular
tube used to accelerate electrons to energies around 100
MeV.
BeV. American term for GeV, an energy of 109 eV or
1.602 x 10-10 J.
bevel brick. A brick with one edge or surface sloping to
another surface at an angle which is not a right angle.
beveled pipe. A pipe with an end angled to mate with a
complementary pipe end.
beveling. The process of edge-finishing flat glass to a
desired bevel angle.
BFRA. Acronym for boron fiber-reinforced aluminum.
BFRP. Acronym for boron fiber-reinforced plastic.
bias. A constant or systematic error as opposed to a
random error, manifested as a persistent positive or
negative deviation of the method average from the
accepted reference value.
B-H curve. See magnetization curve.
bias, statistical. See statistical bias.
biaxial crystal. A crystal with two axes or directions in
which light vibrating in any plane will travel with the
same velocity. Most naturally occurring crystals are of
this type.
biaxial winding. A type of winding used to make rein-
forced composites in which the helical band of fiber is
laid in sequence, side by side, with no fiber crossover.
Bicheroux process. An intermittent process employed
in the fabrication of plate glass of high quality in which
molten glass is cast between rolls onto driven conveyor
rolls or a flat moving table which delivers the strip to a
lehr where the glass is slowly cooled while passing
between a series of asbestos-covered rollers.
bichromate of potash. K2Cr207; mp 396°C; decom-
poses at 500°C; sp. gr. 2.692; employed with whiting
and zinc oxide to make carnation pink or red ceramic
colors.
bidet. A low, basin-like item of ceramic sanitary ware
designed for personal hygiene.
Bierbaum scratch hardness. H B ; a measure ofthe hard-
ness of a solid material based on the width of a scratch
made by drawing a diamond point across the surface
under preset pressure conditions, the measurement be-
ing made by use of a microscope. The calculation of the
hardness value depends on the shape of the diamond,
e.g., for a square-based pyramid with edge leading
HB = 4PIW, where P is the load and W is the track width,
and for a conical diamond HB = 2.55PIW.
 33
billet. A cylinder-shaped specimen.
bimetal. A bonded laminate of two dissimilar metals
having different expansion properties; employed in
thermocouples to measure differences in temperature.
bimorph element. A device consisting of two piezo-
ceramic strips poled in opposite directions and bonded
together. Any strain caused by bending produces a
voltage; used in record player pickup heads.
BIMOS. Acronym for bipolar metal-oxide semiconduc-
tor.
bin. A relatively large enclosed area in which raw mate-
rials are stored prior to use.
binary diagram. A phase diagram of a two-component
system.
binary phase. A material with two components.
binder. A cementing medium, or a substance, often or-
ganic, added to a powder or granular material, to give
formed items workability and green or dry strength
sufficient for handling and machining in all stages prior
to firing, and which usually is expelled during sintering
or firing; normally a material of relatively low melting
point added to a powder mixture for the specific purpose
of cementing together powder particles which alone
could not be handled without danger of breakage or
which would not sinter or fire into a strong body.
binder course. A bituminous layer serving as a bonding
course between the foundation layer and the wearing
layer of a concrete installation.
binder tape. A paper or other material employed to wrap
groups of insulated wire into cable configuration prior
to sheathing.
binding energy. Used to denote the energy required to
just remove an electron from an atom or molecule.
binding energy of nuclei. Atomic nuclei have a mass
less than their constituent neutrons and protons, the
mass difference is the mass defect. In order to break up
a nucleus me2 energy must be supplied, where e is the
velocity of light and m is the mass defect.
Bingham plastometer. An instrument designed to as-
sess the deformation and flow of materials in which a
slurry is forced through a capillary under various pres-
sures.
biotite. A common mineral of the mica family derived
from the talc structure having the general composition
K(Mg,Feh(AISihOIQ(OHh; sp. gr. 2.8-3.2; hardness
(Mohs) 2.5-3; a frequent impurity in feldspar and
nepheline syenite; usually dark in color and called black
mica.
Biot number. A numerical evaluation to estimate the
thermal-shock resistance of a material by its heat-trans-
fer properties by the formula rhlk, in which h is the
heat-transfer coefficient, r is the distance between a
specific plane and the surface of a specimen, and k is
the thermal conductivity of the material.
BISMUTH SUBNITRA TE
bipolar field. The longitudinal magnetic field within a
part or object having two magnetic poles.
bipolaron. A state where two holes or two electrons are
bound together by their lattice distortion and move as
an entity together with their distortion through the lat-
tice.
birdsmouth. A notch cut on the face of one material in
order to join another piece.
birefringence. The double bending of light rays as ob-
served in an anisotropic crystal viewed under cross
nicols when characteristic and measurable colors are
produced to indicate the difference in the minimum and
maximum indices of refraction of the crystal. It is the
property of certain crystals, like calcite and mica, of
forming two refracted rays from a single incident ray.
The ordinary ray obeys the normal laws of refraction,
the other, called the extraordinary ray, follows different
laws. The two refracted rays are polarized at 90° to each
other. Along an optic axis both rays travel at the same
velocity.
birnessite. A polymorph of manganese dioxide, MnOz.
biscuit. (l) A term employed in some industries having
the same meaning as bisque. (2) A small setter com-
posed of refractory clays on which pots are placed for
firing.
bismuth chromate. Biz(Cr03h; used as an orange-to-
yellow pigment in porcelain-enamels and glazes.
bismuthinite. Bi 2S3; bismuth trisulfide; an ore of bis-
muth found in fibrous masses; hardness (Mohs) 2; sp.
gr. 6.81.
bismuth oxide. Bi z0 3; mp 820-860°C; sp. gr. 8.2-8.9;
employed as a fluxing component in optical glasses, as
a flux and bonding agent for metallic components in
ceramic glazes, as a flux in cast-iron porcelain-enamels,
and in ceramic colors; its ceramic properties are similar
to those of lead oxide, but it is more fusible.
2212-bismuth oxides. BizSrzCaCu,P8+x; high tempera-
ture superconducting compounds whose structure con-
sists of intergrowths of perovskite and rock salt layers:
(AO)m(A'CU03_y)n; Tc = 100 K.
bismuth pyrochlore. Biz(Zn1.33Sbo.67)06; a reSIstive
grain boundary phase which limits grain growth in ZnO
varistor manufacture.
bismuth selenide. Bi 2Se3; mp 706°C; sp. gr. 6.82; used
in some thermoelectric applications.
bismuth stannate. Bi2(Sn03h·5HzO; dehydrates at
200°C and above to form Bi2(Sn03h; used as an addi-
tive in barium titanate capacitors to produce bodies of
intermediate dielectric constant.
bismuth subcarbonate. (BiO)2C03: sp. gr. 6.86; used as
a flux and opacifier in glass and porcelain-enamels.
bismuth subnitrate. Bi sO(N0 3MOH)9: decomposes at
260°C; sp. gr. 4.928; used to give pearly luster to glasses
BISMUTH TELLURIDE
and glazes, as a constituent in high-refractive glass, and
in low-temperature porcelain-enamels and colorants.
bismuth telluride. Bi2Te3; mp 585°C; sp. gr. 7.3; hard-
ness (Mohs) 1.5-2; thermoelectric material employed
in cooling devices.
bismuth titanate. Bi4Ti 30 12 ; a dielectric used in the fab-
rication of multilayer ceramic capacitors; abbreviation
BIT.
bismuth trioxide. See bismuth oxide.
bisque, bisque ware. (1) Unglazed ceramic ware which
has been subjected to a single fire. (2) A coating of
wet-process porcelain-enamel which has been dried but
not fired.
bisque fire. The kiln firing of ceramic ware before appli-
cation of a glaze.
BISCCO. Acronym for a high-temperature supercon-
ductor oxide involving bismuth, strontium, calcium,
copper, and oxygen. The material can be fabricated into
tapes and wires capable of carrying currents of 5000
Acm-2. Zero resistance of Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu30x occurs at 70
K.
BIT. See bismuth titanate.
bit gatherer. An operator who gathers small quantities
of glass on an appropriate tool for use in the decoration
of hand-blown glassware.
bit stone. Refractory particles, such as flint fragments or
sand, placed in saggers to prevent ware from sticking to
the sagger bottoms during firing.
bitumen. Any of a variety of viscous mixed hydrocar-
bons obtained naturally, such as asphalt or tar, or by
distillation from coal and petroleum.
bituminous. See bitumen.
bituminous concrete. Concrete in which a bituminous
material has been incorporated as a binder.
bixbyite. A family of cubic oxides with the a-Mn203
structure. The structure contains two types of linked
polyhedra, one a distorted octahedron containing two
longer M-O distances as a result of the Jahn-Teller
effect.
blackband ironstone. Carbonate iron ore, FeC03, con-
taining coal-type deposits sufficient for the iron to be
smelted without additional fuel.
blackboard enamel. A special, slightly roughened por-
celain-enamel which will provide a suitable writing
surface for blackboard chalk.
black body. A hypothetical body which will absorb all
radiation and which will emit radiant energy at a maxi-
mum rate for a given temperature; used to determine the
temperature of a closed furnace when viewed through
a relatively small hole with an optical pyrometer. Also
called a full radiator.
34
black body radiation. Radiation characterized by a
spectral energy distribution according to Planck's ra-
diation law, such as would be radiated by a black body.
black box. An individual, self-contained unit in an elec-
tronic system whose circuitry need not be known in
order to use it.
black cobalt. See asbolite.
black copper oxide. CuO; mp lO64°C; sp. gr. 6.32; a
basic oxide used to produce blue and green colors in
glass, faience, porcelain, stoneware, and other ceramics
when fired in an oxidizing atmosphere, and red colors
when fired in a reducing atmosphere.
black core, black heart. A defect occurring in fireclay
and other refractory brick when vitrification of the
surface areas takes place before oxidation of carbona-
ceous matter in the interior is complete.
black cotton soils. The name for swelling clays, dark in
color, low in organic matter, with alkaline or near-neu-
tral suspension; found in northeast Nigeria.
black diamond. See carbonado.
black edge, black edging. A black porcelain-enamel
applied and fired over the ground coat at the exposed
edges of ware for both protective and decorative pur-
poses; subsequent coatings of cover-coat enamels are
brushed from the areas prior to firing.
black glass. Carbon-modified silica.
blacking. Graphite applied to the working surface of
molds as a parting material to prevent a casting from
sticking, and to improve the surface of ware cast in the
molds.
black hot-pressed ceramic. A carboxide; a dispersion
of titanium carbide particles in alumina, A1 20 3, con-
taining more than 40% titanium carbide, TiC; used as a
hard cutting tool.
black iron oxide. FeO; mp 1420°C; sp. gr. 5.7; widely
nonstoichiometric. Also known as wustite.
black lead. A synonym for graphite.
black light. Light in the near-ultraviolet and infrared
range of wavelengths just below and above the visible
range, from 320 to 400 nm.
black-light filter. A filter which will suppress transmis-
sion of visible light but will permit passage of ultravio-
let radiation having wavelengths in the range of 320 to
400nm.
black mica. Sometimes called brown mica which is the
ferromagnesian variety of mica known as biotite.
black raku. A rough, thick-walled, very soft, and porous
earthenware coated with a lead borate glaze; used in the
tea ceremony in Japan.
black shape. Fabricated ware or shapes prior to porce-
lain-enameling.
 35
black silicon carbide. A black, impure silicon carbide
manufactured from coke and silica in an electric fur-
nace, and employed as an abrasive; contains free carb-
on.
black speck. A defect in fired porcelain-enamels or
glassware appearing as visible black specks, usually
caused by dirt or scale, but which also may be glass-eye
blisters or boiling from the ground coat.
black top. A bituminous mixture.
blanc de chine. A white, glazed Chinese porcelain.
blanc fixe. See barite.
blank. (I) A parison or preliminary shape from which a
finished article is further formed, or a mold for produc-
ing such a shape. (2) Any article of glass on which
subsequent forming or finishing is required. (3) A piece
cut from a metal sheet from which a finished article for
porcelain-enameling is to be fabricated.
blanket. A layer of radioactive material placed around
the core of a nuclear reactor as a reflector and to breed
new fissionable fuel.
blanket feed. A technique for charging a glass batch into
a furnace to produce a broad, thin layer of even distri-
bution across the width of the furnace.
blanking. The process of cutting and forming metal
shapes for porcelain-enameling by means of a mechani-
cally operated die and plunger press.
blank mold. A metal mold employed in the manufacture
of glass holloware to give the item its initial shape or
form.
blank, optical. See optical blank.
blank, pressing. See pressing blank.
blast. Air blown into a furnace or kiln under pressure.
blast-furnace slag. The nonmetallic product, consisting
essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium
and other base materials, that is developed in a molten
condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace.
blast-furnace slag, expanded. See expanded blast-fur-
nace slag.
blast-furnace slag, granulated. See granulated blast-
furnace slag.
blasting. The process of cleaning metal, especially cast
iron, for porcelain-enameling in which the surface of
the metal is subjected to the abrasive action of sharp
abrasive particles carried in a fast-moving stream of air.
bleaching powder. CaCl(OCl)-4H20; chlorinated cal-
cium hydroxide; used in solution as a bleaching agent
and disinfectant. Also called chloride of lime, chlorin-
ated lime.
bleb. A blister or bubble defect on the surface of pottery.
BLISTER, METAL
bleed back. The ability of a penetrant to bleed out of a
discontinuity after it has been cleaned from the surface
of a specimen.
bleeder resistor. A resistor connected across the output
terminals of a power supply in order to improve voltage
regulation and to discharge filter capacitors.
bleeding. The autogenous flow of mixing water within,
or its emergence from, newly placed concrete or mortar,
caused by the settlement of the solid materials or drain-
age of the mixing water.
bleedout. The action of an entrapped penetrant in emerg-
ing from surface discontinuities.
bleed valve. A valve for allowing gas accumulation in a
liquid to blow off.
blemish. (I) A defect or flaw in a product consisting of
a stain, disfigurement, or strained area attributable to
the normal composition, forming, or extraneous factors
encountered in the production of the item. (2) An insig-
nificant imperfection in a dry-process porcelain-
enamel.
blend. A combination of materials which are thoroughly
mixed.
blende. ZnS; synonym for sphalerite or short form of
zinc blende.
blender brush. A china decorating paintbrush of which
the soft squirrel hair is formed into a dome shape about
40 mm long and 20 mm across the end.
blending. (1) The process of mixing materials. (2) The
process of evening the rougher part of a surface with the
smoother part so that the entire surface is of the same
plane or surface, or both.
blending, batch. See batch blending.
blending sand. Sand that is added to the normal avail-
able sand in concrete to improve gradation.
blibe. A defect in glass in the form of a gas-filled cavity,
between a seed and blister in size.
blind hole. A hole not completely drilled through.
blinding. (1) A surface defect in glazes due to devitrifi-
cation, resulting in a dull or crystalline appearance. (2)
The clogging of a sieve.
blind spit. A colloquial term for broken bubbles on the
surface of porcelain as opposed to bone china.
blister. (I) A bubble or gaseous inclusion of relatively
large size in a body or at the surface of a glaze or
porcelain-enamel after firing. (2) Large bubbles re-
maining in finished glass.
blistering. (I) The development of enclosed or broken
macroscopic bubbles or vesicles in a body, glaze, por-
celain-enamel, or other coating during firing. (2) Non-
adherence of color in firing.
blister, metal. See metal blister.
BLISTER, PIPE
blister, pipe. See pipe blister.
blister, weld. See weld blister.
bloach. An imperfection resulting from the incomplete
grinding of plate glass caused by a low point in the glass
which retains a part of the original rough surface.
bloat. To cause solid particles, such as clays and slags,
to puff or swell due to sudden expansion of air or
moisture contained in the material when subjected to a
blast of a superheated air, hot flame, or other high-tem-
perature source.
bloating. The permanent expansion or swelling of a ce-
ramic material or body during heating which produces
a vesicular structure in the substance being heated.
Bloch wall. The transition layer, with finite thickness of
a few hundred lattice constants, between adjacent fer-
romagnetic domains magnetized in different directions.
It allows the spin directions to change slowly from one
orientation to another, rather than abruptly.
block. (I) A master mold made from an original pattern
from which case molds are produced. (2) Hollow, trans-
lucent glass units having various patterns molded on
their interior or exterior surfaces, or both, and usually
made in two halves which are sealed together.
block brick. A brick, larger than standard or jumbo in
size, used to bond adjoining or intersecting walls.
block density. The weight of a unit volume of a sub-
stance, including its pore volume but excluding inter-
particle voids; determined under specified conditions.
block filter. A hollow, rectangular, vitrified clay ma-
sonry unit, sometimes salt glazed, used in trickle-type
floors in sewage disposal plants. The block is designed
with apertures connecting with drainage channels
through the upper surface, and are arranged to form
aeration and drainage grilles to pass air into, and liquids
from, overlying filter media; the drainage channels
convey liquid away from the filter bed.
block handle. A particular type or style of handle at-
tached to a cup, vase, or other item by means of a clay
bar.
blocking. (I) The process of shaping a gather of glass in
a metal or wood cavity. (2) The process of stirring a
glass batch by immersing a wooden block or other
source of gaseous bubbles in the molten mass. (3) The
process of reprocessing glass to remove surface imper-
fections. (4) The mounting of optical glass blanks in a
holder for grinding and polishing operations. (5) The
process in which a furnace is idled at a reduced tem-
perature. (6) The process of setting refractory blocks in
a furnace.
block model. A way to analyze electrical properties of
ceramic solid-state devices which assumes that the de-
vice contains cubes of conducting oxide of side length
d separated by insulating barriers of thickness t within
an electrode separation distance D.
36
block mold. A one-piece mold used in glassmaking;
often consists of wood or iron.
blockout. An opening or cavity formed in concrete to
facilitate subsequent construction operations, such as an
opening in a wall for the installation of a pipe or other
item; the opening frequently is sealed with mortar or
concrete when the installation has been completed.
block press. A press used to bind laminate squares while
heating them. Each square is superimposed in a perpen-
dicular way to minimize anisotropy caused by first
forming a laminate.
block, quarl. See quarl block.
block reek, block rake. A scratch or cullet-cut imper-
fection in glass caused by a particle of cullet lodged in
the polishing felt during the polishing operation on flat
glass.
block, rotary kiln. See rotary kiln block.
block, scotch. See scotch block.
block, scouring. See scouring block.
block, skimmer. See skimmer block.
block, sleeper. See sleeper block.
block, soldier. See soldier block.
block, spreader. See spreader block.
block, tank. See tank block.
block, trimmed. See trimmed block.
block, tweel or tuille. See tweel block.
bloom. (1) A non-reflecting coating on glass. (2) A sur-
face film on glass resulting from attack by constituents
in the atmosphere, or by the deposition of smoke or
other vapors. (3) Formation of powdery or crystalline
salt on the surface of concrete or masonry due to diffu-
sion and precipitation of salt solutions from the interior.
blotter. A disk of compressive material, usually of blot-
ting paper stock, used between an abrasive grinding or
polishing wheel and its mounting flange.
blotting. In liquid penetrant inspections, particularly of
electromagnetic and magnetic particles and products,
the action of a developer in soaking up a penetrant from
the surface of a fault for increased contrast.
blow-and-blow process. The process of forming hollow
glassware in which the preliminary and final shapes are
formed by air pressure.
blow-blow. A process or machine using compressed gas
blown into the mouth of an artifact to form both parison
and final object.
blower. (1) An operator who forms glass by blowing. (2)
A machine employed to move or supply air to a particu-
lar area for a particular use.
 37
blow head. Part of a glass-forming machine serving to
introduce air under pressure to blow a hollow glass
article.
blowhole. (I) A large blister such as is formed when
contaminants are vaporized along a weld seam during
the firing of porcelain-enamels. (2) A device placed in
the top of a kiln to facilitate the escape of steam and
other gases, particularly during the early stages of the
firing operation.
blowing. (I) The shaping of hot glass by air pressure,
either by machine or by mouth. (2) The bursting of pots
and crucibles when heated too rapidly.
blowing iron. The pipe used by a glassmaker for gather-
ing and blowing glassware by mouth.
blow mold. The metal mold in which a blown glass
article is finally shaped.
blow molding. The shaping of glass in the viscous or
molten state by placing a parison in a mold and com-
pleting the shaping operation by blowing air into the
parison.
blown away. A fault in the neck of a glass bottle which
occurs when an insufficient quantity of molten glass is
employed during fabrication.
blown enamel. Ridges produced on the surface of ware
during the spraying of wet porcelain-enamels, usually
the result of the coating being too thick or too fluid or
of excessive atomizing air pressure at the spray gun.
blown glass. Glassware formed by air pressure, as by
mouth blowing or by the use of compressed air.
blow off. The removal of dust and dirt from the surface
of dry, or bisque, porcelain-enamels just prior to firing.
blowout. The displacement and lengthening of an elec-
trical arc to facilitate its extinction, as by an air blast,
magnetic field, or raising one electrode.
blow-over. The thin-walled bubble of glass formed
above a blow mold in a handshop operation to facilitate
bursting off.
blow pipe. (I) An apparatus employed to produce a hot
localized flame by using a mixture of compressed air
and coal gas. (2) A long metal pipe used for the working
and forming of glass at the bench.
blue asbestos. See crocidolite.
blue copper. See azurite.
blue enamel. A wet or dry process enamel applied so
thinly that it appears bluish in color as the base metal
ground coat shows through.
blue ground coat. A porcelain-enamel composition
usually containing additions of cobalt, manganese, and
nickel oxides as adherence-promoting agents; the coat-
ing, which fires to a dark blue color, is used as a ground
coat on sheet iron and steel.
BOEHMITE
blueing-off. A term used in mold making when a coating
of Prussian blue is applied to one of a pair of mating
faces in order to check the efficiency of mating by
observing how the blue color is transferred.
blue john. See Derbyshire spar.
blue malachite. See azurite.
blue, mazarine. See mazarine blue.
blunge or blunging. To agitate or blend ceramic materi-
als in a mechanical or hand-operated mixer, usually to
suspend the materials in water or other liquid.
blunger. A mixer with revolving paddles or other mixing
device employed to produce slurries or slips.
blurring highlight test. A test, usually visual, to evalu-
ate the resistance or the degree to which porcelain-
enamels are attacked by acids.
blushing. The discoloration or clouding of a glaze on
porcelain-enamel during firing.
BMC. Abbreviation for bulk molding compound.
BNN. Abbreviation for an optosensor ceramic,
Ba2NaNbs01S; piezo material used to detect infrared
radiation.
boat. A ceramic artifact used to hold a substance for
combustion analysis.
BoB. Abbreviation for bobbin.
bobbin coil. A coil, or coil assembly, used for electro-
magnetic testing by insertion into a test specimen as, for
example, an inside probe for tubing.
Boccaro ware. A red, unglazed stoneware with relief
decorations.
body. (I) A mixture of clays and nonplastic material that
is workable and has suitable firing properties from
which ceramic products are made. (2) The structural
portion of a ceramic article, as distinct from the glaze,
or the material or mixture from which the item is made.
(3) The attribute of molten glass associated with homo-
geneity and viscosity which contributes to its workabil-
ity. (4) An object or substance that has three
dimensions, a mass, and is distinguishable from sur-
rounding objects.
body centered. Having a lattice point at the center of
each unit cell as well as at the corners.
body color. Color arising from selective absorption of
some parts of the visible spectrum because light pene-
trates a certain distance into the material before reflec-
tion and selective absorption occurs in this volume of
material.
body mold. The portion of a glass mold which shapes the
outer surface of ware during pressing.
boehmite. y-AlO(OH); gray, red, or brown mineral; de-
composes at 360°C; sp. gr. 3.014; a natural hydrated
aluminum oxide occurring as a major constituent in
BOF
bauxite and bauxitic clays. Contains AIO(OH) double
layers which are cubic close packed.
BOF. Acronym for basic oxygen furnace used in steel-
making.
bogie. A small wagon of short wheel base running on a
railway track.
bog manganese. See manganite.
bogie kiln. An intermittent box-type kiln in which ware,
placed on a truck or kiln car, is charged, fired, and
discharged before a subsequent charge is placed in the
kiln.
Bohemian glass. A hard, brilliant glass employed in ta-
ble and chemical ware, usually a lime-potash glass with
a high silica content.
bohr magneton. Unit of measurement of magnetic dipole
moment of an atom equal to 9.274 x 1O-24J T- 1.
boil, boiling. (1) A defect occurring in fired porcelain-
enamels which consists of bubbles, pinholes, black
specks, dimples, or spongy surfaces. (2) An imperfec-
tion in glass which consists of gaseous inclusions or
small bubbles; bubbles larger than seeds. (3) The turbu-
lence caused by the evolution of gases from melting
glass, porcelain-enamels, or other batches.
boiling through. A term sometimes used to describe the
boiling of porcelain-enamels, particularly in instances
of severity when defects occur in cover coats.
boil, primary. See primary boiling.
bole. Any of a variety of soft unctuous clays used to
produce color, or a reddish brown body made from such
clays. Also known as bolus.
bolection. A stepped molding projecting beyond the
joint of two members with surfaces at different levels.
boligong. A colloquial expression for glass fiber-rein-
forced plastic which is of Chinese origin meaning
"glass-steel."
bolometer. A device for measuring the energy of an
electromagnetic wave by absorbing the wave and reg-
istering an increase in temperature as measured by a
change in its electrical resistance.
bolt-hole. A hole made in a component during the manu-
facture of an item to facilitate final assembly of the item
by means of inserted bolts, screws, or other fasteners.
bolt-hole brush. A special round brush, usually
equipped with a centered metallic guide pin, employed
to remove bisque porcelain-enamel from the inside and
edges of small openings in the ware, particularly to
prevent chipping during subsequent assembly of the
porcelain-enameled product.
Boltzmann constant. k; The gas constant when consid-
ering I molecule only; equal to 1.3806 x 1023 J K- 1.
Boltzmann distribution. An expression concerning the
statistical distribution of large numbers of particles
38
subject to thermal agitation and acted upon by a field,
such as magnetic, electric or gravitational. The number
of particles per unit volume in any region of the field
when in equilibrium is given by N = Noexp(-ElkT),
where No is the number of particles per unit volume in
a region in which the energy E of a particle is zero.
Boltzmann factor. The term exp(-E/kT) in the
Boltzmann distribution.
bolus. See bole.
bolus alba. See kaolin.
bond. (1) The degree of adhesion of a porcelain-enamel
or other coating to the metal to which it is applied and
fired. 2) The forces holding one material to another at
the interface. 3) The material in a grinding wheel that
holds the grains together and supports them while in
use. 4) The intergranular material which provides
strength in ceramic bodies. 5) The adhesion of cement
paste to aggregate particles, or of concrete or mortar to
reinforcing steel, or of concrete to previously hardened
concrete on a construction joint or in a patch.
Bond and Wang crushing theory. The energy required
to pulverize or crush a solid material may be calculated
by the formula h =0.001748 C2 (n + 2)(n - 1)/SEn, in
which h is the energy required, C is the compressive
strength, S is the specific gravity, E is Young's modulus
of elasticity, and n is the approximate reduction ratio.
bond, chemical. See chemical bond.
bond clay. A plastic clay of high dry strength employed
as a binder in ceramic bodies containing substantial
amounts of nonplastic components.
bonded abrasive disk. A disk-shaped bonded abrasive
product fitted onto a face plate for use on grinding and
milling machines; work for polishing and grinding is
presented to the side of the abrasive disk opposite to the
face plate.
bonded brickwork. Any regular arrangement of bricks
in a structure designed to increase the strength and to
enhance the appearance of the structure.
bonded fabric. A fiber web held by a matrix which is not
continuous itself.
bonded products. Products in which an abrasive and a
bonding agent have been intermixed and processed to
produce a relatively inflexible abrasive product, such as
a grinding wheel or rubbing stone.
bonded roof. The roof of a furnace or kiln in which the
transverse joints are staggered.
bonder. A brick of special size and shape employed to
begin or finish a course of bonded brickwork.
bond fireclay. A fireclay exhibiting sufficient natural
plasticity to bond nonplastic materials in the manufac-
ture of refractory products.
bond, in-and-out. See in-and-out bond.
 39
bonding agent. (1) An admixture for improving the
bond of mortar and concrete in a patch. 2) A paint or
coating applied to hardened concrete to facilitate the
bonding of a new application of concrete or mortar. 3)
Any material in a sand or ceramic powder mixture
which by means of adhesion and cohesion holds the
grains to a degree suitable for further processing.
bonding force. The force that holds two atoms together;
it results from a decrease in total electron wave energy
as two atoms are brought closer to each other.
bonding materials. Organic materials employed in con-
junction with glass and ceramic fibers, sheets, molded
shapes, and other products to impart strength, adher-
ence, chemical resistance, weather resistance, electrical
properties, and similar properties for use in the produc-
tion of cloth, laminates, electrical and electronic com-
ponents, insulating materials, and the like.
Bondley process. A metallizing process in which tita-
nium or zirconium is bonded to the surface of a ceramic
body to facilitate soldering or joining of components in
the production of electrical and electronic products.
bond line. A line along which two surfaces are joined
together.
bond, organic. See organic bond.
bond, shellac. See shellac bond.
Bond's hypothesis. The grinding rate of a solid material
is proportional to the rate at which a crack will progress
through the material.
bond strength. (1) The degree of adherence of a porce-
lain-enamel to the metal to which it is applied and
fired. 2) The strength of a mortar joint or wall in
construction applications. 3) The energy measured in
kJ mole-1 needed to overcome the forces holding atoms
in solids and molecules. 4) The ability of a heterogene-
ous product to resist stress loading. 5) The binding
forces produced by electron interactions between at-
oms.
bond, vitrified. See vitrified bond.
bone ash. Calcined bones consisting of 67 to 85% cal-
cium phosphate employed in the manufacture of porce-
lain, where at high temperature it reacts with silica and
alumina to produce a liquid binding phase.
bone china. A soft, highly translucent chinaware of rela-
tively low firing temperature made from a whiteware
body containing a minimum of 25% bone ash as a
mineralizer and having a water absorption ranging from
0.3 to 2%; a typical composition is 50% bone ash, 25%
china clay, and 25% Cornish stone. Fired under oxidiz-
ing conditions, melting range 1350-1500°C; contains
apatite crystals and Ca3(P04}z crystals.
bone-dry. Thoroughly dried and free of uncombined
water.
bonnet hip. A roofing tile of special angular shape em-
ployed as a junction between two faces of a roof.
BORIDES
bookform splittings. Consecutive splittings of mica
from the same block, each usually dusted with mica
powder to reduce cohesion, arranged in individual
books or bunches for use as an electrical insulating
material.
book mica. Large irregular crystals of mica having
cleavage plates resembling the pages of a book.
boost melting. An auxiliary method of adding heat to
molten glass in a fuel-fired tank by passing an electric
current through the glass.
boot. A suspended or floating refractory shape in the
nose of a glass-melting tank to protect the glass from
fuel gases and floating scum, and to serve as an opening
for the gathering of the glass.
BOP. Acronym for basic oxygen process for steelmak-
ing.
boracic acid. H3B0 3 ; alternative name for boric acid.
boracite. Mg 3B7 0 13 Cl; magnesium borate; a natural bo-
rate mineral occurring as fibrous masses in salt domes;
hardness (Mohs) 7-7.5; sp. gr. 2.97.
borate glass. A glass in which boric oxide in combina-
tion with silica is employed as the major glass-forming
ingredient.
borates. Salts of the family of boric acids. The borate
anions (Bxoy)n- are not as easy to classify as silicates
because boron has both 3 and 4 coordination by oxygen.
The simple ions are (B03)3-, orthoborate discrete ions;
(B20S)4-, pyroborate discrete ions; (Bo2 )n-, metabo-
rate chains; (B 40 7 )2n-, amphibole-type double chains;
and (B04)5-, sheets; used in glass-forming reactions, in
detergent formulations and as fluxing agents.
borax. Na2B407·\oH20; mp (anhydrous) 741°C; sp. gr.
1.7; hardness (Mohs) 2-2.5; employed as a powerful
flux in analysis and as a glass-forming agent in glass,
glazes, porcelain-enamels, etc.
borax glass. Vitreous, anhydrous borax used as a glass
former and flux in glass, glazes, and porcelain-enamels.
borazon. A tradename for the cubic polymorph of boron
nitride, BN.
boric acid. Correctly known as trioxoboric III acid and
polydioxoboric II acid but technically as orthoboric,
HB0 3, and metaboric acid, (HB0 2).. Orthoboric acid
is a white solid soluble in water, mp 169°C. Both used
in glass manufacture, borosilicate glass, glazes and
enamels.
boric oxide. B20 3 ; unexpectedly low mp at 450°C; sp.
gr. 1.83-1.88; used principally in the manufacture of
glass and porcelain-enamels as a flux, and in nuclear
applications as a thermal-neutron absorber.
borides. Special ceramics in which one element is boron
and the other a metal, and having composition ranging
from M5B to MB12 and occasionaly MB 60 . They are
characterized by the degree of self-bond formation by
the boron atoms. For example, MB12 phases contain
BORNITE
covalently bonded B12 icosahedra packed closely in a
cubic stacking sequence with metal atoms occupying
octahedral interstitial sites. MB6 phases contain dis-
crete B6 octahedra joined at each apex to another such
unit, metal atoms occupying octahedral sites between 6
such units. Other units are isolated B atoms, B2 pairs,
and sheets of 2-D hexagonal rings. In the high-metal-
content borides the structures are viewed as being
formed from the filling of M6 trigonal prisms with
boron atoms. No single metal will form all 12 known
types of boride phase; for example, Mo forms the most
with 6 known borides. Because of the extensive, cova-
lent + metallic + ionic bonding they are harder, higher
melting, chemically less reactive, and electrically more
resistive than the constituent metallic elements; charac-
terized by high oxidation resistance and strength reten-
tion at elevated temperatures; melting points can be as
high as 3260°C; densities range from 2500 to 16,000
kg m-3 ; specific heats of less than 5.8 J kg-1K-1 up to
2205°C; linear thermal expansions of 2% or less be-
tween 21 and 1649°C; elastic moduli ranging between
200 and 400 GN m-2 at room temperature; microhard-
ness values range between 13 and 33 GN m-2; potential
materials for use as structural materials, particularly in
aerospace applications. Used in composites.
bornite. See peacock ore.
borocalcite. CaB 40 7 -4H20; a natural borate mineral.
boron. B; reactive element; mp 23OO°C; sp. gr. 2.45;
when formed as fiber on a W core it is used in metal-
matrix composites. A control material in nuclear reac-
tors.
boronatrocalcite. Na2B407. Ca2B601l·16H20; a natu-
ral borate mineral.
boron carbide. B4C; mp 2350°C; sp. gr. 2.5; third only
to diamond in hardness; produced by reduction of boric
oxide by carbon in an electric furnace; employed as an
abrasive in grinding wheels, belts, papers, and powders;
in articles of high resistance to abrasion, in nozzles for
high-temperature applications, in control rods for nu-
clear reactors, and electrical-resistance heating ele-
ments for high-temperature furnaces. 6-mm thick
hot-pressed tiles are used in aircraft and body armor.
B 4C is the idealized composition since the structure of
B12 icosahedra bonded to each other and to C 3 carbon
chains does have some composition variation as some
of the C 3 chains contain boron.
boron content, equivalent. See equivalent boron con-
tent.
boron content, equivalent factor. See equivalent bo-
ron-content factor.
boron content, total equivalent. See total equivalent
boron content.
boron-epoxy. A ceramic composite in which the matrix
is a thermosetting plastic and boron fibers provide
strength.
40
boron equivalent. The absorptive capacity for thermal
neutrons of weights of various elements expressed in
terms of the weight of natural boron.
boron nitride. BN; sp. gr. 2.25. Two ceramics of this
composition exist: (I) hexagonal BN, also known as
white graphite, in which both Band N are sp2 hybrid-
ized and so form infinite 2-D sheets of B-N-B- hex-
agonal rings only held by weak van der Waals forces to
other sheets; a structure which imparts solid lubricating
properties. Unlike graphite it is an electrical insulator.
Refractory crucible material mp about 3000°C; used to
form seals, gaskets, furnace insulation and in pump
parts where aggressive chemicals are to be moved; a
neutron absorbing material. (2) Borazon, the cubic
modification derived by subjecting the hexagonal form
to 2000°C and pressures in excess of lOOGN m-2. Atom
hybridization now sp3 to give a material nearly as hard
as diamond; used as an abrasive and in some cutting
tools.
boron oxide. See boric oxide.
boron phosphate. BP04; vaporizes at 1400°C; sp. gr.
1.873; used in ceramic bodies and special glasses; iso-
morphous with high cristobalite.
boron phosphate glass-ceramics. Glasses in the molar
composition range I: I: 1 to I: 1:3 of B20 3 -P20 S -Si0 2
can be heat-treated to yield ultrafine-grained transpar-
ent glass-ceramics containing BP04 as the crystalline
phase. They have dc resistivities around 1016 ohm-cm
at 250°C which is higher than A1 20 3 •
boron phosphide. BP; zinc blende structure; mp above
2000°C; sp. gr. 2.97; electroluminescent material; bulk
modulus 166 GN m-2.
boron silicide. (I) B6Si; mp 1946°C; sp. gr. 2.43. (2)
B4Si; decomposes at 1093°C; sp. gr. 2.46. (3) B3Si; mp
1927°C; sp. gr. 2.64. Also known as silicon boride.
boron, soluble. See soluble boron in boron carbide.
boron value. See boron equivalent.
borosilicate. Any of a large number of substances in
which B03 planar triangles and Si04 tetrahedra are
linked to form networks. When fused they produce
glasses with lower fusion temperatures and a longer
working viscous range that makes them useful; Pyrex
glass is an example.
borosilicate crown glass. An optical crown glass con-
taining substantial quantities of silica and boric oxide.
See optical crown glass.
borosilicate glass. A silicate glass containing not less
than 5% of boric oxide.
bort. An imperfect diamond or diamond fragments em-
ployed principally as an abrasive or as a bonded tip on
a cutting tool.
bosh. The section of a blast furnace between the hearth
and stack in which iron ore is reduced to metallic iron.
 41
boson. A particle (e.g., photon) which does not obey the
Pauli exclusion principle but obeys Bose-Einstein sta-
tistics.
bossing. The removal of brush marks from painted pot-
tery by patting or striking the design with a silk bag
stuffed with soft cotton or wool, particularly designs
which first are painted in oil and then dusted with
powdered pigments.
botryoidal aggregate. Prismatic crystals radiating from
a common center to form spherical surfaces with groups
larger than 13 mm in size; hematite kidney ore is an
example.
Bottger ware. A dark red stoneware.
botting clay. A refractory clay of high plasticity used to
plug the tapping spouts of cupolas and furnaces contain-
ing molten materials.
bottle kiln, bottle oven. An updraft kiln in the shape of
a tapered bottle, the tapered neck serving as the flue.
bottie, vacuum. See vacuum bottle.
bottom pouring. Discharging the contents of a smelter,
melting tank, ladle, or other container from the bottom.
bottom, slugged. See slugged bottom.
bottom tap. A hole for the drainage of molten composi-
tions and slags from the bottom of a furnace, smelter,
or melting tank.
bottom teeming. The filling of ingots or molds in which
the molten batch enters the molds from the bottom.
boulder clay. A glacial deposit of fine clay mixed with
boulders and pebbles.
boulders. Sedimentary rocks rounded in shape and big-
ger than 256 mm in diameter.
boule. A pure crystal, such as silicon or sapphire, fre-
quently a pear-shaped mass consisting of a single crys-
tal, formed in a special furnace by rotating a small seed
crystal while slowly pulling it out of the molten bath;
used as bearings, thread guides, record player needles,
etc.
boundary. (I) A thermodynamic boundary separates a
thermodynamic system from its surroundings. (2)
Something that denotes the farthest limit of an area;
border.
boundary, large-angle. See large-angle grain boundary
boundary layer. The layer of a fluid closest to the sur-
face of a solid over which the fluid is flowing. Because
of adhesion it flows more slowly than the bulk of the
liquid.
boundary, small-angle. See small-angle grain bound-
ary.
bound state. The function describing an electron in an
atom, in which the energy is discrete and the wave
function localized.
BRAZILITE
bournonite. PbCuSbS 3; one of the most abundant sul-
fosalts and therefore a major ore of lead and copper;
gray to black, orthorhombic crystals; hardness (Mohs)
2.5-3; sp. gr. 5.93.
Bowen's reaction series. The sequence in which miner-
als are formed during the cooling of a batholith.
bowing. The tendency of a length of coated abrasive or
other material to curve or bend; caused by excess mois-
ture (expansion) or lack of moisture (shrinkage) on one
side of the abrasive strip.
bowl. The portion of a feeder which delivers molten glass
to the forming unit, and which consists of the orifice,
revolving tube, needle, etc.
boxcar roof. The roof of an open-hearth furnace in
which the transverse and horizontal ribs form box-like
shapes along the top.
box furnace, box kiln. An intermittent box-shaped fur-
nace in which ware is placed, fired, and removed on a
scheduled basis before the introduction of a subsequent
charge.
boxing. The manner of arranging cups rim-to-rim to
prevent distortion during firing.
box section. A concrete pipe of rectangular cross sec-
tion.
boy. Apprentice glassblower who takes handblown lead
crystal glass to the annealing lehr.
boy, mechanical. See mechanical boy.
bp. Abbreviation for boiling point.
braid. (I) A shield from strong electrostatic fields for
insulated cables and conductors consisting of woven
metallic wire. (2) A woven, fibrous, protective covering
over an insulated conductor or cable.
brake lining. A covering of asbestos, cermet, carbon
fiber or other ceramic material molded to the brake shoe
or brake band which presses against the rotating drum
to apply resistance to the motion of a body.
brale. A diamond indenter of spheroconical shape used
in Rockwell testing.
brass wire. Wire of selected diameters employed to cut
clay and unfired ceramic products.
Bravais lattice. The 14 regular arrangements of points in
3-D space. Every crystal structure belongs to one of
these lattices.
Brazilian test. A diametral splitting test performed on
ceramic disks in which a disk is compressed until it fails
in tension along the vertical diameter. See splitting
tensile test.
brazilite. The name given to naturally occurring bad-
deleyite, Zr02' when it is found with a fibrous or co-
lumnar habit.
BRAZING
brazing. The process of joining two or more metal parts
by fusing a solder between the adjoining surfaces to
form a vacuum-tight bond; in ceramic technology, the
braze is made between a metallized ceramic and a
mating metal.
breadboard. An experimental model of an item being
considered for production, particularly a proposed elec-
tronic product, to establish the feasibility of the item and
to detect areas for its improvement.
breakdown field. The local field at grain boundaries in
a ceramic varistor at which the grains change from
insulators to large current conductors.
breakdown field strength. The electric field strength at
which excessive ionization in the ceramic occurs. Any
conductive paths may carbonize or cause arcs and con-
sequential damage.
breakdown voltage. The potential difference at which
electrical failure occurs in an electrical insulating ma-
terial located between two electrodes under specified
conditions. Also termed dielectric and electric break-
down voltage.
breaking length. L B ; the length of a specimen whose
weight is equal to the breaking load LB =PDP, where i> is
density k gm-3 and P D is the breaking load in k gm-2.
breaking stress. The stress required to fracture a mate-
rial, by tension, compression, or shear.
breakout. A defect in dry-process porcelain-enamels
characterized by an area of blisters with well-defined
boundaries.
break point. (1) The first appearance in the effluent of
an absorbate on activated carbon under prescribed con-
ditions. (2) A change in the shape of a plot of density
against log of the compacting pressure in a uniaxial
compaction of dry powder. It becomes obvious when
the powder contains granules of homogeneous size and
strength. The break point represents the stress needed
to break the agglomerate bonds in the granules.
breasts. The sloping refractory components below the
ports and adjoining brickwork of an open-hearth fur-
nace which serves to join the hearth with the furnace
ends.
breast wall. (1) The entire side wall of a furnace between
the flux block and crown, excluding the ends. (2) The
refractory wall between pillars of a pot furnace and in
front of or surrounding the front of a pot.
breeze coal. The residue from coke and charcoal mak-
ing; used in concrete and bricks.
breezing. A thin layer of buckwheat, anthracite coal, or
coarse sand spread on the refractory floor of a glass
furnace before the setting of pots.
bremsstrahlung. Electromagnetic radiation emitted
when the velocity of a charged particle changes.
Brenner gauge. A device calibrated to estimate the
thickness of porcelain-enamels as a function of the force
42
required to lift a metal pin from contact with the coating
surface against a known magnetic force acting beneath
the undersurface of the base metal.
Brewster. A unit of photoelasticity equivalent to a retar-
dation of 10-12 m2 ~1.
Brewster's law. The tangent of the polarizing angle, a,
for a material is equal to the index of refraction n: n =
tana; the polarizing angle is defined as the angle of
incidence for which the reflected polarized ray is per-
pendicular to the refracted ray.
Brewster's window. A glass window of special compo-
sition used in each end of some gas lasers to transmit
one polarization of the laser output beam without loss.
brianchone luster. A luster in which a reducing agent is
incorporated as a component of a ceramic glaze.
brick. A block of clay or shale formed into a rectangular
prism while in a plastic condition, and hardened by
firing in a kiln or by sun baking (adobe) for use as a
masonry unit in building and other construction.
brick, acid resisting. See acid resisting brick.
brick, air. See air brick.
brick, alumina. See alumina brick.
brick, angle. See angle brick.
brick, arch. See arch brick.
brick, ashlar. See ashlar brick.
brick, basic. See basic brick.
brick, bauxite. See alumina brick.
brick, block. See block brick.
brick brindled. See brindled brick.
brick, building. See building brick.
brick, center. See center brick.
brick, checker. See checker brick or checkers.
brick, chemically bonded. See chemically bonded
brick.
brick, chrome. See chrome brick.
brick, chrome-magnesite. See chrome-magnesite
brick.
brick, chuff. See chuff brick.
brick, circle. See circle brick.
brick clays. Clays possessing properties suitable for the
production of brick. Such clays, which usually fire to a
red color, are somewhat impure, containing consider-
able amounts of fluxing ingredients, will mold readily,
fire to an appropriate degree of hardness at a relatively
low temperature, and will be resistant to warping and
cracking during firing. Grades which contain lesser
 43 BRICK, SALMON

amounts of impurities and soluble salts, and which fire brick, ipre. See ipre brick.
to greater hardness, lower porosity, greater strength,
and more uniform colors are used in the manufacture of brick, jack. See jack brick.
face brick.
brick, jamb. See jamb brick.
brick, clinker. See clinker brick.
brick, jumbo. See jumbo brick.
brick, concrete. See concrete brick.
brick, key. See key brick.
brick, cored. See cored brick.
brick, ladle. See ladle brick.
brick, crown. See crown brick.
brick, lattice. See lattice brick.
brick, deaired. See deaired brick.
brick, low-duty fireclay. See low-duty fireclay brick.
brick, dolomite. See dolomite brick. brick, lug. See lug brick.
brick, dolomite-magnesite. See dolomite-magnesite brick, magnesia. See magnesia brick.
brick.
brick, magnesite. See magnesia brick.
brick, dome. See dome brick.
brick, medium-duty fireclay. See medium-duty fire-
brick, double. See double brick. clay brick.
brick, drop-machine silica. See drop-machine silica brick, merch. See merch brick.
brick.
brick, metalkase. See metalkase brick.
brick, dry-pressed. See dry-pressed brick.
brick, modular. See modular brick.
brick earth. A loamy, relatively impure clay used in
making some types of common brick. brick, mold. See mold brick.
brick, economy. See economy brick. brick, neck. See neck brick.
brick, electrocast. See electrocast brick. brick, nine-inch. See nine-inch brick.
brick, end-cut. See end-cut brick. brick, Norman. See Norman brick.
brick, end skew. See end skew brick. brick, nozzle. See nozzle brick.

brick, engineered. See engineered brick. brick, packaged. See packaged brick.

brick, facing. See face brick. brick, panel. See panel brick.

brick, feather. See feather brick. brick, paving. See paving brick.

brick, fire. See firebrick. brick, perforated. See perforated brick.

brick, flashed. See flashed brick. brick, pitch-bonded basic. See pitch-bonded basic
brick.
brick, floor. See floor brick.
brick, pitch-impregnated. See pitch-impregnated re-
brick, furring. See furring brick. fractories.
brick, glass. See glass brick. brick, place. See place brick.
brick, graphite. See graphite brick. brick, pressed. See pressed brick.
brick, green. See green brick. brick, radial. See radial brick.
brick, hand-made. See hand-made brick. brick, refractory. See refractory brick.
brick, hard-burned. See hard-burned brick. brick, repressed. See repressed brick.
brick, high-alumina. See alumina brick. brick, Roman. See Roman brick.
brick, high-duty fireclay. See high-duty fireclay brick. brick, rubbing. See rubbing brick.
brick, industrial floor. See industrial floor brick. brick, runner. See runner brick.
brick, inwall. See inwall brick. brick, salmon. See salmon brick.
BRICK, SAND-CREASED
brick, sand-creased. See sand-creased brick.
brick, sand-lime. See sand-lime brick.
brick, sand-struck. See sand-struck brick.
brick saw. A mechanically operated abrasive disk used
to cut brick.
brick, scove. See scove brick.
brick, SCR. See SCR brick.
brick scratchers. A wire comb employed to texture the
surface of brick following the extrusion operation.
brick, semi-silica fireclay. See semi-silica fireclay
brick.
brick, sewer. See sewer brick.
brick, sidearch. See sidearch brick.
brick, side-cut. See side-cut brick.
brick, silica. See silica brick.
brick, siliceous fireclay. See siliceous fireclay brick.
brick, sleeve. See sleeve brick.
brick, soap. See soap brick.
brick, soft-mud. See soft-mud brick.
brick, standard. See standard brick.
brick, stiff-mud. See stiff-mud brick.
brick, straight. See straight brick.
brick, sun-dried. See sun-dried brick.
brick, superduty fireclay. See superduty fireclay brick.
brick, superduty silica. See superduty silica brick.
brick, tapestry. See tapestry brick.
brick, textured. See textured brick.
brick, triple. See triple brick.
brick, tuyere. See tuyere brick.
brick, unburned. See unburned brick.
brick, water-struck. See water-struck brick.
brick, wedge. See wedge brick.
brick, wire-cut. See wire-cut brick.
brickwork. Any masonry structure or pavement made of
brick.
brickwork, reinforced. See reinforced brickwork.
brick, zirconia. See zirconia brick.
44
bridge. The structure formed by the end walls of the
adjacent melter and refiner compartments of a glass
tank.
bridge cover. A refractory block spanning the space be-
tween the end walls of a glass-melting tank and the
adjacent refiner tank.
bridge-material transfer. Material transfer that occurs
in an electric arc furnace without the presence of a
gaseous electric discharge. The filament of molten con-
tact material that connects the two separating electrical
contacts does not rupture in the middle and there is a
gain of material on one contact and a loss of material
from the other from this molten bridge.
bridge wall. The part of a glass-melting tank which sepa-
rates the melting and refining sections.
bridging oxygen. An atom of oxygen situated between
and covalently bonded to two network-forming atoms,
such as silicon, in a glass structure.
bright annealing. The heating of steel or iron to a red
heat or above in an inert or reducing atmosphere which
inhibits or prevents oxidation, the surface of the metal
remaining bright for subsequent enameling.
bright glaze. A white, colored, or clear ceramic glaze
having a high gloss.
bright gold. An inexpensive luster of gold resinate com-
bined with other metal resinates and a flux; used as a
decoration when fired on glass, porcelain-enamel,
glaze, or other surfaces. See luster.
brightness. A term for the flux emitted per unit emissive
area as projected on a plane normal to the line of sight.
The unit is that of a perfectly diffusing surface emitting
104 lumen m-2 of projected surface, called a lambert.
Millilambert is more convenient. The SI unit is the
candela per steradian.
brights. Any portion of decorated glass forming a part of
a design, but which has not been acid-treated.
brilliance. The property of being very bright in appear-
ance; in glasses or glassy compositions, the property is
influenced by the index ofrefraction, the transparency,
and the surface polish of the item being observed.
brilliant cutting. A process of decorating flat glass in
which designs are cut in the glass by abrasives and
polishing wheels.
brindled brick. A brick of high crushing strength made
of iron-bearing sedimentary clays in which the iron
oxides are partially reduced during firing.
Brinell test. A measurement of the hardness of a material
obtained by pressing a steel ball I cm in diameter into
the material being tested under a prescribed load; the
applied load is divided by the spherical-surface arc area
of the resulting indentation; the results are reported as
the Brinell number, kilograms per square millimeter.
 45
briquette. A mass of fine granular material compressed
into some desired shape and held together with a bond-
ing agent.
briquetting. The process of forming powdered or granu-
lar materials into cubes, blocks, or other shapes in dies
under pressure.
bristle. A generic term for short stiff fibers.
Bristol glaze. An unfritted zinc-bearing glaze for stone-
ware, terra cotta, and similar bodies. It has the following
composition in wt. %: Si0 2 (67.09), AI 20 3 (13.01),
Na20 (1.98), K20 (3.01), MgO (2.57), CaO (7.16) and
ZnO (5.19).
British thermal unit (Btu). The unit of heat required to
raise the temperature of water at maximum density
(air-free) 1°F under a constant pressure of I atmos-
phere, the equivalent of 252 calories.
brittle. The property of being broken or fractured with-
out prior deformation. Unable to support slow crack
growth. Having a low value for the fracture toughness
parameter K le < 1.0 MN m-3!2.
brittle-ductile transition. BDT; most brittle materials
when tested at constant strain rate as a function of
temperature show a change from characteristic brittle
fracture to one showing some ductile characteristics.
The BDT is associated with a reduction in the localized
force on an existing critical crack due to plastic flow
during loading. The effect has a characteristic tempera-
ture, Te'
brittle fracture. A fracture occurring in a metallic or
ceramic body exhibiting the characteristics of very
rapid crack propagation. In this mode cracks propagate
rapidly with little obvious plastic deformation.
brittleness index. A measure of ceramic grindability de-
fined as HvlKlc' where Hv is the Vickers hardness
measured in ON m-2 and Klc is the fracture toughness
parameter measured as MN m-3!2. Hence, brittleness
index is measured in units of m- l !2 and the larger the
value the less energy required to grind to a fine size.
brittle-ring test. A tensile test in which maximum stress
is applied to the inner periphery of a ring specimen by
application of a compressive load to the outer periphery
of the ring. Failure should occur through the vertical
diameter of the annular specimen.
broken-joint tile. A roofing tile laid over the center of
the head of a tile immediately below.
broken seed. A fractured bubble on the surface of plate
glass after polishing.
Brongniart's formula. A formula to calculate the solid
content of a suspension: W =(P - 20)S/(S - I), in
which W is the weight of solid in I pint of the slurry in
ounces, P is the weight of I pint of the slurry, and S is
the specific gravity of the dry solid material.
bromellite. BeO; a somewhat rare ore; synthetic bromel-
lite, beryllium oxide, has some specialized refractory
uses.
BRUSH MARKS
Brookfield viscometer. An instrument to measure the
viscosity of a porcelain-enamel or glaze slip in which
the resistance of an electrically operated cylinder to
rotation in the slip is determined.
brookite. Ti0 2; a black, brown, or reddish, orthorhombic
form of titania, which is trimorphous with anatase and
rutile, having a specific gravity of 3.87-4.08 and a
Knoop hardness of 8.53 ON m-2
brown asbestos. The fibrous amphibole mineral
amosite.
brown coat. A mortar or plaster which has been
strengthened by the addition of hair or other fibrous
material and over which a finish coat is applied.
Brownian motion. The incessant motion of small parti-
cles suspended in a fluid.
brownies. A synonym for copperheads in porcelain-
enamels.
brown mica. See black mica.
brownmillerite. Ca2AIFeOs; a phase in cement clinker.
brucite. Mg(OHh; magnesium hydroxide; sp. gr. 2.38-
2.40; hardness (Mohs) 2.5; used in refractories as a
source of dead-burned magnesite, and as a component
in welding-rod coatings.
bruise. An area of small cracks in glassware resulting
from impact.
Brunauer-Emmett-Teller equation. A technique for
determination of the surface area of a powder or porous
solid by computing the monolayer area from the volume
of a gas adsorbed on the surface of a sample of known
weight; an extension of Langmuir's isotherm equation:
PI(Ps-P)V= lIVrn C+P(C-l)IP sV rn C.
brush. A conductor arranged to make electrical contact
between a stationary and one or more moving compo-
nents.
brush, blender. See blender brush.
brush, bolt-hole. See bolt-hole brush.
brush, edging. See edging brush.
brush force. The force required to close, maintain, and
open electrical contacts.
brush, fan blender. See fan blender brush.
brushing. (I) The removal of bisque porcelain-enamel
from ware before firing by brushing through a stencil
or along an edge to produce a design or edging. 2) The
removal of bedding material from ceramic ware after
the bisque fire.
brush, Japanese. See Japanese brush.
brush, lawn. See lawn brush.
brush marks. A defect or blemish in glassware consist-
ing of fine lines having the appearance of brush marks.
BRUSH, SABLE DETAIL
brush, sable detail. See sable detail brush.
brush, scroller. See scroller brush.
brush, stain. See stain brush.
brush, tinter. See tinter brush.
Btu. Abbreviation for British thermal unit.
bubble cap. A ceramic cap, serrated along the bottom to
permit the passage of vapors; for use in distillation and
deacidifying towers in chemical processes.
bubble glass. A decorative product containing bubbles
of prescribed size and arrangement.
bubble-pressure pore-size determination. A method
of estimating the maximum pore size of a material by
calculating the pressure required to force a bubble of air
through the material wetted by a liquid of known sur-
face tension.
bubble ran. A two-dimensional frame where bubbles
are produced on the surface of a liquid. The bubble
morphology can be studied as a model of grain size,
grain boundaries, and grain structures.
bubble structure. The size and distribution of voids in a
fired porcelain-enamel coating.
bubbly clay. A clay containing organic impurities which
cause bubbles in porcelain-enamels and glazes during
firing.
buck. A special support employed in the firing of heavy
porcelain-enameled ware.
bucket conveyor. A conveyor of bulk material consist-
ing of a series of scoops or bucket-like containers
mounted on an endless belt or chain.
bucking coil. A coil connected and positioned in such a
way that its electric or magnetic field opposes the
electric or magnetic field of one or more other coils so
that an imbalance is produced in the system to yield an
indication.
buckling. A mode of failure found in fiber reinforced
composites where an unstable lateral deflection is pro-
duced by a compressive stress. In advanced composites
not only general buckling is observed but micro-insta-
bility at individual fibers can be a problem.
buckminster fullerene. A football-shaped cage mole-
cule C60 where the cage contains 6- and 5-membered
rings. Each C60 unit packs to form a face-centered cubic
solid which is a new form of carbon. Interstitial sites in
the solid structure can be occupied by K or Cs to give
K3C60 superconducting carbide; Tc = 18 K.
buckstave, buckstay. A steel bracing employed to take
the thrust of the refractory structure, such as the roof, in
the construction of a furnace.
buckyballs. Clusters of 60 carbon atoms formed into a
hollow sphere; potential lubricants and selective cata-
lysts.
46
buckytubes. Colloquial name for a form of carbon con-
taining cylindrical carbon molecules. The cylinders are
helically wrapped sheets of hexagonal carbon rings.
Tubes have outer diameters of 4-30 nm and therefore
may form electron guides.
buddle. A sloping trough used to wash minerals as part
of their beneficiation.
buff. A dull yellow color.
buffer. (1) A flexible disk or wheel impregnated with a
fine abrasive for polishing. (2) A cloth or pad used for
polishing.
buffing wheel. A flexible disk coated with a very fine
abrasive which is used in the buffing or polishing of
surfaces.
bugholes. Small pits, bubbles, or voids in the surface of
formed concrete.
buhr mill. A pulverizing machine in which materials are
ground between a siliceous rock rotating against a sta-
tionary surface of the same material.
builder. A scrap refractory used as a filler in the con-
struction of kiln bottoms and similar items.
building block. Hollow concrete or fired-clay blocks
used in the construction of walls which usually are to
be covered with a finishing material such as stone.
building brick. A brick formed and fired to a stable unit
from clay, but not especially produced for color or
texture, for use in the general construction industry.
building clay. A clay suitable for the production of brick
for use in the construction industry.
bulb edge. The heavy rounded edge or bead on sheet-
drawn glass.
bulb trailer. An instrument for squeezing out the flow
lines of slip on a clay surface.
bulged finish. A distended top section of a glass bottle.
bulk density. The ratio of the mass of an object or mate-
rial to its total volume, including pore space; units
are kgm-3.
bulkhead. A panel of brick built into a wall for easy
replacement.
bulking. The tendency of fine particles of a material to
occupy a greater volume when moist.
bulk modulus of elasticity. K, the ratio of the compres-
sive forces applied to a material per unit of surface area
to the change in the volume of the material per unit of
volume. K=-VdpdV.
bulk sampling. A portion of a sample designed to repre-
sent the whole.
bulk specific gravity. The ratio of the mass ofa material
to that of a quantity of water which has a volume equal
 47
to the bulk volume of the material at the temperature of
measurement.
bulk volume. The volume of a solid material, including
the volume of open and sealed pores. Calculated by the
formula Vb = Po + P s + VI = Dw1db' in which Vb is the
bulk volume, Po is the volume of open pores, P s is the
volume of sealed pores, VI is the true volume of the
solid, Dw is the dry weight of the specimen, and db is
the bulk density of the specimen.
Buller rings. Unfired ceramic rings, 6.35 cm in diameter
with a hole 2.22 cm in diameter in the center, of pre-
scribed compositions which by their respective shrink-
ages are used as an indication of the thermal history to
which accompanying ware has been exposed during
firing.
bullet-resisting glass. A special laminated safety glass
composed of three sections: (1) impact striking section,
(2) transition section, (3) impact absorbing section; total
thickness 1.9-7.6 cm. Also known as bulletproof glass.
bull float. A finishing tool with a handle several feet long
which will permit a worker, standing at a distance, to
finish a slab of concrete from the interior to the edge.
bull header. A bull-nosed or jamb brick laid on its face
so that the normal bedding area is visible in the wall
face.
bullion. The central portion of a disk of crown glass to
which the blowing iron was attached.
bullnose. A brick having the corner of one end and side
rounded to a radius approximately equal to the width of
the brick.
bull's eye. A circular window.
Bull's kiln. A clamp kiln in which bricks are placed and
fired in trenches.
bunch. A fiber yarn defect where a length < 6 mm shows
an abrupt increase in diameter where the fibers are
matted.
bundle strength. Filament strength as determined from
a tensile test of a bundle of parallel fibers rather than
from monofilament tests which are more difficult to
perform.
bundle, fiber. See fiber bundle.
bung. (1) A group of saggers or pots stacked in a kiln. (2)
A removable roof section built in a kiln.
bunker fuel oil. A heavy fuel oil formed by the stabili-
zation of the residual oil remaining after the cracking of
crude petroleum, and used in large-scale heating and
power-production applications. Graded; grade 6, com-
monly used in industry.
bunsenite. NiO; the mineralogical name for cubic nickel
oxide; sp. gr. 6.79; hardness 5.5 (Mohs); glassy dark
green color.
BURNISHING, PATTERN
Burgers vector. b; this specifies the direction and dis-
tance by which atoms in a slipped area of crystal have
moved with respect to those on the plane below, over
which they have moved. This vector is the most char-
acteristic feature of a dislocation.
burley clay, burley flint clay. A rock containing nod-
ules of aluminous or ferruginous materials, or both,
bonded by fireclay.
burn. (I) The controlled heat treatment of ceramic ware
and coatings in a furnace or kiln. (2) Synonym for firing.
burned sand. A sand mixture in which the bonding
agent has been calcined by the heat of the cast.
burner. (I) The mechanism by which air and fuel are
mixed and directed into a combustion chamber. (2) The
operator whose duty is to tend a ceramic kiln.
burner block. A refractory block with one or more ori-
fices through which fuel is introduced into a furnace or
kiln.
burner, premix. See premix burner.
burning. (I) The process of firing ceramic bodies,
glazes, porcelain-enamels, and other coatings and prod-
ucts in a furnace or kiln for the purpose of developing
a bond or other necessary or desired physical and
chemical properties. (2) The heat treatment, vitrifica-
tion, or curing of a grinding wheel to produce desired
bond properties. (3) The change in a material being
ground or polished caused by heat generation during the
grinding operation, frequently accompanied by discol-
oration of the material. (4) Overpickling of metal for
porcelain-enameling, often producing pits in the metal
surface.
burning bars, points, or tools. A heat-resistant metal
alloy used to support porcelain-enameled ware during
the firing operation.
burning off. Overfiring of porcelain-enamels resulting
in a rough, dark surface saturated with undissolved iron
oxide.
burning shrinkage. See firing shrinkage.
burning-tool marks. A defect in porcelain-enamels oc-
curring on the sheet-metal surface opposite the point of
contact with the supporting burning tool.
burning zone. The volume in a continuous furnace
where the major amount of heat is supplied to ware
during the firing operation.
burnished gold. A durable type of gold applied to glazed
ware as a suspension in oil, fired, and rubbed with agate
or other polishing material to a bright finish.
burnishing. Polishing of an overglaze gold, leather-hard
clay, or other material with agate, stone, sand, or steel
wool to produce a bright surface.
burnishing, pattern. See pattern burnishing.
BURN-OFF
burn-off. (I) The process of severing an unwanted por-
tion of a glass article by fusing the glass. (2) Slaglike
area resulting from an insufficient coating of porcelain-
enamel which occurs during firing.
burn-out. The removal of organic binders from unfired
shapes by the application of heat.
burnt lime. Calcined dolomitic limestone or calcite, or a
mixture of these.
burn-up. Nuclear transformations induced during nu-
clear operations. The term may be applied to fuel or to
other materials or to the amount of depletion due to
nuclear transformation.
burr. (I) A thin, ragged edge of metal resulting from
punching, cutting, or grinding of a metal sheet. (2) A
fragment of excess material, or of a foreign material,
adhering to the surface of a body.
burring. The removal of sharp edges or fins from
punched, cut, or ground metal items.
burr mill. A mill consisting of two ribbed disks of stone
or metal rotating against each other; used in the grinding
of solid materials and in homogenizing mixtures of
pigments in a suitable liquid medium to produce pastes
for the decoration of ware.
bursting. The disintegration of refractories containing
chrome ore when exposed to iron oxide at high tempera-
tures; characterized by having the exposed face swell
and grow until it breaks away from the brick mass
following a permanent increase in volume.
bursting expansion. A term sometimes used as a syno-
nym for bursting.
bursting off. The breaking of the thin-walled bubble of
glass formed above a blow mold.
bursting strength. The rupture strength of a material as
determined by applying internal gas pressures.
burst phenomenon. A rapid rise in temperature shown
by some ultrafine amorphous powders as they are
48
heated to a temperature at which they crystallize. The
transformation from amorphous to tetragonal zirconia
is a good example.
burst pressure. The maximum inside pressure a mate-
rial or object can withstand without rupture.
bushing. (I) The liner of an orifice that delivers molten
glass to a forming machine, or the liner of the unit
through which molten glass is drawn in the production
of glass fibers. (2) A bearing that lines the supporting
structure for a rotating shaft.
bushing, reducing. See reducing bushing.
busting strength. The ability of woven fabric to resist
rupture by pressure.
bustle pipe. A large refractory-lined pipe which encir-
cles and delivers a hot-air blast to a blast furnace.
butting contacts. Electrical contacts in which the mo-
tion of the moving contact is perpendicular to the con-
tact faces, and which open and close with no
appreciable sliding or rolling action.
button. A section in pressed glassware so designed that
it may be knocked out to form a hole of specified
dimensions in the parent glass.
button test. A test in which button-like specimens of
prescribed form, and sometimes density, are employed
to evaluate the fusion and flow characteristics of frits,
glasses, and powders.
buttress. A projection designed to increase the resistance
of a wall in a structure to lateral forces.
butt seal. Straight end-to-end joining of ceramic-metal
or glass-metal seals which will withstand high tempera-
tures and a high vacuum without leakage. Often
achieved by having a thin sheet of metal between the
components.
bytownite. A soda-lime feldspar.
 c
°C. Symbol for degrees Centigrade or Celsius.
cabal-12 glass. A corrosion-resistant glass of extremely
low tbermal expansivity developed for glass-metal seal
formation, contains (in mole%) B20 3 (40), CaO (20),
AI 20 3 (20), and MgO (20).
cabochon. A smooth polished gem, unfaceted but
domed.
CAC. Acronym for carbon arc cutting.
CAD. Acronym for computer-aided design.
cadmium acetate. Cd(CH3COOh·3H20; loses water at
130°C; mp of hydrate 256°C; sp. gr. 2.01-2.34; used in
the production of iridescent glazes.
cadmium antimonide. CdSb; mp 452°C; a semiconduc-
tor witb narrow band gap 0.48 eV; equal electron and
hole mobility.
cadmium carbonate. CdC03; decomposes below
500°C; sp. gr. 4.258; used to improve the stability of
cadmium-selenide red colors.
cadmium fluoride. CdF2; mp IOOO°C, sp. gr. 6.64; used
in electronic and optical applications and as a starting
material for laser crystals.
cadmium niobate. Cd2Nb20 7; an antiferroelectric hav-
ing low-loss properties at high frequencies.
cadmium nitrate. Cd(N0 3h-4H20; mp 59.5°C; bp
132°C; sp. gr. 2.455; used as a reddish-yellow colorant
in porcelain-enamels and glass.
cadmium orange. An impure form of cadmium sulfide
used as a ceramic colorant.
cadmium selenide. CdSe; mp above 1350°C; sp. gr.
5.81; used in the production of red ceramic colors; a zinc
blende structure semiconductor.
cadmium silicate. CdSi0 3; mp 1242°C; sp. gr. 4.93; a
chain pyroxene.
49
cadmium sulfide. CdS; zinc-blende structure; sublimes
at 980°C; sp. gr. 3.9-4.8; employed as a component in
tbe production of red, orange, and yellow ceramic col-
ors. Also known as cadmium yellow. A II-VI semicon-
ductor.
cadmium telluride. CdTe; mp 1090°C; sp. gr. 6.2; em-
ployed in rectifiers, solar batteries, and optical systems;
a zinc blende structure semiconductor.
cadmium tin oxide. Cd2Sn04; a conductive spinel ox-
ide phase applied as a transparent coating to substrates.
cadmium titanate. CdTi03; perovskite ferroelectric.
cadmium yellow. A series of colors, usually cadmium
sulfide coprecipitated witb barium sulfate, ranging from
golden yellow to a greenish or reddish yellow.
cadmium zirconate. CdZr03; cubic perovskite; used as
a depressant of tbe dielectric constant of barium titanate
capacitors at tbe Curie temperature.
cage. A preassembled unit of reinforcements for concrete
pipe or piling consisting of circumferential and longi-
tudinal bars or wire mesh.
cage-mill disintegrator. A machine consisting of high-
speed rotating vanes employed to disintegrate soft par-
ticles in tbe beneficiation of coarse concrete aggregate.
cake. (1) A slab of damp clay or ceramic body as re-
moved from a filter press or a slip casting mold. (2) A
package of glass fiber strands made by collet winding.
calamine. A naturally occurring mixture of smithsonite,
ZnC03, and the pyrosilicate mineral, hemimorphite,
Zn4Si207(OHh·H20.
calcareous. Any material containing calcium.
calcareous clay. Clay containing calcium-bearing min-
erals, usually sulfate or carbonate.
calcia. Old name for calcium oxide, CaO.
CALCINE
calcine. To heat a material or mixture to high tempera-
ture without fusion and so eliminate volatile constitu-
ents and to produce desired physical changes.
calcined alumina. A120 3; mp 2040°C; sp. gr. 3.5-4.0;
index of refraction 1.765; available in several grades
based on heat treatment; contains traces of residual
water; contains less of the alpha phase than the tabular
grades, and is easier to mill. Characterized by high
purity, high hardness> 24 GN m-2, high density, good
thermal conductivity, good mechanical and thermal
shock resistance, and good electrical resistivity at high
temperatures; used in abrasives, glass, porcelains, spark
plugs, and electrical insulators.
calcined clay. Ball or china clay which has been heated
until the combined water is removed, and the plastic
character is destroyed.
calcined gypsum. CaS04·~H20; known commercially
as plaster of paris.
calcined kaolin. Mixture of mullite crystals and glassy
phase; mp 1770°C; deformation temperature 1750
to 1770°C; used in refractories, kiln furniture, castables,
investment molds, low-expansion and insulating bod-
ies, and other high-temperature products to improve
refractoriness, mechanical strength, thermal-shock re-
sistance, load-bearing properties, and resistance to cor-
rosion by molten glasses, fritted glazes, porcelain-
enameled frits, and slags.
calcined limestone. Limestone converted by heat to
CaO.
calcined refractory dolomite. Refractory dolomite
which has been heated for a sufficient time and tempera-
ture to remove volatile matter and to decompose the
carbonate structure to leave a mixture of magnesia and
lime.
calcined soda. The commercial grade of sodium carbon-
ate used in the manufacture of glass.
calcite. CaC03; small crystalline phase in limestone; sp.
gr. 2.72; hardness (Mohs) 2; perfect cleavage in three
directions but not at right angles; employed as a major
component in portland cement manufacture, in soda-
lime glassware, in pottery bodies, and for insulating
coatings for capacitors and printed circuits. Also known
as calcspar.
calcite dolomite. A carbonate rock consisting of 10-
50% calcite and the balance dolomite.
calcium acrylate. (CH2CHCOOhCa; used as a binder
for clay products and foundry molds.
calcium aluminate. (I) CaAI 20 4; spinel phase; mp
1600°C; sp. gr. 3.67. (2) CaAI40 7; melts incongruently
at 1760°C; sp. gr. 2.90. (3) Ca3AlIOOlS; mp 2230°C. (4)
Ca3A1206; mp 1538°C; sp. gr. 3.0. (5) CaAI 120 19 ;
peritectically decomposes to corundum plus a liquid
phase at 1850°C. All five are phases occurring in high
alumina cement.
50
calcium aluminate fiber. An amorphous fiber made by
melt spinning of low-viscosity melts by jet stabiliza-
tion; overall composition is Ca3A1409.
calcium aluminum siUcate. (I) A slag-like product con-
sisting essentially ofCaO, A120 3• MgO, and Si02; used
in amber, green, and other glasses. (2) Ca(AI,Si)02; mp
1549°C; sp. gr. 2.77. (3) Ca2AI(Si,AI)07; mp 1596°C;
sp. gr. 3.04.
calcium antimonate. Ca(Sb04h; limited use as an
opacifier in porcelain-enamels and glazes.
calcium boride. CaB 6; ionic boride containing 8 6 units;
m. p. 2235°C; sp. gr. 2.45; hardness (Vickers) 26.89
GNm-2.
calcium carbide. CaC2; mr. 2160°C; sp. gr. 2.04; an
acetylide containing (~) -units; source of acetylene
when added to water.
calcium carbonate. CaC03; decomposes at 825°C; sp.
gr. 2.7-2.95; used as a component in portland cement,
soda-lime glassware and pottery body manufacture, and
as an insulating coating for printed circuits and capaci-
tors, and as a filler in plastics and paper. Also known as
calcite, aragonite.
calcium chloride. CaCI2; mp 772°C; sp. gr. 2.15; used
as a mill addition in porcelain-enamel slips, and as a
flocculant to hold glazes in suspension.
calcium chromate. CaCr04·2H20; loses water at
200°C; used as a yellow colorant.
calcium cyanamide. CaCN2; mpI200°C; sp. gr. 1.083;
important raw material in the plastics industry.
calcium dialuminate. CaAI40 7; mp 1705°C; a compo-
nent of high-alumina cement.
calcium ferrite. (I) Ca2Fe20S; mpI438°C; sp. gr. 3.98.
(2) CaFe204; mp 1215°C; sp. gr. 5.08; a spinel-type
ferrite.
calcium fluophosphate. See apatite.
calcium fluoride. CaF2; mp 1360°C; sp. gr. 3.18; hard-
ness (Mohs) 4; used as an opacifier and flux in porce-
lain-enamels, glass, and glazes, as a flux in whiteware
bodies, as a glass etchant, and as a component in cruci-
b
es for the melting of uranium.
calcium fluosiUcate. CaSiF6; sp. gr. 2.662; source of
fluosilicic acid when added to sulfuric acid.
calcium hafnate. CaRf03; a perovskite; mp 2470°C; sp.
gr. 5.73; very low coefficient of thermal expansion,
around 7 x I~.
calcium hydroxide. Ca(OHh; loses combined water at
580°C; sp. gr. 2.34; present in mortars, plasters, and
cements after hydration. Also known as hydrated lime.
calcium lignosulfonate. An inexpensive clay condi-
tioner that lubricates and binds the mix increasing green
strength and plasticity.
 51
calcium magnesium silicate. (1) (Ca,Mg)Si04; discrete
orthosilicate; mp 1499°C, but melts incongruently; sp.
gr. 3.2. (2) (Ca,Mg)(Si0 3)2; mp 1390°C; sp. gr. 3.28; a
chain mineral diopside. (3) (Ca,Mg)Si20 7; mp 1460°C;
sp. gr. 2.94. (4) Ca3Mg(Si02)4; formed by isomor-
phous substitution of Mg2+ for Ca2+ in calcium
silicate.
calcium magnesium zirconium phosphate. See CMZP.
calcium metaborate. Ca(B02h; mp ll00°C; contains
(B04)5- and (B03)3- anions in the crystal.
calcium metasilicate. CaSi0 3; a chain pyroxene; mp
1544°C; sp. gr. 2.8-2.9; hardness (Mohs) 4.5-5; used
in pottery bodies, wall tiles, cements, wallboard, min-
erai wool, and special low-loss electroceramics. Occurs
naturally as wollastonite.
calcium molybdate. CaMo04; used as an adherence-
promoting agent in some antimony-bearing porcelain-
enamel ground coats.
calcium monoaluminate. CaA120 4; see calcium alumi-
nate.
calcium niobate. (1) Ca3(Nb04h; mp 1560°C, but melts
incongruently; sp. gr. 4.23. (2) Ca2Nb207; mp 1565°C;
sp. gr. 4.39. (3) Ca(Nb03h; mp 1560°C; sp. gr. 4.72.
All three materials have useful dielectric properties.
calcium nitrate. (1) Ca(N03h·4Hp; mp 42°C; decom-
poses at 132°C; sp. gr. 1.82; used as an oxidizing agent
in zirconia and titania opacified porcelain-enamels (2)
Ca(N0 3h; mp 561°C.
calcium nitride. Ca3N2; sp. gr. 2.06; formed when cal-
cium bums in air. Reacts with H20 to give ammonia.
calcium orthosilicate. Ca2Si04; mp 2130°C; sp. gr.
3.27; a constituent in portland cement and some dolo-
mite refractories.
calcium oxide. CaO; mp 2570°C; sp. gr. 3.40; a fluxing
ingredient used extensively in a wide variety of ceramic
products: glass, pottery, glazes, porcelain-enamels,
portland cement, mortar, and plaster. Also known as
lime or calcia.
calcium phosphate, dibasic. See dibasic calcium phos-
phate.
calcium phosphate, tribasic. See tribasic calcium phos-
phate.
calcium plumbate. Ca2Pb04; sp. gr. 5.71; used in glass
manufacture as a flux.
calcium potassium silicate. CaK2Si04; mp 1631°C; an
ionic orthosilicate.
calcium pyrophosphate. Ca2P207; mp 1230°C; sp. gr.
3.09; a component in castable repair compositions.
calcium silicate. (1) CaSi03; wollastonite, a pyroxene;
mp 1544°C; sp. gr. 2.8-2.9; hardness (Mohs) 4.5-5. (2)
Ca3Si207; a pyrosilicate; decomposes at I 899°C. (3)
CALmRATION STANDARD
Ca2Si04; orthosilicate common in cement; mp 2130°C;
sp. gr. 3.28. (4) Ca30Si04; decomposes at 1465°C.
calcium soap. Calcium resinate used as a binder in ce-
ramic inks and pastes.
calcium stannate. CaSn03; a perovskite; mp > 1200°C;
employed in barium titanate bodies to lower Curie
temperature, and as a base for phosphors.
calcium sulfate. CaS04; mp 1450°C; sp. gr. 2.964; as
plaster of paris (CaS04·2H20) it is known as gypsum;
used extensively in models and molds, as a bedding
agent in the grinding and polishing of plate and optical
glasses, as an occasional batch ingredient in glass and
glazes, as a binder in low-density insulation, and as a
flocculant in glazes and other slips to prevent settling.
calcium titanate. CaTi03; known as perovskite; a min-
eral; mp 1915°C; sp. gr. 3.17-4.02; hardness (Mohs)
5.5. a high dielectric material used in barium and other
rare-earth titanates and zirconates for piezoelectric ap-
plications.
calcium titanium silicate. CaTiOSi04; mp 1382°C; sp.
gr. 3.5.
calcium tungstate. CaW04 ; mp 1535°C; sp. gr. 5.9-6.1;
hardness (Mohs) 4.5-5; index of refraction 1.93 (ap-
prox); good mechanical strength and chemical stability.
calcium uranate. CaU04; mp 1799°C; sp. gr. 7.45.
calcium zinc silicate. Ca2ZnSi207; mp 1427°C; ionic
silicate containing (Si20 7)6- units.
calcium zirconate. caZr03; mp 2350°C; sp. gr. 4.74;
low firing shrinkage; used in titanate dielectrics as an
additive to improve performance.
calcrete. A mixture of gravel and sand cemented by
calcium carbonate.
calcspar. A synonym for calcite or limestone.
calibration. (1) Determination of the values of the sig-
nificant parameters by comparison with values indi-
cated by a reference instrument or by a set of reference
standards. (2) The process of fixing, checking, or cor-
recting an arbitrary or inaccurate scale of a measuring
instrument to absolute values.
calibration, chemical. See chemical calibration.
calibration curve. The graphical representation of a re-
lationship between a measured parameter and a concen-
tration or mass of the standard for the substance under
consideration.
calibration factor. The slope of the calibration curve, or
its inverse, usually in terms of the measured unit per
concentration or mass of the element.
calibration standard. Materials or stimuli of known pa-
rameters and size that are used to adjust the sensitivity
of test instruments.
CALIPERS
calipers. An instrument consisting of a pair of hinged
legs which may be used to measure internal and external
dimensions.
calomel. HgCl; ore occurring as drusy masses oftetrago-
nal crystals; hardness (Mohs) 1.5; sp. gr. 7.23; used in
pharmaceutical preparations and with mercury metal as
a standard EMF cell.
calorie. The quantity of heat required to raise the tem-
perature of I gram of water by 1°C, from 3.5°C to 4.5°C.
calorie, large. See large calorie.
calorific value. A measure of the quality of fuels; usually
expressed as available Btu per unit of weight or volume
for complete combustion.
calx. A metal oxide formed by heating an ore in air.
CAM. Acronym for computer aided manufacturing
which is the use of computers and related technology to
control, manage, operate and monitor manufacturing
processes.
camber. A surface imperfection consisting of a single
arch of curvature as opposed to waviness.
camber arch. An arch with a horizontal exterior and a
slightly curved interior.
came. Lead strips used for setting glass panes, medal-
lions, mobiles, etc.
campaign. The working life of a furnace, glass tank, or
other melting unit between major cold repairs.
Canada balsam. An exudate of the balsam fir tree hav-
ing an index of refraction similar to that of glass; used
in cementing optical lenses and other optical elements.
canal. The section of a glass tank through which molten
glass flows from the relatively wide fining area to the
drawing chamber or machine.
canasite. CaSNa4K2Si12030F4; sp. gr. 2.71; a rare quad-
ruple chain silicate developed in some glass-ceramics
to induce toughness. The structure contains four silicate
chains running parallel to the b-axis cross-linked to
form a tubular unit and a basic structural unit Si 12030'
The sodium and potassium ions are located centrally in
the tubes.
cancrinite hydrate. Na6AI6Si6024·6H20; a faujasite
structure zeolite containing some linked (Al04)s- tetra-
hedra.
candela. The luminous intensity at 90° to a blackbody
surface of 11600,000 m2 at a temperature of the mp of
platinum at 101,325 Nm-2 (1 atm) pressure. Symbol cd.
Alternatively it is the luminous intensity of a source that
emits monochromatic radiation of 540 x 1012 Hz and
has a radiant intensity of 11683 watt per steradian.
candle. One-sixtieth the luminous intensity of 1 cm2 of
the surface of a blackbody radiator at the mp of Pt, 2042
K.
cane. Solid glass rods of small to medium diameter.
52
cane clay. A fireclay, sometimes sandy, but less refrac-
tory than normal fireclay.
canning. A dish shaped distortion on a flat surface.
cannon pot. A small glass-melting pot or crucible.
cantilever arch. An arch supported by flat projections
on opposite walls.
cant strip. A strip placed under the edge of the lowest
row of tiles on a roof to give them the same slope as the
other tiles.
cap. (1) A type of bottle closure. (2) To cut off the ends
of a glass cylinder. (3) The act of preparing a strength
specimen for testing in which a fluid or mastic material
is applied to the ends of the specimen which will be in
contact with the testing machine. (4) Synonym for
crown.
capacitance. The property of a system of conductors and
dielectrics which permits the storage of electrically
separated charges when potential differences exist be-
tween the conductors. The value is a function of the
geometry and the electrical properties of the dielectric
and often the operating voltage and frequency.
capacitance unbalance. The difference in capacitance
of two insulated conductors to the shield, expressed as
a percentage of the capacitance between the conductors,
or in percent unbalance.
capacitor. A device consisting of conductive or semi-
conductive plates separated by a dielectric, and which
gives capacitance.
capacitor color code. A series of colored rings on ce-
ramic capacitors which record the temperature coeffi-
cient, capacitance, and tolerance of the device. Black is
the lowest value and white the highest on a scale 1 to 9.
The ring nearest the left-hand side gives the temperature
coefficient, the next two rings give the first and second
significant figure of capacitance in picofarads, the
fourth ring gives the multiplier, and the fifth ring gives
the tolerance.
capacity. (1) The cubic content or volume which can be
contained by a receptacle or a porous substance. (2) The
ability of a material to yield, withstand, or perform.
capacity, insulation. See insulation capacity.
capillarity. The ability of a brick or other fired ceramic
product to conduct liquids through its pore structure by
force of surface tension.
capillary. A tube having a very small internal diameter.
capillary drying. The progressive removal of moisture
from a porous solid by surface evaporation followed by
the capillary movement of more moisture to the drying
surface until the core and surface of the solid are of the
same moisture concentration.
capillary viscometer. A long narrow tube used to meas-
ure the laminar flow of liquids.
 53
capital expenditure. Money spent for long-term im-
provements, additions, or equipment, and charged to a
capital assets account.
capped. A description of a pellet that delaminates during
its uniaxial pressing from powder.
cap seat. The ledge inside the mouth of a milk bottle.
carafe. A glass bottle for table use.
carat. c. (I) A measure of the weight of diamonds; I carat
equals 0.2 grams. (2) A measure of gold quality; 24-
carat gold is pure.
carbell kiln. A furnace built with no doors to reduce heat
loss; it is lifted vertically, having no bottom, and placed
over loaded kiln cars.
carbide. (1) A binary compound of carbon with other
elements. Classified according to the predominant
atomic bonding present. Ionic, e.g., CaC 2; covalent,
e.g., SiC; mixed ionic + covalent + metallic, e.g., WC,
TiC. (2) A cemented or compacted mixture of carbides
used for metal-cutting and machining tools. Carbides
are characterized by high melting points. Mohs hard-
ness values of 8-9, low impact strength, high electrical
and thermal conductivities, and high moduli of elastic-
ity. They are used in grinding wheels, grinding belts and
papers, electrical-resistance heating elements for kilns
and furnaces, drill bits, sawteeth, wire-drawing dies,
balls for the tips of ballpoint pens, and similar applica-
tions where thermal and wear resistance are important,
and as fibers in high-strength composites.
carbide fuel. An oxidation-resistant, high-strength, re-
fractory composition prepared from a fissile fuel metal
such as uranium, thorium, plutonium, e.g., UC.
carbide tool. A high-heat and wear-resistant cutting and
machining tool made of the carbides of tantalum, tita-
nium, or tungsten bonded by cobalt metal.
Carbofrax. A refractory silicon carbide used in refrac-
tory cements, refractory brick, and shapes for furnace
walls, domes, checkers, radiant tubes, hearths etc.,
where temperatures are severe; a proprietary product.
carbon. C; sublimes above 3500°C; sp. gr. (amorphous)
about 2, (graphite) 2.25, (diamond) 3.5; properties vary
widely with form.
carbonaceous deposits. Particles of carbon or a material
of substantial carbon content usually occurring as a
contaminant in or on the surface of a body or other
substance.
carbon, activated. See activated carbon.
carbonado. An inferior dark variety of diamond used for
polishing and drilling. Also called black diamond.
carbonate. (1) A salt or ester of carbonic acid. (2) In
ceramic usage, a salt consisting of a metallic element
in combination with a (C03)2- radical, e.g., BaC03,
CaC0 3, K2C0 3, and Na2C03; used as a convenient
source of metal oxides in ceramic bodies as they decom-
pose to release carbon dioxide.
CARBON,MANUFACTURED
carbonatites. Carbon dioxide rich rocks crystallized
from mantle melts that provide minable niobium ore
and a source of the rare earths.
carbon black. Any of various colloidal black substances
consisting essentially of elemental carbon prepared by
partial combustion or thermal decomposition of hydro-
carbons.
carbon black structure. The degree or state of agglom-
eration of particles in carbon black.
carbon-ceramic refractory. A refractory product com-
posed of a mixture of carbon or graphite and one or more
refractory ceramic materials, such as fireclay or silicon
carbide.
carbon-14 dating. Dating artifacts by means ofradioac-
tivity.
carbon deposition. (1) When firing traditional ceramics
the deposition of amorphous carbon, resulting from the
decomposition of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide
and carbon within a critical temperature range. When
deposited within the pores of a refractory brick, the
carbon may provide subsequent local oxidation resis-
tance. (2) The use of hydrocarbon gases, heat, and
plasmas to provide hard protective layers on a substrate.
carbon dioxide. CO 2; a heavy colorless, odorless gas; a
source of defects when formed by decomposition of
carbonaceous impurities in bodies and coatings.
carbon dioxide bonding. A bonding process for foun-
dry sands and cores in which formed mixtures of a
refractory and sodium silicate are exposed to carbon
dioxide.
carbon fiber. Pyrolyzed organic fibers of originally 93-
95% carbon by elemental analysis, which produces
fibers that are 99+% carbon. Fiber differences arises
from heat treatment temperatures: carbon fiber is
polyacrylonitrile pyrolyzed to 1350°C whereas graphite
fiber is pyrolyzed to 2450°C.
carbon fiber paper. A paper produced by draining a
slurry of carbon fibers through a moving mesh. The
resulting web is pressed and heated to tissues and felts,
20 or 250 gm-2, suitable for composite formation.
carbon-film resistor. A resistor consisting of a film of
carbon deposited on a ceramic form.
carbon, granular activated. See granular activated
carbon.
carbon, graphitic. See graphitic carbon.
carbon, green. See green carbon.
carbonific. A chemical compound that on decomposi-
tion produces a carbon mass occupying a volume
greater than the original unpyrolyzed material.
carbonize. To convert to carbon by heating.
carbon, manufactured. See manufactured carbon.
CARBON NITRIDE
carbon nitride. CsN; a graphitic material made by react-
ing chlorine with pyridine at 700°C. It is thought that
pressure and temperature may transform it to ~-C3N4'
a potential superhard material.
carbon refractory. A refractory product composed sub-
stantially or entirely of carbon or graphite, or both; used
in crucibles, stopper nozzles in steel-making furnaces,
etc.
carbon, retort. See retort carbon.
Carborundum. A trade name for abrasives, refractories,
and similar products of silicon carbide, fused alumina,
and other materials; employed as abrasive grains and
powders for cutting, grinding, and polishing, grinding
wheels and stones, rubbing bricks, coated abrasives,
tiles, antislip tiles and treads, refractory grains, and as
a semiconductor.
Carborundum stone. A silicon carbide whetstone used
to remove pinpoints, and other imperfections from
ware.
carboxides. A category of composite cutting tools
formed from carbides dispersed in oxide matrices; see
black hot-pressed ceramic.
carboxymethylcellulose. CMC; employed as a binder,
thickener, and suspension agent in porcelain-enamel
and glaze slips.
carboy. A large, specially cushioned glass container of
lS.9- to 56.Sliter capacity for liquids, especially acids.
carburetor. A refractory-lined apparatus or chamber in
which oils are vaporized, cracked, and enriched in the
manufacture of carbureted water gas.
carburize. Synonym for carbonize.
carcinogen. An agent which can incite cancerous
growth.
carding. A process of untangling and straightening fibers
by passing them between closely spaced surfaces, mov-
ing at different speeds, one of which is covered in sharp
points.
car dryer. A dryer in or through which ware is trans-
ported on cars.
CARE. Acronym for ceramic application in reciprocat-
ing engines.
car, kiln. See kiln car.
Carman-Kozeny equation. An expression relating the
slip casting rate and permeability of the cast body:
LZ/t = kp, where L is the cast thickness, t is the cast time,
p is the permeability and k is a constant.
carnallite. A mineral of ideal composItIOn
KMgCI 3·6H zO; occurs as granular masses; sp. gr. 1.6;
hardness (Mohs) 2.5; bitter taste, soluble in water.
carnegieite. NaAlSi04; an artificial mineral similar to
feldspar; mp l526°C.
54
carnotite. Kz(UO Z)z(V04)z·nH20; a radioactive vana-
date mineral which is a source of uranium and vana-
dium.
carrageen. An Irish moss from which a syrup is made for
use as a siccative or suspension agent for glazes and
other slips.
carrier. (I) A substance to which a trace element has
been added and which will carry the trace element
through a desired chemical or physical process for a
particular purpose. (2) Electrons, holes, or ions capable
of mobility in a potential gradient.
carrier fluid. The fluid in which fluorescent and non-
fluorescent magnetic particles or other active materials
are suspended to facilitate their application for testing
purposes.
carrier gas. (I) An inert gas that is used to sweep gase-
ous products through an analysis system, but not in-
cluded in the analysis. (2) The gas which transmits
powder from one point to another, as from a spray gun.
(3) An inert gas transporting reactants in CVD proc-
esses.
carry-in. Manual loading of a lehr.
cartoon. A drawing or sketch used as a model for a
product.
car top. The refractory surface of a tunnel-kiln car.
cartouch. A carved or cast ornamental panel in the form
of a scroll.
cartridge. An electromechanical transducer, usually
containing a piezoelectric ceramic, in the head of a
gramophone.
cartridge heater. Electrical heater for injection molds
and injection nozzles.
car tunnel kiln. A long kiln, with the firing zone located
near the center, through which ware is transported by
means of kiln cars.
caryatid. A column in the form of a draped female figure.
cascade. (I) The downward flow of particles over one
another in a manner resembling a waterfall. (2) Slip cast
molds stacked above each other. (3) A consecutive
sequence of physical or chemical processes. (4) A set
of electrical components connected in series.
cascade pulverizer. An apparatus in which crushing and
grinding are accomplished by the tumbling action of
large lumps of a material on other particles of the same
material.
case. The outer layer of a substance which is substantially
harder than its core.
cased glass. (I) Glassware having a surface composition
different from the glass body. (2) Glass composed of
two or more layers of different colors.
 55
case hardening. A process of hardening a substance so
that the surface layer or "case" is made substantially
harder than the interior or "core."
casein. Precipitated milk protein used as a bonding agent
in sand molding.
casement wall. (I) The entire side wall of a furnace
between the flux block and the crown. excluding the
ends. (2) A refractory wall between pillars of a pot
furnace situated in front of or surrounding the front of
a pot.
case mold. A mold replica of an original model used to
make a working mold.
casserole. A lidded cooking dish of glass, pottery, etc.
cassiterite. Sn02; tin dioxide; sp. gr. 6.8-8.1; hardness
(Mohs) 6-7; a mineral associated with silica rich rocks
like pegmatite; yellow, black, or brown in color.
cassius purple. A precipitated pigment, obtained by
mixing the chlorides of gold and tin; used in glazes at
low and medium firing temperatures.
cast. (1) To form a liquid or plastic mass into a specific
shape by setting or by cooling in a mold. (2) An object
formed by casting.
castable. A combination of refractory grains and a suit-
able bonding agent, usually an acid phosphate, which,
after the addition of a proper liquid, is usually poured
or sprayed into place to form a refractory shape or
structure which becomes rigid by chemical action; used
in the construction and repair of furnaces, cupolas, and
similar applications.
castable refractory. A hydraulic-setting refractory suit-
able for casting into shapes and usually bonded with
aluminous cement or aluminum phosphates.
cast glass. Glass developed for use in large castings such
as telescopes, architectural features and art pieces.
casting. (1) A process of shaping glass by pouring the
molten material into or onto molds, tables, or rolls. (2)
The forming of ceramic ware by pouring a body slip into
a porous mold which absorbs sufficient water from the
slip to produce a semirigid article. (3) The process of
pouring a molten substance into a suitable mold and
allowing it to solidify. (4) An item produced by a
casting process.
casting, drain. See drain casting.
casting, fusion (electrocasting). See fusion casting.
casting, hollow. See drain casting.
casting, investment. See investment casting.
casting ladle. A refractory-lined steel ladle used to trans-
port molten steel from one location to another, and from
which molten steel is poured into molds.
casting plaster. A white gypsum product used in making
castings and carvings.
CATENARY ARCH
casting, pressure. See pressure casting.
casting, refractory. See refractory casting.
casting refractories. Refractories of special shapes in
which molten metals are cast.
casting shrinkage. Reduction of the volume of the cast
material from beginning to end of the solidification.
casting slip. A slurry of properly formulated ceramic
bodies which are shaped by pouring into appropriate
molds.
casting, slip. See slip casting.
casting, solid. See solid casting.
casting spot. A surface defect appearing as a discolored,
vitrified spot on the surface of cast pottery, the defect
frequently being formed when improperly defloccu-
lated clay makes contact with the mold.
casting strain. Strains which are developed in a cast
body during cooling.
casting stress. Stresses which develop in a casting as a
result of casting strain, that is, shrinkage.
casting, wet-ground hollow. See drain casting.
cast iron. Any iron-carbon alloy that contains more than
1.7% carbon, usually between 2.0 and 4.0%. Too brittle
to shape by processes other than melting and casting
into molds.
cast-iron enamel. A porcelain-enamel compounded
specifically for use on cast iron.
cast-iron enameling. See dry process enameling; wet-
process porcelain-enameling.
cast stone. A molded concrete building block shaped to
resemble natural stone.
catalysis. The change in the rate of a chemical reaction
brought about by the presence of a substance which
itself is unchanged at the completion of the reaction.
catalyst. A substance which, by its presence, will change
the rate of a chemical reaction but which itself will be
unchanged in composition or quantity after the reaction
is completed.
cataphoresis. The movement of suspended particles
through a fluid by an electromotive force.
catch basin. A reservoir in which water from a process
is drained to permit solids to settle for subsequent
recovery or disposal.
CATE. Acronym for ceramic applications in turbine en-
gines.
catenary. The difference in lengths of the filaments in a
given tow as a result of uneven tension.
catenary arch. A sprung-type arch in the form of an
inverted catenary, the curve formed by a chain sus-
CAT EYE
pended from two points of equal height, the resultant
arch exhibiting minimal stresses.
cat eye. An imperfection in glass consisting of an elon-
gated bubble containing a particle of foreign matter.
cathedral glass. An unpolished, translucent sheet glass,
usually formed by rolling, with one surface sometimes
textured.
cathode. (I) The negative terminal of an electrical sys-
tem. (2) The negative terminal of a diode biased in the
forward direction. (3) The primary source of electrons
in an electron tube. (4) The positively charged pole of
a storage battery or primary cell.
cathode arc. An arc occurring when the contact spacing
exceeds a certain critical value, depending on the con-
tact material and current. Material transfer is from cath-
ode to anode.
cathode drop, cathode fall. The potential difference
between the cathode and the electric discharge plasma.
cathode material transfer. The movement of contact
metal from the cathode by means of a cathode arc.
cation. A positi vel y charged atom; the ion in an electro-
lyte that migrates to the cathode.
cation adsorption. In clays, the adsorption of cations
either on basal surfaces where negative charges occur,
possibly as a result of isomorphous replacements within
the crystal, or adsorption on prism surfaces where un-
satisfied negative bonds may occur, or both; basal sur-
face adsorption predominates in three-layer clays, while
edge adsorption predominates in kaolin clays.
cation exchange. A surface property exhibited by colloi-
dal inorganic materials, such as clays, whereby surface
ions are replaced by other ions present in the surround-
ing medium.
cation exchange capacity. A measure of the ability of a
substance, such as clay, to adsorb or exchange cations,
usually expressed in terms of milliequivalents of cat-
ions per 100 grams of dry substance.
cationic. Having a positive charge which moves toward
a cathode in an electrolyzed solution.
cat scratch. A surface imperfection on glassware con-
sisting of marks resembling a scratch by the claws of a
cat.
cat's eye. A spherical glass bead approximately I cm
diameter set in a protective rubber coat and laid into
roads, which by a process of total internal reflection acts
as a road-marker at night.
Cauchy equation. See dispersion curve.
Cauchy light-dispersion formula. The index of refrac-
tion of a medium (n) as a function of wavelength (A.) is
expressed by the equation n =A + (BfA. 2) in which A and
B are constant.
56
cauliflower ware. Cream-colored ware molded to re-
semble the appearance and surface configuration of a
cauliflower.
caulking. A material used to make a seam or joint air-
tight, watertight, or steamtight by forcing a suitable
material or compound into the area.
caustic lime. Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)z; loses water
at 580°C; sp. gr. 2.34; used in mortars, plasters, and
cements where it is a vital component in the setting
process.
caustic potash. KOH; mp 360°C; sp. gr. 2.044.
caustic soda. NaOH; mp 318°C; sp. gr. 2.13.
cave. A pit under a glass furnace where the fire is located.
cavitation. (1) Pitting or erosion of concrete, as when
exposed to high-velocity turbulent flow of water. (2)
The collapse of ultrasonically induced bubbles on sur-
faces leading to locally very high pressures and tem-
peratures; See cavity.
cavity. Small bubble at the surface of a solid caused by
ultrasound in a liquid which grows and contracts.
Growth rate always exceeds contraction rate and so a
critical size is reached after which it implodes. Implo-
sion causes very high temperatures, up to 5500°C, with
cooling rates on the order of 109o C s-l This produces
physical effects on surfaces such as cleaniug and hard-
ening and is known as cavitation.
cavity block. A precast concrete block that contains cen-
tral cavities.
cavity oscillator. A type of radio-frequency generator
construction in which all elements including the valve
are densely packed inside a conducting surface in which
an oscillating magnetic field can be maintained; the
dimensions of the cavity determine the resonant fre-
quency of the oscillations and can be used to obtain
frequencies in excess of 300 MHz.
cavity wall. A wall constructed in two adjacent sections
with an air space between to provide thermal insulation.
cavo-relievo. A relief sculture in which the highest point
on the carving is below the original surface level of the
clay, ceramic, or stone.
CB. Abbreviation for conduction band.
c-BN. Abbreviation for the diamond-type cubic struc-
ture modification of boron nitride.
CIB ratio. The ratio of the weight of water absorbed by
a masonry unit during immersion in cold water to the
weight absorbed during immersion in boiling water; an
indication of the probable resistance of brick and simi-
1ar fireclay products to freezing and thawing.
C-C composite. A structure consisting of woven carbon
fiber preform infiltrated with graphitic carbon to pro-
duce a carbon fiber--<:arbon matrix composite. Retains
useful properties up to 2760°C.
 57
ccp. Abbreviation for cubic close-packed.
CCPA. Abbreviation for Cemented Carbide Producers
Association.
CCRP. Abbreviation for carbon cloth -reinforced plas-
tic.
cd. Abbreviation for candela.
CED. Abbreviation for cohesive energy density.
celadon, celadon glaze. A grayish-green, semi-opaque
glaze fired in a reducing atmosphere in which reduced
iron is the colorant.
celeste blue. (1) Any of a number of iron-blue pigments,
usually containing a considerable quantity of extender,
such as barytes. (2) A cobalt-blue pigment softened by
additions.
celestite. SrS04; decomposes at 1580°C; sp. gr. 3.95;
hardness (Mohs) 3-3.5; used to impart iridescence on
pottery glazes and glass, and as a fining agent in crystal
glass. Also known as celestine.
celite. (1) Diatomaceous earth and products of similar
composition composed essentially of (wt. %): silica
(92.7), alumina (3.8), ferric oxide (1.4), lime and mag-
nesia (1.0), and potash and soda (0.9%), and which is
used as an ingredient in cements and as an abrasive in
glass and metal polishing. (2) A solid-solution constitu-
ent in portland cement clinker composed of
Ca4Al2Fe20JO and ClIt;A14Fe2015. These phases help to
control development of Ca3AI206 which is a deleterious
component.
cell. (1) A hollow space enclosed in a hollow-clay build-
ing block or similar structure having a minimum dimen-
sion of not less than 1.25 cm and a cross-section area of
not less than 6.25 cm2. (2) A device for converting
chemical energy into electrical energy, usually consist-
ing of two electrodes and an electrolyte enclosed in a
container.
cell density. N; the number of cells per unit area in a
cellular ceramic catalyst support system; N = lIL 2,
where L is the cell repeat distance.
cell furnace. A glass-tank furnace in which the glass in
the melting and auxiliary zones is heated electrically.
cellular concrete. A concrete of reduced density and
increased insulating properties prepared by the addition
of substances which, by chemical reaction, cause the
concrete to foam, entrapping gases in the concrete mass.
cellular glass. A foamed glass block or sheet made from
a mixture of powdered glass and a gas-forming material
heated to the flow temperature of the glass. Also known
as foamed glass.
cellular membrane. A type of microstructure found in
glass-ceramics when the developing crystal phase is
slightly lower in Si0 2 than the bulk composition so that
an Si0 2 glassy film envelopes the impinging grains
during crystallization.
CEMENT GUN
cellulose gum. Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC);
a synthetic gum used in whiteware bodies and glazes as
a thickener and binder to improve the green strength.
cellulose nitrate. C6H70S(N0 2h; sometimes employed
as a binder in conductive and other coatings.
celsian. BaAI2Si 20 S or Ba(AI0.5Si0.502)4; mp 1780°C; a
barium feldspar sometimes used in refractories for elec-
tric furnaces and kilns.
Celsius. A temperature scale in which 0° is the freezing
point and 100° is the boiling point of water; a synonym
for the centigrade scale of temperature measurement.
CELSOR. A cordierite-type commercial square cell,
cellular catalyst support exhibiting linear elastic behav-
ior up to 1200°C; composition in wt. % is MgO (14),
Al 20 3 (35), Si0 2 (51); open porosity 35%; sp. gr. 1.68;
cell density 400.
cement. (1) A generic term for plastic materials having
adhesive and cohesive properties and which will harden
in place. (2) A powder produced from a calcined mix-
ture of clay and limestone which, when mixed with
water, forms a paste that hardens via water reactions
into a stone-like mass, and which is the bonding me-
dium in mortar and concrete.
cement aeration. The effect of atmosphere, particularly
moist air and carbon dioxide, on the storage charac-
teristics and subsequent setting properties of portland
cement.
cementation. The process by which individual particles
are bonded together by hardening of a binder phase.
cement, air-setting. See air-setting cement.
cement, alumina. See alumina cement.
cement brick. A molded brick of cement and sand
formed under pressure and steam cured at 93°C; used
as backing brick.
cemented carbide. A metal matrix-ceramic composite
of the carbides of the heavy metals, such as tantalum
and tungsten, bound together by a low-melting metal,
such as cobalt; used in abrasive products, machining
and cutting tools, drills, sandblast nozzles, wear-resis-
tant machine parts, tire studs, hard-facing welding rods,
etc., because of toughness, shock resistance, compres-
sive strength, and thermal conductivity.
cement factor. The cement content of concrete.
cement, fireclay. See fireclay cement.
cement, gaize. See gaize cement.
cement, grappier. See grappier cement.
cement, gravel. See gravel cement.
cement gun. (1) A mechanical device employed to place
mortar or cement in selected areas. (2) A machine
designed to mix, wet, and apply refractory mortars in
the walls of hot furnaces and kilns.
CEMENT, HIGH-ALUMINA
cement, high-alumina. See high-alumina cement.
cement, high-early-strength. See high-early-strength
concrete.
cement, high-temperature. See high-temperature ce-
ment.
cement, hydraulic. See hydraulic cement.
cement, insulating. See insulating cement.
cement, iron-ore. See iron-ore cement.
cementite. Fe3C; a hard, brittle iron carbide which will
scratch feldspar and glass, but not quartz; found in
certain steels, cast iron, and iron-carbon alloys. Forms
a microstructure with ferrite that is known as pearlite.
Has an orthorhombic structure and is widely non-
stoichiometric.
cementitious. Possessing cementing properties.
cementitious material. Any material to which a liquid
may be added to form a paste having adhesive and
cohesive properties and which subsequently will harden
into a solid mass.
cement, Keene's. See Keene's cement.
cement kiln. A rotary kiln in which limestone and clay
are calcined at l550°C to produce portland cement and
which is fired from the bottom, discharge, end.
cement-kiln head. The head of the burner and the dis-
charge end of a rotary cement kiln.
cement, Kiihl. See Kiihl cement.
cement, lap. See lap cement.
cement, lime-slag. See lime-slag cement.
cement, low-heat. See low-heat cement.
cement, magnesia. See magnesia cement.
cement, masonry. See masonry cement.
cement mill. A mill in which rock is pulverized to pow-
der form for use primarily in the production of cement.
cement mortar. A plastic mixture consisting of one part
of portland cement, four parts of sand, and a small
amount of lime, all blended in water.
cement, natural. See natural cement.
cement, neat. See neat cement.
cement notation. Oxides present in cement composi-
tions are given simple one-letter symbols, e.g., C =
CaO, A = A1 20 3, S = Si0 2, so that Ca2Si04 = C 2S.
cement paint. A mixture of portland cement, filler, ac-
celerator, water repellant, and water, employed as a
waterproof coating for concrete, brickwork, and other
masonry surfaces.
cement, parian. See parian cement.
58
cement paste. A plastic mixture of portland cement and
water.
cement, patching. See patching cement.
cement plaster. A gypsum plaster used in mortar for
plastering interior surfaces.
cement, polymeric. See polymeric cement.
cement, portland. See portland cement.
cement, portland blast-furnace slag. See portland
blast-furnace slag cement.
cement, portland-pozzolan. See portland-pozzolan ce-
ment.
cement, Potter's red. See Potter's red cement.
cement pump. A device designed to move plastic con-
crete from one location to another.
cement, reaction. See reaction cement.
cement, refractory. See refractory cement.
cement, refractory patching. See refractory patching
cement.
cement rock. An argillaceous limestone containing
lime, silica, alumina, and magnesia used in the manu-
facture of portland cement.
cement sand. A sand mixed with portland cement.
cement, silica. See silica cement.
cement silo. A large structure or silo in which dry, bulk,
powdered cement is stored for subsequent use.
cement, slag. See slag cement.
cement, slater's. See slater's cement.
cement, soil. See soil cement.
cement, Sorel. See Sorel cement.
cement, sulfoaluminate. See sulfoaluminate cement.
cement, tarras. See tarras cement.
cement, waterproof. See waterproof concrete.
cement, white. See white cement.
cem-fil. A glass fiber of high, 20 wt. %, Zr02 content
developed to withstand the alkaline environment of
hydrated ordinary portland cement in order to use it as
a fiber reinforcement for mortar and concrete.
CEMFIL. Acronym for a composite consisting of ordi-
nary portland cement and C-glass glass fibers.
center. To force a ball of clay into a centered position on
a potter's wheeL
center brick. A special, hollow, refractory shape with an
opening at the top and along the sides through which
 59
bottom-poured molten steel is directed from guide tubes
to ingot molds.
center-hole lapping. The cleaning and finishing of cen-
ter holes by lapping with abrasive grains.
centering. The operation on lens elements wherein the
element is optically lined up with the axis of rotation,
and the edges are ground concentric with the optical
axis.
centerless grinding. Grinding the inside or outside di-
ameter of a cylindrical piece which is supported on a
work blade instead of being held between centers and
which is rotated by a so-called regulating wheel.
center of pressure. The point on a plane surface, im-
mersed in a fluid, at which the resultant pressure on the
surface may be taken to act. If the surface is horizontal
the center of pressure coincides with the center of
gravity; otherwise it is below the center of gravity but
gets nearer to it as the liquid depth increases.
center-reinforced grinding wheel. A grinding wheel in
which steel rings have been incorporated near the center
to provide additional strength.
centers. Conical steel pins of a grinding machine on
which a work piece is centered and rotated during
grinding.
centigrade. A temperature scale in which 0° is the freez-
ing point and 100° is the boiling point of water; a
synonym for the Celsius scale of temperature measure-
ment.
centipoise. cP; 10-2 of a poise, the old cgs unit of viscos-
ity.
centistoke. 10-2 of a stoke which is the unit of kinematic
viscosity. It equals the viscosity in poise divided by the
density in grams per cm3 times 102 .
central-field approximation. In the central-field ap-
proximation, each electron in an atom moves under the
action of a spherically symmetric electric field caused
by the nucleus and all the other electrons. In this ap-
proximation, the quantum state of each electron is iden-
tified by the four quantum numbers n, t, m, and s.
central-mixed concrete. Concrete that is mixed in a sta-
tionary mixer in a central plant and then delivered in
agitators to the job site.
centrifugal casting. The process of casting bodies in
rapidly spinning molds as a means of producing bodies
and shapes of high density.
centrifugal pipe. Concrete pipe manufactured by spin-
ning the concrete mix in a horizontal form, forcing the
concrete to the interior rim of the form by centrifugal
force.
centrifuge. A mechanical device rotating at very high
speed employed to separate particles of varying densi-
ties.
CERAMIC COLOR GLAZE
Ceraborex. A composite of zirconium boride, ZrBz, in
an iron or steel matrix.
cera magnet. A ferrimagnet composed of BaFe12019'
ceramel. A term sometimes used to identify mixtures of
ceramics and metals.
ceramic. (1) Any of a class of inorganic, nonmetallic
products which are subjected to a temperature of 540°C
or above during manufacture or use, including metallic
oxides, borides, carbides, or nitrides, and mixtures or
compounds of such materials. (2) Pertaining to ceram-
ics. (3) Pertaining to the manufacture or use of ceramic
processes, articles, materials, technology, and science.
ceramic aggregate. Concrete containing porous clay or
lumps of ceramic materials.
ceramic amplifier. An amplifier using piezoelectric
semiconductors of ceramic compositions.
ceramic armor. An armor system designed to defeat
specific threats and which contains ceramic elements.
ceramic article. An article having a glazed or unglazed
body of crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or of
glass, which body is produced essentially from inor-
ganic, nonmetallic materials and either is formed from
a molten mass which solidifies on cooling, or is formed
and simultaneously or subsequently matured by the
action of heat.
ceramic bond. The mechanical and physical strength de-
veloped in a ceramic body by a heat treatment which
causes the adhesion of adjacent particles.
ceramic capacitor. A capacitor whose dielectric is a ce-
ramic material.
ceramic-carbon refractory. A manufactured refractory
composed of carbon, including graphite, and one or
more ceramic materials, such as fireclay and silicon
carbide.
ceramic cartridge. A piezoelectric ceramic used in mi-
crophones, record player cartridges, and similar ele-
ments.
ceramic coating. An inorganic, nonmetallic coating
bonded to a substrate by firing, e.g., a glaze.
ceramic coating on metal. An inorganic, protective
coating bonded to a metallic substrate and suitable for
use at or above a red heat.
ceramic colorant. An inorganic material employed to
impart color to a porcelain-enamel, glaze, glass, or
ceramic body.
ceramic color glaze. An opaque colored glass of satiny
or glossy finish obtained by spraying a clay body with
a compound or mixture of metallic oxides, chemicals,
and clays, which is fired at a sufficiently high tempera-
ture to form a fused coating inseparable from the body.
CERAMIC CORRIDOR
ceramic corridor. An area of New York State contain-
ing a high density of high-technology ceramic produc-
ers and research centers.
ceramic fiber. A filament formed from a ceramic mate-
rial for use in lightweight units for electrical, thermal,
and sound insulation, high-temperature filtration, rein-
forcement, and packing; high-strength and high-modu-
lus materials, e.g., SiC, A1 20 3 .
ceramic filter. (1) A fired ceramic of selected porosity
through which a fluid is passed to separate out matter
in suspension. (2) A ceramic or glass composition em-
ployed to suppress waves or oscillations of certain
frequencies.
ceramics, fine. See fine ceramics.
ceramic fuel elements. Uranium oxide, plutonium ox-
ide, actinide carbides and oxides, etc., employed to form
fuel rods for nuclear reactors.
ceramic, glass. See glass ceramic.
ceramic glaze. A ceramic coating, glossy or matte, ma-
tured to a glassy state on a formed ceramic article, or
the material or composition from which the coating is
made.
ceramic ink. An ink consisting of a ceramic pigment
suspended in a liquid medium, the pigment developing
its color on firing.
ceramic magnet. A permanent magnet made from
pressed and sintered magnetic ceramic powders, such
as barium ferrite, lead ferrite, strontium ferrite, magne-
sium ferrite, etc. See magnetic ceramics.
ceramic-metal coating. A mixture of one or more ce-
ramic materials in combination with a metallic phase
which may be appli~d to a metal or nonmetallic sub-
strate; the coating mayor may not require heat treatment
prior to service.
ceramic, metallized. See metallized ceramic.
ceramic-metal reaction welding. Thin foils of metal
are inserted between two ceramics, e.g. , MgO/PtlMgO
and the contact zone is heated to below the melting point
of the least refractory component while a small load
around 100 kN m-2 is applied. This action forms vac-
uum-tight joints.
ceramic microphone. A microphone in which a piezo-
electric cartridge is employed.
ceramic-mold casting. A precision casting process in
which carbon, low-alloy, and stainless steels are formed
in a ceramic mold and fired at a high temperature.
ceramic mosaic tile. An unglazed clay or porcelain tile
formed either by dust pressing or by plastic forming to
6.35-9.52 mm in thickness having a facial area of less
than 38.7 cm2; the tiles usually are mounted on paper
sheets approximately 61 x 30.5 cm to facilitate setting.
ceramic nuclear fuel. See ceramic fuel elements.
60
ceramic paste. A synonym for ceramic body.
ceramic pick-up. A record player pickup employing a
ceramic cartridge.
ceramic, polarized. See polarized ceramic.
ceramic process. The production of articles or coatings
from ceramic materials, the article or coating being
made permanent and suitable for its intended use by the
action of heat at temperatures sufficient to cause sinter-
ing, solid-state reactions, bonding, or by whole or par-
tial conversion to the glassy state.
ceramic-rod flame spraying. A process in which a ce-
ramic coating is applied to a surface by means of a
high-temperature gun which atomizes a ceramic rod,
delivering and bonding the ceramic to the substrate by
an air blast.
ceramics. A general term applied to the art or technique
of producing articles by a ceramic process, or to articles
so produced.
ceramics, oxide. See oxide ceramics.
ceramics, solution. See solution ceramics.
ceramic steel. Ceramic alloys containing metastable
tetragonal zirconia in which, when stress is applied via
crack tips, the t-Zr02 becomes monoclinic with a local-
ized volume increase to absorb energy at the crack front.
Since the tet ~ monoclinic Zr02 transformation is
martensitic there is an analogy with steels that contain
martensite.
ceramic tile. A ceramic surfacing unit, usually relatively
thin, composed of a clay body or a body composed of a
mixture of ceramic materials, and having a glazed or
unglazed face, which is fired at a temperature suffi-
ciently high to produce desired physical properties and
other characteristics; used principally for decorative
effects and sanitary purposes.
ceramic-to-metal seal. An airtight seal between a ce-
ramic composition and a metal such as that providing
lead-through contacts for electrical and electronic com-
ponents for use in high-temperature and nuclear envi-
ronments.
ceramic tools. Cutting tools made from sintered or hot-
pressed metal oxides, carbides, borides, nitrides, etc.,
often containing additives to promote sintering.
ceramic transducer. A transducer of ceramic composi-
tion which depends on the production of an elastic strain
in certain asymmetric crystals when an electric field is
applied, or which produces a voltage when the crystal
is deformed. See piezoelectricity.
ceramic tube. An electron tube having a ceramic enve-
lope capable of withstanding operating temperatures in
excess of 500°C.
ceramic veneer. Thin sections of ceramic on a surface
held in place by the adhesion of a mortar to the unit and
backing, or thick sections of ceramic held in place by
grout and wire anchors connected to the backing wall.
 61
ceramic whiteware. A fired ware consisting of a glazed
or unglazed body which is usually white and of fine
texture, such as china, porcelain, semi vitreous ware,
earthenware, spark plugs, sanitary ware, and the like.
ceramography. The application of optical and electron-
optical methods to produce micrographs of polished
ceramic surfaces and then the use of standard statistical
methods to interpret the structural features observed.
ceramoplastic. A ceramic insulating material made by
bonding synthetic mica and glass.
ceraplasts. Reinforced thermoplastics containing ce-
ramic or mineral particles dispersed in the liquid plastic
before cooling, each particle first being immersed in a
resin to assist bonding to the matrix plastic.
cerargyrite. An ore occurring in arid areas containing
silver chloride, AgCI; waxy masses of cubic crystals;
sp. gr. 5.55; hardness (Mohs) 2.5.
cereal binder, cereal flour. A finely milled flour used
as a binder for core mixtures in a casting process. See
corn polenta.
Cerenkov radiation. Light emitted when a charged par-
ticle travels through a transparent material at a velocity
greater than light in that medium.
ceria. Alternative name for cerium oxide.
eerie. Containing cerium in the tetravalent state.
cerium boride. (I) CeB 4; a network boride; sp. gr. 5.74.
(2) CeB 6; contains B6 octahedra; mp 2190°C; sp. gr.
4.82; hardness (Vickers) 30.82 GN m-2; low-work-
function material used as an electron source.
cerium carbide. (I) Ce2C3; sp. gr. 6.97. (2) CeC 2; m.
p.2538°C; sp. gr. 5.56. Both are ionic carbides with
some metallic bonding; react with water to give hydro-
carbons. Present in spent UC fuel elements.
cerium fluoride. CeF3; mp 1460°C; sp. gr. 6.16; used in
arc carbons to increase the brilliance.
cerium hydroxide. Ce(OH)4; used as an opacifier in
porcelain-enamels and glazes, and as a yellow colorant
in glass.
cerium nitrate. Ce(N03)3·6H20; loses 3H20 at 150°C;
decomposes at 200°C; used in gas mantles where it
becomes Ce02'
cerium nitride. CeN; sp. gr. 8.09. Mixed bonding, ionic,
covalent and metallic. The Ce is present in Ce III and
Ce IV oxidation states plus some N3- defects.
cerium oxide. (I) Ce02; mp 1950°C; sp. gr. 7.65; used
as an opacifier in porcelain-enamels, as a decolorizer
and brightener in glass, and as a polishing agent for
glass, marble, and optical surfaces; produces yellow
color in glass when used with titania. Also known as
ceria. (2) Ce203; mp 2040°C; blue with the bixbyite
structure.
CHAFFING FATIGUE
cerium sulfide. CeS, Ce2S3, and Ce3S4; mp 2450, 1890,
and 2050°C, respectively; used for metallurgical melt-
ing crucibles for their chemical and thermal resistance
properties.
cermet. A heterogeneous body composed of two or more
intimately mixed but separable phases, of which at least
one is ceramic and the other metallic, combining the
toughness of metal with the thermal resistance and
hardness of the ceramic; formed by mixing, pressing,
and sintering; used in rocket motors, gas turbines, tur-
bojet engines, nuclear reactors, brake linings, etc., and
other products requiring high oxidation resistance at
elevated temperatures.
cermet coating. A mixture of one or more ceramic ma-
terials with a metallic phase applied to a metallic or
nonmetallic (such as graphite) substrate, and which may
or may not require heat treatment prior to service.
cermet resistor. A resistor consisting of a metal and
insulating materials fired on a ceramic substrate.
cerous. Containing cerium in the trivalent state.
certificate oftest. A written, printed, or signed docu-
ment attesting to the validity of a performed test.
certification. A written statement of a materials compli-
ance with set criteria.
cerulean blue. A light blue pigment composed of cobalt
stannate, CoO·n(Sn02)'
ceruse. White lead.
cerussite. Orthorhombic PbC0 3; upper layers of a galena
deposit which have been oxidized to carbonate.
cesium carbonate. Cs 2C0 3; decomposes at 610°C; used
in speciality glasses.
cesium perchlorate. CsCI04; mp 250°C; sp. gr. 3.33;
used in optical and speciality glasses.
CF. (I) Abbreviation for continuous filament when de-
scribing ceramic fiber. Such fiber is made by pulling
coarse filaments, themselves formed by feeding mate-
rial into a heated zone at a slower rate than the fiber is
pulled away. (2) Abbreviation for carbon fiber.
CF glass. Continuous filament glass yarn used to make
glass fabric.
CFRP. Abbreviation for carbon fiber reinforced plastic.
C-glass. A glass composition chosen for fiber manufac-
ture where the fiber has to be chemically resistant: Si02
(64.6%), AI20 3 (4.1), CaO (13.4), MgO (3.3), Na20 +
K20 (9.6), B20 3 (4.7), and Baa (0.9).
chabazite. CaAI2Si40 12·6H 20; an aluminosilicate zeo-
lite commonly found in crevices in basaltic lavas as
drusy crystal aggregates; hexagonal crystal system;
pink, white or colorless.
chaffing fatigue. Surface fatigue initiated by rubbing
against another material.
CHAIN,AIR
chain, air. See air chain.
chain conveyor. A conveyor consisting of one or two
endless chains, equipped with appropriate hooks or
crossbars for the movement of materials from one loca-
tion to another.
chain grate. A mechanical furnace stoker in which the
grate, in the form of an endless chain, draws the solid
fuel into the furnace as it rotates.
chain marks. Marks made on the bottom of glass articles
as they ride through a lehr on a slightly overheated chain
belt.
chair. A team of glassblowers consisting of: gatherer,
servitor, footmaker, maker or gaffer, and boy.
chalbite. FeC0 3 ; sp. gr. 3.7-3.9; hardness (Mohs) 3.5-
4.5; used as a yellow to red colorant in ceramic bodies
and glazes. Also known as siderite.
chalcedony. Si02; sp. gr. 2.6-2.65; hardness (Mohs)
6.5-7.0; a cryptocrystalline form of silica, often gray in
color with crystals arranged in parallel fibers.
chalcocite. CU2S; copper sulfide, a major ore of copper
of orthorhombic crystal type below !05°C; hardness
(Mohs) 2.5-3; sp. gr. 5.77; a precursor of malachite and
azurite.
chalcogenide glass. A glass containing sulfur, selenium,
polonium, or tellurium, and which is used in glass
switches; usually very dark colored but transmits infra-
red radiation.
chalcopyrites. CuFeS2; a widely distributed yellow
mineral of tetragonal crystal structure. Also called cop-
per pyrites.
chalk. CaC03 ; decomposes at 825°C; sp. gr. 2.7-2.95;
employed as a source of lime or substitute for limestone
in ceramic bodies, glazes, porcelain-enamels, glass,
cements, and polishing powders, and as a medium- and
high-temperature flux.
chalkboard enamel. A porcelain-enamel having a
matte, slightly roughened surface on which writing with
chalk may be done; sometimes called blackboard
enamel.
chalked, chalky. A condition occurring on porcelain-
enameled surfaces and glazes wherein the coating has
lost its natural gloss and has become powdery; the
powder mayor may not be strongly adherent.
chalk pit. A quarry for chalk.
chalybeate. Containing or impregnated with iron ions.
chamber, combustion. See combustion chamber.
chamber, drawing. See drawing chamber.
chamber dryer. A dryer of one or more compartments
into which freshly formed ware is placed and dried
under reasonably controlled conditions of time, tem-
perature, humidity, and air flow.
62
chamber kiln. A kiln consisting of one or more compart-
ments into which ware is set on appropriate refractory
shapes and fired.
chamber oven. A refractory-lined structure in which gas
is produced primarily from coal.
chamfer. A narrow flat surface at the comer of a paver,
etc., especially one at an angle of 45°; a beveled surface
cut onto a sharp edge.
chamotte. A grog produced by firing refractory clay for
use as a nonplastic component in refractory composi-
tions.
champleve. A characteristic form of porcelain-enameled
ware in which a design is engraved or carved into the
surface of the base metal, frequently copper, gold, or
other soft metal; thin, raised divider strips are carved or
tacked in place to outline various features of the design;
porcelain-enamels of selected colors are placed in the
various outlined sections and fired to produce pleasing
artistic effects.
channel. The section of a forehearth which carries mol-
ten glass from the tank to the flow spout, and in which
adjustments in temperature are made. Also known as
feeder channel.
channel, feeder. See channel.
channeling. The greater flow of fluid through passages
of lower resistance as may occur in fixed beds or col-
umns of activated carbon or other granular materials
due to non-uniform packing, irregular sizes and shapes
of the particles, gas pockets, wall effects, or other
causes.
chaplet. The metal support holding a ceramic core in
place in a molding.
char. Carbonaceous material formed by incomplete
combustion.
charcoal. A porous solid produced by burning carbona-
ceous materials such as wood, peat, coal, and cellulosic
materials in an absence of air to produce a product
containing 85 to 90% of carbon.
charge. (1) The glass-forming mixture or batch ready for
injection into a smelter or glass-melting tank. (2) A load
of ware placed in a furnace or kiln to be fired. (3) A
property of some elementary particles that causes them
to exert forces on each other. The natural unit of nega-
tive charge is that possessed by the electron while the
proton has an equal amount of positive charge; unlike
charges attract each other. Symbol Q.
charge carrier. A mobile conduction electron or mobile
hole in a semiconductor.
charger, batch. See batch charger.
charging. (1) The process of placing ware in a furnace
or kiln. (2) The process of introducing a batch in a
smelter or glass-melting tank.
 63
Charlton photoceramic process. A photographic proc-
ess in which a photosensitive emulsion is applied to a
ceramic surface and exposed to a negative in such a
manner as to produce a positive image which sub-
sequently is fired on the item.
Charpy impact test. An impact test in which a freely
swinging pendulum is permitted to strike and break a
notched specimen laid loosely on a support; the position
of the pendulum before release is compared with the
position to which it swings after breaking the specimen.
chase. Part of the mold that contains the cavity.
chassis. In electronics it is the mounting for the circuit
components of an electrical or electronic device.
chatoyancy. A blue glow in reflected light caused by
compositional planes in plagioclase feldspars giving
interference bands. Labradorite is particularly prized
for its chatoyancy.
chatoyant. Twinkling, having changeable luster.
chatter. An undesirable repetitive pattern created on the
surface of a workpiece, usually at regularly spaced
intervals, due to an out-of-round or out-of-balance con-
dition in the abrasive machine.
chatter marks. Surface imperfections on work being
ground, usually caused by vibrations transferred from
the wheel-work interface during grinding.
check. An imperfection consisting of a fracture in the
surface of a glass article penetrating into the body;
normally more than 6 mm long.
checkerboard. An open brickwork in a checkerboard
regenerator allowing passage of hot spent gases. See
checkerboard regenerator.
checkerboard regenerator, checkerwork. An open
checkerboard arrangement of firebrick in a high-tem-
perature chamber that absorbs heat during a processing
cycle and releases it to preheat fresh combustion air
during the down cycle.
checker-brick, checkers. Refractory brick of special
design to permit the passage of hot gases through a
checkerboard regenerator.
checkers. (I) The firebrick, alternating with openings, in
the chambers of a regenerative furnace to permit the
flow of hot air to the combusion chamber. (2) Regen-
erators constructed in such a fashion. (3) The refractory
pieces used in such a manner. Sometimes spelled chequ-
ers.
checkerwork, basket-weave. See basket-weave check-
erwork.
checking. (1) Cracking or crazing of ceramic bodies or
glazes. (2) Crazing or cracking of cast-iron porcelain-
enamels resulting from cracks in the ground coat. (3)
Tearing the surface of an extruded shape.
check, pressure. See pressure check.
CHEMICALLY COMBINED WATER
cheeks. The refractory side walls of the ports of a fuel-
fired furnace.
cheese. A cylindrical block of ceramic fiber, particularly
glass fiber, ready for use with a rove depositor or for
delivering strand for chopping.
cheese hard. The degree of hardness of a freshly formed
ceramic body at which the plastic shape may be handled
without deformation.
chemical adsorption. The process by which an adsor-
bate is bound to the surface of a solid by forces approxi-
mating those of a chemical bond. Also called
chemisorption.
chemical assay. A chemical measurement of the quan-
tity of one or more components in a material.
chemical bond. A model describing the interaction of
electron waves (orbitals), centered on individual atoms,
which result in a mutual decrease in energy and so
maintain atoms in groups as molecules and solids. Four
extremes of the model are described: covalent, ionic,
metallic, and van der Waals.
chemical brick. See chemical stoneware.
chemical calibration. The use of a standard chemical
analysis, such as gravimetric or titrimetric analysis, to
check and calibrate an instumental method of analysis.
chemical durability. The physical and chemical lasting
quality of a product in terms of chemical and physical
changes in the product surface or changes in the com-
position of the volume.
chemical etching. (1) The formation of a characteristic
surface texture when a polished glass surface is im-
mersed in corrosive reagents. (2) Use of reactive solu-
tions to reveal grain boundaries and other
microstructural features.
chemical glass. A chemically durable glass suitable for
use in laboratory and production equipment subjected
to hostile materials or environments. Usually contains
a high boric oxide, B20 3, content.
chemical jet stabilization. A technique to enable very
low viscosity molten jets to become stable fibers by
extruding them into atmospheres containing hydrocar-
bon gases that decompose on the fiber surface to give
layers of carbon which encapsulate the fiber.
chemically bonded brick. Brick manufactured by proc-
esses in which mechanical strength is developed by
chemical bonding agents instead of by firing.
chemically bound mat. Chopped strand fibers covered
with powdered resin and heated to consolidate the
shape. Such mats are used in hand lay-up composite
manufacture.
chemically combined water. Water which is chemi-
cally a part of a clay mineral as hydroxyl ions and can
be released only upon dissociation of the clay at or about
red heat.
CHEMICALLY STRENGTHENED GLASS
chemically strengthened glass. Glass treated by an ion-
exchange process to produce a surface layer of high
compressive stress.
chemical polishing. Cleaning a surface to a luster by
means of a chemical treatment.
chemical porcelain. Vitreous ceramic whiteware con-
tainers of high chemical and physical durability in
which chemicals are contained, reacted, or transported.
chemical potential. A thermodynamic variable measur-
ing the change in the Gibbs free energy for a system
where the chemical composition or amount of material
in the system changes.
chemical reprocessing. (I) The separation and recovery
of unused source and newly formed nuclear material
contained in irradiated reactor fuel elements. (2) The
recovery of valuable components from used materials,
wastes, and materials of low concentration by chemical
processing.
chemical resistance. The ability of a product to resist
chemical attack, decomposition, solution, or other
chemical changes when in contact with gaseous, liquid,
or solid substances encountered in service environ-
ments.
chemical-resistant concrete. A type of portland cement
of high tetracalcium aluminoferrite and low tricalcium
aluminate content plus additions such as calcium soaps,
water glass, and other materials which render the prod-
uct resistant to chemicals.
chemical separation. The removal, isolation, or separa-
tion of a desired substance from the remainder of a
sample by chemical techniques as opposed to physical
or mechanical separations.
chemical stoneware. A ceramic product highly resistant
to acids, alkalies, and other chemicals made essentially
from lime- and iron-free clays, and of relatively low
sand content; such bodies exhibit low firing shrinkage,
low water absorption (0.4%); sp. gr. 2.2; ultimate ten-
sile strength of 13.8 MN m-2, ultimate compressive
strength of 552 MN m-2, and a modulus of rupture of
34.5 MN m-2, the values being approximate.
chemical toughening. A method of making toughened
glass by immersing it in a molten salt at a temperature
below the transformation range so that ion exchange
between glass and melt produces compressive surface
stresses.
chemical vapor deposition. A manufacturing technique
much used in the electroceramic, semiconductor and
superconductor industries in which reactive gases are
caused to react at low pressure on a heated substrate
surface. An alternative is to condense the reaction prod-
ucts from the dilute reactive gases onto the substrate.
Fabrication speed is in the range lO-s_IO-5 m per min-
ute of product thickness. Only thin films can realisti-
cally be formed, from 10-6 to 1O-3m thick.
chemical vapor infiltration. Used to prepare ceramic
matrix composites when a chemical vapor process is
64
used to deposit a matrix ceramic onto and into ceramic
fiber preforms.
chemisorption. The binding of an adsorbate to the sur-
face of a solid by forces exhibiting energy levels ap-
proximating those of a chemical bond.
chequer. An alternative spelling of checker.
chert. A broad group of rocks containing a fine-grained
variety of silica or quartz.
chessylite. See azurite.
chest knife. A tool for removing the moil from hand-
blown glassware.
Cheverel phases. Ternary molybdenum sulfide and se-
lenide compounds containing metal clusters of Mo-Mo
bonded groups: MxMoSs, MxM06Ses, M09Sel1'
MMoS 3 are some examples.
Chevron notch test. Used to measure the fracture
toughness of fibers.
chiastolite. A type of inclusion found in some minerals
where the included phase is non-crystalline but is ori-
ented along certain directions, such as carbon along
< 110> in andalusite.
chilling. The rapid removal of heat from a body or prod-
uct after firing by means of a cold-air blast, water spray,
immersion in water or other liquid, etc. See quenching.
chill mark. A wrinkled surface on glassware as a result
of uneven cooling during the forming operation.
chimney arch. An arch in the base of a chimney used to
admit a flue.
china. A vitreous ceramic whiteware, glazed or un-
glazed, such as dinnerware, sanitary ware, artware, and
other products of nontechnical use.
china, Belleek. See Belleek china.
china, bone. See bone china.
china clay. A refractory clay consisting of minerals of
the kaolin family which fires to a white or nearly white
color.
china, frit. See frit china.
china, ironstone. See ironstone china.
china process. A process of manufacturing glazed din-
nerware, sanitary ware, artware, and the like by which
a ceramic body is fired to maturity. following which a
glaze is usually applied and fired at a lower temperature.
china sanitary ware. Glazed, vitrified whiteware de-
signed for sanitary functions.
china, semi vitreous. See semivitreous china.
china stone. A weathered granitic-type stone sometimes
used as a flux in pottery and earthenware bodies.
china, vitreous. See vitreous china.
 65
Chinese blue, Chinese cobalt. A black mineral aggre-
gate containing hydrated oxides of manganese and co-
balt used for underglaze porcelain blue colors.
Chinese red. Various red and orange colors produced by
mixtures of lead chromate, PbCr04' and lead oxide,
PbO, in different proportions. Also known as chrome
red.
chip. (I) Breaking of a fragment from an otherwise regu-
lar surface, particularly along an edge or corner. (2) A
tiny semiconductor mounted on an appropriate sub-
strate to form a diode, transistor, or similar device.
chipped glass. An intentionally chipped surface on a
glass article.
chipping. (I) The process of removing thin sections or
fins of extra glass from glass articles prior to grinding.
(2) A defect in porcelain-enameled ware in which frag-
ments of the fired coating are broken away from the
surface. (3) Fragments unintentionally broken from a
body, glaze, or glass.
chipping, spontaneous. See spontaneous spalling.
chi square test. A statistical test used to compare the
goodness of fit of theoretical and observed frequency
distributions and to test hypotheses.
chittering. Small ruptures occurring along the edges or
rims of ceramic ware as a result of improper fettling.
chlorapatite. Mineral apapatite in which CI- predomi-
nates as the balancing anion.
chloride of lime. See bleaching powder.
chlorite. (Mg,Fe,AI)6(Si,AI)401Q(OH)s; a three-sheet
non-expandable clay mineral produced by weathering
of pyroxenes and amphiboles. The extra brucite,
Mg(OH)2' layer in the structure attracts water to ensure
plasticity.
chloroplatinic acid. H2PtCI 6·6H 20; employed to pro-
duce pleasing gray color effects in the decoration of
high-quality porcelains.
choke. (I) An imperfection consisting of an insufficient
opening in the neck of a glass container. (2) A device
designed to prevent the passage of high-frequency cur-
rent.
choke crushing. The grinding of materials in a roll
crusher with the space between the rolls being com-
pletely filled with the material to gain the added effect
of the particles acting on each other.
chondrodite. Mgs(Si04)2F2; the first crystalline phase
occurring in Macor, a machinable glass-ceramic. It
subsequently transforms to norbergite which reacts
with residual glass to produce fluorphlogopite mica.
chopped roving. Strands of glass filaments cut to de-
sired length.
chopped strand fiber. Ceramic fiber used to form com-
posites usually> 0.5 mm in length.
CHROME REFRACTORY
chroma. The purity of color determined by its degree of
freedom from white or gray; color intensity.
chromate red. See chrome red.
chromatic. Of or relating to color.
chromatic value system, Adams. See Adams chro-
matic value system.
chromatography. The separation of complex solutions
into chemically distinct layers by seepage or by perco-
lating through a selectively adsorbing medium.
chrome. A general term for chrome-bearing pigments.
chrome alum. See chromium potassium sulfate.
chrome-alumina pink. A family of pink ceramic colors
consisting of combinations of Cr203' A1 20 3, and ZnO.
chrome brick. A refractory brick produced substantially
or entirely of chrome ore; frequently used as a substitute
or replacement for magnesia brick in furnaces and kilns
because of lower cost, and also, because of their high
resistance to chemical reaction with both basic and
acidic oxides at elevated temperatures; also used as a
spacer between the silica-brick roofs and magnesia-
brick walls of open-hearth and similar furnaces.
chrome cake. A green form of salt cake, Na2S04' con-
taining small amounts of chromium.
chrome glue. A glass cement or a waterproofing agent
made by mixing glue with ammonium or potassium
dichromate or with chrome alum.
chrome green. Any of various brilliant green ceramic
colorants containing or consisting of chromium com-
pounds.
Chrome\. Trade name for a series of nickel-chromium
alloys, sometimes with additions of iron, used as ther-
mocouples and load-bearing accessories in kilns and
furnaces.
chrome-magnesite brick. A burned or unburned refrac-
tory brick consisting substantially of refractory chrome
ore and dead-burned magnesite in which the chrome
ore, by weight, is the predominant ingredient.
chrome orange. See chrome red.
chrome ore, refractory chrome ore. A refractory ore
consisting essentially of chrome-bearing spinels with
only minor amounts of accessory minerals, and with
properties suitable for making refractory products.
chrome oxide green. A pigment consisting essentially
of chromic oxide; made by burning sodium dichromate
with a reducing agent; used in finishes for concrete
surfaces; not to be confused with chrome green.
chrome red. Pigments containing varying proportions of
PbCr04 and PbO to produce colors ranging from light
orange to red.
chrome refractory. A refractory product made entirely
of chrome ore.
CHROME SPINEL
chrome spinel. MgCr204; a natural or synthetic oxide of
magnesium, aluminum, and chromium used as a refrac-
tory.
chrome-tin pink. A glaze colorant consisting of chro-
mic oxide and tin oxide in the presence of lime.
chrome yellow. A series of yellow pigments composed
essentially of lead chromate or other lead compounds.
chrome-zircon pink. A glaze colorant similar to
chrome-tin pink but with a substantial portion of the tin
oxide replaced by zircon.
chromic oxide. Cr203; chromium sesquioxide; a green
colored oxide used as a stable pigment in and on ceram-
ics; a basic oxide obtained by heating chromic hydrox-
ide which is itself obtained by the action of alkakis on
chromic salts, such as CrC1 3. Also known as chrome
oxide green.
chromite. (1) A mineral composed of the oxides of chro-
mium, iron, aluminum, and magnesium; used in refrac-
tories and pigments. (2) FeCr204; the only ore of
chromium; a spinel phase, and the only one used essen-
tially as a refractory; weakly magnetic; sp. gr. 5.09;
black metallic luster; hardness (Mohs) 5.5.
chromium boride. (1) CrB 2; mp 2760°C; sp. gr. 5.6;
tensile strength 731 MN m-2; thermal expansion 4.6 x
10-6 ; poor resistance to oxidation and thermal shock at
high temperatures. (2) Cr4B; mp 1649°C; sp. gr. 6.24.
(3) Cr2B; mp 1832°C; sp. gr. 6.53. (4) Cr5B3; mp
1899°C; sp. gr. 6.12. (5) CrB; mp 1999°C; sp. gr. 6.11.
(6) Cr3B4; mp 1927°C; sp. gr. 5.76. (7) Cr2B5; mp
1999°C.
chromium carbide. (I) Cr3C2; mp 1890°C; sp. gr. 6.88;
employed in bearings, seals, valve seats,jet nozzles, and
chemical equipment. (2) Cr4C; mp 1521 °C; sp. gr. 6.99.
(3) Cr7C3; mp 1779°C; an important component in
stainless steels.
chromium dioxide. cr0 2; a black oxide with the rutile
structure and hard-magnetic properties; used as the
basis of magnetic tapes.
chromium nitride. CrN; decomposes at 1500°C; sp. gr.
6.1; Vickers hardness approx. 10.8 ON m-2. Important
in some steels.
chromium oxide. Cr203; mp 1990°C; sp. gr. 5.04; hard-
ness (Mohs) 9.0; used primarily as a green, pink, and
red colorant in glass, glazes, and porcelain-enamels,
and as an ingredient in some refractory bricks.
chromium phosphide. (1) CrP2; sp. gr. 4.5. (2) CrP; mp
1359°C; sp. gr. 5.49; hardness (Vickers) 6.2 ON m-2. (3)
Cr2P. (4) Cr3P; sp. gr. 6.51.
chromium potassium sulfate. CrK(S04}z·12H20; em-
ployed as a red or green ceramic colorant.
chromium sesquioxide. See chromium oxide.
chromium silicide. (1) Cr3Si; mp 171O°C; sp. gr. 6.45;
hardness (Vickers) 9.8 ON m-2. (2) Cr3Si2; mp 1560°C;
sp. gr. 5.60; hardness (Vickers) 12.6 ON m-2. (3) CrSi;
66
mp 1543°C; sp. gr. 5.43; hardness (Vickers) 9.8
ON m-2. (4) Cr2Si3. (5) CrSi 2; mp l538°C; sp. gr. 5.00;
hardness (Vickers) 9.8-15.7 ON m-2. (6) Cr2Si7. Arti-
facts made from these special ceramics exhibit moder-
ate strength, excellent oxidation resistance, good
resistance to thermal shock, poor resistance to impact
loading; used in wear-resistant components for high-
temperature applications and furnace heating elements.
chromium sulfate. Cr2(S04h; sp. gr. 3.01; used in ce-
ramic glazes as a green colorant.
chrysoberyl. BeAI20 4; sp. gr. 3.5-3.8; hardness (Mohs)
8.5; non-gem quality material used as source of BeO
and Al 20 3 in bodies.
chrysolite. Mg3(Si20 5)(OH)4; white asbestos; the prin-
cipal mineral in asbestos. A silicate in which the sheets
have rolled to form tubes.
chuck. A device for holding grinding wheels or special
shapes, or the work being ground or shaped.
chuff brick. A relatively soft, underfired brick of salmon
color.
chiln glaze. A thick, high-temperature opalescent glaze
often decorated with a splash of red or purple.
chunk glass. Optical glass obtained by breaking open the
pot in which it has been melted and cooled.
chunks. Random sizes of glass sheets which are smaller
than standard sizes of work sheets.
chute. A passage or conduit, often inclined, through
which objects and free-flowing substances may be con-
veyed at high velocity.
chute conveyor. A channel or series of channels through
which the movement of materials is expedited by vig-
orous vibration.
chute, grizzly. See grizzly chute.
CIGS Acronym for CuIIlo.750ao.25Sez; a semiconducting
thin film material used in solar cell applications.
CIM. Abbreviation for computer-integrated manufac-
ture.
ciment fondu. A slow-setting, rapid-hardening alumi-
nous cement composed of 40% of lime, 40% alumina,
10% silica, and 10% impurities.
cinder. See slag.
cinder block. A hollow concrete block made of a mix-
ture of cement and cinders.
cinder concrete. A concrete in which cinders are em-
ployed as the aggregate.
cinder notch. An opening in the bottom of the wall of a
blast furnace to permit the flow of slag from the furnace.
cinnabar. HgS; mercuric sulfide; sp. gr. 8.05; hardness
(Mohs) 2-2.5; red in color; the principal ore of mercury;
when heated decomposes to give mercury metal.
 67
cinnamon stone. See hessonite.
CIP. Abbreviation for cold isostatic pressing.
circle brick. A brick formed as a segment of a circle
used in the construction of cylindrical structures.
circuit breaker. Device for interrupting a circuit be-
tween separable contacts under normal or abnormal
conditions; they are ordinarily required to operate only
infrequently, although some classes of breakers are
suitable for frequent operation.
circuitry. (1) The design of an electric circuit. (2) The
system of circuits used in an electronic device.
circular braiding machine. The most commonly used
braiding machine for composite forming ranging in size
from 16 to 144 carriers to produce fabrics from I cm to
1 m in diameter.
circular kiln. A tunnel kiln constructed in the form of a
circle with loading and unloading stations side by side;
that is, the entrance and exit of the kiln are in the same
location.
circular magnetic field. A magnetic field surrounding
any electrical conductor or part as a current passes
through the conductor, or part, from one end to the
other.
circular measure. The measurement of an angle in radi-
ans.
circularmil. A unit of area of cross section of a fiber,
equal to the area of a circle whose diameter is one
thousandth of an inch; I circularmil = 0.2 x 10-9 m2.
circular polarization. A transformation of electromag-
netic radiation to a form in which the vector repre-
senting the instantaneous intensity of the electric field
describes a circle about the direction of propagation at
any point in the path of the radiation.
circular reinforcement. A circular-shaped line of rein-
forcement for concrete pipe.
circulating pump. A pump employed to move slurries
and liquids, which have been processed, back into the
process system.
circulator. A three part ferrite device allowing transmis-
sion of energy in only one direction.
circumferential coil. An encircling coil used in electro-
magnetic testing.
circumferential reinforcement. Reinforcement that is
approximately perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
a concrete pipe.
circumfuse. (1) To pour or spread a powder or liquid
around. (2) To surround with another substance.
circumvolution. The act of turning, winding, or folding
about a central axis.
circ winding. In filament wound-reinforced composites,
a winding with filaments perpendicular to the axis.
CLASSIFICATION
cire. A description of a fiber or fabric that has been
heat-treated or wax-treated to make it smooth.
cireperdue. An expression for the lost wax process.
CIS. Acronym for CuInSe2' copper indium selenide; a
material with high absorbance of solar radiation.
citrate gel method. A method used to make sub-micron-
sized, atomically mixed powders of ceramic oxides for
processing. The desired nitrates are dissolved in water
and the solutions mixed to obtain the desired
stoichiometries after which citric acid is added. Con-
centration of the solution turns it to a gel that is dried
under vacuum before heating to the range 300-700°C
to get the oxides.
citrine. Another name for topaz, the yellow form of
quartz.
CLA. Abbreviation for center line average which is an
indication of surface roughness.
clad. (1) To coat, encapSUlate, or contain nuclear fuel
elements. (2) To enclose or encapsulate a substance or
item as a protection against a hostile condition or envi-
ronment.
cladding glass. Special glasses used for curtain walls,
either colored or with a colored coating fused on the
surface during manufacture.
clam, clamming. A mixture of clay, sand, and water, or
similar composition used to seal the door of a kiln to
prevent heat loss during firing.
clamped relative permittivity. E33/Eo; the impedance
transverse to the field direction at frequencies away
from the electromechanical resonance in a piezoelectric
ceramic.
clamping efficiency. See clamping voltage.
clamping voltage. A measure of the protective charac-
teristics of a varistor defined as the voltage, V2 , at a
given discharge current, ld; the protective level, P L , is
defined as V2/VI , where VI is the steady operating
voltage, and is known as the clamping efficiency.
clamp kiln. A periodic, updraft, open-top kiln of semi-
permanent construction; similar to a scove kiln except
that it has walls containing fire arches which are laid up
with scove brick.
class C fly ash. Produced in lignite-burning power
plants; high lime content ~ 10%; has pozzolanic prop-
erties and is also cementitious.
class F fly ash. Produced in power stations burning an-
thracite or bituminous coal; low lime content:!> 10%;
high Si0 2 + AI 20 3 + Fe203 content; it has pozzolanic
properties only.
classification. The process of improving or changing the
gradation of aggregate or other substance by screening
or other sorting equipment.
CLASSIFIER 68

classifier. A device for separating mixtures into the con- clay, long. See long clay.
stituents according to particle size, density, or other
property. clay, marl. See marl clay.

Clausius-Mosotti law. The relationship between di- clay mineral. Any of a large group of minerals contain-
electric constant k, polarization P, molecular weight M, ing hydrated aluminum silicates.
and density d: P =(k - l)1(k + 2)[MldJ.
clay, mortar-mix. See mortar-mix clay.
clay. Any of a group of natural mineral aggregates con-
sisting essentially of hydrous aluminum silicates with clay, open. See open clay.
layered structures which become plastic when suffi-
clay, paving brick. See paving-brick clay.
ciently wetted, rigid when dried en masse, and vitrified
when heated to a sufficiently high temperature; used in clay, pipe. See pipe clay.
many ceramics, including whiteware, pottery, brick,
tile, stoneware, drain tile, mortars, molds, firebrick, clay, plastic. See plastic clay.
cement, etc.
clay, plug. See plug clay.
clay adsorption, anion. See anion adsorption.
clay, pneumatic. See pneumatic clay.
clay adsorption, cation. See cation adsorption.
clay, pot. See pot clay.
clay, alluvial. See alluvial clay.
clay, potter's. See potter's clay.
clay, arenaceous. See arenaceous clay.
clay press. A device which removes water from clay-
clay, ball. See ball clay. water slurries by filtering under pressure.

claybank. A dull brownish-orange color. clay, primary. See primary clay.

clay, bottling. See bottling clay. clay, pure. See pure clay.

clay, brick. See brick clays. clay, red. See red clay.

clay, burley or burley flint. See burley clay. clay, refractory. See refractory clay.

clay, calcareous. See calcareous clay. clay, residual. See residual clay.

clay, china. See china clay. clay, rich. See rich clay.

clay, clear. See clear clay. clay, saddle. See saddle clay.

clay, crank. See crank clay. clay, sagger. See sagger clay.

clay, diaspore. See diaspore clay. clay, secondary. See secondary clay.

clay, enamel. See enamel clay. clay, sedimentary. See sedimentary clay.

clay, expanded. See expanded clay. clay, short. See short clay.

clay, fat. See fat clay. clay shredder. An apparatus designed to chop and frag-
ment plastic clays preparatory to further processing.
clay, fire. See fireclay.
clay, slip. See slip clay.
clay, flint. See flint clay.
claystone. A very fine-grained rock consisting of com-
clay, foamed. See foamed clay. pacted clay particles.
clay, fusible. See fusible clay. clay, stove. See fireclay.
clay, glaze. See glaze clay. clay substance. In foundry sand mixtures it is the part
which fails to settle in a water suspension at a rate of
clay inclusions. (I) Unreacted clay or other solid mate- 2.5 cm min-I. It includes silt and clay minerals.
rial remaining in a porcelain-enamel or glaze after
firing; a defect. (2) Earthy inclusions in mica which clay, surface. See surface clay.
appear in various colors when observed in any type of
light. clay, swelling. See swelling clay.

clay, lamellar. See lamellar clay. clay, tap-hole. See tap-hole clay.

clay, lean. See lean clay. clay tile, natural. See natural clay tile.
 69
clay tile, structural. See structural clay tile.
clay, treading. See treading clay.
clay, vacuumed. See vacuumed clay.
clay, varved. See varved clay.
clay, vitrification. See vitrification clay.
clay, ware. See ball clay.
clay wash. A slurry containing bentonite or fireclay.
clay, washed. See washed clay.
clay-water pastes, yield point. See yield point.
clay, white. See white clay.
clay winning. The mining and processing of clay raw
materials to make them suitable for subsequent use.
clean. Free of interfering contamination.
cleanability. The relative ease that soils can be removed
from a material, particularly from the surface of the
material.
cleaner. A solution, usually alkaline, but sometimes an
organic solvent, used to remove oil, grease, drawing
compounds, dirt, etc., from a metal surface being pre-
pared for porcelain-enameling.
cleaning, immersion. See immersion cleaning.
clean room processing. Using ultraclean conditions to
make and process ceramics in order to achieve trace
levels only of impurities; involves air filtering, double
skinned room design, and personnel wearing special
clothing and gloves.
cleaning, post. See postcleaning.
clean-up. The act of preparing a construction joint or
rock foundation to receive concrete in which the surface
is scrubbed or sandblasted to remove dirt, laitance oil,
and other foreign matter.
clear. Free of visible defects.
clearance. The gap between two flush surfaces.
clear ceramic glaze. An inseparable, fire-bonded, trans-
lucent or tinted glaze having a lustrous finish.
clear ceramic glazed tile. Facing tile having facing sur-
faces covered by a tinted or translucent glaze with a
glossy finish.
clear clay. A kaolin clay free of organic and other dele-
terious impurities.
clear fdt. A frit that remains essentially transparent
when processed into a porcelain-enamel.
clear glaze. A colorless or tinted transparent ceramic
glaze.
CLOBBERING
cleavage. (I) The tendency of some crystals to break
along definite planes when sharply hit. It is described
as perfect, good, fair, or poor depending on the regular-
ity of the break. (2) Failure of a composite laminate
along a line or plane between layers.
cleavage fracture. A fracture in a pol ycrystalline mate-
rial involving transgrain failure by cleavage and not just
crack propagation along grain boundaries.
cleavage plane. The surface revealed in a crystal exhib-
iting cleavage; it is usually a close-packed plane of
strongly bonded atoms. These planes usually parallel
possible crystal faces.
cleveite. A crystalline variety of uraninite.
climb. A process whereby edge dislocations move verti-
cally from their slip planes by interaction with lattice
vacancies.
clinker. A fused or partly fused by-product of the com-
bustion of coal, but including lava and portland cement
clinker and partially vitrified slag and brick.
clinker brick. A very hard-fired brick whose shape is
distorted or bloated due to overfiring; that is, to nearly
complete vitrification.
clinkering zone. The high-temperature section of a ce-
ment kiln where the clinker is formed.
clinkstone. A type of phonolite that makes a metallic
sound when struck.
clinoclore. A mixed class of layer silicates derived from
the talc, pyrophyllite and brittle mica group of layer
silicates, hence the prefix clina meaning combining
form. The basic structure is the three-layer talc unit but
instead of K+ ions binding the units there is an interme-
diate Mg(OH}z layer. Large compositional variation as
A1 3+ and C~+ replace Mg2+ in the brucite layer; for-
mula: (Mg,Cr,AI)6(Si,AI)401O(OH)s. Excess H 20 asso-
ciated with the brucite layer means that clinoclore is soft
and plastic; hardness (Mohs) 2.0-2.5, sp. gr. 2.6-3.1;
has some use in enameling frit and welding-rod coating.
clinoptilolite. (Na,KMSi,AI)360n20H20; a natural
zeolite silicate mineral which selectively binds Cs+ and
so is used in effluent treatment from nuclear fuel proc-
essing plants.
clinozoisite. Ca2AI(AlO)OH(Si207)(Si04); an epidote
silicate with no iron, or onl y a limited amount, up to an
AllFe ratio of 9/1.
clinquant. Imitation gold leaf used in some on-glaze
decoration.
clip. The portion of a brick cut to a desired or specified
length.
clip tile. Tile designed as a base fitting around the flanges
of an I-beam.
clobbering. The process of decorating ware of another
artist or producer without permission.
CLOISONNE
cloisonne. An art form of porcelain-enamel, pottery, and
tile in which differently colored enamels or glazes are
separated by fillets applied along the outlines of a
design; for porcelain-enamel, the fillets are wire or thin
strips of metal secured to the base metal, while for
pottery and tile the fillets consist of a ceramic paste
squeezed on the base-body surface through a small-di-
ameter orifice.
closed chip. A fractured area on the surface, edge, or
comer of a piece where the material or coating has not
actually broken away from the item.
closed-circuit grinding. A continuous grinding or mill-
ing process in which particles of acceptable fineness are
removed from the grinding system by a screen or cy-
clone classifier, while oversized particles are returned
to the pulverizer for further processing.
closed cycle. A thermodynamic cycle in which the ther-
modynamic fluid does not enter or leave the system, but
is used over and over again.
closed mold process. Composite fabrication involving a
two-piece mold.
closed pore volume. See sealed pores.
closed pot. A glass-melting pot having a crown to protect
the batch from the combustion gases.
closed system. A system which is isolated so that it
cannot exchange matter or energy with its surroundings
and can therefore attain a state of thermodynamic equi-
librium.
closer, king. See king closer.
closure strip. A preformed filler strip of asphalt or rub-
ber having the same shape and pitch as the corrugated
asbestos-cement product, and which is used to close
openings or joints in the corrugated sheets at window
beads, eaves, lower edges of siding, and similar places.
cloth. A firm-textured woven fabric of cotton or linen
which is dampened and placed over filter-press cakes,
pugged clays, and the like to prevent loss of moisture
before use.
cloth, wire. See wire cloth.
c1overite. A cubic gallophosphate zeolite material with a
gallium-phosphorus-oxygen network structure con-
taining tunnels with unusual cross-sectional shape,
mainly like a cloverleaf, of some 3 nm cross-sectional
dimension. The tunnels run in three dimensions which
may confer useful catalytic behavior.
CMCs. Abbreviation for ceramic matrix composites; a
ceramic material, such as AI 20 3 reinforced by SiC or
other fibers.
cm Hg. Abbreviation for the pressure unit centimeters of
mercury. 76 cm Hg is equivalent to I atmosphere pres-
sure.
CMOS. Acronym for complementary metal oxide semi-
conductor.
70
CMZP. Abbreviation for an interstitially filled form of
sodium zirconium phosphate. Octahedral interstices in
MZP are filled with Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions to give
Cal-xMgxZl4(P04)6' This has the effect of reducing the
thermal expansion to almost zero up to 1250°C. The
hexagonal structure shows an anisotropic effect respon-
sible for this with the a-axis expanding and the c-axis
contracting. Used as thermal barrier material.
coacervate. A small domain in a colloidal suspension in
which the solid particles do not have an ordered ar-
rangement. The opposite of tactoid.
coadsorption. The adsorption of two or more compo-
nents on activated carbon or similar substance, each
component affecting the adsorbability of the other.
coal brasses. Inclusions of iron pyrites found in some
coal deposits.
coal, breeze. See breeze coal.
coalescence. The physical attraction and merging of par-
ticles to form larger particles.
coal gas. A gaseous mixture produced by the destructive
distillation of coal; used as a commercial fuel.
coarse aggregate. (1) The mineral materials, such as
sand and stone, in their natural conditions. (2) The
portion of concrete aggregate which is retained on a
4.75-mm sieve.
coast-and-island. A type of microstructure produced as
an eqUilibrium crystal develops from a metastable crys-
tal. The stable phase grows from grain boundaries as an
interlocking structure surrounding small areas, islands,
of precipitated phase.
coated abrasive. An abrasive product in which the abra-
sive particles are bonded to paper, cloth, fiber, or other
backing material by a resin or glue.
coated abrasive disk. A paper, cloth, fiber, or other disk
coated on one side with a mixture of abrasive and
binder; used in mechanical grinding.
coated sand. Sand covered with resin.
coating. A film of a substance applied over the surface
of another solid.
coating, ceramic. See ceramic coating.
coating, flow. See flow coating.
coating, immersion. See immersion coating.
coating, pyrolytic. See pyrolytic coating.
coating, refractory. See refractory coating.
coating, roller. See roller coating.
coating, slip. See slip coating.
coating, vacuum. See vacuum coating.
 71
coaxing. Increasing the fatigue strength value of a mate-
rial by applying a gradually increasing stress cycle but
starting well below the fatigue limit.
cobalt aluminate. CoAI 20 4; a spinel; mp 1960°C; sp. gr.
4.37; a ceramic colorant ranging from blue to blue-
green.
cobalt arsenate. C03(As04)2·8H20; sp. gr. 2.95; used as
a blue colorant in glass and ceramic inks.
cobalt bloom. See erythrite.
cobalt blue. A blue to blue-green pigment composed of
cobalt and aluminum oxides.
cobalt carbonate. CoC0 3; decomposes on heating; sp.
gr. 4.13; used in the production of blue and black
ceramic colorants.
cobalt chloride. (I) CoCI 2; sublimes when heated; sp.
gr. 3.348. (2) CoCI 2·6H20; mp 86.75°C; sp. gr. 1.924;
employed as a decolorizer in iron-tinted glass.
cobalt chromate. CoCr04: used with aluminum and
zinc oxides to produce light-blue and light-green colors
in porcelain-enamel and glazes.
cobalt ferrate. CoFe204; mp 1571 °C; sp. gr. 5.30; a soft
magnetic spinel.
cobalt fluoride. CoF 3; antiferromagnetic perovskite;
Neel temperature 460 K.
cobaltite. CoAsS; a silvery white mineral containing co-
balt, arsenic. and sulfur in a cubic crystalline form; used
in ceramic formulations.
cobalt molybdate. CoMo0 3; anti ferromagnetic perov-
skite; Neel temperature 391 K.
cobalt nitrate. Co(N03)2·6H20; mp 56°C; sp. gr. 1.88;
used as a metal treatment to promote adherence of
porcelain-enamels to iron and steel.
cobalt ocher. See asbolite.
cobalt oxide. (I) CoO; decomposes at 1800°C; sp. gr.
5.7-6.7. (2) C020 3; decomposes at red heat; sp. gr.
4.81-5.60. (3) C0 30 4; sp. gr. 6.07. All employed as
colorants and sometimes as decolorizers or masking
agents in glass, underglazes, overglazes, porcelain-
enamels, decals, and similar decorative applications.
Important adherence-promoting ingredients in porce-
lain-enamel ground coats, particularly CoO.
cobalt silicate. C0 2Si04; orthosilicate; mp 1253°C; sp.
gr. 4.68; hardness (Mohs) 5-7. See smalt.
cobalt silicide. C0 2Si and CoSi; present in Si3N4 matri-
ces when Si3N4 is sintered with cobalt powder. The
resultant composite contains 5 mm islands of silicide
and is a good cutting material; sp. gr. 3.5; fracture
toughness \0 MN m-3/2.
cobalt sulfate. (I) CoS0 4; mp 989°C; sp. gr. 3.47; (2)
CoS0 4·7H 20; mp 96.8°C; sp. gr. 1.92; used to impart
blue and blue-white colors in whiteware bodies.
COFFIN-MANSON RELATION
cobalt tungsten. C0 2W; a phase encountered in Co-WC
cutting tool formulations.
cobble mix. Concrete containing aggregate up to 15.25
cm in diameter.
cobbles. Sedimentary rocks with particle sizes in the
range 64-256 mm.
cock spur. A triangular item of kiln furniture with a
single sharp point on which plates and similar ware are
placed for firing.
coconut shell activated carbon. A tough and abrasion-
resistant form of carbon containing micropores of less
than 2 nm diameter formed by carbonizing coconut
shell in the presence of steam or carbon dioxide. The
best form of activated carbon for gas masks and solvent
recovery.
code. Computer program.
coefficient of confidence. A stated proportion of the
times the confidence interval is expected to include the
popUlation parameter.
coefficient of friction. The coefficient, 11, that equates
friction force, F, due to the roughness of the surface to
applied load, W, acting vertically: F = 11 W.
coefficient of saturation. The ratio of the weight of
water absorbed by a masonry or other unit during im-
mersion in cold water to weight absorbed during immer-
sion in boiling water, the ratio to be taken as an
indication of the resistance of brick to freezing or thaw-
ing.
coefficient of scatter. The ratio of the increase in reflec-
tance with thickness of a porcelain-enamel or other
coating applied over an ideally black backing.
coefficient of thermal expansion. The fractional change
in the length or volume of a body per degree of tempera-
ture change.
coercive field. Ec or Ec; the negative electrical or mag-
netic field needed to make remanent polarization or
magnetization vanish in a ferroelectric or ferromagnetic
material.
coercive force, coercivity. An opposite magnetic force
required to return ferromagnetic or ferroelectric mate-
rials to their original nonmagnetic or nonpolar orienta-
tion.
coesite. Si0 2 : a high-pressure form of silica.
coextrusion. A process designed to produce welded
laminates by extruding two or more materials through
a single die with two or more orifices arranged so that
the extrudates merge.
Coffin-Manson relation. The fatigue life of a device
consisting of silicon and a package is inversely propor-
tional to the square of the thermal coefficient of expan-
sion difference between these two components of the
device.
COHERENCE
coherence. The property of substances being held physi-
cally together by mutual attraction ofthe particles of the
substances.
coherence length. Correlation distance of the supercon-
ducting electrons in a superconducting material.
coherency strain. 0; the lattice distortion needed on
either side of a semi-coherent phase boundary to adjust
the atom or ion distances on either side to meet coher-
ently. Coherency strain has a critical value to produce
misfit dislocations in one of the phases forming the
boundary.
coherent light. Radiation composed of wave trains vi-
brating in phase with each other.
cohesion, cohesiveness. The tendency of substances of
like composition to hold together as a result of intermo-
lecular attractive forces.
cohesive energy density. CED; the atomic binding
forces per unit of volume.
cohesive failure. The failure of an adhesive bond joint
by failure of the adhesive not the adhesive-material
interface.
coil. The process of making speciality or art items by
forming the object from ropes or coils of plastic clay.
coil, annular. See annular coil.
coil, bobbin. See bobbin coil.
coil, bucking. See bucking coil.
coil, circumferential. See circumferential coil.
coil, comparator. See comparator coil.
coil, differential. See differential coil.
coil, encircling. See encircling coil.
coil, feed-through. See feed-through coil.
coil, ID. See ID coil.
coil, inserted. See inserted coil.
coil method of magnetization. A method of magnetiza-
tion in which part or all of a component is encircled by
a current-carrying coil.
coil, probe. See probe coil.
coiVraii gun. A device which uses a rapidly changing
magnetic field in a spiral coil (coil gun) or a linear
conductor (rail gun) to accelerate a projectile via mag-
netic forces. Much greater velocities can be reached
than are possible with gas expansion (as in a conven-
tional gun).
coil, reference. See reference coil.
coil size. The geometry or dimensions of a coil such as
length or diameter.
72
coil spacing. The axial distance between two encircling
coils in a differential system of electromagnetic testing.
coil, test. See test coil.
coiro An important natural fiber produced from coconut
husk.
coke. The solid product resulting from the incomplete
combustion of coal, consisting principally of carbon;
used chiefly as a fuel in metallurgy to reduce metallic
oxides to metal.
coke oven. A refractory-lined oven in which coal is fired
in an essentially oxygen-free atmosphere to produce
coke.
Colburn process. A method of forming flat glass in
which a ribbon of molten glass is drawn upward from
the glass tank, rolled flat, annealed, and then cut into
desired sizes and shapes.
colcather. Fe203; red iron oxide; used as a pigment and
as a polishing agent.
cold cracking. Development of flaws due to cycling
from sub-ambient to ambient temperatures.
cold-curing. Curing fiber reinforced plastics at normal
ambient temperature in dry air.
cold-end coating. The process of adding a thin layer of
polymeric material to a glass bottle outer surface as it
leaves the annealing lehr to increase its lubricity and
improve the scratch resistance. Water based polyethyl-
ene emulsions are commonly used because they can be
applied by spraying.
cold joint. The surface between two successive pourings
of concrete in which the first pouring has set and can no
longer be blended into the second pouring.
cold pressing. A bonding operation in which a powder,
or fiber-matrix mixture, is pressurized without heat to
attain sufficient green strength for handling.
cold-rolled steel. A low-carbon, cold-reduced sheet
steel used in porcelain-enameling.
cold setting bindings. Any binder that will harden a
casting core so that it can be removed without distor-
tion.
colemanite. Ca2B601l·5H20; hydrous calcium borate
but more correctly CaB 30 4 (OHh·H20; an important
borate mineral; sp. gr. 2.42; hardness (Mohs) 4.0-4.5;
used as source of CaO and B20 3 in pink and maroon
raw-lead glazes, and as a flux in glazes.
collapse. The accidental densification of a ceramic or
composite with a cellular microstructure during its
manufacture as the network of cells is damaged.
collar in, collaring. To reduce the diameter of a pot,
particularly the opening, by pressure from the outside
while turning it on a wheel.
collet. (l) A split sleeve used to hold work or tools
during machining or grinding. (2) The neck of a glass
 73
bottle after removal from the blowing iron. (3) The
drive wheel that pulls glass fiber from the bushing.
colloid. A substance in the form of submicroscopic par-
ticles which do not settle out when in suspension; such
a substance together with gaseous, liquid, or solid sub-
stance in which it is dispersed.
colloidal clay. A very fine natural clay which usually
swells when it takes up water, and which is used as a
binder for nonplastic materials.
colloidal formation. To make an emulsion of very fine
particles and suspending fluid, usually by mechanical
means, such that the solid does not settle out with time.
colloid mill. A high-speed grinding device capable of
making very find dispersions of liquids or solids by
breaking down particles in an emulsion or paste.
collophane. Ca3(P04)2' H20; the most important con-
stituent of phosphate rock.
color. The wavelength composition of light, particularly
with reference to its visual appearance; a color other
than white, black, or gray.
colorant, ceramic. See ceramic colorant.
color center. This is a lattice defect, such as, vacancy,
interstitial, or substituent, which absorbs visible light.
See F-center.
colored frit. A frit containing a colorant to produce a
strong color in porcelain-enamel or other ceramic coat-
ing.
color filter. A transparent material, such as glass, with
selective properties with respect to the absorption of
light waves according to wavelength.
colorimeter. An instrument that measures color by de-
termining the intensities of the three primary colors that
comprise a particular color.
coloring agent. Any substance which will impart color
to another substance or product.
color, metallic. See metallic color.
color, metameric. See metameric color.
color oxide. An oxide of a metal which is used to color
glass, glazes, porcelain-enamels, ceramic bodies, and
other products.
color stability. The resistance of a product to a change
in color.
color variations. The property of nonuniform color ex-
hibited by a product during some stage of the manufac-
turing operation or before or after some condition of
service, such as weathering.
column, reinforced. See reinforced column.
combed finish. Articles, such as tile or brick, having face
surfaces intentionally altered by scratches or scarves
COMPACTION
during manufacture to give increased bond with mortar,
plaster, stucco, or other mastic used in installations.
combed ware. Ware which has been finished either by
combing or by flowing several wet slips or glazes
together.
combined sewer. A pipeline intended to convey sewage
and storm water.
combined suspension~olution freeze drying. A modi-
fication of the freeze-drying method of powder prepa-
ration developed for production of ternary ceramics
such as spinels where no soluble salt of one component
can be found. A suspension of oxide in the appropriate
salt solution is freeze-dried to produce the intimately
mixed, ultrafine particles of the prefiring mixture.
combined water. Water that is combined chemically
with clays and minerals and which can be expelled only
by heating to relatively high temperatures. Also known
as water of crystallization, water of hydration, water of
constitution.
combing, feather. See feather combing.
comb rack. (I) A comb-shaped burning tool used to
support ware during firing. (2) A comb-like tool used
to support metal ware during the cleaning and pickling
operation.
combustible. Easily ignited and burned.
combustion. The process of burning.
combustion air. Air introduced into a firing chamber or
zone to support the combustion of fuel.
combustion chamber. The area in a furnace or kiln in
which fuel is burned.
combustion efficiency. The ratio of the heat actually
developed during combustion to the heat theoretically
possible under ideal conditions.
combustion, incomplete. See incomplete combustion.
combustion, surface. See surface combustion.
combustion synthesis. See SHS.
comeback. The time required for a porcelain-enameling
or other furnace to return to temperature after introduc-
tion of a load of ware.
comminution. Any process for reducing the particle size
of a material.
common brick. A block of clay material usually fired to
form a stable mass and used for general building pur-
poses.
compact. (I) To treat glass in a manner, such as by heat
treatment, to approach maximum density. (2) To den-
sify by any means.
compaction. (I) A technique for reducing space require-
ments for a material. (2) Increasing the dry density of a
material. (3) The preparation of a compact or object
COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS
produced by the compression of a powder, generally
while confined in a die, with or without the inclusion of
lubricants, binders, etc., and with or without the concur-
rent application of heat.
comparative measurements. Experiments conducted
to determine if one product, procedure, or system is
better than another.
comparative standard. A reference material used as a
basis for comparison or calibration to detect any prop-
erty or condition that is not common to the test subject
and the standard.
comparator coil. An electromagnetic test involving two
coils connected in series opposition such that there is no
mutual induction. A standard in one coil and a test
specimen in the second will give an indication of im-
balance ifthey do not have the same magnetic or dielec-
tric properties.
compass window. A bay window with a semicircular
shape.
compatibility. Capable of existing in a homogeneous
mixture with another substance without separation or
chemical reaction.
compatibility triangle. A subset of compatible phases in
a ternary system.
compensating defect. Any oppositely charged defect in
a crystal that is required by the electroneutrality princi-
ple. For example, Vo requires Mm or e, where the defects
are described by the Kroger-Vink notation.
complementary color. One of any pair of colors, such as
yellow and blue, that give white or gray when mixed in
the correct proportions.
complementary wavelength. The wavelength of mono-
chromatic light that could be mixed in calculated pro-
portions with a given colored light to produce some
specified achromatic light.
complete fusion. Complete liquefaction under the influ-
ence of heat.
complex. (I) Made up of various interconnecting parts.
(2) A chemical compound in which molecules or ions
are bonded to a central metal ion by coordinate bonds.
Also called coordination compounds.
complex number. Any number of the form a + bi where
a and b are real numbers and i = _1112.
complex salt. A salt that contains one or more complex
ions.
compliance. J; the measurement of softness expressed as
the reciprocal of Young's modulus, or shear modulus,
or the inverse of the stiffness matrix.
compo. A mixture of materials such as mortar, plaster,
etc.
component. (I) A constituent part of a mixture. (2) The
smallest number of independently variable substances
74
able to form all the constituents of a system in whatever
proportion they may be present, and from which the
composition of each phase can be quantitatively ex-
pressed.
composite. A material composed of a mixture of distinct
parts, such as a mixture of ceramic materials and a
metallic phase, intended to produce a material of spe-
cific properties; for example, glass-fiber-reinforced
plastics and metals used in the production of boats, cars,
radomes, nose cones, aircraft parts, etc.
composite coating. A mixture of one or more ceramic
materials in combination with a metal phase applied to
a metallic substrate, or a nonmetallic substrate such as
graphite, which mayor may not require heat treatment
prior to service.
composite coating, refractory. See refractory compos-
ite coating.
composite column. A concrete column reinforced with
a metal core, usually steel.
composite compact. A compact composed of one or
more layers of different substances, with each substance
retaining its own identity.
composite laminate. Plastic joined to a ceramic or other
material in such a way that distinct alternating sheets of
each distinct material occur in the structure.
composite lot sample. A single sample prepared from
several containers or lots by combining them in the
same ratio as the net weight of the materials sampled.
composite molding. The process of molding two or
more materials in the same cavity simultaneously.
composite tape laying. CTL; an operation performed by
automated equipment to lay prepreg epoxy graphite
composites over contoured surfaces.
composite wheel. A bonded abrasive product in which
two or more specifications are bonded together into one
wheel.
composition. The combination of elements or com-
pounds comprising the whole of a material or product.
composition plane. The twin plane separating two twins
within a single crystal. It is not like the boundary
between two separate crystals where atomic mismatch-
ing is extremely severe.
compound. (I) A material resulting from the chemical
bonding of two or more elements. (2) A mixture of two
or more materials.
compound rolls. A pulverizing system consisting of two
or more pairs of rolls arranged vertically, one pair above
the other, with the spacing between the rolls being
decreased in descending order so that the particle size
of a material is reduced as it passes from the upper set
of rolls to the next.
compressed air. Air under pressure greater than the sur-
rounding atmosphere.
 75
compressed air ejection. The removal of a molding by
means of a jet of compressed air.
compressibility. ~; the change in volume per unit vol-
ume produced by changing the pressure. Related to the
bulk modulus, K, by ~ = -(V)-I(dVldPh = l/K.
compression. Reduction in volume of a substance under
pressure.
compression after impact. CAl; a test used to assess the
damage tolerance of composites.
compression failure. The breaking or disintegration of
a solid under some form of pressure.
compression set. Percentage of original dimensions by
which a material is deformed after a compressive stress
is released.
compression test. A test made on a specimen of a mate-
rial placed under load to determine its compressive
strength.
compressive strength. The maximum resistance of a
material to compressive loading, or the specified resis-
tance used in design calculations, based on the original
area of the specimen cross section.
compressive stress. A stress developing in a solid under
the influence of some form of pressure which involves
a decrease in atomic bond distances.
Compton effect. See Compton scattering.
Compton scattering. The effect discovered by Compton
that the wavelength of scattered x rays was greater than
that of the incident radiation and dependent on the
scattering angle.
computer-aided design. CAD; using computers to de-
velop the design of a product to be manufactured.
computer-aided manufacture. CAM; using computer
technology to control, manage, operate, and monitor
manufacturing.
concentrate. To increase the amount of a substance in a
mixture, solution, or ore.
concentration gradient. The variation of concentration
of an element with position in a solid.
concentration, threshold. See threshold concentration.
concentric wheel. A bonded abrasive product contain-
ing two or more concentric sections of different abra-
sive specifications.
conchoidal fracture. Shell-like fracture pattem charac-
teristic of amorphous materials. It contains mirror, mist,
and hackle zones spreading out from the point of initial
failure.
concrete. A homogeneous mixture of portland cement,
aggregates, and water; also may contain selected ad-
mixtures.
concrete, aerated. See aerated concrete.
CONCRETE, MASS
concrete aggregate. Sand, gravel, crushed rock, slag,
and similar materials blended with portland cement to
form concrete.
concrete, air-entrained. See air-entrained concrete.
concrete, architectural. See architectural concrete.
concrete beam. A structural beam of reinforced concrete
designed for load-bearing functions.
concrete block. Concrete fashioned in the form of hol-
low and solid blocks of various sizes, frequently 20.3 x
20.3 x 40.6 cm, for use in construction and other appli-
cations.
concrete brick. Concrete formed in the sizes and shapes
of conventional brick, and having high compressive
strength and resistance to the conditions of weathering;
for use in construction and other applications. Hydrated
to a water/cement ratio of 0.3 and set for several weeks.
concrete buggy. A cart designed to carry concrete from
a mixer or hopper to pouring forms.
concrete cancer. The term applied to a mechanism by
which concrete spontaneously breaks up; apparently
caused by localized expansion as the alkali and silica
react. The silica source is the aggregate.
concrete, cellular. See cellular concrete.
concrete, centrally mixed. See central-mixed concrete.
concrete chute. A round-bottomed trough to convey
concrete to a lower level.
concrete column. A vertical structure of reinforced con-
crete designed to carry loads.
concrete finish. The surface texture or smoothness of
hardened concrete.
concrete, foamed. See foamed concrete.
concrete form oil. An oil which is employed to coat the
forms into which concrete is cast to facilitate the re-
moval of the concrete from the forms after it has set.
concrete, fresh. See fresh concrete.
concrete, green. See green concrete.
concrete hardener. An additive to a concrete mix, such
as sodium hydroxide, sodium chloride, or calcium chlo-
ride, to hasten the set of concrete.
concrete, heavy. See heavy concrete.
concrete, insulating. See insulating cement.
concrete, lightweight. See lightweight concrete.
concrete masonry. Any form of construction composed
essentially of concrete block, brick, or tile laid by
masons.
concrete, mass. See mass concrete.
CONCRETE MIXER
concrete mixer. A rotating cylinder or drum in which
concrete is mixed.
concrete, nailing. See sawdust concrete.
concrete, no-fines. See no-fines concrete.
concrete pile. A pile or column of reinforced concrete,
either cast in place or precast, which is driven into the
ground as a support for subsequent construction.
concrete pipe. A porous pipe or conduit made of con-
crete which generally is used in some type of drainage
application.
concrete, plain. See plain concrete.
concrete, post-tensioned. See post-tensioned concrete.
concrete, precast. See precast concrete.
concrete, prestressed. See prestressed concrete.
concrete products. Precast concrete such as brick,
block, pipe, sills, garden objects, and similar items
produced at a central manufacturing plant.
concrete pump. A machine that drives or forces con-
crete into placing position.
concrete, ready-mixed. See ready-mixed concrete.
concrete, reinforced. See reinforced concrete.
concrete retarder. A material added in small quantities
to a concrete mix to increase or lengthen the setting time
and decrease the rate at which strength is developed; the
retarder should have no effect on the concrete after it
has set.
concrete, sawdust. See sawdust concrete.
concrete, shrink-mixed. See shrink-mixed concrete.
concrete slab. (I) A flat, relatively thick plate of con-
crete of various shapes used as stepping stones, well and
pit covers, floors, roofing sections, bridge decks and the
like. (2) A concrete pavement.
concrete special design. A concrete pipe design for
sizes, loads, and service conditions which are not cov-
ered by pipe of standard design.
concrete, transit-mixed. See transit-mixed concrete.
concrete, truck-mixed. See truck-mixed concrete.
concrete, vacuum. See vacuum concrete.
concrete vibrator. A vibrating device used to consoli-
date concrete.
concrete, waterproof. See waterproof concrete.
concrete workability. The ease with which the ingredi-
ents of a concrete batch can be mixed and subsequently
can be handled, transported, and placed without loss of
homogeneity.
76
concurrent processing. One or more operations taking
place at the same time.
condensate. The liquid product from a condenser.
condensation. The process of reducing a gas or vapor to
a liquid or solid form.
condenser. Any enclosed vessel in which a vapor is
condensed to its liquid state.
conditional glass formers. Oxides that are not them-
selves glass formers but can enter the glass network
when mixed with network formers, e.g., Al20 3 and
PbO.
conditioning. The process of preparing a material for a
subsequent process or use.
conditioning zone. The sections of a glass-melting tank
in which temperatures of the molten batch are adjusted
for subsequent operations.
conductance. The property of transmitting electricity;
expressed as the reciprocal of resistance, i.e., the ratio
current to voltage. Old unit mho has been replaced by
siemens.
conducting material. Any material through which heat,
electricity, or sound will flow.
conductive ceramic tile. A tile made from a body com-
position designed to give a specified electrical conduc-
tivity but retaining other normal properties associated
with ceramic tile.
conductive coating. A porcelain-enamel, glaze, metal-
lic, or other coating capable of conducting electricity.
conductive composite. Composite materials with a vol-
ume resistivity equal to or less than 500 ohm-cm.
conductivity. The property and rate of conducting heat,
electricity, and sound.
conductor. Any substance which will conduct heat, elec-
tricity, and sound.
conductor, insulated. See insulated conductor.
conduit. (I) A pipe for the conveyance of water or other
fluid. (2) A pipe for protecting electric wiring against
damage from external causes.
cone and quartering method. A sampling method
whereby a powder is piled into a conical heap, pressed
down to a circular cake, and divided into quarters.
Diagonally opposite quarters are taken for the sample.
The procedure can be repeated until the desired size of
sample is obtained.
cone classifier. A device consisting of an inverted cone
in which solid particles are separated according to size
or density by settling in a rising stream of air or water.
cone core. A yam holder of conical shape.
cone crusher. A machine for crushing which consists of
a cone gyrating within a conical cavity with tapered
 77
clearances such that a material is reduced several times
during passage.
cone, pyrometric. See pyrometric cone.
cone screen test. A technique for measuring the fineness
of porcelain-enamels in which a cone-shaped sieve is
used.
cone wheel. A relatively small abrasive grinding wheel
in the shape of a cone which may be mounted in a
stationary or portable tool.
confidence. The degree of assurance that a specified rate
of failure is not exceeded.
confidence interval. The frequency that a sample or
product will meet or exceed specified requirements.
confidence level (coefficient). The stated proportion of
the times the confidence interval is expected to be
attained.
configuration. The shape or structure of a body or prod-
uct.
conglomerate. A heterogeneous mixture of solids, usu-
ally with no, or only minor, chemical interaction.
congruent melting. The change of a substance, when
heated, from a single phase solid form to a single phase
liquid of the same composition, such as, for example,
ice.
conical crusher. A clay comminutor in which the mate-
rial passes through a moving set of conical rollers.
conical roll. A crushing device in which clay or other
substances pass vertically between a set of inverted
cone-shaped rolls.
conjugate fibers. The extrusion of two different poly-
mers through the same orifice to eventually yield a
bicomponent fiber.
connected porosity. The volume fraction of all voids
and channels within a solid mass that are interconnected
and also are reached via the external surface so that they
can be detected by fluid penetration.
connection, feeder. See feeder connection.
connectivity. (I) A concept introduced by Newnham to
consider theoretically the piezoelectric constants of ce-
ramic-polymer composites. (2) The way in which a
solid is contiguous in space; defined and measured in
fractal analysis by the spreading dimension. (3) The
manner in which individual phases are self-connected
in a composite. In a diphasic system there are ten types
of connectivities in which each phase is continuous in
zero, one, two, or three dimensions; denoted as 0-0,
0-1,2-3, etc.
conode. Isothermal construction line between two
phases in equilibrium.
consistency. (1) The properties of a slip that influence its
draining, flowing, and spraying behavior. (2) A meas-
ure of the fluidity, softness, or wetness of fresh con-
CONTAINER
crete, determined by the number of centimeters. a sam-
ple slumps or subsides when a conical form is removed
from the sample; the greater the subsidence, the higher
the slump and the wetter or softer the concrete.
consistometer. Any of a variety of instruments designed
to measure the fluidity, including the draining, flowing,
spraying, and slumping properties, of slips and slurries.
console. A panel consisting of meters, dials, switches,
and other instruments by which a manufacturing opera-
tion is controlled.
consolidate. To form into a compact mass or to unite as
a whole, such as concrete.
constant. A fixed value which does not change during a
particular test or process.
constant-weight feeder. A mechanical device for the
delivery of a designated weight of raw material from
one process to another per unit of time.
constituent. An essential component of a substance or
product.
constriction. The reduction or narrowing of a channel or
opening.
constringence. The reciprocal of the dispersive power of
a medium such as glass. See nu value or Abbe value.
construction joint. A plane surface between two pour-
ings of concrete, the second pouring being placed on or
against the first after the first was hardened and so does
not form any strong bonds.
contact adhesive. A liquid adhesive which dries to tack-
free film to all materials but itself so that if two surfaces
to be joined have a coating, when they are pressed
together, they will bond.
contact angle. The angle between the tangent at the point
of contact between a liquid drop and a surface; used to
quantify the wetting of solids by liquids and the bonding
between substrates and thin films.
contact arc. That portion of the circumference of a
grinding wheel in contact with the work being ground.
contact area. The total area of the surface of a grinding
wheel in contact with the work being ground.
contact batch operation. An adsorption process onto
activated charcoal dispersed in a liquid being treated
whereby the charcoal is removed after equilibrium.
contact fatigue. Cracking on surfaces subjected to alter-
nating stress such as those encJuntered during rolling
or sliding.
contact pressure. The force of contact between two sur-
faces per unit of area.
contact twins. Twinned crystals exhibiting growth in
two directions from a composition plane.
container. Any receptacle used to hold something.
CONTAINER, GLASS
container, glass. See glass container.
container sample. Samples obtained from individual
containers by use of a sample thief or other approved
means.
contaminate. To soil or change the composition by in-
troduction of impurities.
contiguity. The fraction of interface area that is shared
by particles of the same phase in a microstructure of two
or more phases.
continuity of coating. The degree to which a porcelain-
enamel or other ceramic coating is impervious; that is,
free from pinholes, blisters, bare spots, boiling, copper-
heads, or other defects which would reduce its protec-
tive properties.
continuous-chamber kiln. A chamber kiln in which the
arched roof is constructed in a position transverse to the
length of the kiln.
continuous cleaning. A term describing a particular
type of porcelain-enamel which will oxidize and re-
move food soils accumulated on the interior surfaces of
cooking ovens at normal temperatures and conditions
of use.
continuous control. An automatic system designed to
control a manufacturing process or operation.
continuous dryer. A dryer in which the ware moves
through the drying cycle in an uninterrupted flow pat-
tern as opposed to a batch-type dryer.
continuous filament. A glass fiber of great and indefi-
nite length.
continuous filament yarn. Yarn formed by twisting two
or more continuous filaments into a continuous strand.
continuous furnace. A furnace or kiln into which ware
is fed continuously without interruption and through
which the ware progresses until the firing operation is
complete.
continuous glass tank. A glass furnace in which the
molten glass is maintained at a constant level by con-
tinuousl y charging new batch into the furnace in an
amount equal to the amount of molten glass withdrawn.
continuous kiln. See continuous furnace.
continuous laminating. Chopped strand and continuous
reinforcing mat are automatically and continuously
passed through resin and combined between flexible
covering sheets.
continuous mixer. A mixer in which materials are
charged, mixed, and discharged in a continuous pattern
of flow.
continuous moving bed. An adsorption process charac-
terized by the flow of a fluid through a continuously
moving bed of granular material, such as activated
carbon, with the continuous withdrawal of the spent
78
granular material from the bottom of the bed being
replaced by new or reprocessed material at the top.
continuous production. A sequence of production op-
erations involving the continuous flow of materials
from one station to the next without interruption.
continuous retort. A refractory- or glass-lined vessel in
which substances are distilled or disintegrated by heat
on a continuous basis.
continuous smelter. Any smelter into which a batch is
charged, melted, and discharged continuously.
continuum states. States where the wave function of the
system extends throughout space and the allowed en-
ergy values are continuous.
contraction. The process of diminishing in size; for
example, the reduction in the size of concrete during
setting or the shrinkage of a ceramic body during drying
or firing.
contraction crack. A crack developing in a body due to
the stresses induced by excessive shrinkage.
contraction joint. An intentionally placed crack or
groove in concrete or a masonry unit to create a plane
of weakness so that the unit will crack at the weakened
groove and minimize the development of random
cracks during setting and during the service life of the
unit.
contrast. To compare materials and products in such a
way to show differences.
contrast ratio. The ratio of the reflectance of a coating
over a black substrate to its reflectance over a substrate
having a reflectance value of 80%.
control. The process of directing, checking, testing, and
verifying the performance of a process or the quality of
a product during a manufacturing operation.
control board. See console.
control, criticality. See criticality controls.
controlled atmosphere. A specified concentration of
gas or mixture of gases at a specified temperature and
pressure and sometimes at a specified humidity, in
which selected processes take place.
controlled cooling. The cooling of an object from an
elevated temperature in a predetermined manner or
under specified conditions.
controlled fission. Fission under conditions of continu-
ous adjustment of control rods and of other control
devices in a reactor which compensates for the changes
in excess reactivity which result from high-power op-
eration and from nuclear reactor temperature fluctua-
tions.
controlled fusion. The generation of power under con-
trolled thermonuclear fusion reactions.
control panel. See console.
 79
control, process. See process control.
control, quality. See quality control.
control rod. A device, usually a neutron-absorbing ma-
terial, such as boron, used to control chain reactions,
particularly in nuclear reactors.
control standard. Any of the standards of various types
having known parameters which are used for the evalu-
ation of materials and products, or which may be used
to adjust the sensitivity setting of test instruments, or
for periodic adjustment to sensitivity.
control tests, quality. See quality control tests.
convection. The transfer of heat by the circulatory mo-
tions in air or fluids due to warmer portions rising and
cooler portions sinking.
convergence. To approach a common center or point.
conversion. The change of a compound from one iso-
morphous form to another as in the high-temperature
conversion of quartz to cristobalite and tridymite.
conversion factor. The numerical factor by which a
quantity must be multiplied or divided in order to con-
vert the quantity from one unit of terminology to an-
other.
converter. A refractory-lined furnace in which air is
blown through or across molten metal to remove impu-
rities by oxidation.
converter, Bessemer. See Bessemer converter.
conveyor. A machine designed for the continuous trans-
port of items from one location to another.
conveyor, air. See air conveyor.
conveyor, apron. See apron conveyor.
conveyor belt. An endless belt, running between head
and tail pulleys, used to transfer loose material or ob-
jects from one location to another.
conveyor, chain. See chain conveyor.
conveyor, roller. See roller conveyor.
conveyor, screw. See screw conveyor.
conveyor, slide. See slide conveyor.
conveyor, spiral. See spiral conveyor.
coolant. A liquid applied to the work or grinding wheel
during grinding to keep the work from overheating and
oxidizing, which keeps the tool cool to prevent reduc-
tion in hardness and resistance to abrasion, and which
washes away chips and grits, and aids in obtaining a
finer finish.
cooler. An auxiliary section in a cement kiln in which the
clinker is cooled before grinding.
cooler nail. A cement -coated nail.
COPPER MET ABORA TE
cooling arch. A stationary lehr in which glass is an-
nealed.
cooling curve. A time-temperature curve denoting the
rate at which a fired or heated product is cooled, usually
to room temperature.
cooling-down period. (1) The elapsed time between the
opening of a covered glass-melting pot and the time the
glass is sufficiently cool to work. (2) The period be-
tween the fining stage and the removal of glass from a
furnace.
cooling process. The removal of heat from a substance.
cooling rate. The time required for a glass or fired ce-
ramic to cool between the limits of the working range.
cooling stress. Stress resulting from uneven contraction
during the cooling period because of uneven tempera-
ture distribution in a body or because of anisotropic
thermal expansion of the crystalline phases.
cooling zone. The section in a continuous furnace or kiln
in which ware is permitted to cool following the firing
operation.
Cooper pairs. The concept that in a superconducting
material the wave function for electron energy calcula-
tion is based on pairs of electrons not individuals.
coordination number. The number of nearest-neighbor
atoms for any specific atom in a structure.
cope. The upper portion of a flask, mold, or pattern.
coping. The shaping of stone or other hard nonmetallic
material by the use of a grinding wheel.
copper acetate. See verdigris.
copperas, green copperas. FeS04·7H20; ferrous sul-
fate; used as a red ceramic colorant. Also called green
vitriol.
copper carbonate. Cu(OHh·CuC0 3; a basic salt; de-
composes at 200°C to black copper oxide; sp. gr. 3.7-
4.0; used as red, blue, and green colorant in glazes. Also
known as mineral green. Malachite Cu(OHh·CuC03
and blue azurite, Cu(OHh· 2CuC0 3 are natural variants.
Also known as verditer.
copper enamels. Porcelain-enamels formulated specifi-
cally for use as a decorative and protective coating on
copper; usually of high thermal expansion.
copper fluoride. CuF2·2H 20; mp 785°C; sp. gr. 4.23;
used in porcelain-enamels and glazes, both as a flux and
colorant.
copperhead. A defect occurring in porcelain-enamel
ground coats that appear as small freckle-like, reddish-
brown spots consisting essentally of iron oxide.
copper indium selenide. CuInSe2; see CIS.
copper metaborate. Cu(B0 2 h; sp. gr. 3.86; used as pig-
ment in ink for painting on porcelain and other ceram-
ics.
COPPER OXIDE, BLACK
copper oxide, black. See black copper oxide.
copper oxide, red. See red copper oxide.
copper-red glaze. A traditional glaze used in China; its
hue varies with firing atmosphere as Cu-CuS-bubble
defects become clustered from 2 11m in size downwards.
Analysis is typically: (wt. %) CuO (2.4), CaO (17),
K20/Na20 (3.8), AI 20 3 (13.9), Fe203 (l.2), Si0 2
(60.S), Ti0 2 (O.OS).
copper sulfate. CuS04·SH20; dehydrated at 200°C; de-
composes at 340°C; sp. gr. 2.284; used as the colorant
in production of copper-ruby glass. Used to kill molds
and fungi.
copper titanate. CuTi03; promotes high fired density in
perovskite bodies.
copper wheel engraving. The use of a copper wheel,
onto which abrasive is fed, to grind a pictorial decora-
tion on lead crystal and domestic glassware.
coprolite. Rounded stony nodules believed to be fossil-
ized feces of Mezozoic reptiles.
coquina. A soft limestone containing shells, etc.
coral. (I) A calcareous material coming from the skele-
tons of small sea creatures forming rock-like aggre-
gates. (2) A deep-pink to yellowish-pink color.
coralline. Resembling or of the color of coral.
corallite. The skeleton of a coral polyp.
coral red. Low-temperature color produced in porce-
lain-enamel and glazes by lead chromate.
corals. Inorganic stains for use as glaze colorants which
get their color from small crystals of iron oxide being
completely surrounded by larger crystals of silicate. See
zircon iron corals.
corbeil. A carved ornament in the form of a basket of
fruit, flowers, etc.
corbel, corbeling. A supporting projection on the face of
a wall; an arrangement of brick in a wall in which each
course projects beyond the one immediately below it to
form a support, shelf, or baffle.
cord. An attenuated glassy inclusion possessing optical
and other properties differing from those of the sur-
rounding glass, such as a glassy dripping from the
ceiling of the furnace, or unmelted Si0 2.
cordierite. Mg2AI4Sis01S; low-thermal-expansion, or-
thorhombic silicate; sp. gr. 2.60-2.66; hardness (Mohs)
7.0-7.5; formed or used in electronic-ceramic, stone-
ware, porcelain, and vitreous-china bodies to improve
the thermal-shock resistance of the articles. When
found as the gray or violet mineral in which Fe 2+
replaces some of the magnesium it is called dichroite or
iolite.
cordierite porcelain. A vitreous ceramic whiteware for
technical applications in which cordierite is the essen-
tial crystalline phase.
80
cordierite whiteware. Any ceramic whiteware in which
cordierite is the essential crystalline phase.
core. (1) One or more members supported within an
extrusion die to form holes in extruded brick or tile. (2)
A cylinder of concrete taken from concrete by means of
a core drill for testing or archival purposes. (3) The
central part of a sand mold used in foundries. (4) The
central part of a plaster mold used in solid casting. (S)
A one-piece, heat-insulating shape used at the top of
ingot molds. (6) The central part of a laminate. (7) The
part of a magnetic circuit which is situated within the
winding.
cored brick. A brick that is at least 7S% solid in any
plane parallel to the load-bearing surface.
core loss. Total power loss in the core of a magnetic
circuit when subjected to cycles of magnetization. It is
due to magnetic hysteresis and eddy currents. Ex-
pressed as watts at a given frequency and maximum flux
density.
core making. The compacting of a core sand mixture
into a desired shape.
core store. Another name for a memory device in com-
puter technology.
core, strainer. See strainer core.
core wash. Refractory materials in suspension and then
applied to a casting core surface and dried.
coring. A phenomenon in solid solutions when too rapid
cooling results in a nonequilibrium distribution of com-
position in the grains.
coring, black coring. A black or gray course in the inte-
rior of a brick, usually associated with carbonaceous
clays and other organic matter which have had insuffi-
cient oxidation before vitrification of the surface.
cork. The outer bark of a species of oak growing in
Mediterranean countries.
corner joint. An L-shapedjoint formed by two members
perpendicular to each other as used in construction.
corner rolls. Half-round units of asbestos cement used
to trim and flash corners in asbestos-cement installa-
tions.
cornerstone. A stone at a corner uniting two intersecting
walls; quoin.
corner wear. The wear of abrasive wheels on the edges
of the outer rims.
cornice. A continuous horizontal projecting course or
molding at the top of a wall or building.
corniculate. Having hornlike projections.
Corning code. A numerical list of glass compositions,
for example borosilicate glass is CC 8870 and vycor-R
is CC 7930.
 81
Cornish stone. Partially decomposed granite in which
quartz, feldspar, and fluorine minerals are the major
constituents; used as a flux in the production of ceramic
whitewares. Also known as china stone, Cornish clay.
corn polenta. A main source of starch used as a green
body binder.
corn stone. A mottled red and green limestone.
Cornu prism. A 60° prism made by joining two 30°
prisms at a face. One prism is made from right-handed
and one from left-handed quartz. The optic axis of the
quartz is parallel to the base of the composite prism.
This arrangement prevents double refraction of circu-
larly polarized light from occurring and so is used in
spectrometers.
corona. A pale violet glow observed around a high-field
electrode usually in excess of 5000 V; caused by ioni-
zation of the surrounding gas.
corrasion. Erosion of rock surfaces by particles carried
across it by water or wind.
correlation coefficient. A statistical value measuring
the degree of correlation between two variables ob-
tained by dividing their covariance by the square root
of the product of their variances.
correlation time. 'tc; a period of time used to describe
relaxation processes; for example, it is the average time
for a molecule to rotate by one radian.
Corrodkote test. An accelerated corrosion test applied
to electrodeposits.
corrosion. The destruction or wearing away of a material
by chemical action.
corrosion of refractories. The destruction and wearing
away of refractories by the chemical action of external
agents such as fluxes.
corrugated. Sheets of materials formed into alternating
ridges and grooves.
corrugated asbestos board. Sheets of asbestos cement
formed to produce a wavy or corrugated contour.
corrugated glass. Sheets of glass rolled into a wavy,
furrowed, or corrugated form.
corrugations. Sometimes called sinuous variations; a
general class of defect that can occur in glass made by
the float process which is a regular waviness of the top
and bottom surfaces of the glass sheet.
corundum. Natural a-A1203 single crystals; mp 2040°C;
sp. gr. 3.98; Vickers hardness 26 GN m-2; artificially
made by pulling a seed crystal from molten alumina;
tough, abrasion resistant; employed in instrument bear-
ings, fiber-pulling dies, lasers, and other products where
resistance to high temperatures and mechanical damage
is needed.
coruscate. Sparkle or emit light flashes.
costrel. Old name for an earthenware flask.
COVARIANCE
cost, unit. See unit cost.
cotectic. The simultaneous crystallization of two or more
phases from a single liquid.
Cotterell precipitator. An electrostatic device used to
remove dust particles from industrial waste gases, by
attracting them to charged grids or wires.
cottle. The frame placed around a model to hold a plaster
slurry until the plaster has set to form a mold.
cotton balls. Aggregates of radiating needlelike crystals
that form white silky masses in mineral borates, such as
ulexite, NaCaB 50 9·8H20.
count. A measure of yarn, made from ceramic fiber, per
unit weight. The higher the count the finer the yarn.
Each type of fiber has its own count system; for fiber
glass yarn it is the number of loo-yard lengths per Ib;
e.g., 450 is 450, loo-yard strands per lb.
counter blow. The act of blowing the parison from
blown glassware after the initial shaping operation.
countercurrent adsorption. An adsorption process in
which the fluid flow is directly opposite to the move-
ment of the adsorbent.
coupler. (I) A rod transmitting power between two ro-
tating, or a rotating and a reciprocating, parts. (2) A
device such as a transformer, used to couple two or more
electrical circuits.
coupling. (I) A device or substance for linking together
two parts or things. (2) The transfer of energy from one
part of a circuit to another. (3) An interaction between
different properties of a system.
coupling agents. Molecules of a substance oriented so
that selected ions will react and bond with silicon ions
on the surface of glass fibers, while the remainder of the
molecule will react with resin during the curing opera-
tion, thereby coupling or bonding the glass fiber and
resin together.
coupon. A small area cut from a production run which is
used to establish quality.
course. A horizontal layer or row of brick, block, or other
substance in a structure.
course, rowlock. See rowlock course.
coursing joint. A mortar joint between two masonry
courses.
covalent bond. A type of chemical bond described as the
pairing of electron wave orbitals between adjacent at-
oms with a resultant energy loss to the system. Very
directional in character, very strong leading to the high-
est values of Young's modulus.
covariance. A measure of the association between two
variables found by dividing the product of the mean
deviation of corresponding observed values of the two
variables by the number of pairs of observed values.
COVE
cove. A concave tile or other molding forming the junc-
tion between the floor or ceiling of a room and the wall.
cover. (1) A refractory slab placed over a pot or other
container to protect the contents from contamination,
heat loss, etc. (2) An item of kiln furniture supporting
the posts and top of a firing assembly, and protecting
the ware being fired from damage from ware placed
above.
coverage. The surface area to be continuously covered
by a specific quantity of material.
cover coat. (1) A coating of porcelain-enamel applied
and fused over a previously fired ground coat. (2) A
finish-coat porcelain-enamel applied and fired on metal
without benefit of a ground or intermediate coat.
covered pot. A refractory crucible or glass-melting pot
covered with a refractory roof or slab during firing of
its contents.
covering power. The degree to which a porcelain-
enamel, glaze, or other coating obscures the underlying
surface.
cove tile. Flanged tile used to complete floor and corner
joints in walls.
CPo Abbreviation for chemically pure.
cPo Abbreviation for centipoise.
crack, cracking. (1) A fracture in a wet-process porce-
lain-enamel coating that has been dried but not fired.
(2) A break in a ceramic body or glaze. (3) The initial
opening of a kiln after firing.
crack, grinding. See grinding cracks.
crack growth parameters. The constant B and the ex-
ponent n in the static fatigue equation. See power law
crack velocity relation.
cracking, map. See pattern cracking.
cracking, pattern. See pattern cracking.
cracking, random. See random cracking.
crackle. (1) A textured effect obtained in wet-process
porcelain-enamels characterized by a mottled or wrin-
kled finish. (2) Glassware, the surface of which has been
cracked intentionally by immersion in water and then
partially healed by reheating before the final shaping
operation. (3) Decorative, intentional fissures netting
the surface of a glaze.
crackledama. Textured finish in a wet-process porce-
lain-enamel resembling a wrinkled surface.
crackle ware. A term describing glazed ware in which
the plaze has extensive crazing.
crack ofT. The process of separating a glass article from
the moil by breaking, first by scratching and then
sharply heating.
82
crack pinning. Techniques, such as solid state precipita-
tion, developed to improve strength and hardness by
hindering dislocation movement in crystalline solids or
crack front movement in both crystalline and noncrys-
talline solids.
crack, settlement. See settlement crack.
cracks, green. See green cracks.
crack, shrinkage. See shrinkage crack.
cracks, plastic. See plastic cracks.
crack stopper. A part of a design, such as a drilled hole,
used to delay crack propagation.
crank. (I) A refractory support for the firing of glazed
flatware. (2) A low sagger holding one porcelain plate.
(3). A coarse-textured modeling clay usually containing
about 20% grog that fires well between llOO and
1300°C.
craqueli!. An alternate spelling of crackle.
crawling. (1) A porcelain-enameling defect in which the
fired coating has pulled away or rolled up at the edges
of a panel or over dirt or grease, giving the ridged
appearance of agglomerates or of irregularly shaped
islands. (2) A parting ad contraction of glaze on the
surface of ceramic ware during drying or firing, result-
ing in unglazed areas by the coalesced glaze.
craze, crazing. (I) The cracking which occurs in fired
glazes, porcelain enamels, and other ceramic coatings
due to critical tensile stresses in the coatings. (2) Hair-
line cracks in concrete caused by tensile stresses created
when the surface shrinks morc rapidly than the interior.
crazing resistance. The resistance of glazes, porcelain-
enamels, and other ceramic coatings to cracking. See
craze.
creased, sand. See sand creased.
creep. Deformation of a body as a function of a sustained
stress less than the yield stress, temperature, and time.
Several mechanisms responsible, e.g., vacancy diffu-
sion, grain boundary diffusion, viscous flow.
creep compliance. The degree to which a fluid shears
with time in response to a small applied stress.
creep modulus. The ratio of initial applied stress to
creep strain.
crenel. An opening at the top of a wall or parapet having
slanting sides, as in a battlement.
crenellate. To form square indentations in a molding.
crenulation. A tooth or notch in a crenulate structure.
crenulations. Multiple kinks in a fiber.
crepitate. To make a rattling or cracking sound.
cretaceous. Consisting of or resembling chalk.
 83
crevice corrosion. Corrosion occurring within or close
to a boundary between materials.
cribiform. Sieve-like; pierced with holes.
cricondenbar. The maximum pressure at which two
phases can coexist.
cricondentherm. The maximum temperature at which
two phases can coexist.
crimp. To cause to become wrinkled, wavy, or bent as a
means of strengthening the edges of metal shapes prior
to porcelain-enameling.
crinkled. A textured porcelain-enameled surface charac-
terized by a fine wrinkled or rippled appearance.
crispate. Having a curled or wavy appearance.
cristobalite. A crystalline polymorph of silica formed by
the inversion of quartz at 1470°C; mp 1713°C; a major
component of silica refractories; also used in invest-
ment casting of metals; sometimes present in siliceous
ceramic bodies.
critical angle. <Xc; given by the formula <Xc=
sin-j(n2Inj), where n2 and nl are refractive indices of
two dielectric materials making an interface with each
other. The light ray is in the medium with n2> nj. At
angles greater than <Xc total internal reflection occurs
and no refracted beam into the n2 medium is produced.
critical bed depth. The minimum depth of an adsorbent
bed required to maintain the mass-transfer zone.
critical constants. Physical constants that define the
properties of a substance in its critical state.
critical current density. Symbol le; this is the current
density in a superconductor which destroys the super-
conducting effect. It is a function of temperature and
applied magnetic field, approaching zero as either the
magnetic induction approaches Be or the sample
temperature approaches Te' For practical applications
le > 103 A mm-2 are needed; so far YBa2Cu307 has
achieved 102 A mm-2.
critical field. The maximum magnetic field strength that
a superconductor can produce.
critical humidity. The humidity value above which a
solid salt will always become damp and below which it
will always remain dry.
criticality. The condition whereby a chain reaction is
allowed or accidentally occurs; sustaining a chain reac-
tion is not necessary in the definition of criticality.
criticality controls. Mechanisms ensuring that critical-
ity cannot occur. See criticality.
criticality incident. An accident caused by the accumu-
lation of a critical mass of material.
critical length. Ie; the minimum length of a chopped
strand fiber that will guarantee that it can reach its
failure stress; below Ie the fiber will pull out and so
contribute to composite toughness.
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE.
critical longitudinal fiber stress. The stress applied
longitudinally that causes separation of fibers in a spun
yarn by overcoming the interfiber friction.
critical magnetic field. The value of an externally ap-
plied magnetic field at which a superconductor becomes
nonsuperconducting (normal). The two types of super-
conductors approach the change differently: Type I
superconductor-material with perfect electrical con-
ductivity for direct current that also possesses perfect
diamagnetism (i.e., magnetic flux is totally excluded
from the material), most metal element superconductors
are Type I and the transition from superconducting to
normal state is sharp. Type II superconductor-material
with perfect electrical conductivity for direct current
but does not possess perfect diamagnetism (i.e. , flux
penetration of the material is possible), most oxide
superconductors are this type; metal alloys and com-
pounds go through a broad "mixed state" region before
becoming nonsuperconducting.
critical mass. The minimum mass of fissile material
which can be made critical with a specified geometrical
arrangement and material composition.
critical path analysis. The sequence of stages requiring
the longest time in a complex project is the critical path;
critical path analysis is the study of alternative systems
with reference to this time.
critical point. A point on a phase diagram that represents
the critical state of a substance.
critical pressure. The pressure of a gas or the saturated
vapor pressure of a liquid or solid in its critical state.
critical radius. r*; the radius of a solid particle in a
liquid above which an increase in size will bring about
a decrease in free energy of the system. Particles equal
in size to r* are called nuclei. r* = -2y/l:iGv, where y is
the interfacial free energy for solid-liquid, and I!.Gv is
the free energy change per unit volume which occurs
when a liquid solidifies.
critical shear stress. The shear stress necessary to cause
slip to take place along a given slip plane and direction.
Defined as Schmid's law.
critical speed. The speed of rotation above which the
vibration of a spindle carrying an abrasive wheel or
point would be hazardous.
critical state. The state of a substance in which two of its
phases have identical temperature, pressure, and vol-
ume.
critical stress intensity factor. K 1e ; a material constant
equal to (2EYi)II2, where E is Young's modulus, and y,
is the effective surface energy. When the crack tip stress
intensity reaches the K1e value the crack becomes unsta-
ble and propagates at high speed.
critical temperature. Te; (I) a characteristic tempera-
ture for each superconducting material below which it
has zero resistivity. For device applications supercon-
ductors should operate at 0.75 Te and so for liquid
nitrogen operation Te around 100 K is needed. (2) The
CRITICAL VOLUME
temperature of a substance in its critical state; to liquefy
a gas by pressure alone it must be below its critical
temperature.
critical volume. The volume occupied by 1 mole of a
substance in its critical state.
critical volume fraction. The volume of brittle ceramic
fibers in a ductile matrix that must be exceeded before
the strength of the composite exceeds the strength of the
matrix material alone.
crizzle. An imperfection in glass consisting of a multi-
tude of fine surface fractures which do not penetrate into
the glass to any appreciable distance.
crocidolite. Na2Fe5[Si4011lz(OHh; also known as rie-
beckite or blue asbestos; an amphibole fibrous silicate
used in reinforcements and insulations but recently
found to be a health hazard.
crock. An earthenware pot.
crockery. (I) A collective noun for china dishes, earth-
enware pots, etc. (2) A thick form of porous opaque
pottery often fired at low temperatures.
crocolite. PbCr04; naturally occurring, monoclinic lead
chromate. Also called red lead ore.
crocus abrasive. A mixture of iron oxide with a small
amount of silica with a hardness approx. 6 Mohs, used
in very fine polishing operations.
crocus cloth. A fabric impregnated with iron oxide; used
as a fine polishing agent.
crocus martis. A purple or brownish red iron oxide used
as a pigment in decalcomanias and glazes.
Crooke's glass. A glass of low ultraviolet transmission
containing cerium and other rare earths.
cross-bend test. A test in which bisque and fired porce-
lain-enameled panels are progressively distorted by
bending to determine the resistance of the coating to
cracking.
cross-breaking strength. A measure of the resistance of
a material to breakage under transverse stress.
cross-feed grinding. The controlled movement of a
grinding wheel over a horizontal workpiece resting on
a worktable, the grinding being done at a prescribed rate
or depth.
cross-fired furnace. A furnace in which fuel is supplied
from side ports and flames cross the width of the fur-
nace, hence at least 6 m wide.
cross grains. Tangled laminations in a body causing ir-
regular or imperfect cleavage patterns.
cross section. (1) A cut through a substance, especially
at right angles to a dimension. (2) Probability of a
neutron-atom interaction; expressed as an area.
cross slip. Crossing of slip bands from one parallel slip
plane to another when they approach closely to each
84
other. Thus, the slip surface is two planes joined by
parallel bands.
crown. (1) The top or dome of a furnace or kiln. (2) The
top or highest point of the internal surface of the trans-
verse cross-section of a concrete pipe.
crown blast. A stream of air introduced at the top of the
exit of a tunnel kiln.
crown brick. A wedge-shaped brick at the crown of an
arch that locks other brick in place.
crown flint glass. An optical crown glass containing a
substantial addition of lead oxide to produce a higher
dispersion of light than the usual optical crown glass.
crown glass. (1) A hard, easily polished, highly transpar-
ent optical glass with high refraction and low disper-
sion, typically containing 72% Si02, 15% Na20, and
13% CaO. See optical crown glass. (2) A type of win-
dow glass shaped by whirling a glass bubble to form a
flat circular disk with a lump in the center formed by
the glassblower's rod.
crown glass, barium. See barium crown glass.
crown glass, borosilicate. See borosilicate crown glass.
crown glass, lead-barium. See lead-barium crown
glass.
crown glass, optical. See optical crown glass.
crown process. Obsolete way of making flat glass
whereby a sphere is blown and a punty stuck on opposite
the blowpipe; after cutting away, the cut sphere is spun
to a disk.
crucible. A refractory vessel or pot in which a material
may be melted or calcined at a high temperature.
crucible clays. Refractory ball clays used in the produc-
tion of high-temperature crucibles or pots. See ball clay.
crude-dressed mica. Crude mica from which dirt, rock,
and other contaminants have been removed.
crude mica. Mica in the state as mined, with dirt, rock,
and other contaminants still present.
cruse. A small earthenware container used for liquids.
crush. (1) A lightly pitted, dull-gray area on flat glass
sheets; a defect. (2) To grind or break solid substances
into small bits or fragments.
crush dressing. The use of steel rolls to form or dress the
face of grinding wheels to a desired contour.
crushed gravel. The product resulting from the artificial
crushing of gravel with substantially all fragments hav-
ing at least one face resulting from fracture; used as an
aggregate in concrete.
crushed stone. The product resulting from the artificial
crushing of rocks, boulders, or cobblestones, substan-
tially all faces of which have resulted from the crushing
operation.
 85
crusher. A device which breaks or grinds substances into
smaller particles.
crusher cone. A crushing device consisting of a gyrating
cone in a conical cavity with tapered clearances such
that material is reduced in size several times during
passage.
crusher, conical. See conical crusher.
crusher, disintegrator. See disintegrator crusher.
crusher, gyratory. See gyratory crusher.
crusher, impact. See impact crusher.
crusher, intermediate. See intermediate crusher.
crusher, jar. See jar mill.
crusher, jaw. See jaw crusher.
crusher, muller. See muller.
crusher, primary. See primary crusher.
crusher, ring. See ring crusher.
crusher, rod. See rod mill.
crusher, roll. See roll crusher.
crusher, rotary. See rotary crusher.
crusher, sawtooth. See sawtooth crusher.
crusher, secondary. See secondary crusher.
crusher, single-roll. See single-roll crusher.
crusher, vibratory. See vibratory crusher.
crushing. The process of reducing the size of lump ma-
terial by mechanical means.
crushing, choke. See choke crushing.
crushing strength. The property of a material to resist
breakdown under externally applied compressive loads.
calculated as the load in newtons per square meter
required to fracture the specimen.
crustal. Of or relating to the earth's crust.
cryocable. A cable cooled by liquid nitrogen to make it
more conducting.
cryogenic grinding. The application of low tempera-
tures in ball milling in order to powder materials which
are ductile or plastic at ambient temperatures. Also
known as freeze grinding.
cryogenics. The study of the production of extremely
low temperatures and their effects on materials.
cryohydrate. A crystalline substance containing water
and a salt in definite proportions; a eutectic crystallizing
below the freezing point of water.
cryolite. Na3AlF6; mp 1000°C; sp. gr. 2.95-3.0; hard-
ness (Mohs) 2.5; used in opal glass and porcelain-enam-
CRYSTALLINE
els as a flux and opacifier, as a filler in grinding wheels,
as a flux in whiteware bodies, and as a constituent in
dental cements, light bulbs, and welding-rod fluxes.
cryostat. A vessel that can be maintained at a specified
low temperature; a low-temperature thermostat.
cryotron. A type of switch that depends on superconduc-
tivity. It consists of a wire surrounded by a coil in a
liquid helium bath. Both the wire and the coil are
superconducting and a low voltage can produce a cur-
rent in the wire. If a current is also passed through the
coil its magnetic field alters the superconducting prop-
erties of the wire and switches off the current, thus the
presence or absence of a current in the coil determines
the ability of the wire to conduct.
cryptoclastic. An adjective describing rocks and miner-
als composed of microscopic fragments.
cryptocrystalline. A crystalline structure in which the
individual crystals are so small that they are not visible
under a petrographic microscope using polarized light.
cryst. Abbreviation for crystalline or crystal.
crystal. A chemically homogeneous solid having a de-
fined internal structure and, if developed under favor-
able conditions, having a characteristic external form
bounded by plane surfaces.
crystal cartridge. See cartridge.
crystal class. Any of 32 possible types of crystals, clas-
sified according to their rotational symmetry about a
point. Also called point group.
crystal counter. An instrument used to detect and meas-
ure high-energy radiation intensity by the momentary
increase in conductivity of a crystal caused by the
radiation.
crystal field theory. A theory relating the symmetry of
the anions around d-transition cations in solids to elec-
trical, magnetic, and chemical properties. It provides
simple rules for predicting these properties by analyz-
ing how the d-orbital degeneracy is lifted in electro-
static fields of given symmetry as a function of field
strength.
crystal glass. A colorless, highly transparent glass used
for art and tableware; contains lead oxide, PbO, in its
composition and is frequently deeply cut to emphasize
its brilliance.
crystal habit. The size and shape of a crystal.
crystal laser. A solid laser of high-purity crystalline or
doped crystalline material, such as pure or doped ruby;
used for generating a coherent beam of output light. See
laser.
crystal lattice. A regular array of points about which the
atoms or ions of a crystal are centered. Each lattice point
must have the same orientation in space.
crystalline. Composed essentially of crystals.
CRYSTALLINE DISCOLORATION
crystalline discoloration. Discoloration appearing as
lighter or darker shades of the basic color of mica.
crystalline glaze. A glaze containing macroscopic crys-
tals which have grown during the cooling period follow-
ing a firing operation.
crystallite. A crystal with at least one microscopic or
submicroscopic dimension.
crystallization, water of. See combined water.
crystallographic shear plane. CSP; a mechanism for
materials to accommodate large degrees of non-
stoichiometry whereby vacancies are concentrated in
selected crystallographic planes and so change the oc-
tahedral linkage pattern in those planes. In order to
achieve new linkage patterns a mechanism of shear is
envisaged. CSP are found to be regularly spaced giving
a microstructure of unperturbed blocks of original struc-
ture of equal thickness separated by narrow CSPs.
crystal pickup. A gramophone pickup employing a pie-
zoelectric ceramic to turn the movements of the stylus
into electrical signals.
crystal, polar. See polar crystal.
crystal, quartz. See quartz crystal.
crystal, rock. See rock crystal.
crystal, semiconducting. See semiconducting crystal.
crystal structure. The arrangement of atoms or mole-
cules in a crystal.
crystal system. A set of axes; one of seven classifica-
tions of crystals defined by their symmetry. The classes
are cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, orthorhombic, mono-
clinic, and triclinic.
crystolon. A trade name for an abrasive silicon carbide.
CSP. Abbreviation for crystallographic shear plane.
CSZ. Abbreviation for caJcia stabilized zirconia.
CTL. Abbreviation for composite tape laying.
cubical expansion. The increase in volume of a material
with increase in temperature and decrease in pressure.
cull. Material rejected as being below standard and there-
fore unacceptable.
cullet. Waste or broken glass suitable as an addition to
raw batch in the manufacture of glass.
cullet cut. A scratch imperfection in glass caused by a
particle of cullet lodged in the polishing felt during the
polishing operation.
cullet, raw. See raw cullet.
culvert. A covered channel or pipeline under a highway,
railroad, canal, or similar construction for the convey-
ance of water.
86
cumulative weighing. The weighing of materials suc-
cessively on the same scales, the weights being added
to the previous weights of the batch.
cupel. A small crucible made of bone ash used in assay
work.
cup gun. A spray gun with a fluid container or cup at-
tached as an integral part so as to feed the fluid into an
atomizing nozzle or air stream.
cupola. A circular, vertical furnace, for the melting of
iron.
cupping. (1) The pouring of porcelain-enamel slip over
an item or part during draining to obtain a smoother and
more uniform coating. (2) A concave or convex arcing
of a coated abrasive caused by either an excess or lack
of moisture in the backing and the bond.
cuprite. CU20; cuprous oxide.
cup wheel. A cup-shaped or dish-shaped grinding wheel.
cure. (1) The reaction mechanism in which the physical,
chemical, and mechanical properties of a hydraulic
cement change through the phases of slurry-paste-solid
with time, with or without heat, in the presence of water.
(2) The heat treatment given to thermosetting polymer
matrices to bring about bonding.
cure, autoclave. See autoclave cure.
cure, normal. See normal cure.
cure, normal-cure. See normal-cure cure.
cure stress. An intemal stress caused by resin shrinkage
during the curing process and also because a composite
contains dissimilar materials, e.g., ceramic fiber and
thermosetting polymer.
curie. Ci; a unit of radioactivity defined as the quantity
of any radioactive nuclide which has 3.7 x 1010 disinte-
grations per second.
Curie point, Curie temperature. The temperature
marking the transition between ferromagnetism and
paramagnetism or between the ferroelectric phase and
the paraelectric phase.
Curie-Weiss behavior. Characteristic magnetic sus-
ceptibility behavior of a paramagnetic substance where
above the temperature 8 (or -8) the susceptibility is
inversely proportional to the difference between its
temperature and 8, a quantity that is characteristic of the
substance; 8 is positive for ferromagnetic and negative
for antiferromagnetic interactions.
curing. Protection of concrete for a specified period of
time after placement to provide moisture for hydration
of the cement, to provide the proper temperature, and to
protect the concrete from damage by loading or me-
chanical disturbance.
curing agent. An additive to cement and asbestos-ce-
ment products to increase the chemical activity between
 87
the cementitious components with an increase or de-
crease in the rate of cure.
curing blanket, curing mat. (I) A dampened mat laid
over fresh concrete to provide curing moisture. (2) A
dry mat laid over green cement as insulation during cold
weather.
curing compound. A liquid sealant sprayed on the sur-
face of fresh concrete as protection against loss of
moisture.
curing cycle. The time required for curing.
curing, membrane. See membrane curing.
curling. A defect in porcelain-enamels similar to crawl-
ing.
current, eddy. See eddy current.
current-flow magnetization. A method of magnetizing
by passing a current through a component by means of
prods or contact heads; the current may be alternating,
rectified alternating, or direct.
current-induction magnetization. A method of mag-
netizing in which a circulating current is induced in a
ring component by the influence of a fluctuating mag-
netic field.
current, inrush. See inrush current.
current, magnetizing. See magnetizing current.
current, steady-state. See steady-state current.
current, voltaic. See voltaic current.
curtain arch. An arch of refractory brickwork support-
ing the wall and the upper part of a gas producer and the
gas uptake.
curtains. A defect, which may occur in porcelain-enamel
ground and cover coats, characterized by a sagged or
draped appearance.
curtain wall. An exterior or interior wall section of a
building which is neither an integral part of the structure
nor load bearing.
curve, calibration. See calibration curve.
Cusil. An alloy developed to wet ceramics and be used
in the moly-manganese ceramic to metal brazing proc-
ess; in weight percent it contains Ag (27), Ti (71), Cu
(2).
cut. A powder sample taken from a separation procedure
such that its particle size lies between two stated sizes.
cut glass. Glassware which has been decorated by grind-
ing figures or patterns on the surface of the ware by
means of an abrasive, followed by polishing.
cut glaze. A glazed area in which the coating is of insuf-
ficient thickness for good coverage.
CYCLE
cutlery mark. A metallic line or smear on a dinnerware
glaze caused by the abrasion of a knife or other instru-
ment on the surface.
cut-off level. The value established above or below
which a product is rejectable or distinguished from
other items of the same origin.
cut-off scar. A machine-made scar on the base of a glass
bottle.
cut-off wheel. A thin, usually organic-bonded, abrasive
wheel used for cutting, slicing, or slotting a material.
cut sizes. Flat glass sheets cut to specific dimensions.
cutter. (1) A workman engaged in grindng figures or
designs on glass. (2) A workman who cuts flat glass. (3)
A tool used in cutting glass.
cutter, guillotine. See guillotine cutter.
cutter, reel. See reel cutter.
cutting. (I) Scoring a glass sheet with a diamond or steel
wheel and then breaking it along the scratch. (2) Pro-
ducing cut glass.
cutting, brilliant. See brilliant cutting.
cutting fluid. See coolant.
cutting off. Removing a pot from the potter's wheel by
cutting with a wire or string.
cutting over. Turning over molding and core mixtures
by shovel to obtain a more uniform mixture.
cutting rate. The amount of material removed by a
grinding wheel per unit of time.
cutting table. A mechanical or stationary table upon
which a clay column is severed or sliced.
cutting tool. The portion of the grinding or machining
device which contacts and removes material from a
workpiece.
CVD. Abbreviation for chemical vapor deposition.
CVI. Abbreviation for chemical vapor infiltration.
cyanide metal treatment. A cleaning and neutralizing
treatment of metals in a dilute aqueous bath of sodium
cyanide prior to porcelain-enameling.
cyanide neutralizer. An aqueous bath employed in the
treatment of metals for porcelain-enameling which con-
tains a small addition of sodium cyanide to reduce the
hardness of water, to assist in further cleaning of the
metal, and to aid in the complete neutralization of acids
remaining on the pickled ware.
cyanite. An alternative spelling of kyanite.
cycle. (1) A complete set of operations that is repeated as
a unit. (2) The time between the first fill of batch and
the casting of glass in open-pot practice.
CYCLIC CONTACT TWINS
cyclic contact twins. Single crystals like chrysoberyl
which show repeated twinning at regular intervals so
that crystal growth occurs along a circular path.
cyclone separator. A device for removing particles from
air, water, or other fluids, or for separating substances
according to size or density, by centrifugal means.
cyclopean. Mass concrete, such as used in dams and
thick structures, containing aggregate larger than 15
cm.
cylinder. A large steel pipe filled with concrete and used
as a pile foundation.
cylinder process. A process for the manufacture of win-
dow glass in which molten glass is blown and drawn
into the form of a cylinder which subsequently is split
or cracked open, reheated, and flattened.
cylinder, test. See test cylinder.
88
cylinder wheel. A grinding wheel with a comparatively
large hole, typically several inches in diameter, used in
surface grinding where the work is done by the side
rather than by the peripheral surface of the wheel.
cylindrical grinding. Grinding the outer surface of a
part which either is rotated on centers or is centered in
a chuck.
cylindrical-screen feeder. An apparatus in which a
plastic clay is forced through a cylindrical screen by a
bladed shaft rotating on the same axis as the center of
the screen; the shredded clay is then delivered to a
prucessing unit.
cylindrical weave. Ceramic or glass fibers are woven
dry to form a shape in which the fibers are oriented in
the radial, circumferential, and axial directions; matrix
material is then infiltrated into the shape.
Czochralski process. A technique for growing single
crystals by pulling a rotating seed crystal from a bath of
molten material of the same composition.
 D
dabber. A pad used by engravers for applying pigment
by hand.
dado. (1) The part of a pedestal between the base and the
cornice. (2) The lower part of an interior wall decorated
differently from the upper part.
dalton. Another name for the atomic mass unit.
damage. Harm to a product, facility, equipment, or other
item of value, usually short of complete destruction.
damp air. Air having a high relative humidity.
damp course. A layer or sheet of any impervious mate-
rial, such as a plastic, placed over or around an area such
as a wall to prevent the seepage of water into the area.
damper. A movable panel or valve designed and placed
to regulate the flow or draft of air into a furnace or kiln.
damping capacity. The ability of a material to absorb
vibrations by internal friction and convert the mechani-
cal energy into heat.
damp-proofer. A substance, such as sodium silicate or a
fluosilicate of aluminum or zinc, which is added to a
batch of concrete or applied as a coating to the surface
of hardened concrete to decrease the capillarity of the
concrete.
Danner process. A continuous process of producing
glass rod or tubing in which molten glass is drawn from
a tank and formed by means of a rotating mandrel.
daraf. Reverse spelling of farad, the unit of elastance
equal to a reciprocal farad.
darby. A flat-surfaced metal or wood tool used for
smoothing freshly applied plaster.
Darcy's law. The permeability of a substance is the rate
at which a fluid will flow through the substance times
the pressure drop per unit of length of flow divided by
the viscosity of the fluid.
89
dark-field illumination. Illumination of the field of a
microscope from the side so that the specimen is viewed
against a dark background.
dark-field microscope. See ultramicroscope.
dark plaster. A plaster made from calcined, but un-
ground, gypsum.
dash number. Numerical identification of materials or
parts on a drawing.
dashpot. A device for damping-down vibrations consist-
ing of a fluid-filled chamber in which a piston is sited
and then attached to the equipment to be damped.
data. Experimental information organized for analysis or
used as the basis for a decision.
data analysis. The evaluation and interpretation of data.
data, raw. See raw data.
datolite. CaBSi04 (OH); sp. gr. 2.9-3.0; hardness
(Mohs) 5-5.5; a mineral sometimes used as a flux in
glazes.
daub. To apply a coating with crude strokes.
daughter. The product of radioactive decay of a nuclide;
the product mayor may not be radioactive.
daylight glass. A glass that absorbs red light so that the
transmitted light resembles daylight; used in incandes-
cent light bulbs and similar products.
day tank. A periodic glass-melting tank consisting of a
single compartment designed to be charged, fired, and
emptied during each day of hand gathering.
dB. Abbreviation for decibel.
dc. Abbreviation for direct current.
DCCA. Abbreviation for drying control chemical addi-
tives, which are used to speed up the removal of liquid
phase from gels.
dc INSULATION RESISTANCE
dc insulation resistance. The reciprocal of conduc-
tance.
DDTA. Abbreviation for derivative differential thermal
analysis, where the heat content in a sample is compared
to that of a standard such as Al 20 3 while both are
subjected to a linearly increasing or decreasing tem-
perature. The slope of the difference between sample
and standard are plotted. Allows precise determinations
of slight temperature changes.
dead-air space. Sealed air space, such as between the
inside and outside panels in a wall.
dead burn. To heat-treat a material, such as a basic
refractory, to produce a dense refractory product resis-
tant to atmospheric hydration or recombination with
carbon dioxide; usually the treatment is at a higher
temperature for a longer period of time than a normal
calcine.
dead-burned magnesia. See dead-burned magnesite.
dead-burned magnesite. Magnesite, MgC03, or other
magnesium-bearing substance convertible to magnesia,
MgO, which has been heat-treated to temperatures
above 1450°C to produce a stable material suitable for
use as an ingredient in refractory products.
dead-burned refractory dolomite. Raw dolomite,
CaMg(C0 3h, heated to form CaO and MgO, in a matrix
resistant to hydration and recombination with carbon
dioxide.
dead flat. A lusterless coating.
dead load. A load permanently acting on a structure.
dead plaster. Plaster of paris which has been overfired
during manufacture.
dead plate. A stationary plate in a glass-making machine
on which a glass article rests to await transfer to a
subsequent operation during an automatic production
process.
dead time. An electronics term meaning the time inter-
val immediately following a stimulus during which a
component is insensitive to further signals.
deaired brick. A densified brick in which air has been
removed during the forming process by the application
ofa vacuum.
deairing. The process of removing entrapped or ab-
sorbed air from a mass or slurry, usually by application
ofa vacuum.
dealumination. The replacement of aluminum atoms by
silicon in 3-D network aluminosilicates by heating in a
nitrogen atmosphere containing SiCl4 vapor.
debiteuse. A vertically slotted, floating clay block on the
surface of molten glass through which glass is drawn
upward in the Fourcault process.
debris. The particles that have become detached in wear
and erosion processes.
90
debug. To locate and remove sources of defects and
causes of failure in a process or system.
debulk. Compacting and squeezing out air from between
plies in laminates under vacuum or heat to promote
adhesion.
deburr. To remove burrs, sharp edges, and fins from a
product such as by grinding or tumbling in a drum
containing loose abrasive particles.
debye. A unit of electric dipole moment. It is the dipole
moment produced by two charges of opposite sign, each
of I statcoulombplaced 10-20 mapart. Value is 3.33564
x 10-30 coulomb meter.
Debye-Hiickellayer. A region beneath a surface of an
ionic ceramic, such as a grain boundary, which contains
an excess of oppositely charged defects to those causing
the surface charge.
Debye parameter. k; a property of the diffuse double
layer resulting from the surface potential of a solid
suspended in an aqueous solution of ionic strength I·
k = 81Ce2NoIlloJEkT, where No is Avogadro's constant:
e is the dielectric constant for water. k- I is often called
the double layer thickness.
decal, decalcomania. Colored designs printed on spe-
cially prepared paper for transfer as decorations on
glass, glazed and unglazed ceramic ware, porcelain-
enamels, and other surfaces. See slide-off transfer.
decalescence. The absorption of heat when a solid is
heated through a particular temperature range, caused
by a thermally activated structure change.
decant. Pour off liquid from a sediment or off a heavier
liquid.
decanter. A stoppered glass bottle into which a drink,
such as wine, is poured for serving.
decarburized steel. Steel of extremely low carbon con-
tent suitable for porcelain-enameling, particularly in the
production of one-coat (no ground coat) ware.
decastyle. A portico consisting of ten columns.
decay. (1) The spontaneous transformation of a nuclide
into one or more nuclides having measurable lifetimes.
(2) A gradual decrease of a current, magnetic flux,
stored charge, etc., when the source of energy has been
removed.
deci. Prefix denoting one tenth; 10-1•
decibel. (1) One tenth of a bel. (2) For sound measure-
ment, 10 10glO (lm'Io), where 1m is the measured sound
and 10 is the lowest audible note of the same frequency.
decile. In statistics it is one of nine actual or notional
values assumed by a variable dividing its distribution
into ten equal frequency groups.
deck. The refractory top of a kiln car.
decking. The loading of ware in multiple layers on kiln
cars preparatory to firing.
 91
decolorizer. A material, such as a selenium compound,
which is added to glass batches to remove or mask color
in finished products.
decolorizing. The process of producing a colorless ap-
pearance in glass.
decompose. To separate into constituent parts.
decomposition. Chemical breakdown of a substance into
two or more simpler substances.
decomposition temperature. The temperature at which
the first indications of decomposition are noted.
decorated. An item made attractive and pleasing to the
eye by the use of designs and colors.
decorating fire. The firing process in which decorations
are fixed to glazed and procelain-enameled surfaces.
decoration, impressed. See impressed decoration.
decoration, inglaze. See inglaze decoration.
decoration, monochrome. See monochrome decora-
tion.
decoration, overglaze. See overglaze decoration.
decoration, underglaze. See underglaze decoration.
deenameling. The chemical or mechanical removal of a
porcelain-enamel coating from its base metal; for ex-
ample, by immersion of the enameled item in a hot bath
of sodium hydroxide or by sandblasting.
deencapsulation. Removal of the impervious coating on
a ceramic after it has been hot isostatically pressed.
Sandblasting is usually employed.
deep cutting. The use of a large abrasive wheel to grind
a geometrical pattern on lead crystal and domestic
glassware.
deep drawing. The die pressing of sheet-metal shapes to
relatively large depth-to-diameter ratios, the shapes
subsequently to be porcelain-enameled.
deep draw mold. A mold where the core is long relative
to the wall thickness.
defect. (I) An imperfection or discontinuity in a product
that interferes with the usefulness or the aesthetic value
of the product. (2) All crystalline solids consist of a
regular periodic array of atoms or molecules and depar-
tures from regularity are defects.
defect conduction. Electrical conduction arising from
the presence of holes in the valence band of a semicon-
ductor.
deflecting wedge. A wedge-shaped refractory placed so
as to split and distribute a cascading stream of material
such as, for example, a stream of coal onto the floor of
a coke oven.
deflection. (I) To alter the direction of flow of a stream
of gas or liquid by means of a baffle or other designed
DEGREE OF FREEDOM
obstruction. (2) The linear measurement of bend when
a specimen or beam is loaded at midspan.
deflection temperature. Formerly called the heat dis-
tortion temperature, it is the temperature at which a
simple beam, in many places dimensioned according to
ASTM D468, deflects 0.25 mrn under a load of 0.464 x
lrf' kg m-2 or 1.856 x 106 kg m-2•
deflocculant. A substance, such as water glass or sodium
carbonate, or organic salt, which will disperse the ag-
glomerates in a slurry to form a colloidal or near-colloi-
dal suspension which will result in a more fluid slurry
or slip.
deflocculate. To disintegrate and disperse agglomerates
in a slurry to form a colloidal or near-colloidal suspen-
sion of greater fluidity.
deflocculating. Reducing the viscosity of a slip or slurry
by the addition of a deflocculant such as water glass,
sodium silicate, or polymeric organic salts.
defoamer. Any substance, such as the sulfonated oils and
silicones, which will reduce or eliminate foam from
glaze or porcelain-enamel slips, cleaning and pickling
solutions, etc.
deformation. An alteration in the shape or dimensions
of a solid when subjected to stress.
deformation bands. Lines of slip within a crystal of
varied orientation determined by the slip systems that
can operate when a solid is deformed.
deformation, elastic. See elastic deformation.
deformation, plastic. See plastic deformation.
deformation point. The temperature at which viscous
flow of a glass exactly counteracts the thermal expan-
sion of the glass.
deformation, pyroplastic. See pyroplasticity.
deformation temperature. The minimum temperature
at which a solid substance begins to deform under the
stress of its own mass.
deformation twin. Parallel-sided areas in a single crys-
tal grain caused by the stacking arrangement of the
atoms inverting into a mirror image across an interface
under the influence of a stress greater in value than the
material's yield stress.
deformed bar. A steel rod or bar covered with ribs or
indentations to improve or enhance its bond with con-
crete.
deg. Abbreviation for degree of temperature.
degassing. The removal of gases from liquid and solids,
such as by heating or by the application of a vacuum.
degreasing fluid. A solvent or detergent solution em-
ployed to remove oil and grease from a surface.
degree of freedom. The number of variables (tempera-
ture, pressure, volume, composition, concentration,
DEHUMIDIFY
etc.) which must be specified to define the state of a
material or system.
dehumidify. To lower the concentration of water vapor
within a given volume.
dehydration. The removal of free or combined water
from a substance or compound, usually by heating or by
evaporation in a vacuum.
deionized water. Water that has been purified of salts by
passage through an ion-exchange resin.
delamination. The separation of a laminate into its con-
stituent parts.
delayed failure. Fracture of glass when stressed below
its known failure stress for a period of time in a moist
environment; caused by subcritical crack growth aris-
ing from chemical reactions between strained Si-O
bonds and water.
delayed fish scale. Half-moon or fish-scale-shaped frac-
tures occurring spontaneously in porcelain-enamel
coatings at some time after the completion of the por-
celain-enameling process.
delftware. A soft, buff-colored majolica body covered
with an opaque white glaze; decorations are painted
over the unfired glaze, often using a characteristic blue,
and fired with the glaze.
deliquescent. The property of some solids to absorb
water vapor from the atmosphere and dissolve to form
a solution.
delivery. (I) The process or the equipment delivering
charges or gobs of glass to a forming machine. (2) The
final act of any glass-forming unit or process, including
the removal of an article from its mold. (3) The act of
delivery or conveying.
Della Robbia ware. A hard, durable item of terra-cotta
artware covered with white and brilliantly colored
glazes.
demagnetization. The reduction of magnetism from a
ferromagnetic material such as hitting a bar magnet
with a hammer to disorient the previously oriented
magnetic domains.
demijohn. A narrow-necked glass or stoneware bottle of
4.56- to 45.6-liter capacity; the bottle usually has one
or two handles and is enclosed in a wickerwork basket.
demineralize. Remove dissolved salts from a liquid.
dendrite. A branching, tree-shaped growth of one min-
erai or metal in another mineral or metal, the mineral
growth usually being crystalline in form.
dendritic growth. Growth of a solid nucleus in a solidi-
fying liquid in an uneven spike-like fashion.
denier. A measure of fiber linear density expressed as the
weight in grams of 9000 m of fiber. Assuming a circular
crosssection, the fiber diameter, d, can be calculated in
92
meters from: d =(4D/900Orcp )1/2, where D is the denier,
and p is the fiber density in kg m-3.
dense. (I) Compressed closely together into a compact
mass. (2) A subclass of optical glass having a higher
than normal index of refraction.
densitometer. An instrument used to measure the light
transmittance of a material.
density. (I) The mass of a substance per unit of volume,
expressed as kilograms per cubic meter. (2) The degree
of opacity of a translucent material.
density, absolute. See absolute density.
density, apparent. See apparent density.
density, block. See block density.
density, bulk. See bulk density.
density, magnetic flux. See magnetic flux denity.
density of states. Z(E); a concept of importance in the
quantum theory of the electronic properties of solids.
The number of quantum states, those baving four
distinct quantum numbers, whose energy lies between
E and E + dE for a volume V is given by: Z(E)dE =
21t/h3(2me)3I2VEI12dE, where Z(E) is the density of
states, me is the mass of the electron, and is Planck's
constant.
density, packing. See packing density.
density, particle. See particle density.
density, pour. See pour density.
density, powder. See powder density.
density, pressure. See pressure density.
density, tap. See tap density.
density, theoretical. See theoretical density.
density, true. See true density.
dental porcelain. A bubble-free porcelain of exception-
ally high strength and density which is shaped and tinted
for oral prosthetic use.
deoxidizer. A material which will reduce the oxygen
content of another material.
dependability. The probability of satisfactory compo-
nent performance; a function of reliability, maintain-
ability and component life.
depleted uranium. Uranium containing les than 0.71
wt. % 235U.
depletion layer. A region in a semiconductor in which
the mobile charge carrier density is not sufficient to
neutralize the net fixed charge density of donors and
acceptors.
depletion region. An electrically insulating boundary
region of about 100 nm thickness atthe outside of a ZnO
 93
varistor grain which contains higher concentrations of
the dopant oxide cations. It is wholly inside the grain
and is not a grain boundary deposit.
depolarizing factor. L; an electric field induces polari-
zation in a dielectric and the dipole moments per unit
volume so induced set up an electric field opposite to
the applied field; this is known as depolarization. The
depolarizing field, Edep = [(k - 1)/(k + 2)]-Eo, where k
is the dielectric coefficient; the depolarizing factor, L,
is the ratio of Edep to polarization: L = Eo(EdepIP).
Because of Eo, L is dimensionless.
deposition, vacuum. See vacuum deposition.
deposits, carbonaceous. See carbonaceous deposits.
depth of cut. The thickness of material removed when
machining a material.
depth of fusion. The distance to which fusion extends
into a body from its original surface following exposure
of the body to its fusion temperature.
depth of penetration. (I) The distance a penetrant has
entered into a solid material as measured from the
surface of the material. (2) The maximum depth at
which a magnetic or ultrasonic indication can be meas-
ured in a test specimen.
Derbyshire spar. A dark-blue to purple form of fluor-
spar, CaF2; used to make opalescent, opaque, and col-
ored decorative glass. Also called blue john.
descaling. The removal of scale from iron and steel sur-
faces which are to be porcelain-enameled by treatment
in an acid bath or by heating the metals in a furnace to
a red heat, or both.
desiccant. A drying agent or substance which will absorb
moisture from the atmosphere; for example, calcium
chloride.
desiccator. A container, usually made of glass, contain-
ing a drying agent and in which a material can be stored
in a dry atmosphere.
design life. The duration of intended function of a com-
ponent or system.
design, standard. See standard design.
desorption. The removal of adsorbate from a surface; the
reverse of absorption or adsorption.
detection limit. The lowest concentration of an impurity
in a ceramic that can be determined with confidence.
detector. In fiber optic technology it is a device that
receives light from the fiber and converts it into an
electrical signal.
detector efficiency. The fraction of particles or photons
striking a detector which give rise to a detected response
in the measurement of radioactivity.
detector geometry. The fraction of emissions from a
source (particles or photons) which impinge on a detec-
tor in the measurement of radioactivity.
DEWATERING
detector, germanium. See lithium drifted germanium
detector.
detent. A bump on the surface of a laminate.
detergent. A substance or mixture having a cleaning
action due to a combination of factors such as the
reduction of surface tension and improved wetting,
emulsification, dispersion, and foam-forming proper-
ties of washing solutions; a detergent may be anionic
(such as the alkylaryl sulfonates), cationic (such as the
quaternary ammonium halides), or non-ionic (such as
the alkylamides) in their cleansing actions.
detergent remover. An aqueous solution of a detergent
employed to remove penetrants from test specimens.
determinate structure. Any structure which can be ana-
lyzed mechanically such that all internal stresses are
determined by the use of the six equations of equilib-
rium.
determination. The ascertainment of the quantity or
concentration of a substance in a sample.
detritus. Debris from forming processes, particularly
where wear has occurred.
detrusion. Another expression for shear strain.
developer. A material applied to the surface of a test
specimen, after the removal of a penetrant solution, to
intensify the marking of a discontinuity in the specimen
surface.
developer, soluble. See soluble developer.
deviation of strain. The strain tensor obtained by sub-
tracting the mean normal strain component of a strain
tensor from each normal strain component.
deviation of stress. The stress tensor obtained as de-
scribed in deviation of strain.
deviation, relative standard. See relative standard de-
viation.
devitrification. The formation of crystals in a glassy
matrix, such as may occur in a glass, glaze, or porce-
lain-enamel during the slow cooling of a vitreous mass.
devitrified glass. A glassy product containing a crystal-
line phase produced by incorporating a nucleating agent
in the molten glass batch, followed by a predetermined
heat-treatment process; such products exhibit high re-
sistance to breakage, thermal shock, and chemical at-
tack, and are particularly useful in high-temperature
applications.
devitrite. Na2Ca3Si6016; a common crystalline phase in
devitrified soda-lime-silicate glass.
Dewar flask. A type of vacuum flask used in experi-
ments to keep liquid nitrogen, etc.
dewatering. The removal of water from a slurry or slip
by filter pressing, centrifuging, evaporation, or other
process.
DEW POINT
dew point. The temperature at which water vapor in the
air becomes saturated.
Dexil. Commercial carborane-siloxane polymer which
is pyrolyzed to an amorphous SiC-B4C powder.
dextrin. A polymer of glucose having a composition
between that of starch and maltose; used as a finer in
glazes and as a carrier or binder for ceramic inks and
decorating colors.
DF stone. A type of granite found in some china clay
areas which after treatment to remove iron-bearing
mica and fluorites, hence DF prefix, is used as a flux in
ceramic bodies.
D-glass. A high-boron-content glass often used in lami-
nates.
diabase. An alternative name for dolerite.
diadochy. Mineralogical term describing the variation in
composition of most minerals brought about by solid
solution formation or substitutional replacement of cat-
ions and anions in crystals.
diagonal. Refers in hardness testing to the line between
opposite comers of a pyramid indentation.
diagonal bond. A type of masonry construction in which
the header bricks are laid in a diagonal pattern.
diagonal tensile stress. The cause of diagonal cracks in
brittle materials such as ceramics; it is one of the prin-
cipal stresses, being a combination of horizontal and
vertical shear stresses, in a slab-shaped specimen.
diagram, equilibrium. See equilibrium diagram.
diagram, phase. See phase diagram.
diamagnetic material. A material where the suscepti-
bility is negative, i.e., the magnetization opposes the
magnetizing force and so is repelled by a magnet and
which will position itself at right angles to the magnetic
lines of force; the permeability is less than unity.
diamond. A mineral or synthetic product consisting es-
sentially of carbon crystallized in the cubic system,
usually in octahedral shape; used in polishing powders,
abrasive wheels, glass cutters, drill bits, and similar
products; sp. gr. 3.51-3.53; hardness (Mohs) 10; very
high thermal conductivity makes it useful as a semicon-
ductor device substrate.
diamond indenter. An instrument equipped with a dia-
mond point which is pressed into the surface of a solid,
the depth of penetration under a given load being taken
as a measure of the hardness of the material being tested.
diamond-like carbon film. See DLC.
diamond paste. Diamond dust dispersed in a paste or
slurry for use as a grinding or polishing compound.
diamond point. A cutting tool equipped with a diamond
point.
94
diamond point engraving. Scratching on the surface of
glass to produce pictorial decoration.
diamond powder. See diamond paste.
diamond-pyramid test. A measurement of the hardness
of a solid material in which a diamond point having a
fixed angle between opposite faces is pressed into the
surface of the material under variable loads, the depth
or width of the indentation being taken as a measure-
ment of the hardness of the material. See Knoop hard-
ness, Vickers hardness.
diamond saw. A saw with diamonds or diamond dust
inset on the cutting edge of the saw blade.
diamond, synthetic. See synthetic diamond.
diamond tool. Any tool in which the working area is
inset with diamonds or diamond dust.
diamond wheel. A bonded grinding wheel in which the
abrasive grains are crushed and sized natural or syn-
thetic diamonds.
diaspore. a-AIO(OH); sp. gr. 3.35-3.45; hardness
(Mohs) 6.5-7; a mineral used in refractories or as an
abrasive.
diaspore clay. A mineral consisting essentially of dias-
pore bonded by clay.
diathermal. The ability to transmit radiant heat.
diatom. Any of a class of minute planktonic unicellular
organisms with silicified skeletons.
diatomaceous earth. A light friable highly siliceous ma-
terial derived from the skeletons of diatoms; mp
1715°C; sp. gr. 1.9-2.35; used as a thermalinsulator in
the form of aggregate, brick, blocks, and cement, and
sometimes as a mild abrasive.
diatomite. Dense, chert-like diatomaceous earth; used as
an absorbant, insulator, filter medium, filler, etc. See
diatomaceous earth.
dibase. A basic igneous rock used as aggregate in con-
crete.
dibasic calcium phosphate. CaHP04·2H20; decom-
poses at 25°C; sp. gr. 2.306; used in the manufacture of
glass, principally as a fluxing and glass-forming ingre-
dient.
dice. Cubical fragments of tempered glass.
dice block. The refractory shapes which line the sub-
merged passage between the melting and the refining
zones of a glass tank.
dichlorodimethylsilane. DCDMS; (CH3)2SiCI2; the
precursor which when heated with lithium metal forms
a polycarbosilane polymer capable of being pulled and
pyrolyzed to SiC fiber.
dichroic glass. A glass which will transmit some colors
and reflect other colors, or which will display certain
 95
colors when viewed from one angle and different colors
when viewed from a different angle.
dichroism. The property of some cystals, such as tour-
maline, to selectively absorb light vibrations in the
plane while allowing light vibrations at 90 0 to this plane
to pass through. Thus, perceptible differences in color
can be seen in such materials when viewed in different
directions.
dichromate. (Cr207)2-; salts of dichromic acid.
dichroite. Another name for cordierite.
dickite. AI 2Si 20 5(OH)4; a mineral of the kaolin family;
very like kaolinite but monoclinic with a c-axis spacing
twice as long as kaolinite.
DICOR. Acronym for a commercial glass-ceramic based
on the crystalline tetrasilicic mica phase
KMg2.5Si401OF2 used in dentistry because of its good
durability and translucency; ceria is added to simulate
natural teeth.
didymium salts. A mixture of rare earth salts sometimes
used in substantial amounts as a glass colorant, the color
varying with the particular rare earths present; some-
times used in small amounts as a glass decolorizer; also
used as a component in temperature-compensating ca-
pacitors.
die. (I) A mold in which ware is shaped by pressing,
casting, or by extrusion. In extrusion processes the word
cavity is also used. (2) A perforated plate through which
ware is shaped by extrusion.
die drawing. The pulling of filaments or tubing of mol-
ten glass through a die to obtain a desired cross-sec-
tional shape and dimension.
dielectric. (1) An electric insulator in which an electric
field can be sustained with a minimum dissipation of
power. (2) Two classes of material, polar and nonpolar,
with a nonpolar material being one which contains no
dipoles when there is no applied electric field. A polar
material contains dipoles with a permanent moment, for
example, a water molecule has a dipole moment which
is the vector sum of the moments ofthe two O-H bonds.
When a field is applied these moments tend to line up
with the field, producing an orientation polarization Po.
(3) In radio-frequency heating it is the material being
heated.
dielectric breakdown voltage. The potential difference
at which electrical failure occurs, under prescribed con-
ditions, in an electrical insulating material between two
electrodes.
dielectric coefficient. k; for a dielectric material this is
defined by the equation k = (1 + X), where X is the
electric susceptibility.
dielectric constant. The ratio of the capacitance of a
capacitor filled with a given dielectric to that of the
same capacitor with a vacuum as the dielectric. Also
known as the specific inductive capacity k, since the
capacity of a condenser is increased k times when air is
replaced by a dielectric material. The value serves as an
DIFFERENTIAL HEAT OF ADSORPTION
index of the ability of a substance to resist the transmis-
sion of an electrostatic force from one charged body to
another.
dielectric loss. An energy loss sustained by a dielectric
sited in an alternating electric field which eventually
appears as heat.
dielectric loss factor. ktano; the heatability; a measure
of the amount of energy dissipated in the dielectric
medium which equals the product of the dielectric con-
stant and the loss tangent.
dielectric loss tangent. 0; the degree of difficulty with
which molecular or dipole ordering occurs.
dielectric phase angle. 9; the difference in phase, ex-
pressed as an angle, between a sinusoidal alternating
potential applied to a dielectric, and the induced alter-
nating current.
dielectric polarization. The dipole moment per unit
volume of a dielectric.
dielectric power factor. The cosine of the dielectric
phase angle.
dielectric strength. The maximum electrical gradient a
dielectric can withstand without rupture when tested
under specified conditions; expressed as breakdown
voltage per mil, where a mil = 0.00 I inch and is the
sample thickness expressed in these units.
dielectric test. A higher than rated voltage is applied to
an insulating ceramic for a specified time so that its
ability to withstand breakdown is tested.
die lubricant. A material applied to the work surface of
a die or added to the substance or product being formed
to facilitate movement of the material to minimize die
wear and to ease the removal of the formed product
from the die; examples of such lubricants are graphite
and molybdenum disulfide.
die pressing. The forming or shaping of an item in a die
or mold under pressure.
die stock. The device used to hold dies needed to cut an
external screw thread.
die zones. Distinct geometrical regions that have to be
machined into ceramic dies used in wire and fiber
pulling operations: entrance zone, reduction zone, bear-
ing zone, relief zone, and exit zone.
differential coil. Similar to the comparator coil but the
two coils are arranged around two parts of the same
sample to test for local inhomogeneities in samples.
differential heating. The thermal gradient occurring in
a body during heating, causing stress to develop in a
body.
differential heat of adsorption. The measure of the
heat evolved during the adsorption of an incremental
quantity of an adsorbate at a given level of adsorption.
DIFFERENTIAL MEASUREMENTS
differential measurements. The measurement of any
imbalance in a body or system.
differential pressure. The difference in pressure occur-
ring in a system.
differential scanning calorimeter. DSC; a way of de-
termining the rate of heat evolution or absorption of a
sample subjected to a programmed linear temperature
change. The data are presented as increase in heat per
increase in temperature against temperature.
differential thermal analysis. DTA; the determination
of the temperature at which thermal reactions occur in
a material during heating or cooling by comparing the
temperature of a standard, usually A120 3, to that of the
sample as both are subjected to a linear change in
temperature.
differential thermogravimetric analysis. DTG; the
measurement of the weight change taking place in a
material during heating and plotting the gradient of the
weight change.
differentiated signal. An output signal that is propor-
tional to the rate of change of the input signal.
diffraction. (1) Deviation in the direction of a wave at
the edge of an obstacle in its path. (2) Bending of light
as it passes through narrow slits or past the edges of
opaque bodies. The overall effect is to produce fringes
of dark and bright bands through interference.
diffraction grating. (1) A glass plate or mirror with a
large number of equidistant parallel lines or grooves on
its surface separated by distances on the order of one
wavelength of radiation to be diffracted. It causes dif-
fraction of transmitted or reflected radiation. (2) Any
arrangement which is equivalent, in its action toward
light, to a number of parallel equidistant slits of equal
width.
diffraction, x-ray. See x-ray diffraction.
diffractometer. An instrument used to study diffraction
and derive data on molecular and crystal structure.
diffuse. To spread or cause to spread in all directions.
diffused junction. A semiconductor junction formed by
diffusing dopant atoms to act as donors or acceptors into
the chip to form regions of n-type or p-type conductiv-
ity.
diffused light. Non-directionallight.
diffuse indication. The detection of the presence of
some imperfection in a specimen which has not been
clearly defined.
diffuse reflectance. An infrared examination method
well suited to composites and some ceramic powders
whereby radiation penetrates the sample and re-emer-
ges after being scattered several times. Because of the
mUltiple scattering several wavelengths are selectively
absorbed and the diffuse remainder contains informa-
tion relevant to the structure of the sample.
96
diffusion. Several processes which are responsible for
the movement of matter through matter, some of which
are responsible for material transfer and densification
in sintering processes; see volume diffusion, self-diffu-
sion, surface diffusion, grain boundary diffusion.
diffusion bonding. Localized heat applied to the bound-
ary area between two extremely clean surfaces sub-
jected to a compressive force in order to encourage atom
or ion diffusion to bond the parts together; a wholly
solid state process.
diffusion coefficient. The flux of substance moving
across unit area in unit time under the influence of a unit
concentration gradient; generally accepted as a measure
of the amount of diffusion.
diffusion couple. Two materials in such close contact
that atoms from each diffuse into the other.
diffusion, vacuum. See vacuum diffusion.
diffusion welding. See diffusion bonding.
diffusivity, thermal. See thermal diffusivity.
digest. To soften or disintegrate by the action of heat,
moisture or chemicals.
digester. An autoclave or ther vessel in which the process
of digestion is carried-out.
digital. (l) In electronics it is a system, such as a logic
circuit, which responds to discrete imput voltages pro-
ducing discrete output voltage levels. (2) Displaying
information as numbers rather than by a pointer moving
slowly over a dial.
digitron. A tube with a common anode and several cath-
odes shaped as characters which can be lit by a glow
discharge.
diglycol stearate. (C17H35COOC2H4hO; a white wax-
like solid used as a temporary binder in the manufacture
of grinding wheels and other abrasive products.
digs. Deep, short scratches on the surface of glass.
dihedral angle. The eqUilibrium angle at which grains of
the same material form a boundary. Achievement of the
dihedral angle dictates the curvature of grain bounda-
ries and hence the direction of their movement in sin-
tering processes.
dilatancy. The property of a material to thicken or be-
come solid under pressure and to become fluid when the
pressure is removed; an increase in flow resistance with
agitation.
dilatant. A material that increases in volume when its
shape changes.
dilate. To expand.
dilatometer. Any of several instruments used to measure
the volume change of a material, usually as a function
of temperature.
 97
dilution. The reduction of the concentration of a sub-
stance by the addition of another substance.
dilution factor. The ratio of the volume of a diluted
substance to the volume of the original substance before
dilution.
dimension. (I) The measurement of the size of an object
in a particular direction. (2) The number of coordinates
needed to locate a point in space in the general physics
sense.
dimensional coordination. The selection of materials
by size and shape in a relationship with other units to
facilitate assembly or construction.
dimensional deviations. Expressed as a square root
multiple of the work size, d, it is the allowance anyone
brick, tile, or paver can be allowed: tl = O.4d I12 and t2
= O.25dl12 , where tl and t2 are the thickness of specimen
at center and nib.
dimensional stability. Ability of a ceramic or artifact to
retain its shape when heated, stressed, or kept in chang-
ing gaseous environments.
dimension, nominal. See nominal dimension.
dimetral compression test. A tensile test carried out on
disk-shaped samples compressed along a diameter. The
edges are protected from the patens by soft material and
the anvil patens are contoured to match the circumfer-
ence of the sample. Fracture strength is given by
cr = 2P/1tDt, where P is the applied load, D the disk
diameter, and t the disk thickness.
dimorph. Either of two forms of a material that exhibits
dimorphism.
dimorphism. Property of certain ceramics that can exist
in two crystalline forms with distinct melting points.
dimorphous. Adjective, exhibiting dimorphism.
dimple. (I) A shallow conical depression in a fired por-
celain-enamel or glaze surface. (2) A bubble or dent in
glass.
Dinas refractories. Traditional European naturally oc-
curring refractory containing 92-98% silica.
dinner service. A set of matching dishes and plates suit-
able for serving a meal to a certain number of people.
dinnerware. Ceramic and glass articles employed in ta-
ble service.
dioctabedral. A crystal structure where atoms fill 66%
of the 6-fold interstices.
diode. (I) A rectifier consisting of a semiconducting
crystal with two terminals. (2) An electron tube contain-
ing an anode and a cathode.
diopside. CaMg(Si0 3)2; a pyroxene mineral; mp
1392°C; sp. gr. 3.28; used as a component in whiteware
bodies, glazes, and glass, and as a refractory in weld-
ing-rod coatings.
DIP TANK
dioptase. H2CuSi04 ; hydrated copper silicate mineral;
green with glassy luster; hexagonal crystal system.
diopter. A measure of the refracting power of a lens
given by the reciprocal of the focal length in meters.
diorite. A coarse-grained, dark colored igneous rock
usually a mixture of plagioclase feldspar and ferromag-
nesian minerals.
dioxide. A compound containing a ratio of two atoms of
oxygen in combination with another element.
dip coatings. Coatings applied to ceramic bodies or to
steel to be porcelain-enameled by dipping the item in a
solution, slip, or other bath and then allowing it to drain
to the desired thickness before firing.
dip encapsulation. The process of enclosing or encasing
an item by immersion in an insulating material.
dip mold. A glass-forming mold constructed in one
piece having an opening at the top for the entry of the
molten glass and for the removal of the finished piece.
dipole. A pair of charges, +/-q, at a separation a, where
a is arbitrarily small.
dipole moment. The product of the charge q and the
separation distance of the two q charges that constitute
the dipole.
dipole potential. The potential at a point x due to a
dipole in a solid; it has a value given by V =
q/41t9)'[1/rl + l/r2]' where rl is the distance of x from
+q and r2 is the distance of x from -q, and £0 is the
absolute permittivity of free space. When r is large rl =
r2 then V = qacos9/41t£o(rl)2, where 9 is the angle be-
tween a and r.
dipped joint. A masonry joint in which the masonry first
is wetted by a mortar slurry before it is set or placed in
the mortar joint, or by pouring the slurry over a course
of masonry before laying the next course.
dipper. An operator who applies porcelain-enamel or
glaze slips to ware by dipping.
dipping. (I) The process of applying porcelain-enamel
or glaze to an item by dipping in a slip or slurry; a
smooth uniform coating is obtained by allowing the
item to drain naturally or by swinging, shaking, and
gently spinning the article. (2) Immersion of a heated
cast-iron article in dry powdered frit to obtain an adher-
ent coating which mayor may not be subjected to
further heating to obtain complete fusion.
dipping weight. The weight of a coating retained on
dipped ware per unit of area, reported either as wet or
dry weight, the dry weight being the more accurate.
dip rinse. The removal of excess penetrant from an in-
spection specimen by dipping the specimen in water or
a penetrant remover.
dip tank. A receptacle or tank containing a solution or
slurry in which ware is dipped.
DIP TANK, RECmCULATING
dip tank, recirculating. See recirculating dip tank.
dipteral. A structure having a double row of columns.
Dirac constant. Ii; a constant used in quantum mechan-
ics equal to the Planck constant divided by 21t.
direct access. A method of examining a computer file
without reading through the file from the beginning.
direct arc furnace. A melting furnace in which an elec-
tric arc extends directly from electrodes to the batch in
the furnace.
direct-bonded basic brick. A fired refractory in which
the grains are bonded by solid-state diffusion.
direct current. A continuous electric current flowing in
one direction.
direct fire. The firing of ware in direct contact with the
products of combustion in the furnace or kiln.
direct-fired furnace. A furnace having neither recu-
perator nor regenerator; that is, the furnace is fired
without preheating the fuel or air of the fuel mixture.
See recuperator, regenerator.
directional solidification. Solidification of a ceramic
melt so that liquid is continually available to the grow-
ing solid face.
direct-on enamel. A porcelain-enamel finish coat ap-
plied directly to a steel base without benefit of a ground
coat.
dirt. Undesirable foreign matter in a body or coating; a
cause for rejection.
dirty metal. Terminology for a fault in glass consisting
of a ribbon of blisters in the glass body running down
one side of the object, usually a bottle.
disappearing filament pyrometer. An instrument for
measuring high temperatures in which a heated filament
of calibrated temperature, enclosed in a telescope, dis-
appears when focused on an incandescent background
or surface at the same temperature.
disappearing highlight test. A test to evaluate the dete-
rioration of a glaze, porcelain-enamel, or glass surface,
or damage done by chemical or physical action, by
observing the loss of gloss or change in surface texture.
discontinuity. A pinhole, fracture, or other break in a
coating which impairs or destroys the usefulness, pur-
pose, or value of a coating.
discontinuity, artificial. See artificial discontinuity.
discontinuity, subsurface. See subsurface discontinu-
ity.
discontinuous grain growth. The rapid increase in vol-
ume of a grain in a sinter specimen in the final stages
of the process. Such a grain begins larger than the
average and has more than six sides so that triple points
of 120 0 mean that the grain boundaries are curved in a
concave fashion.
98
dish grinder. A grinding machine equipped with a dish-
shaped abrasive wheel as a grinding mechanism.
dishing. Forming a concave surface.
dish wheel. A dish-shaped abrasive grinding wheel.
disintegration. To come apart or separate into compo-
nents.
disintegrations per minute. The number of spontane-
ous nuclear transformations occurring in a material per
minute.
disintegrator. A device for grinding and pulverizing ma-
terials.
disintegrator crusher. A two-roll crusher consisting of
a low-speed, smooth, and a high-speed, serrated roll,
between which solids are crushed and passed.
disk feeder. A rotating disk beneath the opening of a bin
which delivers material from the bin at a specified rate
by controlling the rate of rotation of the disk and the
size of the gate opening of the bin.
disk grinder. A grinding machine equipped with a large
abrasive disk as the work mechanism.
disk sander. A machine which employs an abrasive-
coated disk as the grinding and polishing surface.
disk, strain. See strain disk.
disk wheel. A bonded abrasive wheel mounted on a plate
so that grinding may be done on the side of the wheel.
dislocation. The boundary between slipped and un-
slipped areas in a crystal. It may be formed by several
processes, e.g., diffusional transport, but the same con-
figuration can always be obtained by pure slip. A dislo-
cation is defined by the slip vector and the dislocation
line. Dislocation theory allows great rationalization of
mechanical properties of solids, particularly metals and
particularly their failure to achieve theoretical
strengths.
dislocation climb. Migration of vacancies to or from the
edges of the half-planes that constitute dislocations at
temperatures where self-diffusion is rapid. This results
in dislocations changing from horizontal groupings to
vertical groupings as they move out of their slip planes.
dislocation decomposition. See dislocation strength.
dislocation loop. See Frank-Read source.
dislocation, partial. See partial dislocation.
dislocation strength. The distance of the Burgers vec-
tor, b, relative to the lattice spacing. When b equals one
lattice spacing the configuration in the slipped area is
the same as the initial one and the dislocation is said to
have unit strength. Strengths greater than one are unsta-
ble and decompose into two or more dislocations of
strength less than unity.
disorder. The occupation of crystal sites by atoms or ions
in a random way to form a solid solution.
 99
disperse phase. Sol particles in suspension.
dispersion. (1) The variation of the relative dielectric
constant or the variation of the square of the refractive
index at infrared or optical frequencies. (2) The ability
of a glass prism or a grating to separate any two colors
of wavelength D\ and D 2• (3) A change in the refractive
index of a substance which occurs with change in wave-
length or frequency. (4) Widely distributed or scattered
particles in a medium.
dispersion curve. A plot of refractive index against
wavelength of the radiation being refracted. The curve
usually follows the Cauchy equation: n =A + Bf).} +
cn,}, where A, B, and C are material constants and A. is
the wavelength.
dispersion medium. The liquid phase that contains the
solid particles in a sol.
displacement angle. The distance advanced by the
winding ribbon along the equator after one circuit in a
filament winding operation.
diplacive transformation. A change in the long-range
order of a structure as the crystal symmetry is changed;
caused by changes in bond lengths or bond angles
without altering the local coordination number.
dissipation factor. tano; where 0 is the loss angle.
dissociated zircon. A mixed oxide of zr0 2 and Si02
produced by heating zircon, ZrSi04 , above 1750°C,
used as a starting material in the production of zirconia.
dissociation. The breakdown of a compound or sub-
stance due to a change in physical conditions, such as
pressure or temperature.
distensibilty. Ability to be stretched.
distinguishing stain. An organic colorant added to a
body, glaze, or porcelain-enamel slip as a means of
identification of the slip before use, particularly when
slips of different compositions are of the same color; the
colorant or dye bums out during firing.
distortion. (1) A change in the shape of an item due to
improper processing, such as uneven pressures, uneven
or too rapid heating, etc. (2) An optical effect due to
variations in the thickness of plate glass.
distributed impact test. The way that an erosion test is
often described to emphasize the fact that the eroding
medium is distributed over an area of the surface as
opposed to a point impact.
distribution. (I) The degree of dispersion of a substance
in another substance. (2) The range of wall thicknesses
in a glass article.
distribution coefficient. K; in phase diagrams it is the
ratio of the slopes of the liquidus and solidus lines where
they intersect at Tm' In general K is less than 0.5.
dititanates. Ceramic phases of general composition'
MTi20 S' where M is a divalent metal cation.
DOCUMENT GLASS
divorced eutectic. A micrographic description of a eu-
tectic in which each phase appears as very large crystals
instead of the characteristic finely dispersed intimate
mixture of very small crystallites.
DLC. Abbreviation for diamond-like carbon film pre-
pared by bombarding a substrate with a C+ ion beam; a
smooth hard film with properties intermediate between
polycrystalline diamond and graphite films; transparent
and so used to protect optical surfaces.
D-Ioad. The supporting strength of a concrete pipe
loaded under three-edge bearing test conditions; ex-
pressed in kilograms per linear meter per meter of inside
diameter or horizontal span, or expressed in newtons
per linear meter per millimeter of inside diameter or
horizontal span.
D-Ioad, O.02S-mm crack. The maximum three-edge
bearing test load supported by a concrete pipe before a
crack 0.025-mm wide occurs throughout a length of at
least 310 mm of the pipe.
D-Ioad ultimate. The maximum three-edge bearing load
which will be supported by a concrete pipe.
DLTS. Abbreviation for deep level transient spectros-
copy; a technique used to characterize electronic de-
fects in the depletion regions of grain boundaries by
monitoring capacitance transients at a p-n junction.
DLVO theory. Abbreviation for the Deryaguin, Landau,
Verwey, and Overbeck theory of agglomeration forces
and agglomeration energy in powder-liquid colloids
and suspensions.
DMC. See dough molding compound.
dobbin. A turntable type of dryer upon which ceramic
tableware is dried in the mold in which it was formed.
dobie. A hand-shaped. crudely formed, building or re-
fractory brick, either fired or unfired.
docking. The removal of lime deposits from the surface
of building brick and roofing tile by immersion in, or
washing with, water.
doctor. To spread a surface coating in a uniform layer on
a substrate.
doctor blade. A flat metal knife or blade mounted in a
device so as to spread a uniform thickness of a material
on a surface and to remove excess material from the
surface, such as, the scraping of excess coloring pastes
from roller coaters, etc.
doctor mark. A defect on a surface coating which looks
like a ridge, caused by a damaged doctor blade.
doctor roll. A type of roller device employed to remove
filter cake from rotary filter drums.
documented. Correctly recorded ware.
document glass. An ultraviolet-absorbing glass used as
a cover to protect documents and valuable papers
against deterioration from strong light.
DODGE CRUSHER
Dodge crusher. A type of jaw crusher with a stationary
jaw and a movable jaw hinged at the bottom of the
crushing unit.
dog. (I) A device for holding a workpiece so as to permit
the piece to be rotated during machining. (2) A type of
drag for a wheel or traversing table.
dog bone. The description sometimes applied to a tensile
test specimen.
dog ear, dog teeth. A tom surface on a column of clay
emerging from a pug mill; due to insufficient plasticity
of the clay column or to damaged or dirty extrusion
nozzles.
doghouse. A small boxlike vestibule on a glass furnace
into which batch is fed or which facilitates the introduc-
tion and removal of floaters.
dolerite. A dark basic igneous rock consisting of plagio-
clase feldspar and a pyroxene; a coarse-grained basalt.
dolly. (1) A hand-operated, low-platform truck mounted
on casters used for the movement of materials and ware.
(2) A type of tool used for mixing glazes and other slips.
(3) A refractory-tipped, glass-gathering iron used in
semi-automatic forming machines.
dolomite. CaMg(C03h; CO2 expelled at about 900°C;
sp. gr. 2.9; hardness (Mohs) 3.5-4.0; used in refracto-
ries, glass, tile, and pottery bodies and also in glazes,
primarily as a fluxing ingredient.
dolomite brick. A refractory brick made substantially or
entirely of dead-burned dolomite.
dolomite, calcined refractory. See calcined refractory
dolomite.
dolomite, dead-burned refractory. See dead-burned
refractory dolomite.
dolomite, double-burned. See double-burned dolomite.
dolomite magnesite brick. A refractory brick made of
dead-burned dolomite and dead-burned magnesite and
in which the dead-burned dolomite predominates.
dolomite matte. A matte glaze finish produced by the
formation of calcium and magnesium silicates in the
glaze during firing.
dolomite, raw refractory. See raw refractory dolomite.
dolomitic limestone. A mineral composed of more than
80% calcium magnesium carbonate; used as a source of
calcium in glazes, as a component in cement, as a
refractory, and refractory ingredient.
domain wall. The transition region in which the direc-
tion of polarization or magnetization changes from one
domain to the next.
domains. Volumes of spontaneous polarization or mag-
netization inside individual crystallites. The domains
have dipole vectors randomly distributed. Application
of an electric or magnetic field causes domains in the
crystallite parallel to the field to grow and those at right
100
angles to shrink and this gives rise to a nonlinear polari-
zation or magnetization response to the field strength.
When all crystallites have only one domain the material
acts like a normal dielectric.
dome. The end of a filament-wound container.
dome brick. A brick of a curved pattern or shape suitable
for use in the construction of a dome.
dominant wavelength. The wavelength at which the
peak energy is emitted from an infrared source; used to
characterize industrial emitters.
donor. An impurity which adds electrons at energy levels
above the valence band but below the conduction band
in a semiconductor, e.g., phosphorus added to a group
IV element.
dopant. See doping agent.
dope. (1) A lubricant, such as graphite, which is applied
to glass molds to reduce friction and prevent sticking
during the forming of glass articles. (2) See doping
agent.
doping agent. A measured element or impurity added to
a semiconductor composition to promote the develop-
ment of a desired property or characteristic. Sometimes
called dope, dopant.
Doppler effect. When a source of waves is in motion
through a stationary medium, the wavelength is
changed. The waves sent out in the direction of the
source are shorter, those in the opposite direction
longer, than the waves from the source at rest.
dose. The amount of radiation delivered to an area or to
which the body of a person has been exposed.
dosimeter. An instrument for measuring doses of x rays
or radioactivity.
dot. A refractory spacer used with kiln furniture.
dottling. The horizontal placement of flatware on refrac-
tory pins in kilns preparatory to firing.
double brick. A brick 13.5 x 10.2 x 20.3 cm in size.
double burned. A refractory or brick which has been
subjected to two separate firings.
double-burned dolomite. Mixture of dolomite and iron
oxide which has been subjected to a single calcination
treatment.
double-cavity mold. A two-compartment mold for the
concurrent fabrication of two articles of glass.
double-cavity process. Any glass-forming process in
which two items of glass are formed at the same time in
a double-cavity mold.
double chain silicates. Silicate structures containing
(Si04 )4- tetrahedra half of which share three oxygens
and half share only two, to produce giant negative ions
of n(Si4 0 11 )6- units, as 2-D chains. The chains are
 101
aligned in the crystal structure and held together by
cations.
double dipping. The process of applying a glaze to a
pottery item by dipping the item into a glaze slip twice
before firing; the purpose is to obtain contrasting colors
on ware which may be fired at the same time.
double drain. The undesired draining of a once-dipped
porcelain-enamel coating a second time after the initial
drain has appeared to be complete, resulting in a coating
of non-uniform thickness.
double embossing. The treatment of a glass surface with
acid to produce a design, followed by two additional
acid treatments, so that three different shades are pro-
duced on the glass surface.
double-faced ware. Porcelain-enameled ware with a
finish coat applied to both surfaces of the metal base.
double-frit glaze. A glaze in which frits of two different
compositions are incorporated to obtain a coating with
a longer firing range and having improved physical and
chemical properties.
double glazing. (I) The application of a glaze over a
previously applied and dried glaze on ceramic ware,
both coatings being fired concurrently. (2) The place-
ment of two parallel panes of glass in a window, the
panes being separated by a thickness, or cell, of station-
ary air as a means of sound and thermal insulation.
double-glazing unit. A window assembly consisting of
two panes of glass separated by a permanently sealed
cavity, compartment, or cell.
double glide. Crystals slipping simultaneously on two
slip systems caused when deformation on one set of
planes causes the resolved shear stress on a second set
to increase and start slip on a second set; it occurs
commonly in rock salt structure crystals.
double-gob process. The process of forming two glass
items simultaneously.
double layer thickness. Defined as the reciprocal De-
bye parameter and is the distance from a particle surface
at which the surface potential has fallen to lie of the
value at the surface.
doubler. An area in a fiber composite which contains
extra reinforcement fiber.
double refraction. A phenomenon exhibited by some
crystals, calcite and quartz are two examples, whereby
a beam of ordinary unpolarized light is refracted into
two beams. Snell's law of refraction holds for one beam,
the ordinary ray, but not for the other, known as the
extraordinary ray. See birefringence.
double-roll crusher. A pulverizing machine for miner-
als; consists of two toothed rolls rotating in opposite
directions on parallel axes.
double-screened ground refractory materials. A once-
graded refractory material which has been screened to
DRAG
remove particles that are both coarser and finer than
specified sizes.
double-shelled tile. A tile with two faces separated by
short webs.
double-strength glass. Sheet of thicknesses between 2.9
and 3.6 mm.
double tetrahedral silicates. Formed when each
(Si04 )4- tetrahedron in a structure shares one oxygen
with an adjacent tetrahedron to produce (Si20 7 )6- groups,
known as pyrosilicate ions, which are packed into a
structure stabilized by cations.
double-wing auger. An auger equipped with two screws
at the discharge end.
doubling. Combining two or more fiber strands without
twisting.
dough molding compound. DMC; a mixture of par-
tially cured epoxy resin, glass or ceramic fiber, CaC0 3 ,
lubricants and catalysts, with a clay-like moldable con-
sistency from which hand-lay composite artifacts can
be formed.
dovetail. A joint designed to interlock two or more parts.
dowel. (I) A metal bar extending across a concrete joint
to aid in vertical alignment and to equalize the transfer
of applied loads. (2) A pin used to ensure alignment of
two parts of a mold.
dowel assembly, dowel basket. A reinforcing network
or alignment of dowels around which concrete is poured
in construction projects.
downdraft kiln. A kiln in which the hot gases from the
firebox are passed to the crown, then directed through
the ware being fired, and finally are exhausted into a
flue or stack.
downdraw. The process of continuously drawing glass
downward from an orifice.
downfeed. In surface grinding to shape a ceramic it is the
rate at which the grinding wheel is fed into the work.
down time. The production time lost when an item of
equipment is not operating due to malfunction, mainte-
nance, power failure, or other cause.
draft. (I) The difference in pressure which causes air and
combustion gases to flow from one area to another, such
as from a furnace, kiln, or dryer to a flue. (2) The taper
given to a die or mold so that work can easily be
removed.
draft gauge. A manometer or instrument employed to
measure pressure differences between two areas, such
as between a furnace, kiln, or dryer and a flue.
draft, induced. See induced draft.
drag. (l) The resistance of the foot or base of a ceramic
article to shrinkage during firing due to friction with the
slab or sagger on which it rests. (2) The bottom section
ofa mold.
DRAGADE, DRAG LADLE
dragade, drag ladle. Cullet produced by ladling molten
glass from the melting chamber and quenching in water.
drag-out. The solution removed from a bath by the ware
and equipment, as in the cleaning and pickling of metal
for porcelain-enameling.
drain. (I) The flow of a porcelain-enamel or glaze slip
on the surface of a piece to form a smooth, even coating.
(2) The layer in a semiconductor device to which the
current carriers in the active layer are moving. Typically
the drain is some 4 ~m from the source layer.
drain angle. The angle at which an item to be porcelain-
enameled or glazed is positioned after dipping to permit
the excess slip to drain from the item, and that portion
of the coating retained on the item to flow to a smooth
uniform thickness.
drain casting. The forming of a ceramic body by pouring
slip into a porous mold and then draining the slip from
the mold after the cast body has attained the desired
thickness.
draining. The process of removing excess slip from
dipped items by gravity flow.
drain line. A line or streak appearing in dipped or flow-
coated ware as the result of uneven coating thickness.
drain pipe. A pipe for collecting and carrying surface
and subsurface water.
drain, storm. See storm sewer.
drain tile. Tile of circular cross section designed to col-
lect and convey surface and subsurface water away
from an area.
drain time. The time required for a porcelain-enamel or
glaze slip applied by dipping, slushing, or flow coating
to cover the ware uniformly and for drainage to cease.
draw. (I) The quantity of glass delivered by a glass-melt-
ing tank per unit of time; usually 24 hours. (2) To
remove a charge of fired ware from a kiln. (3) The draft
in a flue.
drawabiIity. The property of fiber-forming materials to
undergo several hundred percent deformation under
load at the working temperature.
draw bar. A submerged, refractory block in a glass tank
defining the point at which sheet glass is drawn.
draw firing. Removal of a load from a porcelain-enam-
eling furnace prior to completion of the firing operation
to permit equalization of the heat in the ware, particu-
larly in areas of greater thickness; the load may, or may
not, be returned to the furnace, depending on the degree
of maturity of the coating.
draw gang. A group of workmen employed to cut and
handle glass coming from the lehr.
drawing. (I) The unloading of a kiln. (2) The extension
of a synthetic fiber to orient the structure, to reduce the
cross-sectional area and improve its properties. (3) Con-
102
tinuous forming of sheets, tubes, or fiber from molten
glass.
drawing chamber. The section of a glass-melting tank
from which molten glass is drawn.
drawing compound. A composition, such as graphite,
talc, greases and oils, applied to the surface of metal to
serve as a lubricant to prevent draw marks and tearing
during drawing and stamping operations.
drawing die. A die in which sheet metal and some com-
posites are shaped by drawing and stamping.
drawing tractors. Two rollers counter rotating; used to
pull glass-fiber through the water and onto the winding
drum.
draw mark. An imperfection in material shapes caused
by friction with, or a defect in, a die.
drawn glass. Glass made automatically and continu-
ously by drawing from the melting tank, and then rolling
or shaping.
drawn stem. Glass tableware in which the stem or base
is pulled or drawn from the bowl while in the plastic
state.
draw ratio. The ratio of the cross-sectional area of a
drawn fiber to that of the undrawn material; a measure
of the stretching achieved.
dredging. The application of powdered, porcelain-
enamel frit to a hot metal shape, usually cast iron, by
sifting the powder over the surface of the metal.
dress. To shape or return a tool to its original shape and
sharpness.
dressed crude mica. Mica from which dirt and rock
have been removed.
dresser. An apparatus employed to shape, true, and dress
grinding wheels by the use of rotating cutters.
dresser, Huntington. See Huntington dresser.
dresser, star. See Huntington dresser.
dressing. (I) The process of restoring the efficiency of
an abrasive grinding wheel by removal of dulled grains.
(2) Reshaping the faces of grinding wheels to special
contours.
dressing, crush. See crush dressing.
dried sand. Sand with less than 0.5% moisture.
drierite. A commercial drying agent consisting essen-
tially of anhydrous calcium sulfate.
drigage. Material quenched to a glass by pouring a melt
into cold water.
drip feed. A technique for supplying oil or paraffin as
lubricants for moving parts.
drippings, smelter. See smelter drippings.
 103
drop arch. An auxiliary arch projecting below the inner
surface of the arched roof of a furnace.
drop chute. Flexible sheet-metal tubes forming down-
spouts to control the flow of concrete during a vertical
or downward fall as it is being placed.
drop-machine silica brick. Silica brick formed by drop-
ping the prepared mix into a mold from varying heights,
the force of the drop being sufficient to force the mix
into all comers to fill the mold.
droppers. A form of ceramic glaze defect consisting of
brownish discolored spots on top of it. The cause is drips
from the refractory glass phase in the kiln ceiling falling
during firing.
dropping. The shaping of a glass article by sagging
heat-softened glass into a mold without the application
of mechanical pressure.
drop test. A durability test performed by dropping the
article a predetermined height onto a standard hard
surface.
drop throat. The throat of a glass tank situated below the
level of the bottom or floor of the melting tank.
drop weight test. A fracture test similar to the Izod test
except that the height from which the weight is launched
at the specimen is varied.
dross. Waste and impurities collected on the surface of a
molten glass bath.
drum dryer. A heated, rotating drum in which tumbling
or cascading raw materials are dried.
drusy crystals. Aggregates of small well-formed crys-
tals that grow on the surface or along cleavage fractures
in rocks; chabazite is a common example.
dry. Free from, or deficient in, water or moisture.
dry-bag isostatic pressing. A forming method in which
the sealing envelope is permanently sealed into a pres-
sure vessel to facilitate loading, pressing, and product
removal.
dry basis. The weight or volume of a substance exclu-
sive of any moisture which may be present.
dry body. (1) An unglazed body, usually of the stone-
ware type. (2) A body from which all moisture has been
removed.
dry-bulb temperature. Actual atmospheric tempera-
ture as measured by an ordinary dry-bulb thermometer.
dry disk. An apparatus for finishing the face of an abra-
sive grinding wheel.
dry edging. An imperfection consisting of rough edges
and comers on glazed ceramic ware due to insufficient
application of glaze to the area.
dryer. A heated chamber, frequently with circulating air,
in which ware is placed for the removal of water or
moisture by evaporation.
DRYING CRACK
dryer, automatic. See automatic dryer.
dryer, batch. See batch dryer.
dryer car. A dryer through which ware is transported by
means of cars.
dryer, chamber. See chamber dryer.
dryer, continuous. See continuous dryer.
dryer, hot-floor. See hot-floor dryer.
dryer, humidity. See humidity dryer.
dryer, infrared. See infrared dryer.
dryer, jet. See jet dryer.
dryer, pallet. See pallet dryer.
dryer, periodic. See periodic dryer.
dryer, pipe-rack. See pipe-rack dryer.
dryer, Proctor. See Proctor dryer.
dryer room. A heated room in which ware is placed,
dried, and sometimes stored prior to firing.
dryer, rotary. See rotary dryer.
dryer, spray. See spray dryer.
dryer, steam-rack. See steam-rack dryer.
dryer, string. See string dryer.
dryer, tunnel. See tunnel dryer.
dryer, waste-heat. See waste-heat dryer.
dryer white. Discoloration of clay ware due to the pres-
ence of soluble salts at the surface, usually due to the
migration of the salts dissolved in the water moving
from the interior of the body to the surface during the
drying cycle.
dry-film lubricant. See die lubricant.
dry foot. An unglazed base or foot on the underside of
fired ceramic ware.
dry gauge. Cullet produced by ladling molten glass from
a melting unit into water.
dry grinding. Milling of materials without a liquid me-
dium.
drying. The removal of water and moisture from a body.
drying control chemical additives. Chemicals added to
gels which speed up the drying process. The mechanism
is unclear but it may be concerned with the fact that they
make the capillary stress uniform by narrowing the
distribution of pore sizes.
drying crack. A fissure in an unfired body, glaze, or
porcelain-enamel due to stresses incurred during han-
dling or drying.
DRYING OVEN
drying oven. A closed unit in which specimens are dried
by heating.
drying rate. The speed at which a moisture-bearing ma-
terial, body, or coating will dry under specific heating
or atmospheric conditions, or both.
drying shrinkage. The contraction of a moist body dur-
ing the drying process, expressed as linear percent of
the original length or volume percent of the original
volume.
drying shrinkage, linear. See linear drying shrinkage.
drying shrinkage, volume. See volume drying shrink-
age.
drying time. The time required for a moist body, mate-
rial, or coating to dry under particular heating and
atmospheric conditions.
drying, vacuum. See vacuum drying.
dry kiln. A kiln designed to dry ceramic greenware at the
lowest possible heat before it enters the firing zone.
dry milling. Reducing the particle size of a substance by
milling without the use of a liquid medium.
dry mix. The blending of batch ingredients in the dry
state, liquids being added at the time when subsequent
processing is required.
dry modulus of rupture. The transverse strength of a
standard specimen in the dry, but unfired, state. See
modulus of rupture.
dry pack. A moist mixture of cement and sand used in
the repair of deep cracks and cavities in concrete.
dry pan. A mUlier-type mixer in which materials are
ground or blended with a minimum amount of moisture.
See muller.
dry powder. A finely pulverized substance or mixture
free from or deficient in moisture.
dry press. A mechanically or hydraulically actuated
press used in the shaping of moistened ceramic bodies
in a mold under pressure.
dry-pressed brick. Brick formed in a mold under high
pressure from a relatively dry body containing 5-7%
moisture.
dry pressing. The process of forming or shaping ceramic
bodies of low moisture content (5-10% water) by com-
pression in molds.
dry process. (1) A process for manufacturing portland
cement in which the batch is charged into the cement
kiln in the dry state. (2) To process concrete aggregate
without the use of water.
dry-process enameling. A process of porcelain-enamel-
ing in which the base metal, usually cast iron, is heated
to a temperature slightly above the fusion temperature
of the enamel, followed by sifting finely powdered
enamel frit on the metal surface or by dipping the hot
104
metal into a dry batch of powdered frit, and then firing
the coating to maturity; the process may be repeated
with minimal cooling of the ware until the desired
coating thickness is attained.
dry-rubbing test. (1) A test to evaluate the resistance of
a glaze, porcelain-enamel, or other surface to abrasion
by rubbing the surface with a dry abrasive powder under
standardized test conditions. (2) A test to evaluate the
degree to which a chemical attacks a glaze, porcelain-
enamel, or other surface by rubbing a finely divided
powder of a contrasting color across the test area and
observing the degree of color retained by the chemically
treated surface.
dry sand mold. A mold from which the moisture content
has been removed by heating prior to filling the mold
cavity.
dry screening. The process of separating small sizes of
granular or powdered solids from coarser particles by
passing them through a screen of desired mesh size
while in the dry state. See screen analysis.
dry shake. A dry mixture of cement and special fine
aggregate broadcast over a concrete floor before final
finishing to provide a wear-resistant surface.
dry spot. A type of composite defect; a volume in a
fiber-epoxy composite that has not had sufficient resin
during the forming stage.
dry spray. An imperfection having the appearance of a
rough sandy surface on porcelain-enameled ware due to
improper spraying.
dry strength. (1) The resistance of a dried but unfired
ceramic body to physical or mechanical damage. (2)
Strength of a laminate as established immediately after
drying under specified conditions.
dry tack. Property of certain adhesives to adhere on con-
tact even though they seem dry to the touch.
dry weight. The weight of a porcelain-enamel or other
coating applied per unit of area to an item after the wet
coating has been thoroughly dried.
DSP cements. Cementitious bodies formed by compac-
tion, up to 30 MN m-2 , using dense particle packings of
cement and silica fume.
dual-drum mixer. A mixer consisting of a long drum
containing two compartments separated by a bulkhead
with a swinging chute extending through the unit.
ductile. Capable of being deformed by elongation with-
out fracture.
ductile fracture. A type of failure where the crack
propagates slowly along a zigzag path following planes
on which maximum resolved shear stress occurs.
ductility. The amount of plastic strain a material can
show before fracture.
dulling. (1) The wearing of the sharp edges of cutting
tools or abrasive grains resulting in inefficient or inef-
 lOS
fective perfonnance of the tools or grains. (2) The effect
observed when bright enamel surfaces lose their bril-
liance due to corrosion as ions are leached-out of the
glas~ by aqueous solutions.
dullness. Lacking in brilliance or luster, as evidenced in
porcelain-enamel and glaze surfaces.
dumbells. A type of defect in the structure of wet-lay
nonwoven fabrics consisting of paired clumps of fiber
connected by one or more long fibers. They are caused
when the chopped strand used has some over long
pieces which encounter a snag in the delivery pipework,
fonn the clumps while held, then break away to enter
the fabric.
dummy. A foot-operated device employed for the wet-
ting, raising, opening, and closing of paste molds used
in blowing glassware by mouth.
dummy joint. A prefonned contraction joint in concrete
designed to fonn a line along which a crack can fonn in
the slab with minimum damage to the adjacent sections
of the slab.
Dumont's blue. A sintered mixture of cobalt oxide,
sand, and potash; employed as a colorant in glass,
glazes, and porcelain-enamels.
dumortierite. AI1607(B04)z(Si04kHzO; a sillimanite
mineral; sp. gr. 3.2-3.3; hardness (Mohs) 7; employed
in the manufacture of high-grade porcelains to improve
their resistance to thennal shock and physical damage
by including boron in the glassy phase.
dump hopper. A large hopper which can be tipped me-
chanically to remove its contents.
dunite. The name given to rock rich in olivine; used in
the manufacture of forsterite refractories as a source of
chromium.
dunk. To plunge hot glazed ware into a cold liquid,
usually water, to produce decorative crazing in the
glaze.
dunting. The cracking of fired ware which has been
cooled too rapidly.
dunting point. The temperature at which the inversion
of crystalline silica from the alpha fonn to the beta fonn
occurs, and vice versa.
durability. The property of an article of being resistant
to physical and chemical damage under the usual con-
ditions of service, and of being useful over extended
periods of time and use.
durometer. Group name for hardness testers.
dust. Fine dry particles of matter which essentially are
larger than colloidal in size, less than 67.5 Ilm in maxi-
mum cross section, and which are capable of being
suspended in air or other gases.
dust coat. (I) A thin dusty-appearing coating of porce-
lain-enamel or glaze applied by spraying. (2) A mixture
of concrete and fine aggregate distributed over a con-
DYNAMOMETER
crete slab before finishing, and while the concrete is still
plastic to improve the resistance of the concrete to wear.
dusting. (I) The sifting of finely powdered porcelain-
enamel frit over preheated metal articles the powdered
coating subsequently being fired. (2) The removal of
dust and loose dirt from dried porcelain enamel and
glaze surfaces before firing. (3) The application of a thin
dust-like coating on an item of ware by spraying. (4) An
imperfection on glaze and porcelain-enamel surfaces
consisting of an inordinate build-up of dry slip during
spraying. (5) The disintegration of refractories by the
inversion of one crystal fonn to another during cooling.
(6) The erosion of concrete surfaces under traffic.
dust pressing. The process of fonning ceramic bodies of
1.5% or less water content by pressing in a mold.
dusty spray. The application of porcelain-enamel and
glaze slips to ware in a manner that a wet film is not
produced.
dwell mark. A feature observed on some fracture sur-
faces, which looks like a ripple on the surface, caused
by the crack front stopping momentarily at that place.
dwell time. (1) The time a penetrant is in contact with a
surface during an absorption or penetration test, includ-
ing the application and drain times. (2) Time a compos-
ite laminate is held at temperature before pressure is
applied in the fonning process.
dye-absorption test. A test of the porosity of a fired
specimen in which the specimen is immersed in a dye
solution under specified conditions of time, pressure,
and temperature; the depth of penetration of the dye into
the specimen then is observed or measured.
dyes. (I) Soluble, combustible organic colorants added
to glazes, porcelain-enamels, and other coatings to as-
sist sprayers in controlling the unifonnity and thick-
nesses of coatings that are difficult to see. (2) Soluble,
combustible organic colorants added to bulk porcelain-
enamel and glaze slips in storage to assist workers in
identifying materials of different composition but of
similar outward appearance. (3) Colorants in solution
used to aid in the detection of cracks, pinholes, and other
surface and body imperfections in fired ware; the solu-
tions are brushed over and then wiped from areas of
potential defects to reveal the imperfections.
dynamic adsorptive capacity. The mass of material ad-
sorbed per unit mass of powder from a fluid moving
through a bed of the powder at breakpoint.
dynamic balance. The condition under which a grinding
wheel or other rotating part, rotating at a high speed,
will exhibit no vibration or whip due to uneven distri-
bution of mass in its volume.
dynamic creep. Creep caused by a periodically chang-
ing load or temperature.
dynamic modulus. The stress-to-strain ratio under vi-
bratory excitation.
dynamometer. A calibration device using electric im-
pulses to check the loads applied in a fatigue test.
DYNE 106

dyne. The force needed to accelerate a 1 gram mass by 1 dysprosium oxide. DY203; sp. gr. 7 .81; used as a compo-
cm s-2. It equals 10-5 N in the SI system. nent in control rods for nuclear reactors, as a phosphor
activator, and in dielectric compositions.
dynode. An electrode onto which a beam of electrons can
impinge to cause the emission of a greater number of DZ. Abbreviation for dissociated zircon.
electrons by secondary emission; used in photomulti-
pliers for amplification.
 E
E. Commonly used symbol for Young's modulus of elas-
ticity.
E O•5• An arbitrarily selected parameter used to charac-
terize the efficiency of a ZnO varistor by defining the
breakdown voltage needed to produce a current of
0.5 mAcm-2 in the device. EO.5= Val, where Vis the
nonlinear voltage and d is the varistor thickness meas-
ured in cm.
eaglestone. Hollow oval nodule of clay ironstone.
earth color. A variety of brown pigments containing
mainly iron oxides.
earthen. Made of baked clay.
earthenware. A glazed or unglazed, nonvitreous,
opaque, ceramic whiteware having a water absorption
greater than 3%.
earth wax. See ozocerite.
earthy cobalt. See asbolite.
earthy luster. A dull matte appearance of the surface of
a mineral or ceramic.
EBC. Abbreviation for electron beam cutting.
EBM. Abbreviation for electron beam machining.
EBW. Abbreviation for electron beam welding.
eccentric axis. An axis located elsewhere than at the
geometrical center of a body.
eccentricity. (I) The distance of a misalignment from the
center. (2) The percentage difference between maxi-
mum and minimum wall thickness. (3) The distance of
the line of action of a load from the centroid.
eccentric load. Any load which does not act through the
centroid of the cross section.
ECD. Abbreviation for electrochromic display where
colors are developed in nonstoichiometric oxides by
107
applying an electrical potential; W0 3_x oxides are ex-
amples.
ECG. Abbreviation for electrochemical grinding.
ECM. Abbreviation for electrochemical machining.
economic mineral. A mineral of commercial interest or
value.
economy brick. Brick nominally lO.2 x lO.2 x 20.3 cm.
in size.
ECT. Abbreviation for eddy current testing, which is a
nondestructive way of flaw detection beneath the sur-
face of electro- and magnetoceramics.
EDAX. Acronym for energy dispersive analyzer x ray.
eddy current. An electric current induced in a conductor
moving through a magnetic field or in an area where
there is a change in magnetic flux.
eddy-current testing. A nondestructive test in which
eddy-current flow is induced in a specimen, and
changes in flow are measured. The changes indicate the
presence of defects such as bubbles, inclusions, and
fractures.
edge angle. The angle formed by two opposite edges of
a hardness tester indenter tip.
edge bowl. The hollow bowl-like protrusion containing
a slot through which sheet glass is drawn in the Pitts-
burgh sheet-glass process.
edge dislocation. See dislocation.
edge distance. The distance from the center of a hole in
a material to the nearest free edge of that material.
edge distance ratio. The distance from the center of the
bearing hole to the edge of a sample in the direction of
the principal stress, divided by the hole diameter.
edge effect. (I) An outward-curving distortion of the
lines of electrical force near the edge of two parallel
plates forming a capacitor. (2) The disturbance of a
EDGE LINING
magnetic field and eddy current due to the proximity of
an abrupt change in geometry, such as an edge.
edge lining. The application of a decorative line around
the rim of ceramic ware such as plates, saucers, dishes,
and other shapes of dinnerware.
edge polishing. The polishing of the edges of plate glass
after it has been cut.
edge, rough and burred. See rough and burred edge.
edge-runner mill. A pulverizing or crushing mill
equipped with vertical rollers rotating in a circular
enclosure of metal, ceramic, or stone.
edge skew. A brick with one side sloped at an angle, the
ends and faces each being parallel.
edge, thick. See thick edge.
edge work. The grinding, smoothing, or polishing of the
edge of a glass.
edging. (I) The removal of unfired porcelain-enamel
from the edges of a piece of ware prior to firing. (2) The
spraying of porcelain enamel over the edge of ware as
a decoration or reinforcement. (3) The grinding of the
edge of a piece of glassware to a prescribed size or
shape.
edging brush. A stiff-bristled brush with a metal guide
used to remove dry, but unfired porcelain-enamel from
the edge of ware before firing to prevent chipping and
so improve the appearance of the final product.
EDM. Abbreviation for electrodischarge machinable.
EDU. Abbreviation for electronic display unit.
effective depth of penetration. The minimum depth be-
yond which a test no longer indicates an increase in the
thickness of the penetrated layer.
effective depth of reinforced concrete. The distance of
the centroid of the reinforcement from the compression
face of a concrete beam.
effective full power years. See EFPY.
effective loss factor. The total loss in a ceramic medium
at radio and microwave frequencies. It consists of three
terms: dc conductivity, dipolar, and Maxwell-Wagner
mechanisms.
effective modulus of elasticity of concrete. The modu-
lus calculated from a stress-strain diagram which ig-
nores the always present time-dependent creep of the
material.
effective modulus of rupture. Me; the average modulus
of rupture obtained for a number of samples taken from
the same specimen; from this average, each value less
than the average is subtracted and the difference
squared; the average is taken away from values greater
than itself and the difference squared. All the square
terms are summed and divided by the number of sam-
ples examined minus one The square root of this is Me.
108
/N-I) .
l~
Me=(Id 2
effective nuclear charge. Ze; the charge due to the pro-
tons of the nucleus of an atom less a screening factor
arising from the electrons present.
effective permiability. A hypothetical quantity describ-
ing the permiability experienced by a specimen under a
given set of physical conditions, such as a cylindrical
specimen in an encircling coil at a specific test fre-
quency.
effective porosity. The porosity of a material containing
interconnected pores, expressed as a percentage of the
bulk volume occupied by the pores.
effective resolved shear stress. ERSS; a theory evolved
to consider the stress acting beneath the faces of a
pyramidal hardness indenter and so explain the phe-
nomenon of hardness anisotropy.
effervescence. The evolution of a gas which accompa-
nies some chemical reactions.
efficiency. A widely used term generally taken to be a
measure of the performance of a device as given by the
ratio of the output to the input of power or energy.
efficiency, detector. See detector efficiency.
efficiency of reinforcement. ,,; the factor by which the
contribution of the fibers in a fiber composite must be
tion.,,=
multiplied if the load is not parallel to the fiber direc-
cos4 Ci), where II> is the mean angle between
fiber directions and the applied stress direction.
efficiency, relative. See relative efficiency.
efficiency, relative detector. See relative detector effi-
ciency.
efficiency, thermal. See thermal efficiency.
effloresce. To become powdery due to the loss of water
of crystallization, or to become encrusted with crystals
of salt from a solution due to evaporation or chemical
change.
efflorescence. A formation of powdery salt on the sur-
face of concrete or masonry due to the diffusion and
precipitation of soluble salts from the interior of the
body. Also known as bloom.
efflorwick test. A test to estimate the tendency of a
building brick to effloresce in which a fired cylinder of
brick clay is immersed in a solution of soluble salt in
distilled water, dried, crushed, and analyzed for the
presence of the selected salt. See efflorescence.
effluent. A liquid discharged or flowing from a process
or place.
effusiometer. An apparatus for determining the rates of
effusion of gases.
EFPY. Abbreviation for effective full power years which
is the time when a nuclear reactor is running at full
power.
 109
eggshell. (1) A fired porcelain-enamel or glaze having a
semimatte, eggshell-like texture. (2) A type of very thin,
highly translucent porcelain originally made in China.
eggshell glazed tile. A tile coated with a glaze having a
semimatte, eggshell-like texture.
E-glass. Abbreviation for electrical-grade glass; a glass
used to make fiber of low alkali content. Typical com-
position in wt. %: Si0 2 (57.0), Al 20 3 (9.5), CaO (19.0),
MgO (4.5), B20 3 (8.5), Na20 + K20 (0.5), F (0.3),
Fe203 (0.3), Ti02 (0.5).
Egyptian blue. A blue frit or a powdered pigment of the
general composition CuO·Ca0-4Si02 contained in a
glassy matrix.
Egyptianized clay. A clay to which tannin has been
added to make it more plastic.
Einstein temperature. See Einstein theory of specific
heat.
Einstein theory of specific heat. A theory to account
for the specific heat of a solid. It assumes that each atom
within the solid acts as an independent harmonic oscil-
lator, the energy of which is quantized, and all atoms
have the same frequency. This gives rise to the equa-
tion: Cv = 3R[hvlkT]Z[exp(hvlk1)/{ exp(hvlk1) - I )2],
where Cv is the molar heat capacity at constant volume,
v is the frequency of oscillation, T is the absolute
temperature. The ratio hvlk is called the Einstein tem-
perature which is a material specific constant.
elastance. The reciprocal of capacitance; measured in
reciprocal farads or darafs.
elastic after effect. The ratio of deformation remaining
in a specimen, after a given period of tensile stress, to
the degree of deformation immediately after the stress
has been relaxed.
elastic deformation. The degree of deformation of a
concrete or other body under load which disappears
when the load is removed or relaxed.
elastic fractionation. A process in which soft aggregate
particles are separated from harder particles by throw-
ing the mixture against a steel plate; the harder particles
will rebound farther on impact and hence be separated.
elasticity. A material's ability to immediately recover its
original dimensions after the load causing such change
of dimensions is removed.
elastic limit. The greatest stress a material can sustain
without permanent strain remaining when the stress is
completely removed.
elastic modulus. The ratio of stress to strain within the
elastic range of a substance.
elastic range. The range of stress for a ceramic from zero
up to and including the elastic limit.
elastic recovery. The fraction of an obtained deforma-
tion which behaves elastically. Hence, a perfectly elas-
tic material has an elastic recovery of one, while a
ELECTRIC CERAMIC BONDING
perfectly plastic material has an elastic recovery equal
to zero.
elastic strain. Strain which is instantly and fully recov-
ered when the applied stress is removed.
elastic strain energy. The potential energy stored in a
strained solid equal to the area under a stress-strain
diagram up to the yield point.
elaterite. A rubber-like, brown, naturally occurring bitu-
men.
electret. A dielectric material which possesses a perma-
nent or semi-permanent polarity in a manner analogous
to a permanent magnet.
electrical anharmonicity. A state where the dipole mo-
ment of a solid depends nonlinearly on the ion displace-
ment.
electrical conductivity. a; the measure of the ability, of
a material to conduct electric current. It is defined as the
number of charge carriers per unit volume times the
charge carrier mobility and carrier charge value; for
electrons, a = Nell, where N = 1029 m-3, e = 1.6 x
10-19 C, and 11 is defined under electronic mobility.
electrical conductivity of a particulate substance. A
measure of the current flowing through a unit cross-sec-
tion of a particle for an imposed unit gradient under
specified conditions of packing.
electrical dipole. Separation of positive and negative
charges.
electrical dissipation factor. The ratio of the power loss
in a dielectric to the total power transmitted through the
material; equal to the tangent of the loss angle, O.
electrical erosion. The erosion of an electrical insulator
due to the influence of an electrical discharge. Also
known as spark erosion.
electrical erosion resistance. A quantitative measure of
the amount of erosion of an insulator by an electric
discharge under specified test conditions.
electrical grade glass. See E-glass.
electrical porcelain. A porcelain body formulated and
designed for use as an electrical insulator. Usually
involves high percentages of alumina in the body.
electrical quadrupole. See quadrupole.
electric boosting. See boost melting.
electric breakdown voltage. See breakdown voltage.
electric capacitor. An electrical nonconductor that per-
mits the storage of energy as the result of electric dipole
alignment when opposite faces are maintained at a
different potential.
electric ceramic bonding. A method of joining ceram-
ics whereby a thin electrode is placed between two flat
ceramic faces and the sandwich is then heated locally
ELECTRIC CONDUCTOR
in the region of the join while applying a voltage to the
electrode.
electric conductor. A body which will transmit electri-
cal energy.
electric constant, absolute. See absolute electric con-
stant.
electric contact. Any physical contact between two or
more parts which will permit the flow of electricity
between the parts.
electric discharge machining. EDM; surface material
is burned off by applying an electric arc discharge.
electric flux density. A vector, D, arising from the addi-
tion of polarization, p, and the Gaussian field, E,
through: D = ~ + P, where £0 is the absolute electric
constant.
electric furnace. A furnace or kiln in which the main
source of heat is provided by electrical means.
electric, seignette. See seignette-electric.
electric strength. The voltage gradient at which dielec-
tric breakdown occurs in an insulating material.
electric susceptibility. X; defines a material's dielectric
coefficient; it is the polarizability divided by the per-
mittivity times the internal electric field: X = P/~I'
electrides. Crystalline salts that have vacancies at the
anion sites but electrons trapped at these sites take on
the role of anions.
electrocast brick. A dense refractory brick or other
shape formed by melting the components in an electric
furnace followed by casting into a mold.
electrocast refractories. Materials such as mullite, alu-
minum silicate, and binary oxides, etc., melted and cast
into blocks or other shapes; usually nonporous, hard,
and with low expansion coefficients.
electroceramics. Ceramic products which are formu-
lated and designed for use as components in electric
circuits, as insulators, or to exploit a physical property
activated by electrical potential.
electrochemical grinding. ECG; using the combined
action of electrochemical attack and abrasion for rapid
surface removal.
electrochemical manganese dioxide. EMD; it is the
nsutite, y-form of Mn02; used as electrode material.
electrochemical reaction. (I) A reaction caused by pas-
sage of an electric current through an ionic solid or
liquid. (2) A spontaneous reaction which causes current
to flow in a conductor, i.e., the classical dry cell.
electrochromic device. A layered composite which be-
comes colored when a potential is applied across the
layers, e.g., ITOIW0 3IIrOx layers some 10-500 nm
thick.
110
electroconsolidation. A preformed part to be densified
is surrounded by a pressure-transmitting powder which
is electrically conductive so that heating to the consoli-
dation temperature is done by direct resistive heating
while a densification pressure is applied simultane-
ously. Short forming times, around 4 minutes, are an
advantage of this process.
electrode. (I) A conductor on whose surface reactions
occur and between any two the ions in an electrolyte
flow. (2) In radiofrequency heating the plates between
which is created the alternating electric field needed to
heat the material placed between them.
electrodeposition. A way to apply a surface coating on
a conducting ceramic by making it one electrode con-
nected to a copper electrode in a plating solution.
electrodischarge machining. A shaping process used
on ceramics and composites to make complex shapes
using electrical energy to erode and vaporize the sur-
face.
electroCusion. Melting by electrical means, usually in an
electric furnace but in some cases the process is aug-
mented by the use of electrodes submerged in the mol-
ten bath; also covers inert gas arc melting.
electroless plating. Deposition of metals such as nickel,
copper, cobalt, and iron onto a ceramic surface that acts
as a catalyst when a reducing agent is added to an
appropriate salt solution in which the ceramic is im-
mersed.
electroluminescence. Luminescence activated by elec-
trical potential.
electrolysis. A pair of electrochemical reactions, i.e., two
half cell reactions, occurring at the anode and cathode
electrodes of a cell when a current passes between the
electrodes.
electrolyte. (1) A chemical, usually an inorganic salt,
added to porcelain-enamel and to ceramic slips to con-
trol the suspension and flow properties by controlling
particle agglomeration. (2) A solution containing ions
or an ionic solid capable of passing a current by the
transport of material between electrodes.
electrolytic pickling. A process in which the pickling of
metal for porcelain-enameling is enhanced by passing
an electric current through the pickling bath in which
the metal serves as an electrode.
electromagnet. A core of magnetic material which is
magnetized when surrounded by a coil of insulated wire
through which a current is flowing.
electromagnetic. A term describing the inevitable way
in which electrical and magnetic fields are related.
electromagnetic field. Electric charges and currents
have a specific property of influencing other charges
and currents in their environment; the space in which
such effects occur is called an electromagnetic field.
electromagnetic frequencies. Mutually perpendicular
electric and magnetic fields which are time dependent.
 111
The frequency spectrum spans from y-rays through light
and heat rays to audio.
electromagnetic test. A nondestructive measure of
some property. such as thickness of an enameled coat-
ing, by the use of electromagnetic energy.
electromechanical coupling factors. k xy ; used to indi-
cate the ability of a piezoelectric ceramic to convert
electrical to mechanical energy, or vice versa, in the
planar, transverse, parallel, and shear modes.
electro migration. The directed diffusion of atoms in a
solid by the application of an electric field. The charge
on the mobile atoms can be deduced from the material
flow.
electron affinity. For an isolated atom it is the energy
evolved when an electron is brought up from infinity
and an anion is formed.
electron beam. A stream of electrons in an evacuated
tube.
electron beam cutting. EBC; highly focused electron
beams of high intensity which vaporize material en-
countered.
electron beam machining. EBM; the equipment used
for EBC adapted to drill small holes or cut narrow slots.
electron beam processing. The use of a focused high-
energy electron beam to locally heat and chemically
change micron sized areas on semiconductor wafer
devices.
electron beam welding. EBW; the fusion and joining
thereby of two pieces of material by directing a high
intensity electron beam into the join.
electronegativity. A measure of the power of an atom in
a solid, or a molecule, to attract electrons. Two defini-
tions, Pauling's and Mulliken's, allow quantification;
the Mulliken value is one half the sum of the ionization
potential plus the electron affinity both expressed in
electron volts.
electroneutrality principle. Concerns lattice defect for-
mation in crystals; states that in a crystal the sum of all
positive charges must equal the sum of all negative
charges before, during, and after the formation of de-
fects.
electron hole. An electron-deficient site which provides
acceptor energy levels. Act as positive charge carriers.
electronic ceramics. (I) Ceramic products which dis-
play dielectric, semiconductor, magnetic, or other simi-
lar properties which are useful in the production of
electronic devices, such as transistors, solid-state de-
vices, electron tubes, magnetic amplifiers, etc. (2) Ce-
ramic materials which amplify or control voltages or
currents without mechanical or other non-electrical di-
rection.
electronic filter. Electronic devices based on inductors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors, and parallel and series
ELECTRO RHEOLOGICAL FLUID
tuned circuits, used to remove undesirable frequencies
or to pass on required ones.
electronic mobility. 11; the drift velocity of electrons per
unit of electric field: 11 = eT./me , where e is the electron
charge, 1.6 x 10-19 C, T. is the mean free time between
collisions, 10-14 s, and me is the electron mass, 9.1 x
10-31 kg.
electronic polarizability. u e ; the factor 47toR 3 by which
the displacement of electrons in an atom caused by the
application of an external electric field is measured,
where R is the radius of the outer orbital shell.
electron microscope. An electron-optical instrument in
which a beam of electrons is focused on very thin
sections of a specimen by means of an electron lens to
produce a magnified image of a submicron-sized area
of the specimen on a fluorescent screen or photographic
film.
electron microscope, scanning. See scanning electron
microscope.
electron probability function. 'I'2dv; the probability of
finding an electron, defined by the wave function 'V, in
a volume element, dv.
electron probe microanalysis. An analytical method
involving small amounts of material which are bom-
barded with a narrow beam of electrons and the resul-
tant x-ray emission spectrum is analyzed for type and
amount of elements present.
electron shell. A group of electrons having the same
principal quantum number, n.
electron spin resonance. ESR; a technique for examin-
ing paramagnetic materials by subjecting them to high-
frequency radiation in a strong magnetic field. Changes
in the spin of unpaired electrons cause radiation to be
absorbed at definite, characteristic frequencies.
electron volt. eV; the kinetic energy gained by an elec-
tron on being accelerated through a potential difference
of I volt in a vacuum; equivalent to 1.602 x 10-19 1.
electro-optic ceramics. Ceramics possessing reversible
birefringence on application of an electric potential,
e.g., PLZT.
electro-optic effect. See Kerr electrooptic effect and
Kerr constant.
electrophoresis. The movement of colloidal particles or
macromolecules through a solution under the action of
an electromotive force applied through electrodes in
contact with the suspension.
electropolishing. A surface smoothing and finishing
technique utilizing an electrochemical bath and making
the article the anode, therefore only used with conduct-
ing ceramics.
electrorheological fluid. A suspension which when sub-
jected to an electric field changes in milliseconds to a
solid and when the field is removed it returns to a fluid.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION
Clay suspended in mineral oil plus alcohol is an exam-
ple.
electrostatic precipitation. The removal of solid parti-
cles in a gas stream by giving them an electric charge
and attracting them to charged plates.
electrostatic spraying. A coating process in which the
coating particles are given an electrostatic charge oppo-
site to that of the item being coated, causing the particles
to be attracted to the surface of the item with a minimum
of overspray as in the electrostatic spraying of porce-
lain-enamels on metal.
electrostriction. The change in dimensions of a dielec-
tric when an electric field is applied.
electrostrictive material. E; ceramic crystals showing a
second-order effect called electrostriction in which
strain induced in the crystal is proportional to the square
of the applied field: E = kE2, where E is the applied
field; the effect is used in actuator devices. PMN is such
a material.
elephant ear. A type of flat, fine-grained sponge used in
finishing pottery surfaces before firing.
elephant trunk. A series of conical sections of steel pipe
forming a flexible downspout to control and confine the
vertical flow of concrete during pouring.
elevator. A mechanical device used to move material
from one level to another.
elevator kiln. A kiln in which ware is placed on a refrac-
tory platform to be raised by an elevator into the firing
chamber directly above.
eluent or eluant. Any solvent used for eluting.
elute. To wash a substance out by means of a solvent for
that substance.
elutriate. To separate solid particles by washing, decant-
ing, and settling.
eluvium. A mass of sand, salt, gravel, or boulders which
is the product of erosion of rocks that has remained at
its place of origin.
EMAT. Acronym for electromagnetic acoustic
transducer which consists of a source of magnetic bias
and a conductor in the shape of a coil. A transient
current in the conductor induces eddy currents in the
surface of the material. The eddy currents interact with
the magnetic bias to produce a Lorentz force which
produces a dynamic stress in the material. This effect
has been built into noncontact, nondestructive test sys-
tems using ultrasound either as the generator of the
elastic wave or as a detector of laser-generated accous-
tic waves in solids.
embed. (I) To enclose in a surrounding matrix. (2) To fix
firmly and deeply in a surrounding solid.
embedding. Surrounding components with layers of
powder or foam to provide insulation or a locally pro-
tective environment in a firing process.
112
emboss. To ornament or decorate with a raised pattern
on the surface of ware.
embossing, double. See double embossing.
, embossing, single. See single embossing.
embossing, white acid. See white acid embossed.
embossment. A raised pattern decoration on the surface
of an item of ware.
embryo. A particle in a liquid whose radius is less than
the critical radius and so will become more stable as its
size decreases. An entropy effect makes it possible for
some embryos to become nuclei on which crystal-
lization can begin.
EMD. See electrochemical manganese dioxide.
emery. An impure, natural corundum, A120 3, powdered
for use in grinding and polishing.
emery obscured. A glass surface obscured by grinding
with a fine grade of emery.
emery paper. An abrasive paper or cloth with a tightly
bonded coating of emery for use in cleaning and polish-
ing operations.
emery stone. A sharpening device or grinding stone
made of bonded emery.
emery wheel. A grinding wheel made of tightly bonded
emery used on mechanical grinding and polishing ma-
chines.
emission. Waste gases and vapors discharged into the air.
emissivity. (1) The ratio of the radiation given off by the
surface of a body to the radiation given off by a perfect
blackbody at the same temperature. (2) The capacity of
a body to radiate heat.
emitter. A source of infrared emission, usually achieved
by resistive heating to about 700°C for long waves,
950°C for medium waves, and 2200°C for short waves.
empirical. Based on experience, observation, and meas-
urement rather than theory.
empirical formula. A statement of the number and kind
of atoms in a compound without indicating their group-
ing.
emulsification. The process of dispersing immiscible
liquids, such as oil and water, by the application of
mechanical energy or the addition of chemical disper-
sants.
emulsifier. A surface-active chemical which will pro-
mote the dispersion of immiscible liquids.
emulsion. A stable mixture of two immiscible liquids in
which one is dispersed as droplets throughout the other.
emulsion, wax. See wax emulsion.
emulsoid. A sol with a liquid disperse phase.
 113
enamel. A glassy or vitreous coating applied and fired
onto metal, glass, or other ceramic ware; the coating on
metal is usually called porcelain-enamel.
enamel, acid-resisting. See acid-resisting enamel.
enamel, alkali-resisting. See alkali-resisting enamel.
enamel, aluminum. See aluminum enamel.
enamel-backed glass tubing. Glass tubing with a black
or colored coating on the back segment of the perimeter
to facilitate the observation and reading of liquid levels
in the tubing, such as used in thermometers, etc.
enamel beading. (I) Porcelain-enamel, usually of a dif-
ferent color, applied as a decoration or reinforcement to
the edge or rim of porcelain-enameled articles. (2) The
process of removing excess slip from the edge offreshly
dipped or coated porcelain-enamel ware. (3) A heavy
bead of porcelain-enamel along the edge of porcelain-
enameled cast-iron ware.
enamel, blackboard. See blackboard enamel.
enamel, blown. See blown enamel.
enamel, blue. See blue enamel.
enamel brick clay. A clay similar to that used to make
buff-colored face brick applied as a coating and fired to
vitrification.
enamel, cast-iron. See cast-iron enamel.
enamel, chalkboard. See chalkboard enamel.
enamel clay. A ball clay used to promote the suspension
of porcelain-enamels and glazes in aqueous slips. See
ball clay.
enamel colors. Inorganic compositions employed to im-
part a full spectral range of colors to porcelain-enamel
as well as to glazes, glass, and ceramic bodies.
enamel, copper. See copper enamels.
enameled brick. A hard smooth-surfaced brick with a
fired wash-type coating, the coating frequently being
colored.
enamel fineness. The degree to which the particle size
of an enamel frit has been reduced by milling, usually
expressed as grams residue retained on a sieve of speci-
fied mesh size from a 50- or I DO-gram sample.
enamel firing. The process of fusing porcelain-enamel
coatings to a metal base.
enamel, glass. See glass enamel.
enameling, cast-iron. See cast-iron enameling.
enameling, dry-process. See dry-process enameling.
enameling iron. A low-carbon, low-equivalent-carbon,
steel designed for use as a base for porcelain-enameling.
enameling kiln. Any furnace in which porcelain-enam-
els are fired.
ENCAUSTIC TILE
enameling, wet-process. See wet-process enameling.
enamel, jeweler's. See jewelry enamel.
enamel, matte. See matte enamel.
enamel, molybdenum. See molybdenum enamel.
enamel, nitty. See nits.
enamel oxides. A large number of inorganic, usually
transition metal, oxides used as colorants in porcelain-
enamels.
enamel, porcelain. See porcelain-enamel.
enamel, reclaim. See reclaimed enamel.
enamel, refractory. See refractory enamel.
enamel, retouch. See retouch enamel.
enamel scrapings. Porcelain-enamel recovered from
spray booths, dip tanks, settling tanks, and other
sources, which are suitable for re-use after minimal
treatment.
enamel, self-cleaning. See self-cleaning enamel.
enamel, sheet-steel. See sheet -steel enamel.
enamel, spongy. See spongy enamel.
enamel, tin. See tin enamel.
enamel, vitreous. See vitreous enamel.
enantiomorph. Either of the two crystal forms of a ma-
terial that are mirror images of each other.
enantiotropy. The relationships between polymorphs
existing at different temperatures.
enargite. CU3AsS4; copper arsenic sulfide, an important
copper ore; brittle, opaque with a metallic luster and
black streak; hardness (Mohs) 3; sp. gr. 4.40.
encapsulated HIP. Material is contained within a gas-
tight envelope while still in the green state and then
HIPed. The envelope must be deformable at the sinter-
ing temperature in order to transmit pressure to aid
sintering.
encapsulation. (I) A process in which a substance is
enclosed, encased, or encapsulated in a protective me-
dium or film. (2) The technique of covering a porous
ceramic with a pressure-transmitting medium prior to
HIP treatment; glass is the commonest material used
because preformed glass tube can be heated onto the
ceramic form under vacuum.
encaustic. Type of decoration in which the pigment to be
applied to the surface of the item is carried in hot wax,
or colored clays are inlaid in the clay forming the body
and burned in.
encaustic tile. Ceramic tile in which a design is inlaid
and fired with clays of a color different from that of the
body.
ENCIRCLING COIL
encircling coil. An electromagnetic coil surrounding a
specimen or part to be tested.
encrustation. The formation and accumulation of a slag
or other substance on the inside of a kiln or furnace.
end-arch brick. A brick with the faces sloped toward
each other so as to provide wedge-shaped ends of the
same dimensions for use in the construction of the
crown of an arch.
end capping. The breaking off at an acute angle the top
volume of a dry-pressed powder rod when the pressure
is released due to stress inhomogeneities present. A sign
that the applied pressure is too high.
end construction. A type of construction in which struc-
tural tile and block are laid with the hollow cells of tile
or block placed in a vellical position.
end-construction tile. A load-bearing, hollow concrete
or fired ceramic tile designed to receive its principal
stress parallel to the axis of the cell in construction
applications.
end-cut brick. Brick made from extruded clay with wire
cut sections forming the ends of the brick.
end-feather. The sharp edge of the end of a brick cut
lengthwise from one corner to the other corner diago-
nally opposite to make a brick of triangular cross sec-
tion.
end-feed centerless grinding. A grinding process in
which the item being ground is fed through the grinding
and regulating wheels of a centerless grinder to an end
stop.
end-fired furnace. See end-port furnace.
end-of-Iife. EOL; the design lifetime measured in years.
endothermic reaction. A reaction characterized by the
absorption of heat.
end point. The stage in a chemical analysis when an
observed parameter shows a sharp change in value.
end-port furnace. A furnace in which the ports for the
introduction of fuel and air are in the end wall.
end runner. A refractory shape designed to channel and
transport molten metal from a feeder head to an ingot
mold.
end-skew brick. A brick with one end inclined at an
angle other than 90° to the two largest, parallel faces.
endurance limit. The stress level below which a speci-
men will withstand cyclic stress without eventually
showing fatigue failure.
endurance, thermal. See thermal endurance.
energy bands. The states and properties of electrons can
be interpreted using this concept. They are the ranges
of allowed electron energies separated by ranges of
forbidden energies. There is no significant conduction
if a band is full.
114
energy density. The density of the energy distribution in
an electromagnetic wave in J m-3 .
energy gap. (I) Gap in the low-energy excitations of a
superconductor. (2) Forbidden zone in the energy spec-
trum of valency orbitals. If the lower energy band is
filled electrons must be excited across the gap for
electronic conduction to occur.
energy, internal. See internal energy.
energy, kinetic. See kinetic energy.
energy product. A figure of merit for a permanent mag-
net comprising the magnetic strength and the coerciv-
ity; units are kJ m-3.ltis the area of the largest rectangle
that can be drawn in the second quadrant of a B-H
hysteresis curve.
engineered brick. Brick with nominal dimensions 8.1 x
10.3 x 20.3 cm. which are more dense and harder than
ordinary brick. Used when frost resistance is needed.
engineering constants. Mechanical moduli obtained di-
rectly from uniaxial tensile or compressive tests and
pure shear tests.
engine-turned ware. Bisque ware lined or fluted in a
special lathe.
E. N. glass-ceramic. Ceramics derived via glass crys-
tallization from the surface of glass powders as they
viscously sinter to shape.
English bond. Alternate courses of headers and stretch-
ers, the joints in alternate courses being lined up verti-
cally.
engobe. A slip coating applied to ceramic bodies to mask
the color and texture of the body, and to impart color or
opacity, and which may, or may not, be subsequently
covered with glaze.
engraving. The process of carving or grinding designs
on glass or other ceramic products.
enrich. To increase the concentration or abundance of
one component or isotope in a mixture.
enriched uranium. Uranium produced to contain more
235U than the normal concentration of 0.711 wt. %.
ensemble. (I) A set of systems that are identical in all
respects except for the motion of their constituents. (2)
A single system in which the properties are determined
by the statistical behavior of its constituents.
enstatite. MgSi03; a green to brown, orthorhombic, py-
roxene mineral; sp. gr. 3.2-3.5; hardness (Mohs) 5-6.5;
used in electronic ceramics as a replacement for talc to
minimize shrinkage.
entablature. A construction consisting of an architrave,
a frieze, and a cornice.
entablement. The platform of a pedestal above the dado
that supports a statue.
 115
entasis. A slight convex curve given to the shaft of a
column to correct the illusion of concavity produced by
a straight shaft.
enthalpic stabilization. The situation where the en-
thalpy change on the close approach of solid particles
in suspensions opposes agglomerate formation but the
entropy decrease promotes it. Increasing the suspension
temperature can cause agglomeration through the TllS
term. Commonly applies in aqueous suspensions.
enthalpy. The sum of the internal energy of a body and
the product of its volume multiplied by the pressure
exerted on the body by its surroundings. Also known as
sensible heat, total heat, heat content. A state function
measured in joules per mole, J mol-i.
entrain. To introduce air or a gas into a slurry by vigor-
ous stirring or agitation.
entrained air. Minute bubbles of air formed in concrete
by the introduction of an air-entraining agent to the
batch.
entrainment. The process of introducing air or other
gaseous bubbles into a body by physical means, such as
by mechanical agitation, or by chemical means which
will generate bubbles that will be retained by the body.
entrapped air. Air voids in concrete generally larger
than I mm in diameter which are mechanically formed
and trapped in the batch.
entropic stabilization. The situation where a negative
enthalpy change works toward particle agglomeration
in suspensions but the entropy change is also negative
and so opposes agglomeration. Cooling reduces the
Tf)S term and causes the solid to agglomerate. Com-
monly occurs in organic liquid-solid suspensions.
entropy. A thermodynamic state function which is a
measure of the extent to which the energy of a system
is not available for conversion to mechanical work.
Some times associated with the degree of order in a
system with more disorder implying greater entropy
value.
envelope kiln. (I) Kiln in which the firing zone is posi-
tioned above a loaded refractory platform and lowered
to surround it. (2) A box-type kiln in which ware placed
on a kiln car is pushed into the entrance end of the kiln,
thereby displacing a car of fired ware at the other end.
eolith. Crudely broken stone used as a tool.
epidote. A green mineral common in metamorphic
rocks. See epidote silicates.
epidote silicates. A group of silicate minerals containing
both (Si04)4- and (Si 20 7)6- anions. Epidote itself is
Ca2Fe(AI20)(OH)(Si207)(Si04)'
epitaxy. The growth of a crystal on the surface of another
crystal such that the growth of the deposited crystal is
oriented by the unit cell type and dimensions of the
substrate crystal.
EQUIVALENT, BORON
EPMA. Abbreviation for electron probe microanalyzer
which is a surface elemental analyzer device usually
attached to a scanning electron microscope. Interaction
of atoms in the sample surface with the electron beam
produces characteristic x-ray emission which can be
analyzed for wavelength and intensity.
epoxy resin. A family of thermosetting plastics of high
strength, low shrinkage. Usually polyether resin em-
ployed as a bonding agent in glass-fiber strands and
cloth because of its excellent resistance to acids and
alkalies and for its excellent electrical properties. They
have good adhesion to glass fibers and their thermal
expansion can be matched to metals to which they may
be joined. Glass-fiber-reinforced epoxy resin can be
formed by filament winding, hand lay-up, centrifugal
casting, or compression molding.
epsom salts. MgS04·7H20; employed as a set-up agent
to adjust the viscosity and improve the application and
flow properties of slips. See set.
equant. A description of crystals and grains in a micro-
structure which have the principal dimensions approxi-
mately equal.
equation, van der Waals. See van der Waals equation.
equiaxed. A term used to describe ceramic microstruc-
tures in which all grains tend to rounded shape of equal
size.
equiaxed grains. A microstructure consisting of grains
approximately equal in all dimensions.
equilibrium. A state in which no change occurs in a
system if no change occurs in the surrounding environ-
ment.
equilibrium adsorptiv:.: capacity. The quantity of a
component adsorbed per unit of an adsorbing substance
at eqUilibrium temperature, concentration, and pres-
sure.
eqUilibrium diagram. A phase diagram of the equilib-
rium relationships which exist between composition,
temperature, and pressure of a system.
equilibrium distance. The interatomic distance at
which the force of attraction equals the force of repul-
sion between two atoms.
equilibrium eutectic. The composition within which
any system of two or more crystalline phases will melt
completely at a minimum temperature or at which the
composition, per se, will melt.
equimolecular. Description of substances which contain
equal numbers of molecules.
equipotential. Having a uniform electrical potential.
equivalent. See equivalent weight.
equivalent, boron. See boron equivalent.
EQUIVALENT BORON CONTENT
equivalent boron content. The concentration of natural
boron which will provide a thermal neutron cross sec-
tion equivalent to that of a specific impurity element.
equivalent boron-content factor. A factor employed to
convert the concentration of an impurity element to a
neutron cross section equivalent to that of natural boron.
equivalent circuit. Simple electrical components ar-
ranged to be electrically equivalent to a complex elec-
trical circuit and is a device therefore to simplify the
analysis of such circuits.
equivalent diameter. The diameter that a spherical par-
ticle would have to be in order to yield results in a
physical test of fineness as those observed for the given
solid whatever the shape of its particles.
equivalent focal length. The ratio of the size of an im-
age of a small distant object close to the optical axis to
the angular distance of the object in radians.
equivalent spherical diameter. The diameter of a
spherical particle having the same density and sedimen-
tation rate as clay particles under test.
equivalent, uranium content. See uranium content
equivalent.
equivalent weight. The weight of an element which will
replace or combine with 1.008 parts of hydrogen by
weight, 8.00 parts of oxygen, or the equivalent weight
of any other element or compound.
erase. (I) To remove a recording from a magnetic tape.
(2) In computing it is to replace data on a storage device
with characters representing an absence of data.
erbium oxide. Erz03; sp. gr. 8.64; used as an actuator for
phosphors, as a nuclear poison, and as an ingredient in
infrared-absorbing glasses; gives a pink color to glass.
erbium silicate. (I) ErzOSi04; mp 1979°C; sp. gr. 6.80;
hardness (Mohs) 5-7. (2) Er4(Si04)3; mp 1899°C sp.
gr. 6.22; hardness (Mohs) 5-7. (3) ErzSi z0 7 ; mp
1799°C; hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
erg. A centimeter-gram-second unit of energy or work
equal to the work done by a force of I dyne acting over
a distance of 1 cm.
erionite. A naturally occurring zeolite mineral with a
fibrous habit used as an asbestos alternative. Found to
be highly carcinogenic.
Erlanger blue. A general term for a variety of iron-blue
pigments.
erosion. The wearing away of the surface of a material,
usually by physical action rather than chemical reac-
tion.
erosion of refractories. The wearing away of refractory
surfaces by the flowing action of a molten batch at high
temperatures.
erosion resistance, electrical. See electrical erosion re-
sistance.
116
error. The deviation of an observed value from the ex-
pected or true value.
erythrite. (Co,Ni 3)(As0 4)z·8HzO; the red-pink oxida-
tion product of the cobalt nickel arsenide ore smaltite.
Also known as cobalt bloom.
ESCA. Acronym for electron spectroscopy for chemical
analysis. A sample irradiated with monochromatic x-
rays produces photoelectrons whose energies are ana-
lyzed. This gives electron binding energies in the atoms
present in the solid. Also known as XPS or x-ray pho-
toelectron spectroscopy.
esker. A geological feature used as a source of sand and
gravel. Formed as linear ridges by streams under or
within glacier ice.
esteril. An ester of an organic alcohol ROH with -Si~H.
The result is a hydrophobic silica powder used as a
filler.
esu. Abbreviation for electrostatic unit; a measure of
potential difference; I esu =300 volts.
etch. (1) To produce a marking, decoration, or degree of
obscuration on glass or other ceramic surface by chemi-
cal action, such as by hydrofluoric acid or other agents.
(2) To become weathered so that the surface texture of
a body, glaze, porcelain-enamel, or other coating is
changed or roughened.
etched. (I) Treated by etching. (2) Weathered so that the
surface is roughened.
ethyl cellulose. An ethyl ester of cellulose used as a
binder for technical ceramics and pigments, and as a
parting agent for thin sheet ceramics made by the doctor
blade process.
ethyl silicate. (CZHS)4Si04; a liquid organic silicate used
as a binder and as a preservative for brick, concrete,
mortar, plaster, refractories, etc.
Etruscan ware. A type of basaltic ceramic decorated by
the encaustic process.
ettringite. C3Az·CS·32H20 in cement notation; formed
when C3A and gypsumin OPC are hydrated.
eucryptite. LiAISi04; sp. gr. 2.67; used as a source of
lithium in bodies of low thermal expansion. Occurs as
a ~-quartz solid solution in glass ceramics.
eudiometer. A calibrated and marked glass tube used to
study gas reactions by recording volume changes.
euhedral. External planar outlines which reveal the crys-
tal symmetry.
Euler formula. Concerns the buckling of slender col-
umns or single fibers in a composite under compressive
load stated as P =ElIL 2 , where P is the buckling load,
E is the modulus of elasticity, I is the second moment
of area, and L is the effective length.
Euler theorem. A mathematical relationship between
the number of indi vidual features present in a geomet-
 117
rical array, such as a sintered microstructure polished
section, which involves the number of corners, C, num-
ber of edges, E, and number of polygonal grains, P. The
equation is: C - E + P = I. Applying this theorem gives
a prediction for the morphology of a sintered micro-
structure.
eulytite. Bi4(Si04h; a cubic orthosilicate mineral source
of bismuth.
European porcelain. A high-grade porcelain of good
physical strength, white color, low absorption, and high
translucency; usually coated with a hard glaze.
europium oxide. (1) EU203; sp. gr. 7.28-7.99; Knoop
hardness 4.27 GN m-2; used in nuclear control rods,
fluorescent glasses, and as a red phosphor in color
television tubes. (2) EuO; sp. gr. 8.16; interstitial oxide
with metallic appearance and properties. (3) EU304; sp.
gr. 8.07. (4) EU16021; sp. gr. 6.74; used in phosphors
sensitive to red and infrared radiation.
eutectic. A mixture of two or more phases having a
melting point lower than the melting points of the
individual phases and usually a very fine microstruc-
ture.
eutectic alloy. An alloy with an identical composition to
that found at the eutectic point.
eutectic composite. Alloys of ceramic oxides with car-
bides or borides having the composition characteristic
of the eutectic point which, because of their fine eutectic
microstructure, have extra hardness, toughness, and
strength.
eutectic composition. The composition at the intersec-
tion of two or more liquidus surfaces or lines.
eutectic deformation. The composition within a system
of two or more phases which when heated reaches a
temperature where sufficient liquid develops such that
the structure distorts.
eutectic, equilibrium. See equilibrium eutectic.
eutectic point. The point in a phase diagram indicating
both the composition and minimum melting tempera-
ture of a mixture of two or more phases.
eutectic reaction. The process whereby liquid remain-
ing at the eutectic temperature is transformed into two
different solid phases.
eutectic structure. A microstructure resulting from
cooling through the eutectic point. It is usually charac-
terized by finely dispersed crystallites.
eutectic temperature. The minimum temperature at
which a mixture of two or more phases will melt com-
pletely.
eutectoid reaction. A process in the solid state where
two or more solid phases form isothermally from a
single solid phase on heating. The single phase is re-
formed if the mixture is cooled slowly enough. The
reverse reaction is termed peritectoid.
EXCITED STATE
eutectoid temperature. The temperature at which the
eutectoid reaction in a solid occurs.
evacuator. A mechanical device which produces a vac-
uum for the removal of moisture from a body or system.
evanescent wave. A non-propagating electromagnetic
wave produced at the interface between two dielectrics
of refractive index nl and n2 with nl > n2 when the
incident light ray in the nl medium makes an angle of
incidence at the interface greater than the critical angle,
that is, it is totally internally reflected.
evanescent wave sensors. Devices built to use an opti-
cal fiber where the electromagnetic field of the evanes-
cent wave in the surrounding medium excites
fluorescence which can be detected and used to study
the surrounding material.
evaporator. A shallow pan, container, or other device in
which the liquid in a slurry or solution is converted to
the vapor state by applying heat, sometimes aided by
the use of a vacuum.
evaporite. Any sedimentary rock formed by the evapo-
ration of former lakes and seas.
Ewing theory of magnetization. Each atom is consid-
ered to be a permanent magnet which can rotate about
its center when placed in a magnetic field.
exaggerated grain growth. A phenomenon encoun-
tered in the final stage of sintering when a grain of more
than six sides in one plane expands rapidly outwards
consuming small surrounding grains. It is not a desir-
able phenomenon when high-strength products are re-
quired.
excess air. The amount of air introduced into a combus-
tion process that is greater than that theoretically re-
quired to obtain complete combustion.
exchange capacity, anion. See anion exchange capac-
ity.
exchange capacity, cation. See cation exchange capac-
ity.
exchanger, heat. See heat exchanger.
excitation. (1) The production of magnetic flux in an
electromagnet by passing a current through a winding.
(2) The raising of electrons to higher energy levels in
an atom.
excitation energy. The energy needed to change the en-
ergy level of an atom or molecule to a higher energy
level. It is equal to the difference in energy of the two
levels.
excited state. An energy level of the electrons of an
atom, group, or molecule above the ground state which
results from absorption of photons in quantized packets
from a source of radiation. When the energy source is
removed, the atoms return to their ground state either
by emitting the absorbed photons or by transferring the
energy to other atoms or molecules. In the excited state
there is increased vibrational activity.
EXCITER
exciter. A small generator that provides current for the
field structure of a large generator.
exciton. A bound hole-electron pair created when energy
nearly equal to the band gap is absorbed by a semicon-
ductor. The complex defect is free to move through a
crystal transporting energy but not charge. If it recom-
bines to form a band-electron state it may give up its
energy of formation.
exfoliate. (I) To expand and separate into parallel layers
or sheets under the influence of heat. (2) To flake or peel
from a surface.
exfoliated graphite. A filler compound made by heating
a bromine-graphite intercalation compound. This proc-
ess causes a 20- to lOO-fold volume expansion produc-
ing a wormlike morphology from the original graphite
flakes; very low density 3-30 kg m-3 •
exhaust. A duct, flue, chimney, or opening designed for
the escape or removal of gases, fumes, vapors, or odors
from a room or enclosure, sometimes aided by the use
ofa fan.
exhaust system. Any system by which gases are re-
moved from a dryer, kiln, furnace, or other confined
area.
exhaust velocity. The velocity with which the gas acting
as a propellant leaves a rocket motor.
exothermic burst phenomenon. The sudden increase in
temperature experienced in some ultrafine amorphous
powders when they reach a temperature at which they
crystallize.
exothermic reaction. A chemical reaction characterized
by the evolution of heat.
expanded aggregate. A lightweight cellular material
formed by heating to a specified temperature at a rate
which will cause bloating; used in the production of
lightweight cement and in other products to be used as
thermal insulation.
expanded bed. A bed of activated carbon or other granu-
lated material through which a fluid flows upwards at a
rate sufficient to raise and separate the particles in the
bed without changing their relative positions.
expanded blast·furnace slag. A lightweight highly po-
rous material made by treating molten slag with water,
high-pressure steam, air, or a combination of these; used
to produce lightweight concrete blocks, etc.
expanded clay. A lightweight cellular clay heated sud-
denly to a temperature sufficient to cause bubbles to be
formed which are retained in the clay particles; a
bloated clay. Usually common brick clay is used in a
finely screened form, heated to 1480°C as rapidly as
possible to reduce Fe203 to FeO and so cause oxygen
bubbling to bloat the clay body.
expansion. The process of increasing the volume of a
constant mass of a material, such as by heating, water
absorption, etc.
118
expansion coefficient, thermal. See thermal expansion
coefficient.
expansion joint. A joint in a concrete or masonry unit
which permits them to expand and contract without
damage or without the introduction of excessive
stresses.
expansion, moisture. See moisture expansion.
expansion, secondary. See secondary expansion.
expansion, thermal. See thermal expansion.
expansion, water. See water expansion.
expansive cement. A type of high-sulfate and alumina-
bearing cement which expands after hardening to com-
pensate for shrinkage during drying.
expansivity. Another expression for coefficient of ther-
mal expansion.
exploded alumina. Extremely fine platy, 5.0-nm-thick,
form of Al20 3 which readily forms even layers on a
ceramic surface. So called because it is made by filling
the pores in alumina with molten lithium metal and then
dumping it into water where the violent reaction be-
tween water and lithium causes small local explosions
which break up the Al20 3 into platelets.
explosive forming. The shaping of ware in dies in which
the forming pressure is generated by an explosive
charge. A reaction wave of high temperature and pres-
sure passes through the powder in the die causing sin-
tering to occur in seconds.
exposed aggregate. A type of concrete construction in
which the upper surfaces of the aggregate particles are
exposed for special architectural effects.
exposed finish tile. A combed, roughened, or smooth-
faced building block, the exposed surfaces of which
may be painted or left exposed.
expression. A process in which plastic clay bodies are
extruded through an aperture to form symmetrical
shapes, such as brick, hollow tile, pipe, and the like
which are cut into desired lengths as they emerge from
the die.
exsolution. Formation of oriented solid inclusions in
crystals due to the migration of atoms along certain
crystallographic planes when they separate out at high
temperatures.
extended dislocation. A unit of two half dislocations
bound together moving across a slip plane.
extender. An inactive or inert material added to another
material or body composition to serve as a filler, diluent,
modifier or adulterant.
extensive. Of or relating to a property measurement that
is dependent on mass; heat is an extensive property.
extensometer. Apparatus for studying small changes in
length, as in thermal expansion.
 119
external grinding. The process of grinding or polishing
the exterior of a rotating item.
external load. An outside load applied to a structure as
opposed to the load generated in the structure by virtue
of its own mass.
external load-crushing strength. The ability of a con-
crete pipe to resist crushing forces which are applied
externally in specified locations and directions on a
specified length of pipe.
external seal. A metal collar or flange sweated around a
ceramic shape, the metal having a slightly greater coef-
ficient of expansion to produce a hermetic or near-her-
metic seal. See sweat.
extractor. (I) A device for extracting liquid from a solid,
especially a centrifugal dryer. (2) An instrument for
removing tight-fitting components.
extrados. The outer curved surface of an arch or vault.
extra-duty glazed tile. A ceramic floor or wall tile suit-
able for use in light-duty floors and similar applications
where impact, wear, and abrasive forces are not exces-
sive.
extraordinary ray. The refracted ray of light in a double
refracting crystal such as calcite that does not obey
Snell's law.
EYKOMETER
extrinsic point defect. A crystal imperfection created
by the addition of an impurity atom.
extrinsic semiconductor. A semiconductor whose elec-
trical characteristics are due to added impurities. For
example, replacing some germanium atoms with arse-
nic atoms leads to mobile surplus electrons and hence
to an n-type extrinsic semiconductor. If indium is used
instead of arsenic, holes are produced and a p-type
extrinsic semiconductor results.
extrudate. The product from an extrusion process.
extrude. To shape a plastic body by forcing it through a
die.
extruded. Formed as a continuous body by being forced
through a shaping orifice.
extruder. A machine, such as a pug mill, which forces
plastic bodies through a die in a continuous column.
extrusion. The process of shaping a plastic body or mol-
ten glass by forcing it through a die.
extrusion die. An orifice at the deli very end of an ex-
truder barrel.
eye. The opening through which the flame enters the
bottom of a glass-melting pot.
eykometer. An apparatus to measure the yield point of
clay suspensions.
 F
OF. Symbol for degrees Fahrenheit.
fabrication. The production or assembly of components
into a unit or structure.
facade. The front or face of a structure.
face. (1) The work face of a grinding wheel. (2) The
exterior surface of a structure or wall. (3) Outside ply
of a laminate structure.
face brick. Brick designed for use on the exterior or
facing of a structure or wall; the exposed area of the
brick sometimes may be textured. Nominally 6.8 x 10.2
x 20.3 cm but the size varies from manufacturer, geo-
graphical area, and architects preference.
faced wall. A wall to which an aesthetic facing has been
bonded or attached; the facing mayor may not be load
bearing.
face milling. Machining of surfaces to a desired finish by
means of a cutting or milling tool.
facet. The plane surface of a crystal.
facing. (1) A fine sand applied as a facing to a casting
mold. (2) The outermost layer of composite of sandwich
construction, has a high density of fiber to resist loads.
facing brick. See face brick.
facing tile. Tile designed for use on interior or exterior
walls for aesthetic or functional purposes.
facing wall. A concrete wall serving as a barrier to pre-
vent movement of earth in embankments and excava-
tions.
factory. A building or group of buildings in which mate-
rials or products are manufactured.
fade. The attack on glass surfaces by substances which
produce an oily or whitish appearance.
fading. The loss of color or brilliance due to deleterious
conditions of surface exposure during processing or
service.
120
Fahrenheit. A temperature scale in which water freezes
at 32° and boils at 212° under 1 atmosphere pressure.
faience. A body of crushed quartz grains with almost no
adhesive remaining, therefore soft and porous, which
may be coated with a transparent or opaque glaze;
typical products are figurines, pottery, tile, beads, and
mosaics.
faience mosaics. Faience tiles usually 8 x 9 mm and 5
mm thick; usually mounted on a cement plate to facili-
tate fitting.
faience tile. Molded tiles with variations evident on face,
edges and glaze giving a handcrafted appearance; may
be glazed or unglazed.
faience ware. (1) Old earthenware with opaque glaze.
(2) Modern application is to decorate earthenware with
a transparent glaze.
failure. A condition in which a product can no longer
fulfill its intended purpose.
failure probability. A term needed to determine the
Weibull parameters for failure prediction. Given by
several functions, for example, P = (k - 0.5)/N, where
P is the failure probability, k is the rank in ascending
order, and N is the total number of samples tested.
falling slag. A high-calcium blast-furnace slag some-
times used as an aggregate in concrete.
falling-sphere viscometer. An instrument used to deter-
mine the viscosity of a liquid by measuring the rate of
fall of a standardized sphere through the liquid under
standardized conditions.
fallout. The descent of solids present in the atmosphere,
especially of radioactive material following a nuclear
explosion, onto the earth.
false header. A half brick used to complete a row of
brick in a facing wall.
false indication. An erroneous test result; usually due to
improper sample preparation.
 121
false set. The premature and erratic hardening of freshly
mixed concrete. mortar, or cement paste usually due to
the presence of unstable gypsum in the cement; the
plasticity may be restored by mixing without the addi-
tion of more water.
Falter apparatus. An instrument to determine the sof-
tening point of glass in which the elongation of glass
fibers is measured under specified conditions of tem-
perature and tensile stress.
famille. A type of Chinese porcelain characterized by a
design on a background of a particular color; see famille
rose.
famille rose. A series of red colors for porcelain and
chinaware produced from mixtures of gold and tin salts.
famille verte. A series of green colors for porcelain and
chinaware produced by blends of chromic oxide.
family. (I) A group of materials of similar chemical or
physical properties. (2) A complete series of materials
necessary to perform a specific process or to produce a
specific product.
FAMOS. Acronym for floating gate avalanche injection
metal oxide semiconductor.
FAMOST. Acronym for floating gate avalanche injec-
tion metal oxide silicon transistor.
fan. A mechanical device designed to produce a current
of air, gas, or vapor in a furnace, kiln, dryer, or other
area as a means of delivery, circulation, or exhaust
within the area.
fan blender brush. A type of brush used for decorating
china in which the bristles are stiff with multiple tips
arranged in a fanlike shape; it is good for blending and
feathering color.
fan deposit. Poorly sorted interbedded sand and gravel
in cone-shaped deposits formed by alluvial rivers.
fantail. The flue joining the slag pocket to a regenerator
in an open-hearth surface.
Faraday effect. Occurs on the passage of light through
materials in a strong magnetic field. When plane-polar-
ized light is sent through a specimen in a direction
parallel to the applied magnetic field, the plane of
vibration is rotated. The rotation, e, is given by
e =VHl, where I is the thickness in cm, H the field
strength, and V the Verdet constant.
farren wall. A hollow wall, JO cm in thickness; common
in houses.
fast dislocation. Dislocations moving through a lattice,
under the influence of an applied stress, with a velocity
sufficient to produce a kinetic energy comparable to the
dislocation rest energy. For example, when moving at
the velocity of sound in the solid a dislocation energy
is doubled.
fast ion conductor. An ionic ceramic having a rigid,
open network structure, with large tunnels, through
FCVI
which the cations can easily pass under the influence of
a potential gradient.
fast neutron. A neutron produced by nuclear fission
with a kinetic energy in excess of 1.5 Me V.
fat. A rich, plastic, cohesive concrete mix.
fat clay. A highly plastic clay of high green strength.
Also known as plastic clay, ball clay, or long clay. See
ball clay.
fatigue. (I) The tendency of a material to fail under
cyclic stress, usually by cracking. (2) The process in-
volved in making a material eventually to break by
either repeated application and removal of stress, or
long continued application of a steady stress. In either
case, failure stress is lower than that needed to cause
fracture initially.
fatigue crack growth rate. Crack extension per cycle of
fatigue observed in a constant-amplitude fatigue load-
ing test.
fatigue limit. The maximum stress a specimen of a ma-
terial can withstand over an infinite number of specified
test conditions or test cycles without failure.
fatigue strength. The maximum stress a specimen of a
material can withstand over a specific number of speci-
fied test conditions without failure.
fatigue test. A test to determine the ability of a material
to withstand conditions of alternating stress without
failure.
fat mortar. Mortar containing a high proportion of ce-
mentitious material and which adheres to a trowel.
faujasite. A framework structure that is the basis of many
zeolite structures. Individual cubo-octahedra, com-
posed of either (Si04)4- or (AI04)5- tetrahedra at each
vertex, are linked by hexagonal prisms to four other
cubo-octahedra producing an open network structure
containing large tunnels and cages.
fault. (I) An imperfection or defect. (2) In a wire or cable
a partial or total local failure in the insulation or conti-
nuity of a conductor.
fayalite. Fe2Si04; a mineral in the olivine group; sp. gr.
4.1; formed in aluminosilicate refractories when fired
with iron-bearing slags under reducing conditions.
faying surface. The surface in contact with another ma-
terial to which it is to be joined.
fcc. Abbreviation for face-centered cubic crystal.
F-center. The simplest color center in an ionic crystal,
consisting of an electron trapped at an anion vacancy.
This can be caused by ionizing radiation or quenching
the hot crystal in the presence of cation metal vapor.
FCVI. Abbreviation for forced chemical vapor infiltra-
tion. A method for preparing ceramic-matrix-ceramic
fiber-reinforced composites where a thermal and pres-
sure gradient is used to force the reaction. Greatly
FEATHER
enhanced production rates achieved, e.g., 2.S-cm wall
thickness in 24 hr.
feather. (I) An imperfection offeatherlike appearance in
glass caused by seeds produced by dirt and foreign
matter introduced during the casting or shaping process.
(2) A defect in wire glass resulting when transverse
wires are deformed. (3) A projecting strip, flange, rib,
or fin.
feather brick. A brick cut diagonally from one end or
side to the opposite end or side, to form a shape of
triangular cross section. The thin edge is approximately
3.2mm.
feather combing. A decorative technique in which a tool
containing many sharp points is drawn across superim-
posed layers of damp slips of various colors for artistic
effect.
featheredge. (I) A thin sharp edge. (2) A sharp edge such
as is produced when a brick is cut to form a brick of
triangular cross section. (3) A level-edged tool used to
straighten angles in finish-coat plaster.
featheredge brick. See feather brick.
feathering. A devitrified imperfection usually occurring
in lime-rich glazes.
FED. Acronym for field effect diode.
feed. The process or the material supplied to a processing
unit for treatment.
feed, drip. See drip feed.
feeder. A device designed to deliver materials to a proc-
essing unit, such as raw batch to a melting unit, or to
deliver gobs of molten glass to a forming machine.
feeder, apron. See apron feeder.
feeder, batch. See batch feeder.
feeder, channel. See channel.
feeder connection. The opening in a furnace wall
through which the feeder channel is placed to convey
molten glass from the melting tank to the feeder.
feeder, constant-weight. See constant-weight feeder.
feeder, cylindrical-screen. See cy lindrical-screen
feeder.
feeder, disk. See disk feeder.
feeder gate. (I) A device, such as a sliding plate or valve,
which controls the passage of a material from one
location to another such as from a bin to a truck. (2) The
refractory shape which controls the rate of flow of
molten glass in or through a feeder channel.
feeder nose. The end of the forehearth of a glass-melting
tank containing the orifice ring of the feeder.
feeder opening. The feeder connection of a glass tank.
122
feeder plate. A type of conveyor consisting of overlap-
ping plates between the roller chains which delivers
materials to a process or packaging unit.
feeder plug. A shaped refractory which controls the rate
of glass flow in the feeder channel of a glass tank.
feeder process. A process in which a gob of glass is
delivered to the forming unit.
feeder, reciprocating. See reciprocating feeder.
feeder, screw. See screw feeder.
feeder sleeve, feeder tube. A cylindrical tube contain-
ing the plunger in a glass-forming machine.
feeder, vane. See screw feeder.
feeder, vibrating. See vibrating feeder.
feed, gravity. See gravity feed.
feed, grinding. See grinding feed.
feed index. A technique by which the rate at which a
workpiece is being fed to a grinding wheel is indicated
by a dial mounted on the grinding equipment.
feed lines. The pattern formed on a workpiece during
machining or grinding.
feed rate. (I) The amount of material delivered to a
process per unit of time. (2) The cutting or grinding
speed of a grinding or machining operation.
feed, ribbon. See ribbon feed.
feed shaft. Vertical shafts under the fire holes in top-
fired kilns for the combustion of fuel and dispersion of
heat through the setting.
feed-through coil. A conducting coil, usually copper,
surrounding a specimen in electromagnetic testing.
feed wheel. A wheel on a centerless grinder which regu-
lates the speed and pressure on work during grinding.
FEEL. Acronym for ferroelectric electroluminescent.
feel. An empirical practice whereby raw material proper-
ties are determined by the sensation of touch.
FEFET. Acronym for ferroelectric dielectric field effect
transistor.
Feine filter. A type of filter in which parallel strings are
employed, instead of a filter cloth, to remove a filter
cake from the drum.
FEL. Acronym for free electron laser; devices halfway
between lasers and particle accelerators that are capable
of producing tunable high-energy infrared radiation. It
consists of a focused beam of electrons of high energy
in a vacuum chamber that is stimulated to emit photons
by interaction with a static magnetic field arranged to
make the electron beam wiggle in the plane perpendicu-
lar to the magnetic field.
 123
feldspar. A group of aluminosilicate minerals of potas-
sium, sodium, and calcium, the principal types being
orthoclase, microcline, albite, and anorthite of the gen-
eral formula KAISi 30 S or its equivalent; mp 1100-
1532°C; sp. gr. 2.56-2.63; hardness (Mohs) 6-6.5;
used widely in all types of porcelain, tile, dinnerware,
and other whiteware bodies, glass, glazes, porcelain-
enamels, and similar ceramic products, generally as a
flux. Framework silicates of 3-D linked Si04 and AI04
tetrahedra. The most abundant mineral group making
up about 25% of the earth's crust.
feldspar, white. See white feldspar.
feldspathic. Containing feldspar, such as a body or glaze.
feldspathoid. Framework aluminosilicate minerals con-
taining less silicon than feldspar. Associated with silica
poor rocks rich in sodium.
felsite. A fine-grained igneous rock consisting essen-
tially of quartz and feldspar.
felspar. Alternative spelling of feldspar.
felstone. Alternative name for felsite.
felt, asbetos. See asbestos felt.
FEM. Acronym for field effect modified transistor.
female end of pipe. The end of a pipe which overlaps a
portion of the end of an adjoining pipe.
Feret's law. The strength of cement or concrete is related
to the mixing ratio of the volume of the cement, water,
and air contained in the mix.
Fermat's principle. The statement that a ray of light
moves from one place to another in such a way that the
time taken is a minimum.
fermi. A length unit used in nuclear science equal to
10-15 m.
Fermi contact parameter. A measure of the hyperfine
interaction due to the magnetic interaction when an
electron and a nucleus with spin are in contact.
Fermi level. In the band structure model of bonding this
is the energy of electron wave functions at the highest
filled level in the structure.
fermion. A particle possessing an intrinsic spin angular
momentum of one-half an integral spin quantum num-
ber.
fernico. An alloy composed of iron, cobalt, and nickel
employed in the production of glass-to-metal seals.
ferric chloride. FeCI 3; mp 300°C; used in the develop-
ment of gold lusters in glass, glazes, and porcelain-
enamels.
ferric fluoride. FeF3; sp. gr. 3.18; employed in porcelain
and pottery, primarily as a flux and slight opacifier.
ferric oxide. Fe203; mp 1565°C; sp. gr. 5.12-5.24; used
in the manufacture of ferrites and as a pigment to
FERROSPINEL
produce various colors in glazes and glass; also em-
ployed as a polishing material for glass and other sub-
stances; also known as rouge, red iron oxide, red earth.
ferrihydrate. Fe203·nH20; a gel-like precipitate ob-
tained when Fe(II)lFe(I1I) solutions are made basic.
ferrimagnetic material. Materials with magnetic char-
acteristics similar to those of ferromagnetic materials
but usually in the lower range of values because the
structure consists of unequal magnetic moments lined
up antiparallel to each other and so producing a degree
of cancellation.
ferrielectric. A ceramic with an unbalanced orientation
of electric dipoles. It has properties intermediate be-
tween ferroelectric and antiferroelectric materials.
ferrite. (I) Any ferromagnetic material having high elec-
trical resistivity of the general formula MFe204 in
which M is a divalent metal, such as cobalt, copper,
magnesium, manganese, nickel, and zinc. (2) Body-
centered cubic iron.
ferroconcrefe. A concrete in which some form of iron or
steel is employed as a strengthening agent.
ferroelectric. A crystalline substance, such as the ti-
tanates and zirconates of barium, calcium, magnesium,
and the like, which is used in ceramic capacitors,
transducers, amplifiers, and other similar applications,
and which exhibits spontaneous electric polarization,
electric hysteresis, and piezoelectricity.
ferroelectric crystal. See ferroelectric.
ferroelectric domain. A region in a crystal in which the
direction of polarization is uniform.
ferroelectricity. The phenomenon where the po-
larizability, P, of a ceramic does not depend linearly on
the applied electric field strength, E. Characterized by
hysteresis in a P versus E plot; is believed to arise from
the existence of domains in crystallites of the material.
ferromagnesite. An iron-bearing magnesite employed
in refractories for its strong bonding properties at ele-
vated temperatures.
ferromagnetic material. Any material displaying ferro-
magnetism.
ferromagnetism. A property, exhibited by certain met-
als, alloys, and compounds of the transition (iron
group), rare-earth, and actinide elements, in which the
internal magnetic moments spontaneously organize in
a common direction; gives rise to a permeability con-
siderably greater than that of vacuum, and to magnetic
hysteresis.
ferrosilite. FeSi0 3; iron silicate; a pyroxene chain sili-
cate; forms complete solid solutions with enstatite.
ferrospinel. Any spinel of the general formula MFe204
in which M may be barium, calcium, cobalt, copper,
magnesium, manganese, nickel, strontium, or zinc; used
as a refractory because of its high resistance to attack
by molten glass and slags.
FERROUS CARBONATE
ferrous carbonate. FeC03; occurs in nature as spathic
iron ore.
ferrous oxide. FeO; mp l420°C; sp. gr. 5.7; used as a
magnetic ceramic.
ferrous sulfate. FeS04·7H20; mp 64°C; sp. gr. 1.89;
used as a red ceramic colorant. Also known as iron
sulfate, copperas, green copperas, green vitriol, iron
vitriol. Occurs as an ore: melanterite.
ferrous titanate. FeTi0 3; generally identified as a tita-
nium ore; has the corundum structure with the metal
positions occupied by Fe2+ and Ti4+. Also known as
ilmenite.
Ferroxcube. Ba2M2Fe12022 and Ba3M2Fe24041 where
M is a divalent ion Zn, Mg or from the first transition
series. Commercial name for soft ferrites used in trans-
former cores where high permeability, low coercive
force, and low eddy current loss are essential. More
complex hexagonal structures than barium ferrite; easy
direction of magnetization is in the basal plane. Also
known as Y- or Z-compounds-Y = Ba2M2Fe12022'
Ferroxdur. Commercially available BaFe12019 ferro-
magnets.
Ferroxplanas. A commercial name for magnetically soft
ferrites used in line output transformers for very high
frequencies, 200-1000 MHz. Called V-compounds,
Ba2M2Fe12022 or Z compounds, Ba3M2Fe2404Jo where
M is a divalent ion from the first transition series or Zn
or Mg.
ferruginous. Containing iron, particularly iron oxide,
Fe203'
FET. Acronym for field effect transistor; a device in
which electrons flow from the source through a layer of
lightly doped semiconductor to the drain. A voltage
applied to the gate electrode creates an electric field
within the active layer and this controls the number of
electrons flowing through, i.e., controls the current
flowing to the drain.
fettle. To remove rough edges, mold marks, fins, and
other irregularities from dry or nearly dry ceramic ware,
usually by cutting, scraping, or abrasion.
fettling knife. A sharp knife or instrument used to fettle
or trim ceramic greenware. See fettle.
fiber. A long, pliable filament made by drawing melts of
highly plastic material, or by thermal decomposition of
polymer fibers.
fiber, asbestos. See asbestos fiber.
fiber axis. The preferred direction of a fiber texture in
crystalline fibers.
fiber, basic. See basic fiber.
fiber bundle. A bundle or package of parallel, long, thin,
flexible glass fibers; used to transmit images from one
end to the other in fiber optics.
124
fiber, ceramic. See ceramic fiber.
Fiberfax. A commercially available alumina ceramic fi-
ber.
fiber flexural rigidity. (I) The force moment needed to
bend a specimen to unit radius of curvature. Units are
dyne-centimeter or newton-meter. (2) A measure of
individual fiber rigidity.
fiber, glass. See glass fiber.
fiber, graphite. See graphite fiber.
fiber, optical. See optical fiber.
fiber optic-coupler. A device used to split the optical
signal among multiple paths to multiplex two wave-
lengths on to a single fiber. It is usually based on two
fibers lying close together; when straight they are co-
herently coupled, but when bent they become decou-
pled.
fiber optics. Use of glass fibers to transmit light (pro-
duced by lasers) for telecommunications and computer
networking. Optical fibers can carry much more infor-
mation than electrical wires.
fiber, organic. See organic fiber.
fiber orientation. Fiber alignment in a composite where
most fibers are lying in the same direction.
fiber show. In ceramic composites it is the situation
where the ceramic fiber strands appear on or above the
surface.
fiber torsional rigidity. C. (1) The resistance of a fiber
to twisting. (2) The couple needed to put a fiber in unit
twist; units are kg m2 s-2.
fiber tow infiltration. Shapes made from fiber tow, rov-
ing, or bundles are consolidated by impregnation with
molten matrix material.
fiber volume. j; the volume of a composite occupied by
the reinforcing fiber; calculated from a knowledge of
weights and densities or from a count on a given area
of polished cross section.
fibril. (1) A single crystal in the form of a fiber. Also
known as whisker. (2) A small fiber or part of a fiber.
fibrocement. A cement-asbestos fiber composite used to
make sheet material for building.
fibrous. Consisting of, containing, or resembling fibers.
Fick's first law of diffusion. An expression of the rela-
tionship between the flux of a diffusing species and the
concentration gradient: J = -Ddc/dx, where J is the flux
of the diffusing species, D is the diffusivity or diffusion
coefficient, and dcldx is the concentration gradient.
Fick's second law of diffusion. A statement that the
rate of concentration change is proportional to the sec-
ond derivative of the concentration gradient:
acxldt = Da2c/iJ:l-, where Cx is the concentration at a
 125
distance x from the point of reference, t is the time, and
8 symbolizes partial derivative.
fictile. (I) Capable of being molded from clay. (2) Made
by a potter from clay. (3) Relating to the potter's craft.
fictile clay. A moldable clay suitable for the making of
pottery and earthenware.
fictive temperature. Synonym for the glass transition
temperature.
field assisted bonding. A technique for making glass-
metal joins well below the softening point of the glass
by applying a dc voltage in the range 20-50 V across
the metal-glass couple using the metal as the anode and
the glass as the cathode while heating the whole assem-
bly to 500°C.
field, bipolar. See bipolar field.
field, circular magnetic. See circular magnetic field.
field-cured specimen. A test sample of concrete cured
at the pouring site under conditions supposedly the
same as those of the concrete employed in the structure
being built.
field drain pipe. Pipe used to drain surface and subsur-
face water from fields.
field effect. The change in the properties and charac-
teristics of a material or a part when subjected to the
influence of an electric or magnetic field.
field effect transistor. FET; a semiconductor device
based on GaAs that has three or more electrode regions,
the source, a gate, and the drain. A current present in a
channel between the highly doped source and drain is
controlled by the electric field developed by a voltage
applied between source and gate.
field emission. The ejection of electrons from a solid
subjected to a high electric field.
field, longitudinal magnetic. See longitudinal magnet-
ism.
field, magnetic. See magnetic field.
field, magnetic leakage. See magnetic flux leakage.
field meter, magnetic. See magnetic field meter.
field, residual magnetic. See residual magnetic field.
field strength, magnetic. See magnetic field strength.
field structure. The device that creates the magnetic
field through which an electrical generator armature
moves.
figured glass. Flat glass having a pattern etched or
ground on one or both surfaces.
figured rolled glass. A translucent rolled glass, one sur-
face of which has a pattern in consequence of which
vision is not clear and, in some instances, is almost
completely obscured.
FILMS
figurine. A bone china or porcelain sculpture; an exam-
ple of ceramic artwork.
FIL. Abbreviation for filament.
filament. A long, flexible thread of small cross section,
extruded or drawn, such as glass or polymer, or vapor-
deposited, such as boron; used in filament winding
processes and in filamentary composites.
filament catenary. The difference in length of the fila-
ments in a given length of fiber tow leading to curvature
when suspended.
filament number. Density of fiber filament expressed in
denier or tex units.
filament winding. An automated process used to manu-
facture ceramic-composite pipes and cylindrical con-
tainers. Rove is wound onto a mandrel after passing
through resin matrix bath. Fiber volume fractions up to
80% can be achieved. The pattern of winding can be
varied so as to achieve stress resistance in particular
places and directions.
filamentary composites. The best of the advanced engi-
neering composites in which the reinforcing ceramic
fibers consist of continuous filaments not woven but in
continuous parallel arrays.
filamentary superconductor. Superconducting wires
embedded in a matrix.
fill. (I) The unit charge of batch introduced into a melting
tank, pot, or other processing unit. (2) Yarn oriented at
right angles to the warp in a woven fabric.
filler. (I) A chemically inert material used to fill holes in
a surface prior to the application of a subsequent coat-
ing. (2) An inert extender to a composition, which does
not add or detract from the intended properties of the
composition.
filler, joint. See joint filler.
fillet. A concave transition surface between two surfaces,
which otherwise would meet at an angle, as a means of
lessening the danger of cracking.
filling. The clogging of an abrasive product, such as
emery cloth or a grinding wheel, by chips, shavings, and
fine particles which have been removed from a piece
during grinding.
filling point. The point of normal capacity of a glass
bottle.
film. A thin coating or layer of a substance over the
surface of another material.
film conductance. h; rate of heat flow from a unit area
of a surface to its surroundings; h has units W m-2 K- 1.
film permeability. The rate at which chemical reagents
penetrate a film.
films. Trimmed mica split to specific ranges or thickness
under 0.15 mm.
FILM STRENGTH
film strength. The resistance of films and coatings, such
as glazes and porcelain-enamels in the unfired state, to
disruption and mechanical damage.
filter. A porous material through which a fluid is passed
to remove matter in suspension.
filterability. The adaptability of a material in suspension
in a slurry to separation from the slurry by means of a
semipermeable medium or filter.
filter, black-light. See black-light filter.
filter block. A hollow, rectangular, vitrified clay ma-
sonry unit, sometimes salt glazed, used in trickle-type
floors in sewage disposal plants; the block is designed
with apertures connecting with drainage channels
through the upper surface, and are arranged to form
aeration and drainage grilles to pass air into, and liquids
from, overlying filter media; the drainage channels
convey liquid away from the filter bed.
filter cake. The solid or semi-solid residue remaining on
a filter after filtration, particularly the product from a
filter press.
filter candle. A porous ceramic tube employed as a filter
medium.
filter cloth. A cloth employed as a filtering medium in a
filter press for the removal of water from clay slips and
slurries.
filter, infrared. See infrared filter.
filter medium. Closely woven textile or metal cloth;
used as filter cloth.
filter press. A device consisting of iron frames or plates
suspended on a metal rack with a filter cloth stretched
between each frame, the entire assembly then being
pressed together and tightened by means of a screw
mechanism; the slurry to be filtered is pumped through
the assembly to remove excess water; the resultant filter
cake collected on each filter cloth is then removed for
further processing.
filter, quartz-crystal. See quartz-crystal filter.
filtration. (1) The act or process of passing a gas or liquid
through a porous article or mass to separate out matter
in suspension. (2) The act or process of suppressing or
minimizing waves or oscillations of certain frequencies
of light, electricity, or sound, by passing them through
a suitable material or device.
fin. A thin, featheredge protrusion or projection from a
surface such as a casting, on flat glass after cutting, or
on pressed or blown ware at the seam formed between
two parts of a mold.
final set. The time required for cement or concrete to
harden to the point beyond which plastic deformation
will not occur.
fine aggregate. Sand; the portion of the aggregate in
concrete or mortar passing a 4.75-mm sieve.
126
fine annealing. (I) The heat treatment of glassware to an
extremely low internal stress to improve its resistance
to breakage, and to obtain a uniform index of refraction
to improve its brilliance. (2) The maintenance of a
steady temperature at the end of a firing to ensure that
all parts of the object reach the same temperature.
fine ceramics. Japanese definition of high-technology
ceramics fabricated from ultrafine, < 0.1 J.l.m diameter,
powders.
fine grinding. The milling of materials to particle sizes
less than 100 mesh.
fineness. A measurement number designating the parti-
cle size of a material, usually reported as passing a
screen of a particular standard size.
fineness modulus. An empirical factor designating the
fineness of an aggregate as a percentage of the total
sample retained on each of a series of screens of de-
creasing sizes.
fineness, porcelain-enamel. See porcelain-enamel fine-
ness.
fines. The portions of a powder composed of particles
smaller than 74-20 11m.
fine sand. Sand grains having a diameter between 0.25
and 0.125 millimeters.
finial. An ornamental projection or end of fired clayware
such as is used on spires or the ends of roof ridges.
fining. The process or period in glass making during
which glass becomes essentially free from bubbles.
finish. (1) The quality, appearance, or condition of a
surface. (2) A material applied to a surface for decora-
tive, protective, or other functional purposes. (3) The
stage in the processing of molten glass when the glass
appears to be free of seeds. (4) The portion of a bottle
designed to receive a cap or other closure.
finish, combed. See combed finish.
finisher. (1) A workman who completes or perfects the
final operation of a manufacturing operation. (2) A
workman supervising the melting and fining of glass.
(3) A person or machine that prepares the bed or finishes
the surface of freshly poured concrete.
finish, fire. See fire finish.
finish grinding. The completion of a grinding operation
to obtain a desired surface appearance or accurate di-
mensions.
finishing. (1) Completion of an operation or process. (2)
Completion of a grinding operation or surface treat-
ment.
finishing lime. Any white, plastic, hydrated lime suit-
able for use in finish-coat plaster.
finish mold. The neck mold of a bottle.
finish, natural. See natural finish.
 127
finish, offset. See offset finish.
finish, sand. See sand finish.
finish, scored. See scored finish.
finish screen. A screen for the removal of dirt and under-
sized particles from coarse aggregate before it enters the
bins at a concrete batching plant.
finish, short. See short finish.
finish, stippled. See stippled finish.
finish tile. Tile employed in construction with the glazed
face exposed to finish a wall.
finish, velvet. See vel vet finish.
finite element. A separate self-contained element of a
structure which can be combined with many others to
produce an idealized structure and so can form the basis
of mathematical modeling of real continuous structures.
fire. The process whereby ceramic bodies and shapes are
densified by the application of heat.
fire, annealing. See annealing fire.
fire, bisque. See bisque fire.
firebox. The section of a furnace or kiln in which com-
bustion of fuel takes place.
firebrick. Any refractory brick capable of withstanding
high temperatures without fusion; used to line furnaces,
fireplaces, chimneys, etc.; usually made of fireclay and
contains not less than 50% alumina.
firebrick, insulating. See insulating firebrick.
fire bridge. A low wall separating the hearth and grate
of a reverberatory furnace.
fire check. A crack resulting from thermal stress devel-
oped in ware during firing.
fireclay. Clay containing only small amounts of fluxing
ingredients, but high in alumina and silica, capable of
withstanding high tempertures without becoming
glassy; used in the production of refractory brick, kiln
and furnace linings, glass-melting pots and tanks, cru-
cibles, etc.; variable composition around that of
kaolinite.
fireclay brick, high-duty. See high-duty fireclay brick.
fireclay brick, low-duty. See low-duty fireclay brick.
fireclay brick, medium duty. See medium-duty fire-
clay brick.
fireclay brick, semi-silica. See semi-silica fireclay
brick.
fireclay brick, siliceous. See siliceous fireclay brick.
fireclay brick, superduty. See superduty fireclay brick.
FIRING
fireclay cement. A cement composed of dry fireclay and
sodium silicate; used in the repair of saggers, refracto-
ries, kiln cracks, etc.
fireclay, flint. See flint fireclay.
fireclay, ground. See ground fireclay.
fireclay mortar. A mortar composed of finely ground
fireclay and water.
fireclay, nodular. See nodular fireclay.
fireclay, plastic. See plastic fireclay.
fireclay, plastic refractory. See plastic refractory fire-
clay.
fireclay, silica. See silica cement.
fire crack. A crack resulting from thermal stresses de-
veloped in ware during firing.
fire, decorating. See decorating fire.
fire finish. A surface finish or polish on glassware pro-
duced by heat treatment, such as in a flame.
fire, glost. See glost firing.
firemarks. (I) A surface imperfection resulting from
contact with a flame. (2) Shallow pinhole-like indenta-
tions on the surface of porcelain-enamel.
fire over. The idling of a glass-melting tank at operating
temperture.
fire polish. To produce a smooth, glossy, or rounded
glass surface by heating in a fire.
fireproofing. (l) To render incombustible. (2) Any ma-
terial used to protect against fire.
fireproofing tile. Tile, usually hollow, employed to pro-
tect members of a structure against fire.
fire resistant. Resistant to combustion for a specified
time under standard conditions of heat intensity without
burning or structural failure.
fire sand. A highly refractory sand consisting of coarse
quartz grains in combination with alumina and a clay-
bearing sand; used primarily in foundries.
fire, sharp. See sharp fire.
fire, short. See short fire.
fire, single. See single fire.
fire, soft. See soft fire.
firing. (I) The process of igniting a mixture of fuel and
air in a kiln or furnace. (2) The heat treatment of ceramic
ware or products in a kiln or furnace to develop desired
physical and chemical properties. (3) The fusion of a
porcelain-enamel or ceramic coating by heat.
FIRING BEHAVIOR
firing behavior. The changes in the appearance and
properties of ceramic products during firing or thermal
treatment.
firing chamber. Any chamber or enclosure in which fuel
is burned to provide heat.
firing curve. A chart recording the time and temperature
conditions during a firing operation.
firing cycle. The time required for one complete firing
operation.
firing, direct. See direct fire.
firing, draw. See draw firing.
firing expansion. The increase in the dimensions of a
substance or product during thermal treatment.
firing fork. A long-handled, two-pronged tool used to
charge and remove ware in furnaces.
firing, glost. See glost firing.
firing, open. See open firing.
firing range. The time-temperature intervals in which
bodies and coatings attain the respective desired firing
maturities or properties.
firing shrinkage. The contraction or decrease in the di-
mensions of a substance or product during thermal
treatment, calculated by the formula: Linear firing
shrinkage, % =[(Ld-Lr)/Ldl x 100 where Ld is the length
of the dry, but unfired, specimen, and Lr is the length of
the fired specimen, Volume firing shrinkage, % = [(Vd
- Vr)/Vdl x 100, in which Vd is the volume of the dry,
but unfired, specimen, and Vr is the volume of the
specimen after firing. Also known as linear burning
shrinkage and volume burning shrinkage.
firing, sky. See sky firing.
firing temperature. (I) The peak temperature reached
during the firing of a porcelain-enamel or ceramic ware.
(2) The degree of sensible heat attained by the porce-
lain-enamel ware during the maturing firing of the
coating.
firing time. The time porcelain-enameled ware remains
in the firing zone of a furnace to attain coating maturity.
firing, vacuum. See vacuum firing.
firing zone. The section of a furnace or kiln in which
ware is subjected directly to the major influences of
heat, as in a continuous furnace or kiln.
first-quality ware. Products which meet specified
standards and are free of imperfections or defects.
first side. The surface of plate glass which is first ground
and polished.
fish bone. A striation on a fracture surface that does not
cross it completely.
128
fish eye. A glass bubble on the fired surface of a glaze or
porcelain-enamel.
fish-eye lens. A glass lens of small focal length having a
highly curved protruding front element that covers an
angle of view of almost 180 0 • It produces a circular
image with large linear distortions.
fish scale. A half-moon fracture, resembling the scale of
a fish, on the surface of porcelain-enamel caused by the
presence of small pockets of hydrogen or other sub-
stance at the interface between the coating and the steel.
fish scale, delayed. See delayed fish scale.
fish scale process. Fishscale occurring on porcelain-
enameled surfaces during the drying or firing operation.
fission. The division of an atomic nucleus into parts of
comparable mass, usually with the release of energy and
one or more neutrons.
fissionable material. A material whose nuclei are capa-
ble of undergoing fission, such as the heavier isotopes
of uranium, plutonium, or thorium, with the emission
of large amounts of energy.
fission, controlled. See controlled fission.
fission products. Nuclides produced by fission or by
radioactive decay of the fission products.
fissures. Surface defects consisting of narrow openings
or cracks.
fit. The stress or dimensional relationship between a
coating and its substrate.
fitch fan. A brush made from very soft hair used to apply
glaze and underglaze.
fitting. An accessory part used in the assembly of a
system, such as T- and Y-joins, elbows, and adaptors.
fixed bed. A bed of powdered or granular material
through which a fluid may flow without substantial
movement of the bed.
fixed-feed grinding. The process of feeding a material
to be ground to a grinding wheel at a given rate or in
specific increments.
flake enamel. Porcelain-enamel frit available in egg-
shell-thin fragments or flakes.
flake graphite. Flat platelike particles found widely dis-
persed in silica-rich quartzites.
flaking. The breaking of small chips or thin fragments
from the surface of a refractory, glaze, or porcelain-
enamel.
flambe glaze. A red flow glaze containing reduced cop-
per which produces a variegated appearance on pottery
products.
flame. The hot gaseous part of a fire.
 129
flame annealing. The heating of a glass or metal part in
a flame to remove stresses and to make the glass or
metal less brittle.
flame cleaning. Removing scale, rust, and dirt from met-
al surfaces with a broad flame.
flameproof ware. Ware capable of withstanding ex-
treme thermal shock.
flame, reducing. See reducing flame.
flame spraying. Deposition of a coating on the surface
of a product or material by feeding the coating material
through a spray gun into a gas flame to impinge and fuse
molten particles on the work.
flange. (I) A rim designed to strengthen a metal part or
to facilitate assembly to another part. (2) The circular
metal plates that drive a grinding wheel.
flanged bottom. An imperfection consisting of an offset
on the bottom of a bottle.
flange, safety. See safety flange.
flaring cup. A cup wheel with the rim extended from the
back at an angle.
flash. (I) A thin film of another glass, frequently colored
or opaque, applied and fused to the surface of sheet or
other clear glass. (2) A film of different color or texture
on clayware.
flashed brick. Brick subjected to reducing conditions
near the end of the firing cycle to produce a desired
color.
flashing. (1) The process of applying a flash of glass. (2)
A thin sheet of material placed at the junction of exterior
building surfaces to make the joint watertight. (3) The
material extruded out of the join of a dust or plastic clay
press.
flash magnetization. Magnetization by a current flow
of brief duration.
flash marks. (I) The discoloration of a brick surface due
to the presence of fly ash during firing. (2) Cross-set
marks in sections of brick due to flashing reduction; that
is, the sections were subjected to reducing conditions
during firing, causing color differences in the brick.
flashover. An electric discharge over or around the sur-
face of an insulator.
flash point. The lowest temperature at which vapors
from a volatile liquid will ignite, at least momentarily,
on contact with a small flame.
flash set. Rapid and permanent hardening of fresh mor-
tar, concrete, or cement paste with the evolution of heat.
flash wall. A refractory wall in a kiln placed so as to
prevent impingement of flames on the ware being fired.
flat arch. An arch in a furnace or kiln in which both outer
and inner surfaces are horizontal; the inner arch may be
arched with a large radius. Also known as jack arch.
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
flat-drawn process. A process in which sheet glass
drawn vertically from the molten bath is passed between
rollers to solidify the sheet to a prescribed thickness.
flat glass. Sheet glass.
flat sheets, type F (flexible). See type F flat sheet.
flat sheets, type U (utility). See type U flat sheet.
flat slab. A reinforced concrete plate or slab designed to
span in two directions, such as in flooring.
flatware. A generic term for flat items of dinnerware
such as plates, meat platters, saucers, bread and butter
plates, and the like.
flatwork. Concrete items such as sidewalks, floor, and
flat slabs.
flaw. An imperfection or defect.
flaw indication, magnetic-particle. See magnetic-par-
ticle inspection.
fleck. A small marking or streak.
Fleming's rules. Mnemonics for the relationship be-
tween the direction of current flow, motion, and mag-
netic field in electromagnetic induction. The hand is
held with the thumb, first, and second fingers at right
angles, respectively, indicating the direction of motion,
field, and electric current. The left hand is used for
electric motors and the right hand for dynamos.
Flemish bond. Courses of brick consisting of alternate
headers and stretchers, the headers being centered on
the stretchers above and below.
fleurette. An ornament or motif on decorated ware re-
sembling a flower.
flexibility. An intrinsic material property that allows it to
be bowed repeatedly without fracture.
flexible brick pavement. A designed structure made to
resist pedestrian and vehicular loadings, consisting es-
sentially of a top surface of close-fitting clay pavers, a
layer of bedding sand, and a road base, and sand be-
tween the pavers which produces the phenomenon of
interlock or lock-up.
flexural modulus. The ratio of applied stress causing
flexure in a test specimen, to the strain in the outermost
fibers of the specimen, at values which remain within
the elastic limit.
flexural rigidity. D; this depends on the shape ofa speci-
men and is a measure of the rigidity. For a plate D =
Eh 3/12(1 - u), where E is Young's modulus, h is the
plate thickness, and u is Poisson's ratio.
flexural ring test. A strength test for glass and ceramic
samples in which a sample disk is pressed between two
concentric rings of different diameters.
flexural strength. The stress on a material which in a
bending or a transverse load test will just cause fracture.
Conventional tests are evaluated from the relationship
FLEXURAL TEST
3LP/2bd 2 , where P is the applied load, L is the sample
length, b is the width, and d is the thickness.
flexural test. A test used for quality control in fiber
composite manufacture in which tensile, compressive,
and shear stresses act simultaneously.
flint. (1) A finely crystalline form of natural silica or
quartz used as an abrasive, balls and liners for ball mills,
and as a component in glass manufacture; sp. gr. 2.6-
2.65; hardness (Mohs) 6.5-7. (2) The term applied to
silica-rich bands and nodules that occur in chalk. A
subset of a broader group of rocks called cherts. A
common aggregate for concrete.
flint clay. A hard, smooth, nonplastic fireclay.
flint-enameled ware. A semivitreous or earthenware
type of pottery flecked in yellow, brown, and blue
colors.
flint fireclay. A hard, smooth, nonplastic fireclay.
flint glass. (1) A heavy, colorless, brilliant lead-bearing
glass; often used as an optical glass. (2) A clear, color-
less bottle glass. (3) Any glass of high quality.
flint mill. A ball mill in which flint pebbles are used as
the grinding medium; sometimes the mill lining also
may be constructed of flint blocks.
flint optical glass. See optical flint glass.
flint shot. A hard, coarse, sharp-edged sand used in sand-
blasting.
flint, white. See white flint glass.
flip-flop. An electric circuit or device that can assume
either of two stable states on receipt of a suitable pulse.
float. (I) A flat wood or metal finishing tool for cement
which is used after screeding and before troweling. (2)
A rectangular piece of wood with a handle attached to
the underside tjlsed to apply and smooth coats of plaster.
float bath. A IJng shallow bath of molten tin under a
reducing atmosphere to prevent oxidation on which
float glass forms from molten glass under the influence
of surface tension and gravity.
floater. A floating clay or refractory shape, usually a
ring, to skim foreign materials from the surface of
molten glass in a glass tank, and to control their passage
from one section of the tank to the next.
floater hole. An opening in a glass-melting tank through
which floaters are placed into a tank.
float finish. A rough concrete surface produced and
smoothed by the use of a wooden float during the
finishing operation.
float glass. A continuous process in which flat glass is
formed on a bath of molten metal, such as tin.
floating punch. A male mold member free to adjust its
position in the female part of the mold when it is closed
under pressure.
130
float mold. A mold having a large central cavity from
which many small cavities lead. Used to make many
small parts simultaneously, usually under pressure.
flocculant. A reagent or electrolyte added to a colloidal
suspension to cause the particles to aggregate or coa-
lesce and settle.
flocculation. The addition of an electrolyte to thicken a
porcelain-enamel slip by agglomeration which causes
particles to settle out.
floccule, floc. A small aggregate of flocculated particles.
floc test. A test of the durability of hydraulic cement in
which I g of cement is shaken in a test tube containing
100 ml of water and allowed to stand for 7 days; if the
amount of floc, or suspended particles, is small the
cement is considered to be durable.
flooding. The flowing of water over an unfired porcelain-
enamel surface to produce a coating having a water-
streaked appearance when fired.
floor brick. Smooth, dense, abrasion-resistant brick
used in floors. Sometimes called paver.
floor brick, industrial. See industrial floor brick.
floor, hot. See hot floor.
floor molding. The production of molds on a floor.
floor-stand grinder. A grinding machine mounted on a
stand or base attached to the floor.
floor tile. An abrasion-resistant ceramic tile used in floor
construction.
floor topping. A thin layer of high-quality , high-strength
concrete applied to a concrete slab as a finished floor.
Florence flask. A round flat-bottomed glass flask with a
long neck, used in chemistry laboratories.
Florida kaolin. A very clean, ball-type kaolin of high
purity, fine particle size, and white burning; employed
to promote refractoriness, plasticity, bonding strength,
and suspension power in many types of ceramics.
flosferri. A form of aragonite deposited as white branch-
ing masses from hot springs.
floss. Molten or solid slag floating on the surface of
molten metals and glasses.
flotation. A process employed to separate particles in a
liquid bath in which one group of particles is caused to
float and other groups to settle by control of the liquid
specific gravity and the use of air streams.
flow-button. A pellet of frit or dried slip of porcelain-
enamel or glaze employed to evaluate the flow charac-
teristics of the materials at fusion temperatures by
comparison with standardized pellets.
flow coating. The process of applying a coating to an
object by pouring a slip or liquid over the surface of the
object and allowing it to drain.
 131
flow, fusion. See fusion flow.
flow hole. The submerged passage between the melter
and refiner of a glass-melting tank.
flow line. A line formed on a molded item at the point
where two input-flow fronts meet during the molding
process.
flow, plastic. See plastic flow.
flow process. (1) A process in which a gob of glass is
delivered to the forming unit. (2) The mechanism of
dislocation movement in a solid leading to deformation.
flow resistance factor. RTF; a performance feature of
cellular ceramic catalyst support systems that relates to
the back pressure as gas flows through the cellular
structure. RTF = L2/(L - t)4, where L is the cell repeat
distance and t the cell wall thickness.
flow test. A test to determine the flow characteristics of
concrete or other plastic mass in which a measured
volume is vibrated or jolted on a flat surface and its
tendency to flow is observed.
flow, uniform. See uniform flow.
flue. A passage to exhaust combustion gases and dust
from a kiln, furnace, or other combustion chamber.
flue dust. Particles of dust exhausted from a furnace,
kiln, or other combustion chamber.
flue gas. The gaseous products of combustion from a
furnace, kiln, or other combustion chamber.
flue-gas analyzer. An instrument, such as an Orsat ana-
lyzer, which analyzes and sometimes monitors the com-
position of flue gases and the air-fuel ratio in the
combustion chamber of a furnace or kiln.
flue lining. The refractory shapes used to line the flues
and exhaust passages of furnaces and kilns.
fluid. A substance such as a liquid or gas having low
resistance to flow and a tendency to assume the shape
of its container.
fluid bed. A bedding of fine particles or granules which
behave in a fluid-like manner when moved by a rising
stream of gas or air.
fluid carrier. A fluid in which particles are suspended to
facilitate their movement or application; for example,
water in which glaze and porcelain-enamel composi-
tions are suspended.
fluid-energy mill. A size-reduction apparatus in which
grinding is achieved by the collision of the particles
being ground in a high-velocity stream of air, steam, or
other fluid.
fluidity. (I) The property of a substance to flow like a
liquid or gas, when subjected to a shearing force. It is
the reciprocal of viscosity. (2) The workability or con-
sistency of a material or mixture to flow, such as wet
concrete, a glaze, or a porcelain-enamel.
FLUORINATION
fluidized bed. An apparatus in which powdered or
granular material is contained and suspended in a rising
stream of hot air or gases as a means of drying, heating,
calcining, coating, or quenching; the powdered or
granular material in the suspended state behaves much
like a liquid.
fluidized-bed coating. A coating applied to an article
while it is immersed in a fluidized bed of the coating
material or while the article is suspended in a flowing
gas stream of the coating material.
fluidized-bed combustion. The combustion of particu-
late matter in a fluidized bed which has an excess of air
passing through the bed.
fluobarite. A mixture of fluorspar, CaF 2, and barite,
BaS04' used as a flux in glass manufacture.
fluor. A synonym for fluorspar, CaF 2.
fluorapatite. Apatite mineral in which F- predominates
as the charge-balancing anion.
fluor crown glass. An optical crown glass of low index
of refraction and dispersion containing substantial
amounts of fluorine to serve as a flux.
fluorescence. Light when absorbed by a system contain-
ing electrons may be changed into thermal motion or be
re-irradiated. When light (glow) is emitted from the
excited state such light is called fluorescence; fluores-
cent materials are often called phosphors.
fluorescent magnetic inspection. The use of a finely di-
vided ferromagnetic fluorescent medium as an inspec-
tion technique.
fluorescent penetrant. An inspection penetrant which
fluoresceses or glows in uv light.
fluorescent pigment. A pigment which will give off
light (glow) during exposure to radiant energy such as
ultraviolet light.
fluorhectorite. LiMg 2LiSi 40 IO F2; a phase occurring in
some fluormica glass-ceramics with a water swelling
capacity. Glass-ceramics containing this phase swell
and delaminate in contact with water to produce a
sol-gel of fine mica-type platelets which can be floccu-
lated, by addition of KF, into a 25-~m-thick continuous
film of oriented crystals of KMg 2LiSi 40 lOF 2, fluor-
taenolite. This film has paper-like properties and can
withstand temperatures over 500°C; it has high dielec-
tric strength.
fluoride glass. Melts of lanthanide fluorides and mix-
tures of these fluorides that become elastic solids with-
out crystallizing; finding use in fiber optics,
electrooptics, and lasers.
fluorination. A chemical reaction occurring when fluo-
rine is introduced or comes in contact with a receptive
product.
FLUORINE
fluorine. F; introduced in ceramic compositions in the
form of various fluorides as a flux or opacifying ingre-
dient.
fluorite. Synonym for fluorspar, CaF2.
fluorocanasite. CasK2-3Na3-4SiI2030F4; a crystal
produced in some glass-ceramics with a structure simi-
lar to the rare mineral canasite which has four silicate
chains parallel to the b-axis, cross-linked to form tubu-
lar units of Si 12030 composition; high toughness, around
5.0 MN m-312, and high strength.
fluoroscopy. The projection of an x-ray radiograph onto
a fluorescent screen to obtain an inspection image of
low density ceramic materials.
fluorozirconate glass. A low-loss, fiber-forming glass
used to fabricate waveguides. ZBLAN is a commercial
example with composition ZrF4 (55%), BaF2 (18), LaF3
(6), AlF3 (4), and NaF (17). Applications include re-
mote spectroscopy, remote sensing, and lasing.
fluorphlogopite mica. KMg 3AlSi30IQF2; the crystal-
line phase developed in the machinable glass-ceramic
Macor and responsible for its machinability.
fluorspar. CaF2; mp 1350°C; sp. gr. 3.2; hardness
(Mohs) 4; used as a flux and opacifier in cearmic glazes,
porcelain-enamels, and glass; as a flux in emery-wheel
binders; as a component in certain cements; and as a
major component in crucibles used for the melting of
uranium for nuclear applications. Exhibits fluores-
cence, from which its name comes.
fluortaenolite. See fluorhectorite.
fluosilicate. Any salt of fluosilicic acid, H2SiF6, used as
a source of silica and fluorine; fluosilicates of barium
and zinc also are used as cement hardeners.
fluosilicic acid. H2SiF6 ; a colorless liquid used in the
etching of glass.
flush tank. A ceramic container designed to supply
water to a sanitary water closet.
fluting. A machine operation to form grooves parallel to
the axis of taps and drills.
flux. (1) Any substance which promotes the fusion and
flow of a ceramic or glass mixture when subjected to
heat. (2) A clear porcelain-enamel containing no color-
ing oxide; used in artware. Also known as fondant. (3)
The rate of flow or emanation of radiation from a given
source passing through 1m2.
flux block. Refractory shapes used in glass-melting
tanks in areas of contact with molten glass.
flux density, magnetic. See magnetic flux density.
flux factor. A factor evaluating the quality of silica re-
fractories used in steel manufacture; calculated as the
percentage of alumina in the brick plus twice the per-
centage of alkalies. The flux factor of first quality,
Type-A, brick must not exceed 0.50.
132
fluxing. The fusion or melting of a substance resulting
from the combined influence of chemical reaction and
heat.
fluxing agent. Any substance, such as lead oxide, borax,
and lime, which will promote fusion of ceramic mate-
rials.
flux jumping. If a superconductor is present in a trans-
verse magnetic field, currents are generated in the con-
ductor which then act to shield the bulk of the conductor
from the external magnetic field. These currents run a
short way along one side of the conductor and then
return on the opposite side of the conductor. Hence, the
current being carried by the superconductor is increased
in one direction and decreased in the other. Because of
this the conductor can become resistive and dissipate
heat in a transverse direction which results in the mag-
net being discharged into the resistive portion of the
conductor, hence magnetic flux appears to jump.
flux line. (1) The line at the surface of molten glass in a
glass tank or pot where attack on the refractory lining
is most severe. (2) Imaginary magnetic lines indicating
the behavior of a magnetic field.
flux, magnetic leakage. See magnetic flux leakage.
fluxoid. Quanta consisting of circulating vortices of cur-
rent and hence magnetism; one f1uxoid = 2 x
10-11 tesla. Large numbers can exist in superconduc-
tors.
flux penetration, magnetic. See magnetic flux penetra-
tion.
flux pinning. The presence of grain boundaries, impuri-
ties, and crystal defects alter the properties of supercon-
ducting materials by inhibiting magnetic domain wall
movement through the material; this is flux pinning and
it causes a field gradient which gives rise to a current in
the material.
fly. Small fibers released accidentally into the air during
processing and forming operations.
fly ash. Fine particles of matter in flue gases, usually
resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels; some-
times used as a pozzolan or as a filler in some cements.
Classified according to its cementitious properties
which arise from its metastable aluminosilicate glass
content.
fly ash, class F. See class F fly ash.
foam. A froth or layer of bubbles on the surface of molten
glass.
foamed clay. Lightweight cellular clay formed by the
rapid heating of selected clays to form a bubbled inter-
nal structure; used as thermal and acoustic insulation.
foamed concrete. Concrete containing purposefully en-
trained air or gas bubbles which have been introduced
either mechanically or chemically.
foamed glass. Cellular glass of high insulating value,
noncombustible, moistureproof, buoyant, and odorless;
 133
produced by adding powdered carbon or other gas-
forming material to crushed glass and fired in a manner
to entrap the evolving gas bubbles; used as insulation
for walls, floors, roofing, industrial and domestic equip-
ment and appliances, piping, low-temperature appara-
tus, etc.
foam line. The line dividing the foam-covered area of a
glass-melting tank from the clear area of the tank.
fold. (1) An imperfection on the surface of glassware
caused by incorrect glass flow during forming. (2) An
abrasive or a tool used for lapping and polishing.
foliated crystal. Crystals of lamellar habit that can be
folded, distorted, and contain easily separated layers.
Talc crystals are an example.
fondant. A clear porcelain-enamel containing no color-
ants; used in artware.
foot. The base of an article.
forbidden band. A range of electron energy levels be-
tween the top of the valence band and the bottom of the
conduction band. Sometimes called the band gap which
in silicon, a semiconductor, is l.IS eV wide and in
diamond, an insulator, is 5.4 eV.
forbidden transition. An energy level transition in an
atom that is not allowed by the selection rules in terms
of the change of quantum number involved.
force. An influence which tends to cause motion or a
change in motion.
force, coercive. See coercive force.
forced chemical vapor infiltration. See FCV!.
forced draft. Air under positive pressure produced by
fans at the entrance to a furnace or combustion chamber.
Ford cup. A viscometer in which the time required for a
measured quantity of liquid or slurry to flow through an
orifice of specified size is taken as an indication of the
flow characteristics of the material.
forehearth. The section of a furnace from which molten
glass is taken for forming.
forgeability. The ability of a material to flow under a
compressive load without failure.
forging. A method of plastically deforming materials
into shape with compressive force. For ceramics it is
accomplished at high temperature with samples of uni-
form very small grain size.
fork. An apparatus consisting of two or more prongs
which may be raised or lowered, and which is employed
to charge and to remove ware from a box furnace.
forklift truck. A machine equipped with two or more
parallel prongs which can be raised or lowered, and
which may be inserted under stacked materials for
transport.
FOURCAULT PROCESS
form grinding. The shaping of a product by use of an
abrasive wheel contoured to the reverse shape of the
desired form.
forming. The shaping or molding of molten glass, plastic
ceramics, or powders by the application of pressure, by
casting, by hand shaping, or by other means.
forming, explosive. See explosive forming.
forming hood. The chamber of the forming equipment
in which glass fibers are formed and collected.
forming rolls. Rolls employed in the forming of flat
glass.
form oil. A material applied to the surface of molds and
forms to prevent concrete from sticking.
formula. A recipe of ingredients used in the preparation
of a desired composition expressed in fixed proportions.
forsterite. Mg2Si04 ; a discrete ionic silicate; sp. gr. 3.21;
used in electronic ceramics, ceramic-metal seals, re-
fractories, and cements because of its high thermal
expansion and low-loss dielectric properties.
forsterite porcelain. A vitreous ceramic in which for-
sterite, Mg2Si04 , is the essential crystalline phase.
forsterite whiteware. Any ceramic whiteware in which
forsterite, Mg2Si04 , is the essential crystalline phase.
fossil fuel. Any natural hydrocarbon, such as coal, petro-
leum, or gas, that may be used for fuel.
Fotoceram. A commercial trade name for photosensitive
glass-ceramic in which metallic Au or Ag particles are
nucleated via an optical sensitizer, Ce3+, and then on
which lithium metasilicate nucleates when heated. This
metastable crystalline phase is much more easily etched
by HF than the parent glass allowing an irradiated
pattern to be selectively etched. A final heat treatment
after flood uv exposure results in stable Li 2 SiOs crystals
being produced to give the object strength. Resolution
of 5 J,lm is possible.
foundation seal. A sand slab, or a slab of concrete,
placed at the bottom of a wet excavation to serve as a
seal to facilitate subsequent work.
foundry. A building or structure in which glass and metal
castings are produced.
foundry clay. A refractory fireclay.
foundry engineering. The science and practice of melt-
ing and casting glass and metal.
foundry gravel. A term applied to coarser grades of
molding sand.
foundry sand. Sand used to make molds for metal cast-
ings; characterized by refractoriness, cohesiveness, and
durability.
Fourcault process. A procedure for making flat glass in
which the molten glass is drawn upward from a melting
tank in ribbon form through a slotted refractory block,
FOURIER ANALYSIS
rolled flat, annealed, and then cut to the desired size and
shape.
Fourier analysis. The mathematical method in which a
complex wave is decomposed into several simple ones
by representing it as a sum of a number of sine and
cosine functions.
fractal. A mathematical concept permitting a quantita-
tive description of aggregate structures. Introduced in
1970 by Mandelbrot. A fractal is a rugose object whose
rugosities show up at all scales of observation so that its
surface, or outline, cannot be defined by tangent planes
or tangents to a smooth curve.
fractal dimension. D; a number, not necessarily an in-
teger which quantitatively measures the rugosity of an
object. It is obtained by trying to cover all the material
of the object with the minimum number of overlapping
spheres of a given diameter, I. This operation is repeated
using smaller spheres and noting how the minimum
number, N, varies with their diameter when I tends to
zero. The law is Nt =I-D , where D is the fractal dimen-
sion. For a straight line D = I while a smoothly curved
surface has D = 2. Sometimes called the similarity
exponent since it shows how the mass of an aggregate
or body changes after a change of scale; if all lengths
are multiplied by A, then masses are multiplied by AD.
For a rugose structure, like a particle aggregate, D is
about 1.25. Another definition is given in terms of the
number of parts of the object generated, N, and the
similarity ratio, l/r, used to divide the initiator: D =-log
Nllog (llr).
fraction. A sample of powder in which the grains lie
between two stated particle sizes.
fractionation, elastic. See elastic fractionation.
fractography. The study of fracture surfaces by micro-
scopic methods.
fracture. (I) A crack caused by mechanical failure due
to stress. (2) Irregular breakage of a mineral to give no
observable cleavage planes.
fracture, conchoidal. See conchoidal fracture.
fracture ductility. True plastic strain at the point of frac-
ture.
fracture mechanics. The science of the interaction of
defects, strength, and toughness.
fracture, spontaneous. See spontaneous spalling.
fracture strength. Tensile load at the start of fracture
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the speci-
men. Also called the fracture stress.
fracture stress. See fracture strength.
fracture, thermal-shock. See thermal-shock failure.
fracture toughness. The resistance materials show to
the extension of cracks in their body; quantified through
the stress intensity parameter K1C '
134
fracture wear. The wear of the grains of a grinding
wheel due to fracture.
fragility. The property of being easily broken.
framboidal. Raspberry-shaped spheres; characteristic
mineralogical morphology of pyrite, FeS2'
framework silicate. These contain (Si04)4- tetrahedra
sharing all four oxygens with adjacent tetrahedra. The
result is a framework extending in three-dimensions.
When some Si atoms are substituted by AI, other metals
have to enter the structure as charge-balancing cations;
these are the aluminosilicates.
frangible. Breakable or fragile.
Frank-Condon principle. A statement that an elec-
tronic transition takes place so fast that a vibrating bond
does not change its length appreciably during the tran-
sition.
franklinite. (Fe,Mn,Zn)(Fe,Mn)204; a black, inverse
spinel mineral containing iron, manganese, and zinc
used as a source of iron.
Frank partial. A stacking fault in a crystal produced by
the condensation of vacancies or interstitial atoms.
Frank-Read source. A theoretical rationalization ofthe
observation that dislocation densities increase when a
crystal is heavily deformed. Dislocation lines bow out
as they are pinned at two or more points in the slip plane
and eventually they wrap themselves around the pin-
ning obstacles to form a dislocation loop in the slip
plane. The process is then repeated. A critical stress is
needed because the initially straight dislocation line has
to be bent to a semicircle before it can expand outwards.
Fraunhofer diffraction. Diffraction of parallel light
beams by parallel slits.
freak. A bottle so badly deformed it will not pass through
a filling line.
free blown. Blown glassware formed by hand without
the use of a mold.
free body. A device used for theoretical consideration of
the stresses in a material, it is an element of structure
removed from contact with all others for the purposes
of calculation.
free carbon. Elemental carbon present in an uncom-
bined state in a composition or body.
free crushing. The process of crushing friable materials
in a manner that the fines separate from the coarse
particles and thereby avoid further grinding.
free electron laser. See FEL.
freehand grinding. The process of grinding an item or
shape by hand without the use of guides.
free magnetism. An imaginary magnetic fluid to which
the magnetic effects of a magnet are ascribed.
 135
free moisture. The quantity of uncombined water in a
body or composition which can be removed by conven-
tional drying.
free relative permittivity. E331Eo; the impedance paral-
lel to the field direction at frequencies away from the
electromechanical resonance in a piezoelectric ceramic.
free silica. (1) Si0 2 present in natural deposits of clay-
type minerals as one of the several polymorphic forms
of silica. (2) Silica in clay or glazes which remains
chemically uncombined with other elements of the
composition.
free water. See mechanical water.
freeze. The premature setting of a concrete in a pump,
drill rod, etc., before it can be placed in its intended site.
freeze-drying. A method used to separate solids from
suspension, or salts from solution, which minimizes
agglomeration of the powder. The suspension is rapidly
frozen and then ice or solid solvent is removed by
sublimation pumping.
freeze-thaw test. An accelerated test to indicate the re-
sistance of brick, concrete, and similar products used in
construction to cycles of freezing and thawing such as
may be encountered in service.
freezing mixture. A mixture of two or more substances
that absorb heat when they mix and so cause a tempera-
ture drop.
freezing point. The temperature at which a liquid be-
comes a solid.
French (hexagonal) roofing. Asbestos-cement roofing
chipped at three corners and laid with the diagonals
perpendicular to the eaves to form a hexagonal pattern.
Frenkel defect. See Frenkel pair.
Frenkel pair. A type of defect found in the solid state
consisting of a vacant atom or ion site and the displaced
atom in an interstice nearby. Often found in ion-bom-
barded materials.
frequency. The velocity of light divided by the wave-
length; thus it is the number of vibrations per second;
units are hertz per second, Hz s-I.
fresco. The process of decoration in which slurries of
pigment and a suitable binder are applied on a pre-
viously dried but wetted plaster wall.
fresh concrete. Concrete that has not reached its initial
set.
Fresnel biprism. A thin double prism used to produce
interference and diffraction fringes.
Fresnel diffraction. Diffraction of divergent wave
fronts by apertures. Theoretically more complex to
interpret than Fraunhofer diffraction.
fretting. Wear occurring because of surfaces oscillating
against each other.
FRONT-END COATING
Freundlich isotherm. An equation which relates the
volume of gas adsorbed on a surface at a given tempera-
ture to the pressure of the gas: xlM = kplln, where x is
the quantity adsorbed, M is the amount of adsorbent, p
is the partial pressure of the gas, and k and n are
constants.
friability. The ease with which a material may be broken
or pulverized.
friable alumina. Alumina which is more easily frac-
tured than normal alumina and less friable than white
alumina. Medium purity.
friction constraint. A force-resisting deformation in a
fiber composite arising from the multitude of fiber-fi-
ber contacts.
Friedel salt. Ca4AI207C12·H20; calcium chloroalumi-
nate hydrate formed when OPC is hydrated in the pres-
ence of chloride ions.
frisket. A mask or stencil used to protect an area of ware
from a subsequent application of glaze or slip.
frit. A glass which has been melted and quenched in
water or air to form small friable particles which are
then processed by milling for use as a major constituent
of porcelain-enamels, fritted glazes, and frit chinaware.
frit china. A thin, highly translucent whiteware of zero
water absorption composed of a body containing sub-
stantial amounts of frit, and coated with a soft glaze.
frit, clear. See clear frit.
frit, colored. See colored frit.
frit seal. A hermetic seal for ceramic packages of inte-
grated circuits produced by fusing metal and glass pow-
ders.
fritted glass. Glass of controlled porosity formed by sin-
tering powdered glass.
fritted glaze. A glaze in which part or all of the fluxing
ingredients have been fused or quenched to form small
friable particles before incorporation into the glaze slip.
fritting. The process of melting and quenching glassy or
molten materials to form small, friable particles.
fritting voltage. The voltage at which an electric break-
down occurs between two mating contacts separated by
an insulating film.
FRM. Abbreviation for fiber reinforced metals.
frog. A depression on one or both larger faces of a brick
or block; so designed to reduce weight and to facilitate
the keying in of mortar.
front-end coating. The application of a metal oxide sur-
face layer to glass bottle exteriors immediately after
forming but before annealing. Volatile materials such
as SnCI4 are used, and the Sn02 this produces increases
the bottle's strength.
FROSTED
frosted. The surface treatment of glass to produce a
frosty appearance or a degree of obscuration, usually by
chemical action or light sandblasting.
frost glass, frosted glass. Very thin crushed glass used
as a decorative material of tinsel-like appearance when
distributed and fused over the surface of a glass article.
froth flotation. A materials beneficiation process for
finely divided materials in which a slurry is caused to
foam by the addition of a foaming agent; select particles
adhere to the resultant bubbles and are removed with
the froth and thus are separated from the materials
remaining in the slurry.
frozen strains. Also known as residual strain. Caused
when materials are cooled at rates unable to allow
stresses from forming operations to be relieved.
FRP. Abbreviation for fiber-reinforced plastics.
FTIR. Abbreviation for Fourier transform infrared spec-
troscopy, which is a technique where all infrared wave-
lengths simultaneously irradiate the sample for a short
time and the absorption spectrum is found by mathe-
matical manipulation of the Fourier transform so pro-
duced.
fuchsine dye. An analine dye dissolved in alcohol; used
to test the porosity of electrical porcelains and other
ceramic bodies.
fuel. A material that is burned to produce useful heat.
fuel-air ratio. The proportions of air and fuel employed
in the combustion process.
fuel assembly. Any device containing control and spe-
cial nuclear materials which occupy indi viduall y con-
trolled positions in the core of a nuclear reactor, plus
structural materials which facilitate assembly of the
reactor.
fuel bed. The layer of burning fuel on the floor of a
cupola or other furnace.
fuel cell. A cell where electricity is produced directly
from the energy of oxidation of a fuel.
fuel element. Cylinders, rods, plates, tubes, or other
shapes into which nuclear materials are formed for use
in a reactor.
fuel gas. Any gaseous material employed to provide heat
or power by combustion.
fuel oil. Any oil employed to provide heat or power by
combustion.
fuel pin. A nuclear fuel rod.
fuel, spent. See spent fuel.
fugacity. A thermodynamic expression used to describe
the tendency of a gas to expand and stated as d(ln}) =
dlJi RT, where 11 is the chemical potential, R is the gas
constant, and T is the thermodynamic temperature.
136
fugitive material. A material, usually organic, added to
a composition to aid green forming, weaving, or sew-
ing, that is later burned out in the air or pyrolyzed in
vacuum in a carefully programmed way prior to the
final high temperature forming process.
Fulcher equation. Empirical in derivation, it relates
glass viscosity to temperature: 10gT]= -A + BIT - To
where the temperature T is in °C, A, B, and To are
material-specific constants.
fulgurite. A glassy mineral found in sand and rock
formed by lightning strikes.
fuliginous. Dull grayish-black soot color.
fullerenes. A third form of carbon, in addition to dia-
mond and graphite, with a molecular structure consist-
ing of closed cages; C 60 or C 70 were the first to be
discovered and investigated. C60 is a mustard-colored
solid dissolving in hydrocarbons to give a magenta
colored solution. C70 is a red-brown solid giving a deep
red colored solution. The C60 or C 70 units are packed in
the solid about 1.04 nm apart and in the case of C 60 form
an fcc lattice.
fuller's earth. A nonplastic clay like material, composed
largely of attapulgite with some montmorillonite, hav-
ing high natural absorpti ve power and used after heating
to decolorize oils and fats.
full lead crystal glass. A form of domestic tableware of
carefully controlled composition as specified in BS
3828: PbO (33.0%), Si0 2 (55.5), K20 (11.0), and Fe203
(0.05). Made principally by mouth blowing involving a
chair of glassmakers.
full-trimmed mica. Mica with all cracks and cross
grains or reeves removed from all sides by trimming.
fumed silica. Ultrafine, ultrapure Si0 2 made by passing
silicon tetrachloride through an oxy-hydrogen flame.
Particle sizes, before aggregation, are in the range 7 to
50nm.
funk. A form of pottery with lively or odd design adher-
ing to no rules of design.
furnace. An enclosed structure in which elevated tem-
peratures are produced for the firing of ware to obtain
desired physical and chemical changes in the ware.
furnace, acid-refractory. See acid-refractory furnace.
furnace, arc-image. See arc-image furnace.
furnace, basic open-hearth. See basic open-hearth fur-
nace.
furnace, box. See box furnace.
furnace comeback. The time taken for a furnace or kiln
to return to its set temperature after a charge of cold
ware has been placed in it.
furnace, continuous. See continuous furnace.
furnace, cross-fired. See cross-fired furnace.
 137
furnace, direct-fired. See direct-fired furnace.
furnace, end-fired. See end-fired furnace.
furnace, end-port. See end-port furnace.
furnace, hairpin. See hairpin furnace.
furnace, high-frequency induction. See high-frequency
induction furnace.
furnace, image. See image furnace.
furnace inclusions. A defect in glass arising from for-
eign bodies in the furnace other than stone or black
speck.
furnace, indirect arc. See indirect arc furnace.
furnace, induction. See induction furnace.
furnace, Kryptol. See Kryptol furnace.
furnace lining. The exposed interior of a furnace, kiln,
or smelter which is constructed of high-temperature-re-
sistant, chemical-resistant, and abrasion-resistant re-
fractory materials.
furnace, low-frequency induction. See low-frequency
induction furnace.
furnace, low-shaft. See low-shaft furnace.
furnace, luminous-wall. See luminous-wall firing.
furnace, open-arc. See open-arc furnace.
furnace, periodic. See periodic furnace.
furnace, pot. See pot furnace.
furnace, radiant-tube. See radiant-tube furnace.
furnace, recuperative. See recuperative furnace.
furnace, regenerative. See regenerative furnace.
furnace, resistance. See resistance furnace.
furnace, reverberatory. See reverberatory furnace.
furnace, rocking. See rocking furnace.
furnace sand. A relatively pure, coarse type of sand used
as a refractory material for hearths and for foundry
molds.
furnace, semi-muffle. See semi-muffle furnace.
furnace, side-fired. See side-fired furnace.
furnace, side-port. See side-port furnace.
furnace, solar. See solar furnace.
furnace, tank. See tank furnace.
furnace, thermal gradient. See thermal gradient fur-
nace.
furnace, V-type. See hairpin furnace.
FUSION-CAST BASALT
furnace, vacuum. See vacuum furnace.
furniture, kiln. See kiln furniture.
furring. (I) Wood or metal strips applied to the wall or
ceiling of a building to level the surface, to provide a
means of attaching plasterboard to the wall, and to
permit an air space between the plasterboard and the
wall structure. (2) The bristling of magnetic particles
due to excessive magnetization, resulting in a fuzzy
appearance. (3) Wall deposits in boilers using hard
water.
furring brick. A type of hollow brick which has been
grooved to receive and retain a coating of plaster in the
construction of walls.
furring tile. A non-load-bearing tile used as an unex-
posed lining in interior walls, sometimes made with a
furrowed or grooved face to recei ve and retain a coating
of plaster.
fuse. To melt or join by the use of heat.
fused alumina. A form of alumina produced by heating
a mixture of calcined bauxite or AI 20 3 and iron borings
to a temperature in excess of 3600°C in an electric arc
furnace; used in applications where high resistance to
abrasion is required, such as in bearings, spindles, etc.
Addition of Ti02 increases the toughness.
fused-grain refractories. Refractories made predomi-
nantly from refractory substances which have solidified
from a fused or molten condition.
fused quartz. A pure silica glass made by melting
crushed crystals of natural quartz or silica sand; used in
apparatus and equipment requiring materials having
low thermal expansion, high melting point, high chemi-
cal resistance, and high transparency. Also known as
silica glass.
fused refractories. Cast or molded refractory shapes
which have been formed from molten refractory com-
positions. Also known as fusion-formed or fusion-cast
refractories.
fused silica. A transparent or translucent glass consisting
almost entirely of silica formed by the flame hydrolysis
of silicon tetrachloride.
fused-silica refractory. A refractory product composed
essentially or entirely of fused, noncrystalline silica.
fusible, fusibility. Capable of being softened or melted
by heat.
fusible clay. A clay which will vitrify and lose its shape
at temperatures of 1200°C or lower.
fusion. (I) The process of melting, frequently with inter-
action of two or more materials, to form a more or less
homogeneous mass. (2) Joining by the use of heat.
fusion-cast basalt. A hard, crush-resistant, and abra-
sion-resistant product made by casting molten basalt
into the desired shape; used as a flooring and lining
material in areas subjected to severe abrasion.
FUSION CASTING
fusion casting. The process of forming items by casting
molten material in a mold followed by controlled cool-
ing to improve crystallinity.
fusion-cast refractory. A refractory product made by
casting molten refractory ingredients in a mold.
fusion flow. The property of a material, such as a glass,
frit, or metal, to flow while in the molten state.
fusion-flow test. Any test which will measure or com-
pare the flow characteristics of a material or materials
under the influence of heat, such as by heating uniform
pellets of a glass or frit on a panel for a period sufficient
to cause softening, and then raising the panel to a
vertical position to permit the molten pellets to flow
down the vertical surface.
fusion, heat of. See heat of fusion.
fusion joint. The line at which the surfaces between two
solids are joined together by the use of heat.
138
fusion point. The temperature or range of temperatures
at which melting or softening of a composition will
occur.
fusion test. Any test to determine the temperature or
range of temperatures at which fusion takes place, or to
determine the flow or other properties of a material at
fusion temperatures.
fuzz. Short broken fiber filaments aggregated together
and formed when fibers, yams, etc., are pulled over
contact points. The mass of the fuzz is an indication of
the ceramic fiber abrasion resistance.
fuzzballs. A defect consisting of agglomerates of whisk-
er crystals formed during the mixing of matrix powder,
whiskers, and suspension agents, in whisker-reinforced
ceramic composites.
fuzzy texture. An indistinct or fuzzy-appearing imper-
fection occurring on porcelain-enameled ware due to
the presence of minute closed and broken bubbles,
dimples, and the like, at the surface.
 G
G. (1) Symbol used to denote shear modulus. (2) Denotes
Gibbs free energy.
G-ll glass. A high-K20-content borosilicate glass also
containing zinc oxide; composition in wt. % is: Si02
(58.5), B20 3 (22.0), AI 20 3 (2.0), ZnO (2.7), and K20
(14.7).
GAASP. Acronym for the semiconductor phase gallium
arsenide phosphide.
gable. The triangular wall section at the ends of a pitched
roof, bounded by two roof slopes and the ridge pole.
gable roof. A pitched roof that ends in a gable.
gable tile. A roofing tile having the same length, but 1.5
times the width of the tile used elsewhere on the roof,
used to complete the alternate courses of the gable of a
tiled roof.
gable wall. (I) The wall of the charging end of a glass-
melting furnace. (2) A wall crowned by a gable.
gadget. An instrument to hold the foot of a glass during
hand-finishing of the bowl.
gadolinia. See gadolinium oxide.
gadolinite. See ytterbite.
gadolinium ferrate. Gd3Fes012; a bixbyite-type ferro-
magnetic ceramic; Curie temperature 564 K.
gadolinium gallium garnet. See GGG.
gadolinium oxide. Gd20 3 ; mp 2330°C; sp. gr. 7.41 ;
hardness (Knoop) 4.77 GN m-2; used in special glasses,
ceramic dielectrics, neutron shields, and phosphor acti-
vators. Old name is gadolinia.
gaffer. The head workman, foreman, or blower in a hand
glass factory.
gage length. The length over which deformation is
measured in a test specimen.
139
gahnite. ZnAI 20 4; mp 1950°C; a spinel sometimes used
in refractories.
gaize cement. A cement consisting of a finely ground
mixture of a pozzolanic material and hydrated lime or
a mixture of finely ground pozzolanic material and
portland cement.
galena. PbS; sp. gr. 7.4-7.6; hardness (Mohs) 2.5; used
in glazing of pottery as a flux substitute for lead oxide.
gall. (I) Molten sulfate floating on the surface of molten
glass in a pot or tank. (2) To fret or wear away by
friction.
galleting. To fill in fresh mortar joints and to level roof-
ing tile with chips of stone, chips of roofing tile, etc.
galleyware. A synonym for delftware, a type of tin-
glazed ware.
gallium. Ga; mp 30°C; bp 1983°C; sp. gr. 5.91; used in
high-temperature thermometers, as a metallic coating
for ceramics and backing for optical mirrors, and as a
heat exchange medium for nuclear reactors.
gallium antimonide. GaSb; mp 706°C; a semiconductor
possessing the zinc blende structure.
gallium arsenide. GaAs; mp 1240°C; a mainly n-type
semiconductor with a 1.3-eV band gap; used as a mi-
crowave diode, high-temperature resistor, and rectifier.
gallium ferric oxide. GaFe204; magnetic ceramic be-
low -13°C and piezoelectric from room temperature to
-195°C.
gallium nitride. GaN; mp 800°C; used as a semiconduc-
tor.
gallium phosphide. GaP; mp 1350°C; used as a wide-
band-gap semiconductor, 2.25 eV, with significant n-
and p-type characteristics.
galmei ore. Zinc-containing ore used in an ultrasonic
flow leaching process with ammonium salts to extract
the zinc.
GALVANIC ACTION
galvanic action. The generation of direct current elec-
tricity by chemical action.
GAMBIT. Acronym for gate-modulated bipolar transis-
tor.
gamma activity. The spontaneous emission from a nu-
cleus of high-energy, short-wavelength electromag-
netic radiation.
gamma-alumina. y-AI20 3; the name given to a number
of phases that arise during the thermal decomposition
of gelatinous AI(OHh and boehmite, AIO(OH). Be-
lieved to be a defect spinel stabilized by protons but fine
particle size makes it almost amorphous toward x-rays.
Sintering effects a transition to porous IX-AI 20 3 grains.
gang, draw. See draw gang.
gangue. Accessory and valueless minerals associated
with relatively valuable minerals.
ganister. Highly refractory siliceous rock used in the
manufacture of refractory brick, particularly for use in
metallurgical furnaces.
ganister, bastard. See bastard ganister.
gap. An unintentional space between two windings in a
filament-wound fiber composite.
gap-sized grading. The removal of particles of interme-
diate size from a brick clay to produce bricks of high
bulk density.
garden tile. Molded tile used as stepping stones in gar-
dens or patios.
Gardner mobilometer. An instrument to measure the
flow characteristics of porcelain-enamel slips in which
the time required for a solid or perforated disk mounted
on the bottom end of a weighted plunger to move a
specified distance through a cylinder of slip is taken as
a measure of the mobility of the slip.
garnet. Minerals used as abrasives; Mohs hardness 6.5-
7.5; general formula is Mi+M 23+X30\2; the common-
est X is silicon and so they are mainly a group of mineral
silicates in the cubic crystal system. X can also be AI,
Fe, or Ti. The M2+ ions occupy 8-coordinate dodecahe-
dral sites, M3+ ions occupy distorted octahedral sites
surrounded by six oxygens, and X has tetrahedral coor-
dination by oxygen. Each oxygen in the structure is
shared by four polyhedra, one tetrahedron, one octahe-
dron, and two dodecahedra.
garnet abrasive. Fractured grains of almandite.
garspar. A feldspar substitute consisting of finely
ground quartz and glass produced as a by-product in the
grinding and polishing of plate glass.
gas black. A form of pyrolytic carbon made from petro-
leum gas.
gas ceramics. Foam glass ceramics generated when
B20r(NH4hHP04-Si02 glasses are melted under re-
ducing conditions, cooled, and then refired at about
140
9OO°e. The microstructure contains BP04 crystals and
isolated bubbles of hydrogen gas about 1.0 JIm in di-
ameter which substantially lower the dielectric constant
of the product.
gas constant. The constant of proportionality, R, in the
equation of state for an ideal gas: pV = RT, where pis
the pressure, V is the volume and T is the temperature
of I mole of gas. R = 8.314 J mole- 1 K- 1.
gaseous inclusion. A round or elongated bubble, blister,
or seed in glass, porcelain enamels, and glazes.
gaseous inclusion, open. See open gaseous inclusion.
gasification. Conversion of a substance to a gas by burn-
ing or by reaction with oxygen and superheated steam.
gasless combustion casting. An adaptation of the alu-
minothermic reaction where mixtures of oxides, carbon
and aluminum powder are ignited under inert gas pres-
sure while subjected to centrifugal acceleration. AI 20 3
slag is removed to leave a dense carbide product.
gas mixer. A fan, aspirator, or injector used to mix gas
and air.
gas permiability coefficient. The volume of gas passing
between two surfaces of unit area separated by unit
distance when a steady-state flow has been established.
gas pickling. Pickling of metal shapes for porcelain-
enameling in a gaseous atmosphere of hydrochloric
acid.
gas pressure sintering. See GPS.
gas producer. A furnace employed for the gasification
of coal by burning in an atmosphere of steam and air.
gas sensor. A ceramic oxide semiconductor such as
Sn02' Fe203, ZnO, which when heated has its electrical
resistance lowered when in contact with a combustible
gas and so can be used to detect and quantify such gases
in a gas stream.
gassing. The formation of gas bubbles in porcelain-
enamel slips.
gassy surface. An imperfection characterized by poor
gloss and fuzzy texture on a porcelain-enamel surface.
gas turbine. An air-burning combustion engine consist-
ing of an air compressor, combustion chamber, and
turbine wheel in which the gaseous products of combus-
tion are used as a means of generating power through a
rotating shaft; used more for propulsion than for gener-
ating power.
gas-turbine nozzle. The component of a gas turbine in
which hot, high-pressure gas expands and accelerates
to high velocity.
gate. (I) A movable refractory barrier for shutting off the
flow of molten glass in the forehearth channel of a glass
tank. (2) The opening in a casting mold through which
molten metal is poured. (3) An electronic circuit having
an output and two or more inputs arranged so that the
 141
output is energized only when the two input wires
receive pulses. (4) The hole that leads from the injection
molder into the die.
gate electrode. An area, typically 0.3-Jlm diameter, that
controls the electrons flowing through a semiconductor
layer to the drain layer by creating an electric field in
the semiconductor layer.
gate level. The value established for a test signal above
or below which electromagnetic test specimens may be
rejected or distinguished from other test specimens.
gather. (1) The mass of glass picked up on a punty or
blowing iron by a handblowing operator. (2) To collect
molten glass on a punty or blowing iron from a pot or
tank.
gathering hole. The opening in a glass pot or tank
through which molten glass is gathered on a punty or
blowing iron.
gathering iron. A hollow iron tube on which molten
glass is collected at one end for blowing.
gathering ring. A refractory clay ring placed on a bath
of molten glass to collect scum and surface impurities;
glass of high purity is drawn from the center of the ring.
gauge. (1) A measure of thickness of sheet metal, rod, or
wire. (2) The minimum screen size through which an
aggregate will pass. (3) The exposed length of roofing
tile as laid.
gauged brick. (1) A tapered arch brick. (2) A brick pro-
duced to accurate dimensions by grinding or other pro-
cedure.
gauge, dry. See dry gauge.
gauge glass. A glass tube attached to the outside of a
container to measure the liquid level in the container.
gault clay. A marl containing up to 30% calcium carbon-
ate; used to produce yellow to buff brick and pottery.
gauss. G; in the cgs system of units it is the unit of
magnetic flux density. I G = 10-4 tesla.
GA YIG. Acronym for gallium-substituted yttrium iron
garnet.
GC. Abbreviation for general ceramics.
gedrite. (Mg,Fe)5-6All-2(Si 3Al)s022(OH,F)2; a fi-
brous mineral from the amphibole group used in com-
mercial asbestos.
gehlenite. Ca2AI(AISi07); m. p; 1593 c C; sp. gr. 3.04; a
double-tetrahedral, discrete-ion aluminosilicate; hard-
ness (Mohs) 5. It has a glassy or resinous luster.
gehlenite hydrate. See stratlingite.
geikielite. A titanium-magnesium mineral, MgTi0 3,
with the ilmenite structure.
gel. (1) A colloidal mixture of solid and liquid of jelly-
like consistency. The product of a sol losing its disper-
GEOPOLYMERS
sion medium while undergoing hydrolysis and conden-
sation polymerization. The source of ultrafine powders,
of fibers, and of monolithic castings. (2) An amorphous
material formed during the hardening of cement or an
exudation resulting from alkali-aggregate reaction.
gelatin. glutinous substance obtained by boiling animal
tissues; sometimes used as a sizing agent for glass
fibers.
gelation. The conversion of a liquid to the gel state;
usually accompanied by a sharp increase in viscosity as
the solid begins to agglomerate or form a network
structure.
gel cement. A cement containing small additions of ben-
tonite to increase homogeneity, increase water-cement
ratio, and reduce water loss of the gel-like cement mix.
gel coating. A method of forming a protective layer on
the surface of glass-fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP)
products. Usually consists of a resin-only layer about
0.5 mm thick.
gel point. The point at which a solution or slurry begins
to increase in viscosity and develop elastic properties.
gemology. The branch of mineralogy concerned with
gemstones.
generated heat. Heat produced by friction or grinding.
generator. (1) A machine that converts mechanical en-
ergy to electrical energy. (2) In dielectric heating it is a
piece of equipment used to convert the mains frequency
to the desired operating frequency. (3) The chamber in
which solid fuel is converted to producer gas by burning
with steam and air. (4) In fractal analysis it is the feature
which introduces irregularity into the initiator: for ex-
ample, if the initiator line is divided into three equal
segments and the center part is displaced along two
sides of an equilateral triangle, the line is increased in
length 4/3 times and becomes kinked. The generator can
then be applied to the four straight segments of this
kinked line and so on to produce an irregular shape.
geodes. Groups of crystals, banded or radiating, that
grow inside a cavity in a rock.
geodesic. Specification of exact points or arcs on a sur-
face.
geometric surface area. GSA; a physical feature of cel-
lular ceramic catalyst supports which relates to conver-
sion efficiency in a chemical process: GSA = 4(L -
t)1L2, where L is the cell repeat distance and t is the cell
wall thickness.
geometry, detector. See detector geometry.
geopolymers. A family of ceramics used as matrices in
composite manufacture formed by condensation po-
lymerization of hydrated aluminosilicates below
100c e. They consist of Al-O-Si networks throughout
the matrix.
GEORGIAN-WIRED GLASS
Georgian-wired glass. Cast or polished glass of which
wire mesh of a square pattem is incorporated as a
reinforcement.
germania. See germanium dioxide.
germanium. Ge; mp 959°C; sp. gr. 5.32; a semiconduc-
tor used as resistor element in valves and other elec-
tronic devices such as transistors and diode rectifiers.
germanium detector, lithium-drifted. See lithium-
drifted germanium detector.
germanium dioxide. Ge02; often called germania; mp
1115°C; sp. gr. 4.25; used as replacement for silica as
a glass former in glazes and bodies and in glass of high
refractive index; a semiconductor.
germanium nitride. Ge3N4; decomposes at 1000°C; a
covalently bonded insulator.
germanium oxide. See germanium dioxide.
GFRP. Abbreviation for glass-fiber-reinforced plastic.
GGBS. Abbreviation for ground granulated blast-fur-
nace slag, a pozzalanic component added as a filler to
OPC mortars.
GGG. Abbreviation for gadolinium gallium garnet; a
magnetic ceramic capable of having a microstructure
containing magnetic bubble domains to provide mem-
ory chips for computer hardware.
gibbsite. y-Al(OH)3; aluminum trihydroxide; the major
component of bauxite; used as a refractory binder for
china clays and also as a bat wash. Structure consists of
cubic close-packed Al(OH)6 octahedra. Old name was
alpha alumina trihydrate.
GIC. Abbreviation for graphite intercalation compound,
which is a form of 2-D solid in which elements such as
Na and K, or compounds like CoCl2, form 2-D arrays
between carbon sheets perpendicular to the c-axis di-
rection of the graphite crystal.
gilbert. Gb or Gi; the magnetomotive force resulting
from the passage of 41t abamperes through one tum of
a coil.
giisonite. A naturally hardened, very pure form of as-
phalt used as a bonding material in casting sand mixes.
GIXU. Acronym for grain inspection x-ray unit.
glarimeter. An instrument designed to measure the loss
of gloss of an abraided porcelain-enamel or glaze sur-
face as an indication of the resistance of the surface to
abrasive wear.
glass. (1) Any of a large class of amorphous, rigid, inor-
ganic, nonmetallic materials of widely variable compo-
sitions that solidify from the melt or from the gel state
without crystallizing. Typical glasses include silica,
boric oxide, phosphorus oxide and often contain alu-
mina and basic oxides such as sodium oxide and cal-
cium oxide. They may be transparent or opaque,
colorless, or when containing transition metal oxides be
142
colored, and are often regarded as supercooled liquids
that have not maintained an eqUilibrium structure rather
than true solids. (2) A term used for porcelain-enamel
frit or fired coatings. (3) A noncrystalline, elastic solid
with 2 nm maximum order and a viscosity> 1012.5
Nms-2.
glass annealing. The heat treatment of glassware in ac-
cordance with a prescribed schedule to reduce residual
thermal stresses to a specified level and in some cases
to substantially modify the structure. A slow rate of
cooling is the most important component of the process.
glass, antique. See antique glass.
glass armor. Protective barriers composed of or contain-
ing glass of high strength and polymers in a laminated
structure.
glass, barium crown. See barium crown glass.
glass, barium-mnt. See barium-flint glass, optical flint
glass.
glass blower. A craftsman engaged in the blowing of
glassware.
glass blowing. The shaping of viscid glass by air pres-
sure.
glass, blown. See blown glass.
glass, Bohemian. See Bohemian glass.
glass-bonded mica. An insulating material consisting of
mixtures of powdered glass and powdered mica formed
under pressure at elevated temperatures.
glass, borate. See borate glass.
glass, borax. See borax glass.
glass, borosilicate. See borosilicate glass.
glass, borosilicate crown. See borosilicate crown glass.
glass brick. A hollow glass block with plain or pat-
terned surfaces used in the construction of walls, parti-
tions, and windows.
glass brush. A bunch of glass fibers bound together with
cord used to polish exposed metal on porcelain-enam-
eled artware.
glass, bulletproof. See bullet-resisting glass and glass
armor.
glass capacitor. A capacitor in which glass is employed
as the dielectric material.
glass, cased. See cased glass.
glass, cast. See cast glass.
glass ceramic. A predominantly crystalline product
made by the controlled crystallization of glass; can be
designed to have thermal expansion coefficients in a
range from very low to high and as a result materials
with excellent thermal shock resistance can be made;
used in the production of high capacitance, magnetic,
 143
and machinable ceramics. In general materials of high
strength and high toughness.
glass, chemical. See chemical glass.
glass, chemically strengthened. See chemically strength-
ened glass.
glass, chipped. See chipped glass.
glass, chunk. See chunk glass.
glass, cladding. See cladding glass.
glass-coated steel. Steel containers, tanks, and other
equipment coated with a special type of porcelain-
enamel having high resistance to chemicals at high
temperatures and pressures; for example, chemical re-
actors and hot-water tanks.
glass container. A generic term for glass bottles, jars,
etc.
glass, corrugated. See corrugated glass.
glass, crackled. See crackle.
glass, Crooke's. See Crooke's glass.
glass, crown. See crown glass.
glass, crown flint. See crown flint glass.
glass, crystal. See crystal glass.
glass, cut. See cut glass.
glass cutter. (I) A glass-cutting instrument in which the
cutting member is a hard steel wheel, a diamond point,
or similar hard ceramic; used to cut glass to desired sizes
and shapes or to inscribe designs on glass surfaces. (2)
A workman who cuts glass to specified sizes and shapes
or who inscribes designs on glass sufaces.
glass, devitrified. See devitrified glass.
glass, document. See document glass.
glass dosimeter. A dosimeter in which a fluorescent
glass is the radiation-sensitive component.
glass, double-strength. See double-strength glass.
glass, drawn. See drawn glass.
glassed steel. A synonym for glass-coated steel.
glass enamel. A finely powdered mixture of a low-melt-
ing flux, calcined ceramic pigment, and a suitable vehi-
cle which may be applied and fired to a smooth, hard
coating on glass at a temperature below the softening
point of the glass.
glass eye. A large unbroken bubble or blister occurring
beneath the surface of a fired porcelain-enamel coating.
glass fiber. A thread of glass used in bulk or woven form;
used as acoustic, thermal, or electrical insulation, as a
reinforcement in plastic and other matrices, fireproof
GLASSIVATION
curtains and drapes, filter cloth, surgical sutures, as well
as numerous other applications.
glass, figured. See figured glass.
glass filament. An extremely long finely drawn form of
glass; diameter is usually < 0.125 mm.
glass filament bushing. A manufacturing unit fitted to a
small glass tank through which the molten glass is
drawn to make filaments.
glass Rake. The product from hammer-milling very thin
walled glass tube, usually E-glass; used as a filler in
polymer matrices to increase strength and inhibit mois-
ture up-take.
glass Rashing. The application of a thin layer of colored
or opaque glass or glass enamel, by vitrification or
surface fusion, to the surface of clear glass.
glass, Rat. See sheet glass.
glass, Roat. See float glass.
glass, Ruor crown. See fluor crown glass.
glass, foamed. See foamed glass.
glass former. (I) Any oxide or other compound which
retains an amorphous state on solidification without the
presence of another compound. (2) An oxide which
conforms to Zachariasen's rules for glass formation and
produces a distorted network structure.
glass frost. The chemical or mechanical treatment of a
glass surface, or the application of crushed glass parti-
cles to a glass surface, to obscure the glass by scattering
the light and to simulate the appearance of frost.
glass furnace. Any enclosed or covered furuace, tank, or
pot usually of the reverberatory type, in which glasses
are melted; sometimes electric boosters immersed in the
molten glass batch are employed to expedite the pro-
cess.
glass, Georgian-wired. See Georgian-wired glass.
glass, green. See green glass.
glass, heat-absorbing. See heat-absorbing glass.
glass heat exchanger. A device which transfers heat
from one fluid to another in which the heat transfer
medium is glass.
glass, heat-resisting. See heat-resistant glass.
glass, heat-strengthened. See heat-strengthened glass.
glass, high-transmission. See high-transmission glass.
glass insulator. A tempered or annealed glass shape
used as an insulator for electric-power transmission
lines.
glassivation. The passivation of a transistor by encapsu-
lating the semiconductor device, complete with metal
contacts, in glass.
GLASS, LAMINATED
glass, laminated. See laminated glass.
glass, lampworking. See lampworking.
glass laser. A solid state laser in which a fluorescent
glass serves to amplify electromagnetic radiation by
stimulated emission processes.
glass, lead. See lead glass.
glass, lead crown. See lead crown glass.
glass, leaded. See leaded glass.
glass, light-reducing. See light-reducing glass.
glass, lime. See lime glass.
glass, lime crown. See lime crown glass.
glass-lined steel. See glass-coated steel.
glass, liquid. See sodium silicate.
glass, low-melting. See low-melting glass.
glassmaker's soap. A material such as selenium or man-
ganese dioxide added to a glass batch to remove the
green color arising from the presence of iron salts.
glassman. A person whose occupation is making or seIl-
ing glassware.
glass mat. A thin mat of chopped glass filaments.
glass matrix composites. Articles made by dipping ce-
ramic fibers, such as SiC, in a paste of glass powder and
binder, then shaping, heating to remove the binder, and
then hot pressing in vacuum or inert atmosphere.
glass, milk. See milk glass.
glass, molded. See molded glass.
glass, moonstone. See moonstone glass.
glass, murrhine. See murrhine glass.
glass, neophane. See neophane glass.
glass, neutron-absorbing. See neutron-absorbing glass.
glass, oftband. See offhand glass.
glass, opal. See opal glass.
glass, ophthalmic. See opthtalmic glass.
glass, optical crown. See optical crown glass.
glass, optical flint. See optical flint glass.
glass, oven. See oven glass.
glass paper. A heat- and environment-resistant paper
made of glass fibers; used for permanent documents.
glass, phosphate. See phosphate glass.
glass, phosphate crown. See phosphate crown glass.
glass, photochemical. See photochemical glass.
144
glass, photochromic. See photochromic glass.
glass, photosensitive. See photosensitive glass.
glass, plate. See plate glass.
glass-plate capacitor. A capacitor in which glass sheets
separate the metallic plates and serve as the dipole.
glass, polished plate. See polished plate glass.
glass, polished wire. See polished wire glass.
glass pot. A one-piece, crucible-shaped refractory con-
tainer, open or closed, in which glass is melted.
glass, pressed. See pressed glassware.
glass, prismatic. See prismatic glass.
glass, quartz. See quartz glass.
glass resistor. Tubular glass with a helical electric resis-
tor element of carbon painted on the surface.
glass, rolled. See rolled glass.
glass, rough. See rough glass.
glass, rough-cast. See rough-cast glass.
glass, safety. See safety glass.
glass sand. A nearly pure quartz with minor amounts of
the oxides of aluminum, calcium, iron, and magnesium;
used in glass making. Contains < 1% iron; mp 17IO°C;
sp. gr. 2.2-2.6.
glass seal. An airtight seal in which molten glass is
cooled to form the sealant; for example, the glass-to-
metal seals used in electric and electronic components.
glass, sealing. See sealing glass.
glass, shatterproof. See shatterproof glass; safety glass.
glass, sheet. See sheet glass.
glass, shielding. See shielding glass.
glass, silica. See silica glass.
glass, single-strength. See single-strength glass.
glass, sintered. See sintered glass.
glass, skylight. See skylight glass.
glass, slab. See slab glass.
glass, smoked. See smoked glass.
glass, soft. See soft glass.
glass softening point. The temperature at which a glass
fiber of uniform diameter elongates under its own mass
at a specified rate.
glass, solder-sealing. See solder-sealing glass.
glass, spandrel. See spandrel glass.
 145
glass spheres. Solid glass spheres ranging from 5 to 500
/lm in diameter, coated in size or poly silane coupling
agent; used to fill and provide reinforcement to polymer
matrices.
glass, spun. See spun glass.
glass, square-cut. See square-cut glass.
glass, stained. See stained glass.
glass stress. In glass-fiber composites it is the stress,
calculated by di viding the applied load by the cross-sec-
tional area of glass fibers only.
glass, structural. See structural glass.
glass switch. A glassy amorphous solid-state device for-
mulated and designed to control the flow of an electric
current in electronic components.
glass tank. A large covered refractory container in which
glass is melted and from which molten glass is with-
drawn for working into artifacts.
glass, tempered. See tempered glass.
glass, tempered safety. See tempered safety glass.
glass textile. Glass fibers woven into fabrics for use in
plastic laminates, thermal insulation, filter cloth, fire-
proof drapes, etc.
glass, thermal. See thermal glass.
glass-to-metal seals. Airtight seals formed by fusing
glass onto metals for purposes of insulation in electrical
and electronic components, the glass serving as an
insulation.
glass, toughened. See toughened glass.
glass, transfer. See transfer glass.
glass transformation. See glass transition.
glass transition. A second-order change indicating the
temperature point at which a supercooled liquid on
further cooling ceases to be in thermodynamic equilib-
rium and the material enters the glassy state. Often
identified with a viscosity of 1012.5 N s m-2.
glass transition temperature. See glass transition.
glass, translucent. See translucent glass.
glass, ultraviolet-absorbing. See ultraviolet-absorbing
glass.
glass, ultraviolet-transmitting. See ultraviolet-trans-
mitting glass.
glassware. Any product made of glass for use in domes-
tic or laboratory use; the term usually refers to table-
ware.
glassware, graduated. See graduated glassware.
glassware, pressed. See pressed glassware.
GLAZED POT
glassware, volumetric. See volumetric glassware.
glass welding. Joining two or more glass components by
fusion at their points of contact.
glass, window. See window glass.
glass, wired. See wired safety glass.
glass, wired safety. See wired safety glass.
glass, Wood's. See Wood's glass.
glass wool. A randomly oriented, fleecy mass of glass
fibers used for acoustic and thermal insulation, air fil-
ters, and similar applications. Made by blowing air at
coarse molten glass filaments.
glassy. Resembling glass especially in smoothness and
transparency.
glassy state. A vitreous state in which the atoms or mole-
cules are not oriented in a regular order or pattern.
Materials in this state exhibit a second-order change
known as the glass transition on cooling.
glass, zinc crown. See zinc crown glass.
Glauber's salt. Na2S04·IOH20; sodium sulfate decahy-
drate; a naturally occurring sulfate.
glauconite. K2(Mg,FehAI 6(Si40 lO h(OH)12; a green
mineral found in green sands.
glaze. glassy coating fired on a ceramic article, or the
mixture of ingredients from which the coating is made.
glaze, aventurine. See aventurine.
glaze, bright. See bright glaze.
glaze, Bristol. See Bristol glaze.
glaze, celadon. See celadon glaze.
glaze claws. A double-handled, two-prong device used
to grip ware for glaze slip dipping.
glaze clay. Fine-grained clay containing considerable
amounts of colloidal organic matter, which is added to
glaze batches as a suspension and binding agent, and
which becomes an integral part of the glaze during
firing.
glaze, crystalline. See crystalline glaze.
glaze, cut. See cut glaze.
glazed ceramic mosaic tile. Ceramic mosaic tile that
has been glazed on the face to be exposed when assem-
bled.
glazed interior tile. A nonvitreous tile body that has
been glazed to make it suitable for mild conditions of
use indoors.
glazed pot. A glass-melting pot coated with a hard glaze
as a protection against reactive batch ingredients pre-
sent in some glass melts.
GLAZED, SHORT
glazed, short. See cut glaze.
glazed tile. A tile of any body type coated with an imper-
vious, colored or uncolored, ceramic glaze.
glazed tile, eggshell. See eggshell glazed tile.
glazed tile, extra-duty. See extra-duty glazed tile.
glaze fit. The stress relationship between the glaze and
body of a fired ceramic, that is, the degree to which the
coefficients of expansion of the two components are
matched.
glaze flow. (I) The property of a glaze slip to flow over
the surface of a ceramic body to form a smooth, uniform
coating. (2) The property of glaze ingredients to flow
together to form a smooth, impervious coating during
firing.
glaze, fritted. See fritted glaze.
glaze, jardiniere. See jardiniere glaze.
glaze, lead. See lead glaze.
glaze, leadless. See leadless glaze.
glaze, low-solubility. See low-solubility glaze.
glaze, majolica. See majolica glaze.
glaze mop. A goat hair brush used to paint glaze slip onto
pieces.
glaze, opalescent. See opalescent glaze.
glaze, opaque. See opaque glaze.
glaze, raw. See raw glaze.
glaze, salt. See salt glaze.
glaze, semiconducting. See semiconducting glaze.
glaze, semi-matte. See semi-matte glaze.
glaze, short. See short glaze.
glaze, slip. See slip glaze.
glaze, slop. See slop.
glaze, snakeskin. See snakeskin glaze.
glaze stains. Calcined ceramic pigments, usually metal
oxides, incorporated in a glaze slip to produce a coating
of uniform color; some serve essentially as pigments,
some as precipitates, and some go into solid solution in
the fired glaze.
glaze, starred. See starred glaze.
glaze, starved. See starved glaze.
glaze, tea-dust. See tea-dust glaze.
glaze, transmutation. See transmutation glaze.
glaze, vapor. See vapor glaze.
146
glaze, vellum. See vellum glaze.
glazing. (I) The application of a glaze to ceramic ware.
(2) The cutting and fitting of glass panes into frames,
and the application of a caulking compound to seal the
panes in place.
glazing bar. A strengthening bar for glass windows and
doors. Also called muntin.
glazing size. The dimensions of a glass pane cut for
glazing.
glide. A smooth easy movement facilitated in solids by
the presence ot dislocations.
glissile. Able to glide but cannot climb; a description of
a partial dislocation of the Schockley type.
glob. A rounded mass of high-viscosity fluid.
globate. Shaped like a globe.
globular. (I) Consisting of globules. (2) Shaped like a
globe.
globule. Small drops of liquid.
glomerate. (I) Gathered into a compact rounded mass.
(2) Fibers wound up like a ball.
glory hole. (I) A furnace for the reheating and fire-pol-
ishing of hand-made glassware. (2) The opening expos-
ing the hot interior of a furnace in which glass is
reheated for hand-working.
gloss. The polish,luster, or brilliance of a fired porcelain-
enamel or glaze coating; the ratio of specularJy reflected
light to the total light reflected by a surface.
gloss, low. See low gloss.
glossmeter. An instrument to measure the degree of
gloss which works by shining light from a standard
source at 45° onto the surface and the reflected light is
measured by its effect on a photoelectric cell.
gloss, specular. See specular gloss.
glost. A synonym for glazed. See glost firing.
glost firing. A kiln firing process, usually carried out at
moderate to low temperatures, to which bisque ware,
covered in unfired glaze compound, is subjected.
glow. Visible light emitted by a hot body.
glucose. A monosaccharide, C6H 120 6 , used as a binder.
glue, chrome. See chrome glue.
gneiss. A metamorphic rock usually composed of quartz,
feldspar, and other mineral silicates.
gob. (1) A mass of molten glass gathered on a punty or
blowpipe for hand-making of glassware. (2) A mass of
molten glass delivered by a feeder to a forming process.
goblet. A ceramic or glass drinking cup having a stem
and base, but usually without handles.
 147
gob process. The process by which a gob or mass of
molten glass is delivered to a forming operation.
goethite. a.-FeO(OH); iron oxyhydroxide, an orthorhom-
bic, brown to yellowish mineral with a distinctive yel-
low streak. Hardness (Mohs) 5-5.5; sp. gr. 3.3-3.5; one
of the precipitated phases when solutions containing
Fe2+lFe 3+ ions are neutralized by a base.
Golay detector. A pneumatic cell used to detect heat
radiation by gas expansion.
gold. Au; mp 1063°C; sp. gr. 19.13; a brilliant glass and
ceramic decoration applied as a powder suspended in
oil and burnished after firing.
gold, acid. See acid gold ..
gold, bright. See bright gold.
gold, burnished. See burnished gold.
gold chloride. AuCI 3; mp 354°C; sp. gr. 3.9; used with
a mixture of stannous and stannic chlorides to produce
purple of cassius for the coloring or decoration of glass
or ceramic ware, also used to produce ruby reds in
glasses, glazes, and porcelain-enamels.
gold eraser. A stick eraser used to remove defects on
fired gold without damaging the artifact.
gold essence. Oil mixtures used to aid the workability of
gold while brushing or banding.
gold hydroxide. Au(OH)3; used to decorate ceramics.
gold, liquid. See liquid gold.
gold oxide. AU203; used to decorate ceramics.
gold ruby glass. See ruby glass.
gold silvering. A process in which gold is deposited on
a glass surface and coated with a protective medium.
Goldstone glaze. An aventurine glaze composed of ba-
sic lead carbonate, Pb(OH}zC0 3, feldspar, KAISi 30 S,
silica, ferric oxide, Fe203, and CaC0 3 whiting.
gold-tin purple. A mixture of gold chloride and brown
tin oxide used in coloring porcelain-enamels, making
ruby glass, and painting porcelain.
goniometer. An instrument for measuring the angles be-
tween the faces of a crystal.
goniophotometer. An instrument used to measure light
reflected from a surface as a function of angle.
gouache. A decorating technique using opaque watercol-
ors in which pigments are bound with glue.
gouge test. A test to evaluate the wear resistance of por-
celain-enamel in which a small steel ball is rolled across
the enamel surface under increasing loads, the degree
of wear being determined by the loss of gloss.
goulac. By-product from wood pulp manufacture; used
as a binder in mold forming.
GRAIN EDGE
gpd. Abbreviation for grams per denier, a measure of
fiber strength. Converted to SI units of N m-2 by the
equation (J (N m-2) =O. 08826 P [stress in gpd], where
p is the fiber density in g cm-3. See tenacity.
GPS. Abbreviation for gas pressure sintering; a sintering
process where the gas pressure over the compact is
increased once a densification temperature is reached.
Pressures in the range 1-10 MN m-2 are used. No
special sample container is needed.
grab sample. A sample taken at random from a large
mass, or a large number of items being examined.
gradation. (I) A code or designation of the quality,
composition, properties, or type attached to a product
by a manufacturer such that the product may be repro-
duced by the manufacturer. (2) To sort or classify in
steps or degrees by established criteria such as by par-
ticle size, color, or other property. (3) The strength of
bond or hardness of a grinding wheel, particularly in
terms of the resistance of the grains to being torn or split
from the wheel during use.
grade. An index of friability of bonded abrasives.
grading. The process of sorting to some specified cate-
gory of classification.
grading, gap-sized. See gap-sized grading.
graduated glassware. Glassware marked with divisions
or units for volumetric measurements.
grain. (I) Any small hard particle such as an abrasive
grain or a grain of sand. (2) A single crystal in a
polycrystalline structure.
grain boundary. On crystallization grains grow from
crystallite nuclei and continue to grow until they meet
a neighboring crystallite. The narrow region between
the two crystals or grains where the atoms redistribute
themselves to minimize growth misfit is a grain bound-
ary. Grain boundaries obstruct dislocation movement
and so hinder slip. Compared with the order within the
crystals forming the boundary it is a disordered volume
essentially composed of numerous edge dislocations.
grain boundary diffusion. The movement of atoms or
ions in the volume of disordered structure that consti-
tutes the interface of two crystals or grains in a solid
compact. A densifying mechanism in sintering.
grain boundary migration. A sideways movement of
the grain, i.e., grain growth.
grain boundary sliding. Relative motion of two grains
parallel to the grain boundary.
grain boundary squeezing. Relative grain movements
perpendicular to the grain boundary.
grain corner. Places in a polycrystalline ceramic where
four grains meet at a point.
grain edge. Places in a polycrystalline ceramic where
three grains meet in a line.
GRAIN FINENESS
grain fineness. (I) The average particle size of a granu-
lar material. (2) The maximum particle size of a granu-
lar material passing through a sieve of specified mesh
size.
grain growth. A phenomenon occurring in the final
stages of sintering when too few pores remain to pin the
grain boundaries. Curved boundaries move toward their
center of curvature and so large grains with more than
six sides grow outwards while grains with less than six
sides shrink in size.
grain growth rate. The average increase in grain size
experienced during the final stage of sintering; follows
the function dl- d 02 = k~ wheredg is the average grain
diameter, do is the starting average grain diameter, k is
a constant, and t is the elapsed time. The grain growth
rate exponentially increases with temperature.
graining. The process of producing a decorative finish
imitating the grained appearence of wood or marble on
porcelain-enamels and glazes, usually by means of a
rubber-roll transfer process.
graining oxides. Mixtures of ceramic pigments contain-
ing small amounts of fluxing ingredients used in grain-
ing pastes which are used to transfer a decorative finish
to porcelain-enamel and glaze surfaces by means of
rolls.
graining pastes. Oil suspensions of colored ceramic ox-
ides and suitable fluxes used in the rubber-roll process
of decorating porcelain-enamel and glaze surfaces.
graining roll. A special type of rubber roll used to trans-
fer graining pastes from a pattern surface to the surface
of a porcelain-enamel or glaze.
grain magnesite. Dead-burned magnesia in granular
form suitable for refractory purposes.
grain size. The average size of particulate materials used
in the production of ceramic ware, often simply deter-
mined by screen analysis.
grain spacing. The ratio of abrasive grains to binder in a
grinding wheel.
gram. A metric unit of weight equal to 10-3 of a kilo-
gram, or to 1128 of an ounce, and nearly equal to the
weight of I cm3 of water at its maximum density.
graniglie. A texture effect obtained on a tile surface from
the use of a frit that has been crushed on a hammer mill
or in a ball mill to size range 0.2-2.0 mm.
granite. An igneous rock composed of orthoclase or
albite feldspar, and mica; used as hard core, in concrete,
and when finely powdered has many of the filling
applications that china clay is used for.
graniteware. A one-coat porcelain-enameled article
having a mottled appearance produced by controlled
corrosion of the metal base prior to firing.
graniteware, white. See white graniteware.
granular. Consisting of granules.
148
granular activated carbon. Activated carbon with par-
ticle sizes mostly greater than 80 mesh.
granular habit. A deSCription of aggregates composed
of mineral crystals cemented together regardless of the
habit of the crystals. Descriptive names are added such
as: coarse granular, fine granular, and powdery granu-
lar.
granulate. To form larger free-flowing particles from
powdered materials; usually by adding water or other
suitable binder and tumbling in a rotary mixer.
granulated blast-furnace slag. Glassy, granular struc-
tured material made when molten blast-furnace slag is
quenched in water.
granulation dry pressing. A method of preparing and
fOrming tableware that requires little drying before
firing. Powdered clay, stone, and calcined bone are
mixed as a spray-dried powder which is then granulated
to a 2% moisture agglomerate. The agglomerate is then
dry-pressed against a steel die by an oil-filled mem-
brane.
granulator. A machine, usually a rotating drum, used to
transform fine powders mixed with binder to agglom-
erates of granular size.
granules. (l) Small grains or pellets. (2) Small ceramic
grains or pellets applied to asbestos cement to add color
to the surface. (3) Sedimentary rock of particle size in
the range 2-4 mm.
granules, roofing. See roofing granules.
graphite. A carbon polymorph with a hexagonal struc-
ture containing strongly bonded 2-D sheets and very
weak intersheet bonding. Soft, hardness (Mohs) 1-2;
mp > 3500°C; sp. gr. 2.09-2.3; used in crucibles and
other refractories, in arc furnaces, heat shields in rock-
ets, as a solid lubricant in both high- and low-tempera-
ture applications, and as a moderator in nuclear
applications.
graphite, amorphous. See amorphous graphite.
graphite-base carbon refractory. A manufactured re-
fractory composed essentially of graphite.
graphite brick. A refractory ceramic brick formed from
coke and pitch, heat-treated above 2500°C in an inert
atmosphere to form crystallites of graphite.
graphite, exfoliated. See exfoliated graphite.
graphite fabric. Cloth woven from graphite fibers.
graphite fibers Graphite in an ultrathin filament form,
frequently made by the pyrolysis of polyacrylonitrile
fibers.
graphite, flake. See flake graphite.
graphite, manufactured. See manufactured graphite.
graphite, pyrolytic. See pyrolytic graphite.
 149
graphite refractory. Any refractory product made es-
sentially from graphite.
graphite, synthetic. See synthetic graphite.
graphite, vein. See vein graphite.
graphitic carbon. Tiny flakes of pure carbon which
form in pig iron during cooling and which weaken the
product; will cause blistering in porcelain-enamels.
graphitic oxide. Cg0 2(OH)z; a beige colored intercala-
tion compound of graphite used as an anode material in
Li-C cells.
graphitizer furnace. Vacuum or inert atmosphere fur-
nace designed to purify carbon fibers at temperatures
around 1800°C by heating for 12-24 hrs. This reduces
alkaline metal impurities to < 50 ppm.
grappier cement. A cement made by using underburned
or overburned slaked lime which has been finely
ground.
grating equation. For monochromatic light, incident on
a grating at angle i, the angle 8 at which diffraction lines
are formed is given by this equation: d(sin i + sin 8) =
mA, where d is the grating slit width and m is an integer
called the order number.
gravel. Loose round rock used as aggregate in concrete.
gravel cement. Gravel consolidated by clay, calcite, sil-
ica, or other material.
gravel, crushed. See crushed gravel.
gravel, foundry. See foundry gravel.
Grave sandblast. A sandblasted decorative design of
varying depths on glass surfaces.
gravimetric analysis. A quantitative chemical analysis
based on reactions that produce a material to be
weighed.
gravimetric factor. The ratio of the atomic or molecular
weight of an element or compound to the molecular
weight of the compound in which it is a component.
gravity. (1) A term used in the porcelain-enameling in-
dustry for the specific gravity of a milled porcelain-
enamel slip in which water is equal to one. (2) The force
of gravity.
gravity bed. A technique in which solid particles being
processed move downward through a liquid, or con-
versely the molten phase of the material moves up-
wards.
gravity feed. The movement of materials from one loca-
tion to another by force of gravity.
gravity separation. The separation of mixtures into lay-
ers of equal density in a stream of air or liquid by means
of a vibrated sloping shaker-table or similar mecha-
nism.
gravity, specific. See specific gravity.
GREENWARE STORAGE
gray body. A body with the same spectral emittance at
all wavelengths.
gray wacke. Any dark-colored sandstone or grit with a
matrix of clay minerals.
greasy luster. The surface appearance of a material such
as talc which appears to be smeared with a thin layer of
colorless grease.
green brick. Formed but unfired brick.
green carbon. A formed but unfired carbon body.
green concrete. A concrete which has set, but which has
not had time to develop noticeable strength.
green copperas. See ferrous sulfate.
green cracks. Shrinkage cracks appearing in concrete
while in the green state.
green density. The mass per unit volume of an unsin-
tered compact.
green glass. (l) Glass in its natural color; usually green-
ish from metallic impurities. (2) Glass made green by
adding copper oxide, CuO, to a clear glass batch.
green machining. A technique developed to minimize
the final grinding to shape and size of sintered ware,
whereby the powder is cold isostatically pressed to a
density which enables a shape to be ground from the
blank before sintering.
green, malachite. See malachite green.
greenockite. Naturally occurring cadmium sulfide, CdS.
green pellet. A pellet which has been pressed but not
fired.
green sand. Molding sand in the moist, as-mixed condi-
tion.
greensand. An olive-green sandstone consisting mainly
of quartz and glauconite.
greensheet. The building unit for thick-film processing
in device manufacture; it consists of a sheet of mixed
ceramic powders some 200 11m thick capable of being
handled and machined, etc., prior to sintering.
green silicon carbide. A finely powdered form of sili-
con carbide that contains little free carbon and as a result
has an olive green color.
green spot. An imperfection in ceramic bodies consist-
ing of a prominent green spot caused by copper or
copper-containing impurities in the raw materials.
green strength. The stress needed to deform and/or frac-
ture unfired but not formed ceramic ware.
green vitriol. Ferrous sulfate.
greenware. A formed but unfired ceramic body.
greenware storage. An area or room in which green-
ware is stored while drying prior to firing.
GREISEN
greisen. A metamorphic rock consisting mainly of quartz
and white mica, formed by the pneumatolysis of granite.
GrIEp. Abbreviation for the advanced composite, graph-
ite-reinforced epoxy resin matrix.
grex. The weight in grams of 10 km of fiber; hence a
measure of fiber diameter.
grid. (1) A network of horizontal and vertical lines su-
perimposed over a micrograph for the purposes of quan-
titative microscopy. (2) An electrode situated between
the anode and cathode of a valve that controls the flow
of electrons between them.
grid bias. A fixed voltage applied between the control
grid and cathode of a valve.
griffe. A carved ornament at the base of a ceramic col-
umn.
Griffith equation. A seminal equation focusing atten-
tion on the relationship between strain energy, surface
energy, flaws, and strength of brittle solids: a =
('2Eyhcc) 112, whereais the breaking stress, Eis Young's
modulus, 'Y is the specific surface energy, and c is
one-half the length of the critical flaw which propagates
to cause failure.
Griffith flaw. A microscopically small crack believed to
exist on the surface of glass and ceramics, which is
responsible for the reduced strengths as well as such
effects as fatigue and antifatigue.
grind. To reduce to small particles by abrading.
grindability. The degree of difficulty encountered in
milling or grinding a material to a smaller particle size.
grindability index. A numerical scale indicating the
ease with which a material can be ground; parameters
include the material hardness.
grinder. (1) A machine which pulverizes and reduces the
particle size of materials by impact and erosion. (2) A
machine fitted with an attachment such as a grinding
wheel, abrasive disk or belt, used in mechanical shap-
ing, grinding, sharpening, cutting, polishing, honing,
buffing, or lapping operations.
grinder, bench. See bench grinder.
grinder, dish. See dish grinder.
grinder, disk. See disk grinder.
grinder, impact. See impact grinder.
grinder, swing-frame. See swing-frame grinder.
grinding. (1) Reducing the particle size of a material by
mechanical means. (2) Removing excess material from
a workpiece by means of an abrasive wheel.
grinding aids. Materials added to a ball mill, usually a
liquid, to accelerate the grinding process by changing
the zeta potential of the solid.
150
grinding ball. A hard, dense, abrasion-resistant sphere
used as a crushing body in a ball mill; usually shaped
from alumina, steel, porcelain, tungsten, or flint.
grinding burn. The localized overheating of work dur-
ing abrasive grinding.
grinding, centerless. See centerless grinding.
grinding, closed-circuit. See closed-circuit grinding.
grinding cracks. Cracks appearing on the surface of a
workpiece during grinding due to overheating or over-
grinding.
grinding, cross-feed. See cross-feed grinding.
grinding, cryogenic. See cryogenic grinding.
grinding, cylindrical. See cylindrical grinding.
grinding, dry. See dry grinding.
grinding feed. (1) The rate at which a material is fed
automatically to a cylindrical grinder. (2) The rate at
which solid material is introduced into a continuous
pulverizing mill.
grinding fluid. A cutting and cooling liquid, such as
water or high heat-conducting oil, used in the abrasive
grinding of solid surfaces to prevent grinding bums and
to assist material removal through alteration of surface
potentials.
grinding, form. See form grinding.
grinding, freehand. See freehand grinding.
grinding machine. Any machine equipped with an abra-
sive grinding wheel.
grinding machine, universal. See universal grinding
machine.
grinding marks. A pattern of fine striations or score
marks, usually directional, resulting from machining
and grinding operations.
grinding media. The porcelain, flint, or steel balls, rods,
rolls, and other materials used in grinding mills.
grinding mill. (1) Any machine, such as ball, tube, and
rod mills, employed to reduce the particle size of min-
erals, ceramic materials, cement clinker, and other solid
substance for commercial and domestic use. (2) A lapi-
dary lathe or wheel.
grinding, oftband. See offhand grinding.
grinding pebbles. Flint and small porcelain balls em-
ployed as grinding media in ball mills, particularly in
the grinding of materials in which iron contamination
should be avoided.
grinding, plunge. See plunge grinding.
grinding, precision. See precision grinding.
 151
grinding ratio. The ratio of the volume of material re-
moved from a workpiece to the volume removed from
the grinding wheel.
grinding relief. The groove at the edge of a workpiece
which overhangs the corner of the grinding wheel.
grinding, rough. See rough grinding.
grinding sensitivity. The susceptibility of a material to
damage during grinding.
grinding, side. See side-grinding.
grinding stress. The residual stress, tensile or compres-
sive, or a combination of both, generated in a workpiece
during the grinding operation.
grinding, surface. See surface grinding.
grinding, thread. See thread grinding.
grinding, wet. See wet-grinding.
grinding wheel. A bonded abrasive wheel or disk
mounted on a mechanically actuated axis for use in
grinding and polishing operations.
grinding wheel, reinforced. See reinforced wheel.
grinding wheel, resinoid bonded. See resinoid wheel.
grindstone. A grinding wheel cut from natural sand-
stone; used for grinding, sharpening, smoothing, and
shaping.
grip. In tensile testing it is the jaws or other device which
hold the specimen.
grisaille. A type of porcelain-enamel artware made by
firing various thicknesses of white enamel over a black
background to produce a monochromatic decoration in
shades of gray.
grit. Coarse-grained, sharp angular granules ofsand, gar-
net, alumina, or other substances of synthetic origin;
used mainly as an abrasive.
grit blasting. A surface treatment in which grit is im-
pinged on the surface of an item to clean and roughen
or polish it. The action depends on the size of the grit.
grit number. A number designating the particle size of
the grit grains based on sieve analysis.
grit size. The particle size of grit and abrasive grains
based on a sieve analysis.
grizzly. A screening device, consisting of parallel iron or
steel bars, for the separation of coarse lumps of raw
materials from smaller sizes.
grizzly chute. A chute made with grizzlies of decreasing
size, each grizzly separating coarse lumps of raw mate-
rials from smaller lumps in decreasing size classifica-
tion.
grizzly crusher. A type of crusher consisting of moving
rods or bars which simultaneously crush and separate
lumps of raw materi.als according to size.
GUARD
grog. A ground mixture of refractory materials such as
firebrick, clinkers, pottery, sand, saggers, crucibles, and
the like added as raw material to refractories, saggers,
acid-proof ware, terra cotta, high-temperature porce-
lain, stoneware, vitreous china sanitary ware, sewer
pipe, and similar products to improve working and
service properties.
grog-fireclay mortar. A refractory mixture consisting
of raw fireclay, calcined fireclay or broken fireclay
brick, or both, milled to a workable fineness.
grooved pipe. The grooved portion of the end of a pipe,
regardless of its shape or dimensions, which overlaps a
portion of the end of an adjoining pipe.
grossularite. Ca3AI2(Si04h; a cubic garnet encountered
in some calcium aluminosilicate glass cements.
gross weight. The total weight of a material and its con-
tainer.
ground. A conducting connection between an electric
circuit and the earth or some conductor that serves as
the earth.
ground coat. The first coat of porcelain-enamel applied
to metal when subsequent coats are to be applied.
ground coat boiling. The undesirable evolution of gas
during the firing of porcelain-enamel ground coat re-
sulting in a variety of imperfections such as blisters,
pinholes, black specks, dimples, or spongy surfaces.
ground fireclay. Milled fireclay or mixtures of fireclays
subjected to no treatment other than weathering.
ground fireclay mortar. A mortar of workable consis-
tency composed of finely ground fireclay and water.
groundhog kiln. A type of art-potter's kiln constructed
partly in a hillside.
ground laying. The application of a uniform color, usu-
ally by dusting a powdered ceramic color over ware or
on an area of ware previously painted with an adherent
oil.
ground state. The lowest energy quantum state of an
atom, molecule, or crystalline aggregate of atoms. Sys-
tems exist in the ground state until excited by whole
quanta of energy.
grout. A mixture of portland cement, lime, aggregate,
and water of a troweling or pouring consistency which
is flowed into open joints or troweled into open spaces
on horizontal courses of masonary.
grouting, intrusion. See intrusion grouting.
groutite. a-MnOOH; a rhombic modification of man-
ganite.
grunerite. An asbestiform mineral. See amosite.
guard. (1) A shield around a grinding wheel to protect a
workman from injury. (2) Any attachment or cover
placed on a machine to protect an operator or other
person in the vicinity.
GUARD RING
guard ring. A ring-shaped device surrounding a test
specimen to ensure an even distribution of heat in
heat-flow experiments.
guide eye. A ceramic loop through which fiber passes
when transferring from the creel to the mandrel in a
filament winding process.
guillotine cutter. A mechanically or manually operated
heavy steel knife used to cut through and trim material.
gum arabic. A water-soluble gum from acacia trees used
as a binder in bodies, and in glaze and porcelain-enamel
slips. Also known as acacia gum, gum Senegal, gum
Kordofan.
gumbotil. A sticky clay formed by the weathering of
glacial drift.
gum Kordofan. See gum arabic.
gummite. A naturally occurring mixture of materials,
mostly amorphous, containing much lead, uranium, and
thorium hydrated oxides; yellow-brown to black with
greasy or glassy luster.
gum Senegal. See gum arabic.
gum set. The abnormal, erratic, quick setting of cement
in concrete.
gum tragacanth. Mucilaginous exudate, part soluble, of
Asian shrubs; used as a binder in glaze and porcelain-
enamel slips, and as an adhesive to bond dry-process
enamels to metals.
gunite. A mixture of sand or crushed slag, cement, and
water applied pneumatically or sprayed.
Gunn diode. A device based on thin crystals of GaAs,
InP, or GdTe where a rapid repetitive fluctuation of
current in the crystal sustained by a low voltage, 6 V,
has a very high frequency. It is caused by the repeated
motion of dipole domains along the specimen toward
the anode. Signal frequency is around 109 Hz, which
means that compact, low-power, microwave sources
can be built.
152
gutta. One of a set of small drop like ornaments in stone
or ceramic used to decorate some architectural features.
gutta percha. A whitish latex with rubberlike properties
obtained from several types of tropical tree; used as
electrical insulation and a waterproof material.
gypsum. See calcium sulfate.
gypsum board. A flat paper-covered board of set cal-
cium sulfate such as is used in the construction of walls.
gypsum cement. A group of cements and plasters made
principally from calcium sulfate; produced by mixing it
with selected additions, such as sand, alum, borax, and
potassium carbonate with sufficient water to make a
trowelable consistency.
gypsum lath. A flat, paper-covered plasterboard which
has been treated to receive a plaster coating for use in
the construction of walls.
gypsum plank. A precast, wire-mesh-reinforced gyp-
sum product made with tongue and groove steel edgings
for use as roofing, ceiling, and flooring in buildings.
gypsum plaster. A plaster composed essentially of gyp-
sum mixed with water to a troweling consistency.
gypsum wallboard. A plaster board covered with paper
or other fibrous material suitable for painting or paper-
ing.
gyratory crusher. A large primary crusher consisting of
a rounded crushing head mounted on a vertical shaft in
a conical shell, the unit rotating on an eccentric axis.
gyratory screen. A vertical nest of horizontal screens of
decreasing mesh size rotating on an eccentric axis em-
ployed to determine the particle size distribution of
powdered or granular materials, or to separate and
collect quantities of a material of specified maximum
and minimum sizes.
 H
h. Symbol for Planck's constant.
H. Symbol for: (I) Enthalpy. (2) Hardness, with a sub-
script to denote the method, e.g., Hv is the Vickers
hardness. (3) Magnetic field strength.
habit. The characteristic crystalline form or aggregate
structure exhibited by a mineral.
habit plane. The plane, identified by its Miller indices,
that commonly forms the external surfaces of a crystal
of a given material.
hack. A more orless orderly stack of newly formed brick
set on boards to dry.
hack hammer. A tool shaped like an adz; used for dress-
ing stone.
hacking. (I) The replacement of a single course of ma-
sonry with two or more lower courses. (2) The laying
of brick with the bottom edge set in from the plane
surface of a wall. (3) The process of stacking brick in a
kiln or on a kiln car for firing.
hackle marks. Fine ridges on a glass surface parallel to
the direction a fracture is propagated. They occur after
the mirror zone, radiating from the circumference of the
fracture mirror surface.
hafnia. See hafnium oxide.
hafnium boride. (I) Hffi 2 ; mp 3000°C; sp. gr. 11.2; used
for high-temperature-resistant products for nuclear ap-
plications. (2) Hffi; mp 2899°C; sp. gr. 12.80.
hafnium carbide. HfC; mp > 3890°C; sp. gr. 12.2; hard-
ness (Knoop) 27.2 ON m-2; used in control rods for nu-
clear reactors.
hafnium nitride. HfN; mp 3300°C; sp. gr. 14.0; hard-
ness (Mohs) 8-9.
hafnium oxide. Hf0 2 ; mp 2790°C; sp. gr. 9.7; used in
refractories to lower thermal expansion.
hafnium silicate. HfSi04 ; a discrete ionic tetrahedral
silicate.
153
hafnium silicide. (1) Hf5Si3 ; mp 2299°C. (2) HfSi; mp
2099°C. (3) HfSi2 ; mg 1699°C; sp. gr. 8.03; hardness
(Vickers) 8.49 ON m- .
hafnium titanate. HfTi04 ; mp approx. 2200°C; sp. gr.
7.21; nonstoichiometric forms have semiconducting
properties.
hair cracks. A pattern of hairlike cracks in concrete
which occur when the surface layer of concrete dries
more rapidly than the interior.
hairline. A faint single line on the surface of a glass
container.
hairlines. A porcelain-enamel imperfection consisting
of a series of small hairlike cracks which appear to
follow the strain pattern in the metal and which are
visible after the coating has been fired.
hair pin furnace. A continuous porcelain-enameling
furnace constructed in the shape of a hairpin, the firing
zone being located in the turn.
half-bat. A building brick one-half the length of a con-
ventional brick, approximately 10.2 cm.
half-finish. The first cover coat of a two-coat porcelain-
enamel system.
half-life. The period of time in which one-half of the
radioactive atoms of a given radionuclide will decay.
half-timbered. A type of building construction in which
stucco, brick, plaster, or other masonry is applied be-
tween exposed load-bearing timbers.
halftone. A screen print where dark and light tones are
represented by dots of sizes proportional to the shades
they must portray; small dots produce light tones.
half-trimmed mica. Mica trimmed on two sides, two-
thirds of which are trimmed adjacent sides and the
balance on parallel sides, all of which are crack-free.
halite. The mineralogical name for sodium chloride
found as masses of interlocking crystals, commonly
cubic habit. Normally gray because of included clay but
HALL COEFFICmNT
can occur in many colored forms; hardness (Mohs) 2;
sp. gr. 2.17.
Hall coefficient. See Hall effect.
Hall effect. The electromotive force generated when a
current-carrying material is placed in a magnetic field
which usually is perpendicular to the direction of cur-
rent flow and the electric field which usually is perpen-
dicular to both. EH = iRB, where EH is the electric field,
R is the Hall coefficient, i is the current, and B is the
magnetic field strength.
Hall-Petch relationship. A statement that the yield stress,
O"y' increases inversely with grain size: O"y =
0"0 + Kd-In., where d is the average grain diameter and
K is a materials constant. The relationship occurs be-
cause dislocations moving across any grain must form
pile-ups at the grain boundary in order to generate
sufficient stress to punch new dislocations in the next
grain.
halo. A hazy area emanating from a fire decoration.
halloysite. AI2Sips(OH)4·xH20; mp> 1500°C; a kao-
lin-like mineral used in the production of dinnerware
and refractories. Kaolinite composition plus extra inter-
layer-water which causes the sheets to become cylindi-
cal.
Halpin-Kardos equation. This expresses the relation-
ship between critical fiber aspect ratio, the tensile
strength of the fiber, and the matrix shear strength in a
composite: (lld)c = O"fu/2tm' where I and d are the fiber
length and diameter, O"fu is the ultimate tensile strength
of the fiber, and tm is the matrix shear strength.
Halpin-Tsai equations. A series of expressions of the
simple law of mixtures applying to the properties of
fiber composites dependent on the fiber shape, size, and
distribution. For example, very long fibers lying paral-
lel to the direction of applied stress produce a composite
=
Young's modulus: Ell fEf + EmO - f), where f is the
fiber volume fraction and the subscripts f and m relate
to fiber and matrix, respectively.
Hamaker constants. Systems constants, whose values
depend on the atomic constituents of powders and the
liquids they are dispersed in, which are used in the
equations relating electronic energies to solid particle
attractions and the separation distances.
Hamburg blue. A general term for a variety of iron-
bearing pigments.
hammer, klebe. See klebe hammer.
hammer mill. An impact mill or crusher consisting of
rotating hammers in a rigid metal casing; used to crush
ores and other large solid masses, usually preparatory
for further milling.
hammer test. Any of a series of tests in which weights
are dropped on specimens until fracture or deformation
occurs in the specimens.
154
hand-blown. Glassware formed at the end of a blowpipe
with air supplied by mouth, the ware being shaped by
hand manipulation.
hand-feed. To introduce or advance a material into a
process by hand, such as a grinding or machining op-
eration.
hand jig. A moving-screen jig operated by hand which
is used to treat small batches of ore; the jig is attached
to a rocking-type beam moving in a tank of water.
hand lay-up. A manufacturing process whereby individ-
ual pieces of chemically bound fiber mat are cut and
pressed into shape by hand before heating to consolidate
the shape. A mold of wood or plaster is first made and
covered with release agent. Successive layers of mat
and resin are used to build up the dimensions.
handmade brick. Brick shaped in a mold by hand ma-
nipulation; the shape mayor may not be subjected to
subsequent mechanical pressing after partial drying.
hanging rack. A heat-resistant metal frame suspended in
a conveyor system on which porcelain-enameled ware
is hung and transported during processing and firing
operations.
hank. A looped bundle of fibers or yarn.
hard. 0) Resistant to abrasion, scratching, cutting, etc.
This property is not synonymous with strength. (2)
Having a higher than conventional softening or fusion
temperature.
hard-burned brick. Any brick, usually a refractory
brick, fired at a high temperature, sometimes higher
than normal.
hardener. A chemical compound added to a plastic com-
position to promote curing and produce a solid matrix
with elastic properties and no yield point.
hardening. Increasing hardness by heating or cooling.
hardening on. The process of volatilizing oils from
decorating liquids and pastes applied to bisque ceramic
ware and then fusing or hardening the decoration just
enough to permit the application of a glaze or other
treatment without damage to the decoration.
hard-finished plaster. Overburned gypsum treated with
a solution of alum and then recalcined; used in special
cements. See parian and Keene's cements.
hard-fired ware. Ceramic ware fired to a high tempera-
ture, usually to produce a product of high physical
strength and low water-absorption properties.
hard flame. A dark-blue steady flame resulting from
combustion of the perfect gas-air mixture. The most
efficient for heating.
hard glass. A glass having a high-temperature softening
point, high viscosity at elevated temperatures, or high
resistance to abrasion, scratching, or other mechanical
damage, or any combination of these properties.
 ISS
hard glass enamel. A specially formulated enamel frit
to obtain high hardness and acid or alkali resistance.
The result is a high firing temperature.
Hardinge mill. A continuous-type ball mill of tri-cone
construction in which each successive cone has a
steeper wall from the feed to the discharge end; the mill
sometimes is equipped with a cyclone separator to
return oversized particles for additional grinding.
hard mica. Mica which does not laminate when bent.
hardness. (I) The relati ve resistance of a body surface to
wear, abrasion, or similar physical damage. (2) The
relative refractoriness of a glaze, glass. or porcelain-
enamel. (3) When applied to atoms it defines how easily
the number of electrons can be changed. The expression
(I - A)l2 defines it. where I is the ionization potential
and A is the electron affinity of the atom or molecule
measured in electron volts. Hard atoms are least chemi-
cally reactive.
hardness, Brinell. See Brinell test.
hardness, Knoop. See Knoop hardness.
hardness, Mohs. See Mohs hardness.
hardness, Rockwell. See Rockwell hardness.
hardness scale. A measure of the relati ve hardness of
materials dependent on the way the hardness is meas-
ured; thus there are several-Mohs. Vickers. Knoop.
Brinell. etc.
hard paste. (I) A high-fired china body containing sub-
stantial amounts of feldspar. (2) See pate dure.
hard porcelain. A porcelain body highly resistant to
thermal shock.
hard solder. A solder that melts at temperatures above
370°C; used in brazing metallized ceramics in the pro-
duction of glass-to-metal seals.
Harkort crazing test. A crazing test for glazes in which
a specimen is heated to 120°C and plunged into cold
water. the test then is repeated by increasing the speci-
men temperature in increments of lOoC until visible
crazing occurs.
harsh. An unworkable. nonplastic. noncohesive mix
which tends to segregate during working. particularly a
concrete mix.
Hartman dispersion formula. The relationship of the
index of refraction and the wavelengths of incident light
of a glass expressed as: n = noa(/" - /"0)' in which n is
the index of refraction. I is the wavelength. and no. a.
and /"0 are empirical constants.
Hashin-Rosen model. A first-order approach to calcu-
lating the mechanical properties of particulate compos-
ites based on the following assumptions: all phases are
homogeneous and perfectly elastic; reinforcement is
perfectly spherical; perfect matrix-reinforcement bond-
ing exists; low-particle-volume fractions only occur so
that a simple law of mixtures can apply.
HEARTH FURNACE
Hastelloy. A proprietary nickel-base alloy of high-
chemical resistance, heat resistance. and mechanical
strength used in agitators, autoclaves. heat exchangers.
dryers. burners. blowers. pickling equipment. furnace
parts. and similar applications where resistance to cor-
rosion and physical strength at elevated temperatures
are required.
haunch. The section of the arch of a furnace or kiln
located between the crown and skewback.
hausmannite. MnMn204; naturally occurring spinel
with ferromagnetic properties and a tetragonal crystal
structure.
haydite. Expanded clay. shale, slate, or similar material
employed as an aggregate in the production of light-
weight concrete and concrete products.
haze. A cloudy appearance of transparent material
caused by light scattering from internal and external
surfaces.
hcp. Abbreviation for hexagonal close packed with ref-
erence to crystal structure.
HDT. Abbreviation for heat deflection temperature.
header. A brick laid with an end exposed and its length
perpendicular to the face of a wall.
header course. A type of construction in which an entire
row. or course, of brick is laid as headers.
header, false. See false header.
header high. Vertical height to the top of a brick course
immediately under a header course.
header, snap. See snap header.
header tile. A tile designed to provide recesses for
header units in masonry walls.
head lap. The distance between the lower edge of an
overlapping asbestos-cement shingle or sheet and the
upper edge of the lapped shingle in the second course
below.
head space. The unfilled space in closed bottles or other
containers. See ullage.
head, wheel. See wheel head.
healing. The process or the ability of a porcelain-enamel.
glaze. or other ceramic coating to flow and cover sur-
face imperfections during the firing.
healing power. The ability of a glaze to heal surface
blemishes during the firing operation.
hearth. The refractory floor of a furnace. kiln. or cupola
upon which a charge is placed for melting. sintering. or
other heat treatmen t.
hearth furnace. A type of furnace in which a charge is
heat-treated while resting on the furnace floor. or
hearth.
HEARTH ROASTING
hearth roasting. A process for the heat treatment or
roasting of ores and other materials on the hearth of a
furnace with an excess of air, without fusion, to bring
about useful changes in the physical properties of the
materials.
heat. Any form of energy causing a rise in temperature
or which may be translated into some form of work
involving mechanical energy, fusion, evaporation, ex-
pansion, etc.
heat-absorbing glass. Any glass capable of absorbing
radiant energy in the near-infrared range of the spec-
trum.
heat affected zone. The volume of material not melted
in a brazing or welding operation but whose microstruc-
ture is changed by the process.
heat, available. See available heat.
heat balance. The equilibrium existing in a body when
the heat gain and the heat loss from all sources are equal.
heat barrier. Any material of low thermal conductivity
used to prevent the transfer or movement of heat from
a source to another part or substance.
heat capacity. The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance one degree,
usually under some constant condition such as volume
or pressure; units are J kg- 1 K- 1.
heat checking. Development of fine cracks due to cycli-
cal heating and cooling.
heat conduction. The transfer or movement of heat be-
tween two parts of a system which does not require
movement of the system or any of its parts.
heat content. The sum of the internal energy contained
in a body or system and the product of its volume
mUltiplied by the pressure.
heat convection. The movement or transfer of heat by
means of a circulating liquid or gas.
heat deflection temperature. The temperature at which
sensible structural deflection first occurs when a shape
is heated.
heater. Any device designed to produce and transfer
heat.
heat exchanger. A device used to transfer heat from a
fluid flowing on one side of a barrier to a fluid flowing
on the other side of the barrier; for example, steam
dryers, muffle furnaces, water-cooled furnaces, nuclear
reactors, etc.
heat flow. The movement of heat through a substance or
the transfer of heat from one substance to another,
usually reported as the quantity of heat moved per unit
of time.
heating chamber. The section of a furnace or kiln in
which ware is subjected to heat during a firing opera-
tion.
156
heating element. (I) A coil or other arrangement of wire
in which heat is produced by an electric current. (2) A
rod or spiral of semiconducting ceramic, such as silicon
carbide or molybdenum silicide.
heating, induction. See induction heating.
heating, radiant. See radiant heating.
heating, radio-frequency. See radio-frequency heating.
heat insulator. A material of low thermal conductivity;
for example, foamed clays and concrete, glasswool,
mineral wool, foamed glass, etc.
heat, latent. See latent heat.
heat of adsorption. The quantity of heat evolved when
I mole of a material is absorbed by another at constant
pressure.
heat of adsorption, differential. See differential heat of
adsorption.
heat of adsorption, integral. See integral heat of ad-
sorption.
heat of combustion. The amount of heat evolved when
1 gram mole of a substance is completely burned.
heat of fusion. The quantity of heat required to convert
one gram mole of a solid to the liquid state at the melting
point.
heat of fusion, latent. See latent heat of fusion.
heat of hydration. The amount of heat evolved during
the hydration of a substance such as occurs during the
hardening or curing of cements and concrete.
heat of reaction. The change in enthalpy occurring
when reactants at temperature T and pressure pare
transformed to products at the same temperature and
pressure. Since temperature is a variable, published
values are quoted for 298.1 K and 1 atmosphere pres-
sure.
heat of segregation. A calculated parameter which is a
measure of the energy change when impurity ions seg-
regate to a free surface. The energy required to substi-
tute an impurity ion in the bulk ceramic is calculated
and then the calculation is repeated for a surface site and
the difference is the heat of segregation.
heat of transition. The heat evolved or absorbed when
a unit mass of a substance is converted from one poly-
morph to another; units are kJ mole-lor kJ (g . atomt 1.
heat of vaporization, latent. See latent heat of vapori-
zation.
heat pattern. Graduated heating zones produced by
spacing active emitters on a module.
heat pump. Any device that uses mechanical work to
transfer heat from a low temperature source to one at a
higher temperature.
 157
heat-resistant glass. A glass of low thermal expansion
and high resistance to thermal shock such as occurs
when the glass is cooled suddenly from an elevated
temperature. This inevitably involves high concentra-
tions of silica in the composition.
heat, sensible. See sensible heat.
heat-setting mortar. A finely ground refractory mortar
which develops its strength at elevated temperatures.
heat-setting refractory. Finely ground refractory mate-
rial which develops a ceramic-type bond at elevated
temperatures.
heat shield. A layer of substance which provides protec-
tion from heat.
heat sink. A device for the transfer of heat away from a
sensitive component.
heat, specific. See specific heat.
heat-strengthened glass. Glass subjected to a pro-
grammed heat treatment to improve its physical
strength.
heat transfer. The movement of heat within a body or
from one body to another body. Heat is transferred by
three different processes: thermal conduction, where
heat diffuses through a material; thermal convection,
where heat is carried by a circulating current in a fluid;
and thermal radiation, where heat is transferred by
electromagnetic waves.
heat treatment. The process of subjecting a material or
body to controlled conditions of heating and cooling to
develop specific properties in the material or body such
as strength, thermal-shock resistance, etc.
heat work. A concept arising from time-temperature
profiles used to fire ceramic ware. It is the integrated
area under the time-temperature curve and is related to
the work or energy required to achieve densification.
heavy aggregate. Aggregate having a high specific
gravity, such as steel punchings, magnetite, barium
compounds, etc., used in the production of heavy con-
crete for special applications.
heavy concrete. A concrete in which part or all of the
conventional aggregate is replaced by metal punchings,
magnetite, barium compounds, and similar materials to
produce a concrete of high density for use in the pro-
duction of counterweights, nuclear shieldings, and
other specialized applications.
heavy duty. Made so as to withstand hard wear, severe
conditions, etc.
heavy earth. Another name for barium oxide.
heavy media. Any fluid of high density used in flotation
processes for the removal of low-density aggregate
particles from mineral raw materials.
heavy metal oxide glasses. See HMO glasses.
HEMT
heavy oil. A mixture of hydrocarbons distilled from coal
tar, heavier than water.
heavy spar. Barium sulfate, BaS04; sometimes used as
flux in stoneware bodies and glazes; employed in glass
as a flux to reduce seeds, increase toughness, increase
brilliance, reduce annealing time, and prevent devitrifi-
cation.
heavy water. Water containing substantial amounts of
deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen having an atomic
weight of 2.014; used as a moderator in some nuclear
reactors.
hectorite. (Ca,Li)O.315-
20.7(AI,Mg,Fe)z(Si,AI)401O(OH)z ·nH20; a clay min-
eraI composed of a hydrous silicate of lithium and
magnesium, and which is of the montmorillonite fam-
ily.
hedenhergite. CaFe(Si0 3)z; calcium iron pyroxene;
forms the augite solid solution series with diopside.
heel tap. An imperfection in glass bottles characterized
by a bottom of uneven thickness.
helical. A cylindrical spiral, such as a thread on a bolt.
helical dislocation. See screw dislocation.
helical reinforcement. Used in concrete technology to
restrain lateral movement of a beam under compression;
it consists of thin reinforcement wound around the main
vertical reinforcement of a column.
helical screw feeder. A tube enclosing a screw which
conveys and meters dry powders from a supply bin.
helical winding. A winding in which the filament ad-
vances at an angle in a helical path.
helicoid. Having the shape of a flattened coil.
hematite. Red iron ore composed essentially of Fe203;
sp. gr. 4.9-5.3; hardness (Mohs) about 6; the most
important source of iron.
hematite (black). BaMn9016(OH)4; a mineral source of
manganese; sp. gr. 3.7-4.7; hardness (Mohs) 5-6.
hematite (brown). FeO(OH)·n(H20); sp. gr. 3.6-4.0;
hardness (Mohs) 5-5.5; a minor ore of iron sometimes
used as a yellow ceramic pigment.
hemimorphite. Zn4Si207·H20; a pyrosilicate zinc ore;
part of a mixture known as calamine when found with
smithsonite, ZnC0 3.
hemming machine. (I) A device employed to form an
edge on a metal sheet by bending the edge of the metal
back onto itself for increased edge strength. (2) A
machine designed for the grinding of flat surfaces such
as knife blades, skate runners, etc.
HEMT. Acronym for high-electron-mobility transistor.
A device formed by layers of GaAs and (AI,Ga)As in
which current flows through the 2-D electron gas
formed at the layer interface and is modulated by an
HENRY
applied gate voltage. The dilution of the electron gas
makes for high velocity.
henry. H; the SI unit of electric inductance; it is the
inductance of a closed circuit in which an emf of I volt
is produced when a current varies uniformly at a rate of
I ampere per second.
Henry's law. The principle that the mass of a gas dis-
solved in a given quantity of liquid is proportional to
the pressure of the gas.
hercynite. FeAI 20 4 ; mp 1780°C; commonly found
spinel phase present in emery deposits; hardness
(Mohs) 7.S-8; sp. gr. 4.39; also known as iron spinel.
Hermansen furnace. A glass-melting pot furnace of a
recuperative design.
hermetic. (I) Sealed so as to be airtight. (2) Of or relating
to ancient science.
Herreshoff furnace. A mechanical, multiple-deck muf-
fle furnace cylindrical in shape.
hertz. Hz; one cycle per second.
Hertz fracture. A conical fracture spreading outwards
as it progresses into glass; usually produced by pressing
a ball against the surface.
hessite. Ag 2Te; silver telluride; a gray metallic mineral
in cubic crystal form.
hessonite. An orange-brown variety of grossularite gar-
net. Also called cinnamon stone.
heterodyne. To mix two alternating signals in order to
get two signals with frequencies corresponding to the
sum and the difference of the original frequencies.
heterogeneous. Consisting of a mixture of dissimilar
ingredients.
heulandite. (Ca,Na2)AI2ShOIS·6H20; a natural zeolite
occurring in large deposits in New Zealand; a product
of devitrification and hydration of volcanic glass.
Hexaloy-ST. A commercially available composite of
sintered SiC with no extra silicon but containing from
S to 20% TiB2 as a toughening agent; Knoop hardness
27.S GN m-2 and SO% tougher than SiC alone.
hexamethyldisilazone. (CH3)rSi-O-Si-(CH3)3; a gase-
ous compound which when heated at 1000°C with NH3
gives a submicron mixed powder of SiC + Si 3N4 . This
powder can be sintered at I 800°C to a submicron grain
size composite.
Heyn method. A micrographic intercept method to find
grain size.
H-harps. A metal frame with cutting wires used to pro-
duce clay slabs of even thickness.
HIF. Acronym for hot isostatic forging; a development
of HIP made to reduce the process time from hours to
minutes. Instead of constant pressure applied through-
158
out the process a sudden isostatic pressure is applied
when the sample just reaches a sinter temperature.
high-alumina brick. A refractory brick containing sub-
stantial amounts of alumina that reacts with silica to
form mullite when fired to high temperature; used in
applications where unusually severe temperature or
load conditions exist.
high-alumina cement. (I) A refractory hydraulic ce-
ment made by sintering mixtures of bauxite and lime-
stone; will set to high strength in 24 hr. (2) A hydraulic
cement of high alumina content. The main constituent
is CA in cement notation.
high-alumina refractories. Aluminum silicate refrac-
tory compositions in which the alumina content is 4S%
or more.
high angle boundaries. Grain boundaries, either tilt or
twist, which require rotations in excess of ISO to gain
grain coincidence. They contain large areas of poor fit
and so have open structures with almost constant en-
ergy: Y~b = 1/3111 , where Ygb is the grain boundary energy
and Y1I IS the specific surface energy of the solid.
high-carbon steel. Steel containing more than I.S% of
carbon. The carbon tends to cause blistering in porce-
lain-enameling.
high-duty fireclay brick. Fireclay brick compOSItIons
having a pyrometric cone equivalent not less than cone
31 Y2 nor more than cone 33.
high-early-strength concrete. Concrete which will de-
velop a crushing strength greater than 12 MN m-2 when
aged in moist air for 24 hr, and greater than 21
MN m-2 when aged for 24 hr in moist air followed by
immersion in water for 48 hr. The cement used has a
high CaO:Si0 2 ratio.
high-energy fuel. Any fuel which produces greater en-
ergy than conventional carbonaceous fuels during com-
bustion.
high fire. Maximum output being used from a burning or
firing system.
high-frequency heating. The development of heat in a
body by means of an induced electric current when the
body is moved through a nonuniform magnetic field or
is subjected to a change in magnetic flux.
high-frequency induction furnace. An induction fur-
nace in which heat is generated in a substance or its
container, or both, by currents induced by a high-fre-
quency magnetic flux produced by a surrounding elec-
tric coil.
high gloss. A surface of extreme smoothness and there-
fore excellent light reflecting behavior.
high-heat cement. A cement which liberates a high
amount of heat during curing.
high-heat duty refractory. Fireclay brick with PCE >
32h
 159
highlight test. A method of evaluating the resistance of
a glaze, porcelain-enamel, glass, or other surface to
acids, alkalies, and other corrosive and erosive condi-
tions as indicated by a decrease in the sharpness or
integrity of an image observed in a direct beam of light.
high-pressure gas firing. Firing system using fuel gas at
pressures above 14 \eN m-2 which draws in air by the
Venturi principle.
high quartz. The high-temperature form of silica crys-
tallizing with a cubic structure, known as cristobalite.
high-silica glass fiber. Ordinary A- or E-glass fiber
treated with hot acid to remove components other than
Si0 2; compositions around 97% Si0 2 are achieved.
high-speed cement. A fast-setting cement.
high-temperature cement. A refractory cement which
will not soften, fuse, or spall at elevated temperatures.
high-temperature glaze. A glaze which matures at tem-
peratures above 1200°C.
high-temperature material. Any material which can be
used in high-temperature environments, such as fur-
naces, kilns, roasters, smelters, etc .• working at tem-
peratures above 1000°C.
high-temperature superconductor. HTS; four classes
of materials discovered since 1986 with much higher
transition temperatures than previously known super-
conductors; can become superconducting around 100
K. See YBCO.
high-transmission glass. A glass which transmits an ex-
ceptionally high percentage of visible light.
high-velocity burner. A burner which introduces com-
bustible mixtures into the firing chamber of a furnace
or kiln at a very high speed.
high-velocity thermocouple. A thermocouple device
which will measure the temperatures of flowing gases
in an area where the surroundings are of a different
temperature.
hindered settlement. A classifying process in which
fine aggregate is separated from coarse particles in a
water suspension in which a rising current of water
hinders the fall of the fine particles while the coarse
particles settle to the bottom of the apparatus.
hinge joint. A joint in a pavement or other concrete
structure which will permit adjacent sections or slabs to
expand, shrink, and move independently of each other
and thereby reduce the possibility of uncontrolled
breakage of the structure in use.
hip and rib shingles. Rectangular roofing shingles cut
and installed with a side lap so as to conceal the joint of
the shingles meeting at the hip and ridge of a roof.
HIPing. Acronym for the forming process called hot
isostatic pressing where an isostatic pressure is applied
to an imperviously coated object by a fluid while heat-
ing the pressing die.
HOLLOW BLOCK
HIP maps. The output of a computer program in graphi-
cal form which calculates the density as a function of
applied pressure, temperature, particle size, and internal
pressure, in isolated pores, given as a set of hot isostat-
ing pressing parameters.
hip roof. A roof having four sloping sections, the shorter
slopes being triangular in shape.
hip tile. Specially shaped roofing tile used to form the
junction of two faces of a roof.
hisingerite. See allophane.
Hispano-Moresque ware. A type of luster or tin-enam-
eled pottery.
HMFG. Abbreviation for heavy metal fluoride glass
used to make optical fibers and low-loss infrared fibers.
See fluorozirconate glass.
HMO glasses. Glasses which contain heavy metal ox-
ides and none of the traditional glass-forming oxides.
They are found in the systems: PbO-Ga203 and PbO-
Bi20rGa203; typical composition is 40 cation % PbO,
35 cat% Bi 20 3, 25 cat% Ga203; all possess high optical
nonlinearity.
hobmouth oven. A bottle- or cone-shaped kiln which is
fired from the top.
Hoffman kiln. A multichambered, periodic kiln in
which the chambers are connected so as to permit the
use of combustion gases to dry and preheat ware in the
adjacent sections before firing.
Hoffmeister series. An arrangement of anions and cat-
ions in the order of decreasing ability to produce floc-
culation when introduced into clay slips.
hog-back tile. A particular type of roofing tile which is
not quite half-round; used along the edges of a pitched
roof.
hoist, skip. See skip hoist.
Holdcroft bars. Bars of selected mineral compositions
designed to soften at different temperatures for use as
pyroscopes.
holding current. See Ovonic threshold switch.
holding room. An area in which ware is stored prior to
subsequent processing or shipment.
hole. (I) In the energy band model of bonding, removal
of an electron from the valence band creates an unoc-
cupied level; this is a hole. Sometimes called a positive
hole since electrons in the valence band can accept
energy from an applied electric field to move up to the
hole; hence, holes drift to the negative plate and appear
to be charge carriers. (2) A depression or void in a body,
the bottom of which is not visible under normal vision
under 200 foot-candles illumination.
holes, sand. See sand holes.
hollow block. A relatively large, hollow, structural clay
or concrete building block which is used in the construc-
HOLLOW CASTING
tion of walls, floors, and roofs, sometimes with metal
reinforcements.
hollow casting. A synonym for drain casting.
hollow-clay blocks. Fired, hollow, structural-clay build-
ing blocks used in the construction of walls, partitions,
floors, and roofs of buildings.
hollow dislocation. A configuration that has to be as-
sumed by a dislocation in an elastic continuum because
of the need to avoid infinite energies. In a real crystal
this is not necessarily the case and we do not encounter
them in simple metallic and ionic crystals. Dislocations
in crystals with large unit cells such as SiC are hollow.
hollowing. The process of forming a cavity in a ball of
plastic clay on a potter's wheel.
hollow tile. A hollow building unit formed of concrete or
fired structural clay; used in building and other con-
struction.
hollow wall. A masonry wall in building construction
with a substantial air space between the wall faces; the
dead air space provides improved thermal and sound
insulation.
hollow ware. Ceramic and porcelain-enameled ware of
significant depth and volume such as bowls, cups, pots,
pans, and kettles.
holmium oxide. H0 20 3 ; mp 2360°C; sp. gr. 8.35; used
in the production of special high-temperature refracto-
ries.
hologram. A 3-D picture or image produced by reflected
laser light on a photographic plate or film illuminated
from behind.
homogeneous. Consisting of a uniform composition or
structure.
homogenizing. Allowing diffusion to even out composi-
tional differences and hence properties between differ-
ent regions of a glass melt.
homologous temperature. TH ; a way of standardizing
comparisons by expressing the sample temperature in
degrees Kelvin as a fraction of the absolute melting
temperature: TH = TITm'
hone. (1) A fine-grit stone or block of abrasive used for
sharpening and fine grinding. (2) A rotating tool with
an abrasive tip used for enlarging and polishing holes
and internal cylindrical surfaces to precise dimensions.
honeycomb. (I) A body with a cellular internal structure
resembling a honeycomb, and which is used as a struc-
tural material of light weight and high strength. (2) A
poorly filled, insufficiently compacted, or porous con-
crete mass.
honing. To smooth and polish a surface with a fine-
grained stone or abrasive.
hood. (I) A guard around a grinding wheel serving as
protection against breakage, sparks, released and flying
160
particles and dust. (2) A metal covering or cowl cover-
ing a hearth or other work area in an exhaust system for
the removal of dust and fumes. (3) A refractory form
partially immersed in a molten glass batch to protect the
gathering area from furnace gases and floating scum.
hooded pot. A glass-melting pot in which the interior
and its contents are protected from combustion gases by
a refractory cover or by careful design of the pot, and
also provided with an opening for the charging and
gathering operations.
hook. A curved, heat-resistant alloy upon which porce-
lain-enameled ware is suspended for transport through
a furnace.
Hookean elasticity. Strain is proportional to the applied
stress.
Hooke's law. The ratio of the stress to the strain in a solid
body is constant for small values of strain.
hooped column. A reinforced concrete column in which
the steel-rod reinforcements placed vertically in the
shaft are enclosed in steel hoops to tie the rods together.
hoop stress. The circumferential stress in a cylinder sub-
jected to internal or external pressure.
hoop tension. Stress which occurs in the bottom sections
of a hemispherical dome.
HOPG. Abbreviation for highly oriented pyrolytic
graphite.
hopper. A large container in which bulk materials are
stored prior to use.
horizontal-cell tile. A hollow building unit of fired
structural clay in which the axis of the interior cell is in
a horizontal position when placed in a wall.
horizontal crusher. A type of crushing or milling device
in which the crushing stone is mounted on a horizontal
shaft to minimize headroom requirements.
horizontal retort. A vessel of highly siliceous composi-
tion employed in the production of zinc metal and in the
gasification of coal.
hornblende. (Ca,Nah(Mg,Fe,Al)s(Al,2Si)8022(OH,F)z; a
common, green- to black-colored mineral present in
clays and feldspathic materials; sp. gr. 3.0-3.47; hard-
ness (Mohs) 5-6; a double-chain silicate of the amphi-
bole family.
hornfels. A hard, fine-grained, metamorphic rock
formed by the action of heat on clay rocks. Also called
hornstone.
horn silver. See cerargyrite.
hornstone. See hornfels.
horse. A slightly convex rack on which drying roofing
tiles are placed and permitted to sag to a slightly curved
shape.
 161
horseshoe Dame. The heating pattern obtained when
both the entry and exit ports for gases are on the same
end wall in a furnace.
hospital. An area in a factory where defective ware is
repaired.
hot-blast circulating duct. A large-diameter, refrac-
tory-lined pipe which surrounds and delivers hot air to
the tuyeres of a blast furnace.
hot-blast main. A refractory-lined pipe which delivers
hot air from a hot-blast stove to the hot-blast circulating
duct of a blast furnace.
hot-blast stove. A refractory-lined apparatus in which
hot air is produced for delivery to the tuyeres of a blast
furnace.
hot box binder. A liquid resin sand binder used to mold
cores from a heated metal box.
hot draw. The removal of a material from a furnace or
kiln while hot.
hotel china. A hard-glazed, vitreous dinnerware of high
strength, usually thicker than household china; used by
commercial institutions.
hot end. The finishing end of a glass manufacturing op-
eration, including the forming of the molten glass and
the annealing of the formed ware.
hot end coating. A coating, usually an organotin com-
pound, sprayed onto glass containers while they are hot
and before they pass through the annealing lehr. Such
coatings strengthen the surface.
hot Door. A floor, particuarly the floor of a dryer, heated
by steam pipes or other source of heat.
hot-Door dryer. An enclosed chamber or room for the
drying of ware in which heat is supplied by steam pipes
or other heat source embedded or contained in the floor.
hot isostatic forging. See HIF.
hot-metal ladle. A large, refractory-lined ladle em-
ployed to convey molten metal from a blast furnace to
a subsequent processing operation.
hot-metal mixer. A refractory-lined holding furnace for
molten pig iron.
hot mold. A hot (coated or uncoated) mold in which
glass or other ceramic ware is formed.
hot patch. A refractory slurry which is applied by spray-
ing to repair a damaged, hot refractory lining of a
furnace.
hot-pressed abrasives. Bonded abrasive products
formed in a mold by pressing at appropriate high tem-
peratures.
hot pressing. (I) A jiggering process employing a heated
profile tool or plunger. (2) The forming of ware by
pressing in a mold at an elevated temperature. (3) Sin-
HUNTINGTON DRESSER
tering while simultaneously applying a pressure to the
sample.
hot spot. The area of highest temperature in a furnace.
hot top. A special refractory shape placed on the top of
an ingot or casting mold so that the riser and sinkhead
will form above the casting.
hot zone. The area in a continuous furnace or kiln where
the most intense heat is supplied to the ware being fired.
household china. Vitreous ceramic dinnerware, usually
thin and of high translucency.
house-or-cards. A microstructure in which randomly
oriented flexible flakes are interlocked.
H-phase. A grain boundary phase in the Si3NCY 20r
H0 20 3 system which is a nitrogen-containing discrete
ion silicate.
H-polaroid. Polaroid film prepared by stretching polyvi-
nyl alcohol films to line up the molecules which are then
impregnated by iodine. The iodine atoms form long
strings parallel to the fiber axis and are capable of
completely absorbing one component of polarization
while transmitting the other.
HTI. Abbreviation for high-temperature insulating re-
fractory.
hue. The position of a color in relation to the central
wavelength of the visible spectrum.
hull. (1) A defect in fabric reinforced composites which
consists of dark specks of foreign matter embedded in
the fabric fibers. (2) The outer coat around a rice grain.
humectant. In mold forming it is the name given to a
material used for dilution or moistening; glycol is an
example.
humidifier. An apparatus designed to introduce water
vapor into the atmosphere of an area, such as a control-
led-humidity dryer.
humidity. The degree of dampness or the amount of
water vapor contained in the atmosphere.
humidity, absolute. See absolute humidity.
humidity dryer. A dryer in which the humidity of the
atmosphere is controlled.
humidity drying. A procedure whereby ware is heated
in a moisture-saturated atmosphere and drying is al-
lowed later while the product is hot and the pore water
viscosity is lower.
humidity, relative. See relative humidity.
hump. A large ball of clay centered on a potter's wheel
from which several small pots are thrown.
Huntington dresser. A star-shaped rotating cutter tool
employed to dress and true abrasive grinding wheels.
HYBRID COMPOSITE
hybrid composite. Several types have been defined de-
pending on how the fibers are mixed but all contain
more than one type of reinforcing fiber. (1) Interply,
where tows are mixed. (2) Core-shell where sandwiches
are made. (3) Laminated, alternate layers stacked regu-
larly. (4) Intimately mixed. (5) Combinations of the
other four.
hybridization. A rearrangement of orbitals, often ob-
tained from a linear combination of atomic orbitals.
hydrargiIIite. Al(OHh; crystalline hydroxide mineral
loses water when heated to give y-A1 20 3 at 600°C.
hydrate. A compound containing water in a definite
ratio, the water being retained in its molecular state as
H20 at definite sites in the crystal structure.
hydrated alumina. Al(GH)3; gibbsite or hydrargillite;
sp. gr. 2.42; used as a component in glass and sintered
ceramic bodies, and as a coating for refractory setters
to prevent ware being fired from sticking to the setters
during the firing operation.
hydrated lime. Quicklime to which sufficient water has
been added to convert the oxides to hydrates.
hydration. (1) The reaction between a hydraulic cement
and water during which new compounds are being
formed, most of which have strength-producing prop-
erties arising from their fibrous habit. (2) The chemical
process by which cement paste is hardened. (3) The
incorporation of water molecules into a compound to
form a hydrate.
hydration, heat of. See heat of hydration.
hydration resistance. The degree to which a material,
particularly a refractory material, resists chemical com-
bination with water.
hydration, water of. See water of hydration.
hydraulic adsorption. The adsorption of a weakly ion-
ized acid or base formed by the hydrolysis of some types
of salts in aqueous solutions.
hydraulic cement. A cement that sets and hardens by
chemical interaction under water; some types will set
under water.
hydraulic cement, air-entraining. See air-entraining
hydraulic cement.
hydraulic lime. Calcined limestone which absorbs
water without swelling or heating and which produces
a cement which hardens under water.
hydraulic press. A press actuated by a liquid under pres-
sure.
hydraulic pusher. A hydraulically actuated mechanism
designed to push loaded cars through a tunnel kiln.
hydranlic ram. The working piston of a hydraulic press.
hydraulic refractory cement. A composition of ground
refractory materials, some of which react chemically to
form a strong hydraulic bond at room temperature.
162
hydraulic structure. Any structure, including concrete,
used to convey water from one location to another, or
which may be exposed to water for substantial periods
of time as in canals, sea walls, etc.
hydroabietyl alcohol. C19H31CH20H; mp 32°C; sp. gr.
1.007; used to control the drying, flowout, and viscosity
of screen-process inks.
hydrochloric acid. HCI in aqueous solutions; sp. gr.
1.19; widely used in the pickling of metal for porcelain-
enameling.
hydrodynamic abrasive machining. The use of a high-
velocity, high-pressure jet of abrasive-water slurry in a
fine stream at pressures around 420 MNm-2 to remove
material from ceramic and composite surfaces.
hydrodynamics. The study dealing with the motion of
fluids and the forces acting on bodies immersed in
fluids.
hydrofluoric acid. HF in aqueous solution; used in the
polishing, frosting, and etching of glass surfaces; some-
times used to clean brick.
hydrogarnet. Called hydrogrossular in nature; it is the
only thermodynamically stable aluminate hydrate,
which in cement notation is C3AH6 , and is the final
hydration reaction product of calcium monoaluminate.
Surprisingly some silicons in Si04 tetrahedra are sub-
stituted by 4H+ ions so that the general formula is
C3AS)I6-2x'
hydrogen bond. A form of chemical bond arising from
dipole attractions where hydrogen is the positive end of
the dipole.
hydrogen defects. Imperfections in porcelain-enamels,
particularly fishscaling, due to the presence of hydrogen
when the atomic hydrogen is converted to molecular
hydrogen in voids causing pressure to develop at the
interface between the metal and the solidified coating
after firing.
hydrogrossular. See hydrogarnet.
hydrolysis. The chemical reaction of a substance with
water.
hydrometer. A direct-reading, floating instrument em-
ployed to measure the specific gravity or similar prop-
erties of liquids and slurries.
hydrophilic. Having an affinity for water.
hydrophobic. Having an aversion to water.
hydrosol. A sol which has water as its liquid phase.
hydrostatic balance. A chemical balance adapted so
that the weight of an object submerged in water can be
found and hence determine the upthrust on it. This then
leads to a determination of specific gravity.
hydrostatic press. A press actuated by water, oil, or
other liquid under pressure.
 163
hydrostatic pressing. The process of forming and com-
pacting ceramic bodies contained in a thin rubber or
plastic envelope which is placed in a die and surrounded
by a fluid and then subjected to high pressures, the
pressures being equal in all directions on the specimen.
hydrostatic pressure. The pressure exerted by a liquid
which is not flowing, or pressure transferred to a body
immersed in a liquid that is subjected to an external
pressure.
hydrostatics. The study of the effects of pressure in a
liquid or exerted by a liquid on an immersed body.
hydrostatic strength. The property of a pipe or other
shape to withstand the internal pressures of liquids of
specific pressure magnitudes.
hydrothermal synthesis. A process used in the ceramic
industry to make, for example, single-crystal quartz,
and synthetic feldspars. The principle is to seal powders
with water in an autoclave and heat to temperatures in
the range 120-700°C for 1-24 hr. This develops pres-
sures up to 100 MNm-2.
hydrous aluminum oxide. A mixture of hydrates aris-
ing from the different stages of hydration of Al 20 3
when A1 3+ solutions are neutralized. The main constitu-
ents are gibbsite, Al(OH)3' bauxite, AI 20(OH)4, and
diaspore; used as such in the manufacture of glass,
glazes, and vitreous or near vitreous ware.
hydroxide. Any compound containing OH- ions or-OH
groups.
hydroxyapatite. CaS(P204hOH; mineral apatite in
which hydroxyl ion predominates as the balancing an-
ion; used in dentistry.
hydrozincite. Zns(C0 3h(OH)6; basic zinc carbonate
mineral formed by the action of carbonated water on
zinc ores.
hygristor. An electronic component whose resistance
varies with humidity.
Hz
hygrometer. Any of several instruments that measure
the humidity of an atmosphere.
hygroscopic. Pertaining to the property of a substance to
take up and retain water, particularly moisture from the
atmosphere.
hygroscopic water. Water taken from the atmosphere by
a body, and which can be removed by simple drying.
hypercritical drying. Removal of liquid phase from a
drying gel above the critical point of the liquid so that
the developing solid is not subjected to capillary
stresses. This process leads to zero shrinkage which
means that shapes are extremely fragile.
hypereutectoid. In alloys and mixture of two compo-
nents this indicates that it contains more of the minor
component than a eutectic mixture.
hypersthene. Solid solutions formed between enstatite,
MgSi0 3, and ferrosilite, FeSi0 3• carry this name.
hysteresis. The name given to the phenomenon whereby
a depolarizing or demagnetizing cycle applied to a
ferroelectric or ferromagnetic material produces two
different values of the induced polarization, P ind• or
magnetization, Hind' depending on whether the field
applied is going from a positive maximum to a negative
one or vice versa. In general the lag or failure of a
property that has been changed by an external agent.
such as mechanical, magnetic, or electrical stress or to
some influence occurring during the history of the ma-
terial, to return to its original value when the cause of
the change is removed.
hysteresis loop. The area between the paths traced by
first increasing the external agent and then decreasing
it on a hysteresis plot. The area represents energy loss.
hysteresis loss, incremental. See incremental hystere-
sis loss.
hysteresis, magnetic. See magnetic hysteresis.
hysteresis, mechanical. See mechanical hysteresis.
Hz. Abbreviation for hertz.
 I
ICB. Abbreviation for ionized cluster beam vaporization
process. Clusters of metal atoms are ionized and accel-
erated by an electric field onto a substrate prior to
oxidation to ceramic compositions.
ice. Coarse-grained, clear, white, or colored composi-
tions of high fluxing characteristics which are applied
and fired on glassware to produce a variety of frosted
or pebbled effects on the ware.
Iceland spar. Pure, transparent, colorless variety of cal-
cite, CaC0 3 , so flawless it can be used as a polarizer in
microscopes; basis of the Nicol prism.
IC silicon carbide. Silicon carbide impregnated with
carbon.
ID coil. An electromagnetic coil inserted inside a hollow
test specimen.
ideochromatic. Possessing the same color throughout a
specimen.
ID grinding. Internal grinding of a hollow body such as
a pipe, cylinder, or similar structure.
idle. To run without load.
idle time. The elapsed time equipment is left unused.
igneous. Rocks solidified in nature from the molten state.
ignescent. Giving off sparks when struck.
ignition. The process of starting a fuel to bum.
ignition arch. The section of a kiln in which fuel mix-
tures are preheated to expedite ignition.
ignition coil. A type of coil employed in ignition systems
to ignite a fuel mixture. In practice, the coil stores
energy in a magnetic field which is released suddenly
by signal to ignite the fuel.
ignition, loss on. See loss on ignition.
164
ignition temperature. The lowest temperature at which
combustion of a material will occur and continue burn-
ing when heated in air.
illite. A group of micaceous clay minerals ranging be-
tween montmorillonite and muscovite in composition
and structure; sometimes used as a clay addition in
ceramic bodies.
illuminance. See illumination.
illumination. The luminous flux incident on a unit area
of a surface; sometimes called illuminance.
illuviation. The process by which colloids and mineral
salts are washed down from one layer of soil to another
lower layer.
ilmenite. FeTi0 3 ; a component of mineral sands; mp
470°C; sp. gr. 4.3-5.3; hardness (Mohs) 5.5-6; used as
a source of titania in special glasses, as an opacifier in
glazes and enamels, as a black coloring agent in brick
coatings, as a speckling agent on ceramic tile, and as a
component in some ceramic dielectrics. It has the co-
rundum structure with half the metal sites occupied by
Ti4+ and half by Fe 3+ ions.
image converter. A device for producing a visual image
formed by electromagnetic radiation such as x rays or
infrared.
image force. The force exerted on a dislocation by a free
surface per unit length of dislocation, given as:
GIJ2/(l - u)r, where G is the shear modulus, b is the
Burgers vector, u is Poisson's ratio, and ris the distance
the dislocation is below the surface.
image furnace. A way of producing high temperatures
in concentrated areas by focusing rays from the sun, or
electric arcs by means of lenses or mirrors.
image gloss. The distinctness of an image on reflection
in the surface.
image intensifier. A screen from which electrons are
released by an x-ray beam and are then focused onto a
second screen to form a smaller, brighter image.
 165
image orthicon. A TV camera tube in which electrons
emitted from a photoemissive surface in proportion to
the intensity of the incident light are focused onto a
target causing secondary emission of light.
imbibition. The absorption of a liquid by a solid or gel,
frequently accompanied by an increase in the volume
of the absorbent solid; for example, porous clays, graph-
ite, and silica gel.
imbricate. To place tiles so that they overlap.
imide precipitation. A method to make nitride powders
in which liquid chlorides such as TiCI4 , SiCI4, are added
to liquid ammonia and so precipitate solid imides such
as Si(NH2}z, which thermally decompose at low tem-
peratures to fine particle size Si 3N4 , etc.
immersion cleaning. The removal of surface contami-
nation on an object by dipping below the surface of a
liquid cleaner.
immersion coating. Applying a coating to an object by
dipping it into a coating solution or suspension.
immiscibility. The property of some liquids which will
not mix with each other, e.g., oil and water. Encoun-
tered in the solid state when two glassy phases form on
heat treatment of one glass.
imogolite. (OH)3AI203·Si(OH); an allophane-Iike min-
erai in which the chains of AI0 6 octahedra are linked
by (Si20 7)6- complex ions. A tubiform structure having
an AI(OH) outer surface to the tube and an Si(OH) inner
surface. Formed when solutions containing A1 3+ ions
and silicic acid at pH > 5 are heated. Believed to restrict
the harmful effects of A1 3+ cations on aquatic life.
impact. The collision of bodies with sufficient force to
cause appreciable change in the momentum or condi-
tion of the colliding bodies, such as breakage, a change
in speed, or a change in direction.
impact crusher. A crushing device which breaks down
solid materials by shattering blows imposed by rotating
hammers, bars, or steel plates. A ball mill is an example.
impact grinder. A machine for reducing the size of min-
erals and rocks in which the material is thrown against
steel plates by rapidly rotating blades.
impactor. Colloquial name for impact mill or hammer
mill.
impact pressing. A forming process for refractory
shapes whereby refractory powder is closely packed by
rapid vibration in a mold.
impact resistance. The resistance of a body or coating
to breakage, deformation, or other damage when sub-
jected to sharp blows or shock loading.
impact strength. The maximum stress applied at fast
loading rates that a test specimen can absorb before
fracture.
impact stress. The stress imposed on a body by a sud-
denly applied force acting on a measured area.
IMPURITY
impact test. A procedure designed to evaluate the resis-
tance of a material to physical damage when subjected
to a rapidly moving load.
impair. To reduce or weaken in strength.
impedance. (1) Z; a measure of the opposition to the flow
of an ac electric current, quantified as the square root of
the sum of the squares of the resistance and the reac-
tance measured in ohms. (2) For a material it is the
product of the density and the velocity of sound in the
material, or the square root of the product of density and
Young's modulus. It is a measure of the ceramic's
ability to withstand impact loading.
impeller. The vaned rotating disk central to a compres-
sor.
imperfect dislocation. A dislocation with a Burgers
vector that produces a new atom configuration in adja-
cent areas of crystal.
imperiale. A glass or ceramic bottle of 6-liter capacity
for table wine, or 4.5-liter capacity for sparkling wine.
imperial red. A pigment family of red colors based on
ferric oxide.
impermiability. The property of a body, glaze, porce-
lain-enamel, or other material to resist the entry or
passage of liquids and gases.
impervious. A term denoting the degree of vitrification
of a ceramic or ceramic coating as determined by its
resistance to dye penetration; usually a visual observa-
tion.
impervious carbon. A dense, impervious, bitumen-
bonded carbon body formed by pressing followed by
sintering to an essentially pore-free brick; used to line
chemical process and storage vessels.
implant isolation. The technique of using ion implanta-
tion to create highly resistive layers on a microchip
semiconductor. A major processing step in device
manufacture.
implode. See implosion.
implosion. A sudden reduction of pressure which causes
the surrounding medium to be drawn in rapidly.
impregnation. The process of forcing a liquid substance
into the pores of a solid.
impress. (1) To exert pressure on. (2) To apply a voltage
to a circuit or device.
impressed decoration. A decoration stamped under
pressure into a plastic clay body.
impulse. A surge of unidirectional polarity.
impurity. (\) An undesired foreign material in or on a
substance. (2) A material introduced in controlled small
amounts into a semiconductor to develop the desired
type of conductivity and resistance.
IN-AND-OUT BOND
in-and-out bond. A type of masonry construction con-
sisting of alternate courses of headers and stretchers of
brick, stone, concrete block, etc.
incandescent. Emitting visible light as a result of heat;
for example, the filament in an electric light bulb, the
walls of a kiln in use, or other object heated to visible
radiation temperatures.
incise. The process of decorating ware by cutting, carv-
ing, or indenting the ware with a sharp tool.
inclusion. A particl.! of foreign material embedded or
trapped in a body or coating other than materials com-
prising the normal composition.
inclusion, gaseous. See gaseous inclusion.
inclusion, nonmetallic. See nonmetallic inclusion.
inclusion, open gaseous. See open gaseous inclusion.
inclusions, air. See air inclusions.
inclusions, clay. See clay inclusions.
inclusions, oriented. See oriented inclusions.
inclusions, mineral. See mineral inclusions
inclusions, smoky. See smoky inclusions.
inclusions, vegetable. See vegetable inclusions.
incoherent growth. The appearance of new crystals
from nuclei within a work-hardened crystal with no
correlation between the orientation of the original crys-
tal grain and the new one growing in.
incombustible. Any material which will not burn or
support combustion when exposed to flames in air at
648°C.
incompatibility. Failure to produce a homogeneous
mixture, characterized by separation, cloudiness, pre-
cipitation, etc.
incompatibility, thermal. See thermal incompatibility.
incomplete combustion. A burning process in which
oxidation ofthe fuel is incomplete, sometimes resulting
in reducing atmospheres in direct-fired furnaces and
kilns.
incongruent melting. Dissociation at the melting point
to form a liquid plus another phase of different compo-
sition from the original compound.
incremental hyst~resis loss. Loss in hysteresis when a
magnetic material is subjected to a pulsating magnetiz-
ing field.
incremental permeability. The ratio of a change in
magnetic induction to the corresponding change in
magnetizing force when the mean induction differs
from zero.
indent. (1) The surface depression left on a polished
surface by one of the several indentation hardness test
166
procedures. (2) To place an order for materials from
overseas.
indentation crack-length toughness. Overloaded mi-
croindentors on a polished ceramic surface produce
radial cracks of length 2c which can be measured
and used to determine the fracture toughness,
k]c' from one of several equations of the type
kJc =0.16Hva1l2(clar3/2, where Hv is the Vickers hard-
ness and a is one-half of the indent diagonal.
indentation hardness. A quantitative way of finding the
hardness of an optically polished flat surface by either
measuring the area of an indent made by a faceted
diamond subjected to a fixed load or noting the load
needed to produce penetration to a fixed depth. Depend-
ing on the method, and on the shape of the indentor,
several scales of indentation hardness are known, e.g.,
Vickers, Knoop, Rockwell, Shore, Meyer, etc.
indentation size effect. The load effect observed in
hardness measurements when hardness is found to in-
crease as the applied load is decreased. This is because
the yielding mechanism is influenced by the surface as
the volume yielding decreases. The exponent n in the
Meyer equation is a measure of the effect.
indentation strength. A polished beam-shaped speci-
men is indented with a Vickers diamond at a load
sufficient to generate radial and lateral cracks around
the indent. It is then tested to failure to obtain realistic
strength-performance data.
indenting. (1) The omission of brick from a masonry
construction in such a spacing that the brick may be
inserted later. (2) See incise.
independent variable. A variable in a mathematical
equation whose value determines that of the dependent
variable.
indeterminate, Forces in a framework or structure that
cannot be fully analyzed especially by vector analysis.
index grinding feed. A mechanical procedure for feed-
ing internal and other grinding devices in which the rate
or amount of feed is indicated by means of a dial or
similar gauge.
index of refraction. The ratio of the velocity of light, or
the sine of the angle of incidence, in a material to the
velocity of light in a vacuum, or the sine of the angle of
refraction. Often determined by immersing particles of
the material in liquids of known refractive index.
index of workability. A measure of the consistency and
forming characteristics, particularly moldability, of
plastic materials.
India ink. A black pigment made from lampblack and
gelatin.
Indiana measure of air entrainment. A procedure for
estimating the quantity of air entrained in concrete in
which differences in unit weights of samples with and
without air are reported.
 167
Indian red. (1) A red ferric oxide pigment prepared by
calcining ferrous sulfate. (2) A type of soil found in
South Asia used as a pigment and metal polish.
indication. (I) In magnetic testing, a discontinuity iden-
tified as a magnetic-particle build-up resulting from
interruption of the magnetic field. (2) In ultrasonic
testing, determination of the presence of a flaw by
detection of a reflected ultrasonic beam. (3) In general,
that which indicates the presence of a flaw or disconti-
nuity in a substance.
indication, diffuse. See diffuse indication.
indication, false. See false indication.
indication, nonrelevant. See nonrelevant indication.
indicator. A substance used in titrations to indicate the
completion of a chemical reaction usually by a change
of color.
indirect arc furnace. A refractory-lined furnace in
which ware is heated indirectly by an electric arc struck
between electrodes.
indium. In; mp 156°C; a ductile metal used in glass-seal-
ing alloys.
indium antimonide. InSb; mp 535°C; a semiconductor
having a small energy gap and very high electron mo-
bility; used in photodetector devices as well as in mag-
neto-restrictive and Hall-effect devices.
indium arsenide. InAs; mp 943°C; a zinc blende struc-
ture semiconductor used in infrared photoconductor,
magnetorestrictive, and Hall effect devices.
indium brazes. Various alloys of indium and other ele-
ments used in ceramic-metal seals to produce vacuum-
tight bonds; various solidus temperatures up to 315°C.
indium nitride. InN; a semiconductor with a resistivity
of 4.0 x 103 ohm-cm.
indium oxide. In203; mp 191O°C; sp. gr. 7.179; n-type
semiconductor useful as a resistance element in inte-
grated circuitry.
indium oxide, tin-doped. See ITO.
indium phosphide. InP; mp I 070°C; a zinc blende struc-
ture semiconductor used to make rectifiers and transis-
tors stable at temperatures above 400°C.
induced draft. A current of air produced by suction fans
or stream jets in the flues of industrial kilns.
inductance. The property of a circuit which when carry-
ing current forms a magnetic field.
induction furnace. An electric furnace consisting of an
external water-cooled copper coil surrounding an elec-
trically conducting sample which is heated by electro-
magnetically induced eddy currents.
induction heating. Raising the temperature of an electri-
cally conducting material by induced electric currents
of high frequency.
INITIAL RATE OF ABSORPTION
induction method of magnetization. Magnetization of
a material by a circulating current induced in a ring
component by an oscillating magnetic field.
industrial floor brick. A brick having extremely high
resistance to wear, mechanical damage, chemicals, and
temperature, that may be encountered in a factory.
industrial robot. A programmable, multifunction, ma-
nipulator designed to perform repetitive tasks on a
production line.
inelastic. Not having elastic behavior.
inert. Unreactiveness in a given set of conditions; a rela-
tive term.
infrared dryer. A dryer in which heat is supplied by
infrared radiation, such as from infrared lamps.
infrared filter. A material which is transparent to infra-
red radiation but opaque to other wavelengths.
infrared laser. A laser which emits energy in the infra-
red wavelength band.
infrared spectrum. The part of the electromagnetic
spectrum from 0.7 to 400 !lm.
infrasizer. An instrument for the fractionation of pow-
ders by air classification according to their density and
size; the powder is carried in an airstream and collected
in a series of tapered cylinders of the same length but
of decreasing diameters, the fines being collected in a
bag at the end of the system.
infusible. Not capable of melting when heated.
infusorial earth. An incorrect term for the siliceous re-
mains of diatoms.
I. N. glass-ceramic. The commonest way to make ce-
ramics derived from glass by adding a nucleating agent
to the bulk glass and inducing internal nucleation after
normal glass shaping techniques. Most commercial
glass-ceramics are in this category.
in-glaze decoration. A ceramic decoration applied to
the surface of an unfired glaze and fired simultaneously
with the glaze.
ingot. A metal shape, obtained from a mold, suitable for
storage or transportation.
ingot mold. A mold in which ingots are cast.
inhibitor. A substance that retards or stops a chemical
reaction; also known as an anticatalyst.
initial modulus. The slope of the initial straight line part
of a stress-strain curve.
initial permeability. The slope of an induction curve at
zero force of magnetization as a specimen is magnet-
ized.
initial rate of absorption. The weight of water ab-
sorbed by a brick when partially immersed in water for
1 minute; expressed as grams per minute.
INITIAL SET
initial set. The period of elapsed time between the mix-
ing of water in a mortar or concrete and the moment it
starts to lose plasticity; determined by the Vicat needle
test.
initial softening. The time and temperature at which a
ceramic or ceramic coating begins to show evidence of
flow.
initial strain. The strain present in a specimen when the
starting load is achieved in a creep test.
initial tangent modulus. The slope of a stress-strain
curve at the origin.
initiator. (1) In fractal analysis it is the straight line of
fixed length to which a generator is applied to introduce
an irregularity and produce the fractal dimension. (2) In
polymerization it is the name given to the catalyst
needed to bring about the reaction.
injection. A pressure process of forcing a filler material
into cracks, cavities, and pores.
injection molding. The forming of ceramics by the in-
jection of a measured quantity of a body containing
plastisicing agents into a mold where it is densified by
pressing.
ink, ceramic. See ceramic ink.
ink, India. See India ink.
ink, stamping. See stamping ink.
inlay, rolled. See rolled inlay.
inner plies. In a composite panel construction all plies of
reinforcement other than the face or back plies.
inorganic dielectric paper. See fluorhectorite.
inorganic pigment. A coloring agent derived from min-
eral sources.
inorganic polymer. A macromolecular substance linked
in two or three dimensions with covalent bonds between
identical structural units, e.g., the Si04 tetrahedra in
silica, the SiN4 and NSi 3 units linked repeatedly
throughout Si3 N4 . Silicates and clays are classical ex-
amples.
inorganic spray coating. A means of coloring a ceramic
surface by passing the ware through a spray machine
which jets a slurry onto the surface; color is then devel-
oped by firing and annealing.
inrush current. A transient current which exists at the
instant an electrical contact is closed, and which con-
tinues briefly.
inserted coil. A coil or coil assembly which is inserted
into a test specimen for purposes such as in magnetic
testing.
insertion and deletion of fibers. IDF; a filament wind-
ing method designed to save money by varying the
density of expensive reinforcing fibers, and the type and
cross section of fiber to suit a design shape.
168
inside coil. See inserted coil.
inside color. The reverse side of fired gold, the color of
which is an indication of firing conditions.
in situ composite. A directionally solidified polyphase
system.
in situ fiber. Fibrous microstructure generated by direc-
tional solidification; usually occurs in eutectic compo-
sitions.
in situ vitrification. See ISV.
inspection. The examination of a product or specimen by
visual, mechanical, electrical, or other means to deter-
mine its quality in terms of prescribed standards or
specifications.
inspection, magnetic-particle. See magnetic particle
inspection.
inspection, spark-gap. See spark-gap inspection.
instantaneous recovery. The immediate strain decrease
when a specimen is unloaded.
insulated conductor. A conductor which is coated or
surrounded by a nonconducting material to prevent or
retard the transfer of electric current, heat, sound, or
other phenomenon of concern.
insulating cement. A cement or concrete product in
which a substantial quantity of an insulating material
has been incorporated, or a lightweight concrete of
relatively low density; used as thermal insulation and
fire protection in structures.
insulating concrete. See insulating cement.
insulating firebrick. A high-alumina-content refractory
brick oflow thermal conductivity and low heat capacity
and usually of high and obvious porosity.
insulating material. Any material which will prevent or
retard the transfer of electric current, sound, heat, or
other form of energy.
insulating refractory. See insulating firebrick.
insulation capacity. The property of masonry to store
heat as a result of its mass, specific heat, and density.
insulator. (I) A substance of sufficiently low electrical
conductivity that the flow of current through it can be
ignored. (2) A material of low thermal conductivity.
insweep. The lower part of a glass container which tapers
inwards toward the base.
intaglio. A depressed surface decoration in which the
design is engraved on the ware.
integral heat of adsorption. The sum of the differential
heats of adsorption of an adsorbate from zero to a given
level of adsorption.
 169
integral waterproofer. A material or mixture of materi-
als added to concrete to reduce the capillarity or flow
of water through the concrete.
integrated circuit. A complete circuit manufactured in
a single package. All the components are manufactured
into or onto a semiconductor chip by selective diffusion
of dopants and interconnections are made by metalliza-
tion, both using masking techniques.
intelligent processing. A computer-based approach to
producing advanced ceramics and composites with the
necessary microstructure to fulfill chosen roles.
intensity. A measure of field strength or of the energy
transmitted by radiation. For infrared heating also
called power density; it is the input power in kilowatts
per square meter of superficial frontal area of an infra-
red module.
intensity of magnetization. The ratio of the magnetic
moment to the volume of any piece of material, the
piece being sufficiently small for its magnetization to
be considered uniform.
intensive. Of or relating to a property measurement that
is independent of mass. Compare with extensive.
interaction. The transfer of energy between elementary
particles, between a particle and a field, or between
fields.
interactive. Continuous two-way transfer of information
between a computer and its user.
interatomic. Existing or occurring between or among
atoms.
intercalary decoration. Bits of gold foil, colored glass,
or enamel applied to the surface of a glass object that is
then encased in another layer of hot glass, trapping the
design between the layers.
intercalation. See intercalation compound.
intercalation compound. A reaction which inserts guest
species, either organic or inorganic, into the interlayer
regions of materials with layered crystal structures, is
called intercalation and the product is an intercalation
compound. For example, ornithine in vermiculite, so-
dium in graphite.
intercostals. Short structural members fitted between
basic frameworks to support secondary loads.
interface. The surface forming a common boundary be-
tween two substances in contact with each other, such
as solid-solid, liquid-solid, vapor-solid, etc.
interfacial tension. The force of molecular, atomic or
ionic attraction, across an interface; measured in new-
tons per meter.
interferometer. An optical instrument which will split a
beam of light into two or more beams and then reunite
the beams traveling over different routes to produce
interference effects. The band pattern is a means of
INTERMEDIATE PIECE
determining the expansion, contraction, strain, and
other properties of materials.
intergranular attack. Preferential reaction at grain
boundaries emergent at a surface; used to produce good
micrographic contrast; when this is done by high-tem-
perature heating in the air it is known as thermal etch-
ing.
interior field. E 1; the electric field inside a dielectric
material which is equal to the applied electric field, Eo,
divided by the dielectric coefficient, k.
interior tile, glazed. See glazed interior tile.
interlaminar shear. Force which produces a relative
displacement between two laminae along the plane of
the interface.
interlaminar stresses. A significant stress mode found
in plates if the thickness is greater than 10% of the width
or length of the plate; they are the three stress compo-
nents associated with the thickness dimension.
interlayer. The plastic reinforcing material used in the
production of laminated glasses and plastic-bonded
glass fibers.
interlayer water. Water which enters between the crys-
tallographic layers in some structures and sometimes
results in swelling; such water may be removed by
heating.
interlock. (1) An electrical or mechanical device de-
signed to prevent certain actions unless the necessary
safety conditions are met. (2) A phenomenon observed
in flexible brick pavements resulting from the interac-
tion of the paving units and the sand between them
which makes the pavement act as a composite whole
and not just individual units.
interlocking tile. Roofing tile designed to interlock with
adjacent tiles.
interlock, mechanical. See mechanical interlock.
intermediate crusher. A crushing or milling device
which will reduce materials to intermediate sizes, that
is, around 1 to 5 mm. in cross section, usually before
the materials are subjected to additional grinding or
processing.
intermediate-duty fireclay brick. A fireclay brick hav-
ing a pyrometric cone equivalent not lower than cone
29, or more than 3% deformation at 1350°C.
intermediate frequency. The frequency to which the
signal carrier frequency is changed in a superhetero-
dyne receiver at which most amplification occurs.
intermediate phase. A phase in a system whose compo-
sition does not extend to any of the components of the
system.
intermediate piece. The refractory channel between the
spouts of a glass tank and a pot.
INTERMEDIATES
intermediates. Oxides in glass compositions whose be-
havior falls between network modifier and network
former.
intermittent kiln. Any kiln in which a batch of ware is
placed, fired, cooled, and removed before a subsequent
batch is placed in the kiln.
intermittent moving bed. An adsorbent bed of acti-
vated carbon in which spent carbon periodically is
replaced by virgin carbon, the spent carbon being re-
moved from the bottom of the bed and virgin or reproc-
essed carbon being introduced at the top.
internal energy. U or E; the sum of the potential and
kinetic energies of atoms and molecules. A thermody-
namic property of a system which changes by the work
done on the system in an adiabatic change.
internal friction. Heat generated in a system due to ions
being subjected to a fluctuating stress.
internal grinding. The grinding and polishing of the
surfaces on the inside of holes, cylinders, and tubular
products.
internal seal. A ceramic-to-metal seal in which a ce-
ramic surrounds the metal portion or pin in a cylindrical
or similar unit.
internal stress. The stress existing in a solid body which
is independent of external forces; for example, the
stresses remaining in a glass induced by a particular heat
treatment.
internal vibrator. A vibrating apparatus put into freshly
placed concrete to render the mixture into a quasi-liquid
state to attain maximum consolidation of the concrete
in the forms.
interpretation. A clarification and explanation of the
meaning and significance of data and related observa-
tions, particularly from the standpoint of their relevance
to a situation.
interstice. A space between atoms, or groups of atoms,
in a solid structure; a space in a lattice structure.
interstitial. (I) Related to or occurring in interstices. (2)
An atom or ion that is not occupying a lattice point in a
crystal but is occupying a space defined by the nearest
neighbour atoms, e.g., tetrahedral or octahedral.
interstitial solid solution. A type of alloy formed when
the solute atoms are so much smaller than the solvent
atoms that they can fit into the free spaces in the solvent
crystal structure.
intractable. Difficult to shape or mold.
intratelluric. Formed or occurring below the surface of
the earth.
intrinsic. Inherent; relating to the essential nature of a
thing.
intrinsic point defect. A crystal imperfection created
when an atom position within the crystal is altered.
170
intrinsic semiconductor. Semiconductors with an equal
number of electrons and holes produced thermally by
breaking of interatomic bonds. An almost pure material
to which no dopants have been added. Sometimes called
i-type semiconductor.
intrusion grouting. The technique of placing the grout
components in position in an area and subsequently
converting the mixture to concrete by the addition of
water.
intumescence. The property of a material which causes
it to bloat or swell to a permanent vesicular structure on
heating; a technique to induce sound and thermal insu-
lation, as well as fire resistance.
inundate. To cover completely with water.
invariant equilibrium. A state of a system in which
neither pressure, temperature, nor composition can be
altered without causing a decrease in the number of
phases present.
invariant match. A color match that does not vary with
a change in illumination.
invariant point. The locus of pressure, temperature, and
composition in a system which allows the maximum
number of phases to coexist in equilibrium, as defined
by the phase rule.
inverse spinel. Ceramics with the spinel composition,
AB 20 4, and structure, but which show disorder in the
B cation distribution; up to one-half of the B cations
leave the octahedral sites and share the tetrahedral sites,
while a mixture of A and B cations occupy the octahe-
dral sites. One hundred percent inversion leads to
B(AB)04·
inversion. (l) The change in the crystal structure of a
material, as between two or more forms of polymorphic
crystals, without change in chemical composition, such
as the inversion of quartz by thermal treatment. (2) In
the spinel structure it describes the situation where the
same cation is present on both tetrahedral and octahe-
dral sites.
inversion parameter. A.; the fraction of B cations in
tetrahedral sites in the inverse spinel structure. The
value of A. depends on the temperature. When A. = 114
the formula is (Ao.s),[Ao.5B1.51004.
inversion point. The temperature at which an inversion
will occur as, for example, the change of a to ~-quartz
at 575°C, and vice versa.
inversion, quartz. See quartz inversion.
invert. (1) The bottom, or floor, or the lowest point of the
internal surface of the transverse cross section of a
channel or pipe in which water or other fluid is con-
ducted. (2) To reverse an order, position, or condition,
such as to turn upside down or inside out, or to revert
from one form to another.
investment casting. A technique for the production of
small or relatively small items of high dimensional
precision by casting in a refractory mold which itself
 171
was formed by slip casting a refractory body around a
wax replica of the item of manufacture. After the mold
has set. the wax is melted out. and the body is fired to
produce a mold without joints.
investment compound. A mixture of refractory powder.
binder. and liquid employed in the production of molds
for investment castings.
inviscid. Term meaning low viscosity when applied to
molten salts.
inwall. The refractory lining of the stack of a blast fur-
nace.
inwall brick. Fireclay brick used in the lining of the
inwall section of a blast furnace.
iolite. Another name for cordierite.
ion. An atom. group of atoms. or molecule which carries
a positive or negative charge as a result of having lost
or gained one or more electrons.
ion activity coefficient. 1+1-; the parameter needed to
find the effective concentration of an electrolyte in a
processin~ solution. Defined by Hiickel as 10glOl+I_
=-AlzJZ2IIV:!. where A is a composited physical con-
stant. Z is the ionic charge. and I is the ionic strength.
ion beam sputtering. High-ion-current beams incident
on a target generate a flux of vapor atoms; used to coat
ceramic fibers.
ion core. An atom without its electrons.
ion exchange. A reversible chemical reaction between a
solid and a solution in which ions on the surface of the
solid are replaced by other ions from the solution. Clay
particles in suspension exhibit this property.
ionic bond. A chemical bond. also called electrostatic
bond. where the atoms involved decrease their energy
by electrostatic attraction after electrons are transferred
from some atoms to form cations and anions. These
bonds are generally weaker than covalent bonds.
ionic conduction. Electrical charge movement in an
ionic solid which occurs when a potential is applied
causing the ions to be displaced.
ionic polarization. The displacement of positive and
negative ions in opposite directions in an ionic crystal
in response to an applied electric field.
ionic semiconductor. Ceramic in which ion flow is
mainly responsible for conductivity instead of electron
or hole movement.
ionic strength. I; a defined term enabling the ionic activ-
ity of a solution to be found. Lewis and Randal's defi-
nition is: 1= 1/22,m,z? where m is the molarity and z is
the ionic charge.
ion implantation. A technique used in the electro- and
electronic-ceramics industry to modify the structure
and properties of semiconductors by bombarding their
surface with high-velocity 0+. Si+. and N+ ions in a
IRON ALUMINATE
high-vacuum chamber. The implanted ions cause dam-
age and create a range of localized defects. For example.
implanting Si+ in GaAs produces an n-type semicon-
ductor. Also used to produce thin. hard. wear- and
corrosion-resistant surfaces. Depth of penetration is
typically 0.5 ~m.
ionization potential. The energy needed to remove to
infinity an electron from an orbital it occupies in an
atom; measured in electron volts.
ionizing radiation. Electromagnetic frequencies of
wavelength less than 100 nm.
ion, network-forming. See network-forming ion.
ion, network-modifying. See network-modifying ion.
ion vapor deposition. IVD; evaporated material in an
evacuated chamber is subjected to a dc glow discharge
causing it to ionize and the ions then attach strongly to
surfaces of ceramics to form protective coatings.
IPM. Abbreviation for intelligent processing of materi-
als; see intelligent processing.
ipre brick. An I-shaped paving brick.
iridescence. The interference of light reflected from a
surface to produce a rainbow color effect.
iridium oxide. (l) Ir203·nH20; anhydrous oxide not
known; on heating it decomposes into metal plus Ir0 2;
used as an underglaze black pigment. Also known as
iridium sesquioxide. (2) Ir02; a black pigment with the
rutile structure; stable to red-heat above which it loses
oxygen.
iridium potassium chloride. K2IrC1 6 ; used as a black
pigment in the decoration of porcelains.
iridium sesquioxide. See iridium oxide.
Irish moss. A gelatinous or mucilaginous material some-
times used as a suspending agent for solids in aqueous
slurries. Also known as chondrus. carrageen. kileen.
rock-salt moss. pearl moss. and pig-wrack; a seaweed.
iron. (1) The various iron. steel. and cast iron structures
of products on which porcelain-enamels are employed
as decorative and protective coatings. such as house-
hold appliances. architectural panels. signs. kitchen-
ware. sanitary ware. some glass-to-metal seals.
glass-forming molds. and the like. The sheet metals
usually are of the low-carbon cold-rolled steels. low-
metalloid enameling irons. and the decarburized steels.
The cast products usually are gray iron castings. (2)
Compounds of iron are the most useful and versatile of
all metals as coloring agents in clays. pigments. and
glazes.
iron allophane. See allophane.
iron aluminate. FeAI 20 4 ; mp 1438°C; sp. gr. 4.35; a
spinel with soft magnetic properties used in several
devices.
IRON ARC PROCESS
iron arc process. An extremely high-temperature smelt-
ing process used in the production of zirconia and other
refractory materials.
iron, blowing. See blowing iron.
iron boride. (I) Fe2B; mp 1371 DC. (2) FeB; mp 1538°C;
sp. gr. 7.15. Both have potential use as ceramic mag-
nets.
iron chromate. FeCr204; mp > 1770°C; sp. gr. 5.08;
employed as a black pigment in engobes, and porcelain-
enamels. Also used in electroceramic applications be-
cause it is weakly ferrimagnetic.
iron, enameling. See enameling iron.
ironing. A discoloration due to the crystallization of
cobalt silicate in glazes.
iron modulus. The ratio A1203:Fe203 in a hydraulic ce-
ment.
iron-ore cement. A cement in which iron ore is em-
ployed as a replacement for clay, shale, or alumina; sp.
gr. about 3.31; more resistant to some corrrosive envi-
ronments, particularly seawater, than portland cement.
iron oxide. (I) Fe203; mp 1565°C; sp. gr. 5.12-5.24;
used in the production of ferrites and magnetic ceram-
ics, ferrospinels, ceramic glazes, and body stains. Also
known as jewelers' rouge, a polishing material. (2) FeO;
mp 1420°C; sp. gr. 5.7. An important phase in the
bonding of glass to metal in enamels. (3) Fe304; mp
1587°C; sp. gr. 4.8-5.1; hardness (Mohs) 5.5-6.5; one
of the spinel minerals with useful magnetic and semi-
conducting properties arising from inversion on the
tetrahedral-octahedral sites; used as a black ceramic
pigment and a polishing compound. Also known as
black iron oxide.
iron propoxide. Fe(OC 3H7 )3; an alkoxide salt used in
propanol solution to make gels with barium alkoxides,
from which ferrites, BaFe204, BaFe12019, can be ob-
tained on mixing with water.
iron pyrites. See iron sulfide.
iron red. Any of the family of red pigments made from
the red varieties of iron oxide.
iron saffron. See Indian red.
iron scurf. A mixture of ground stone and iron particles
used as a blue pigment to color brick; obtained by
polishing gun barrels with siliceous abrasives and
grindstones.
iron silicate. Fe2Si04; mp I I 98°C; sp. gr. 4.24; hardness
(Mohs) 5-7; known as fayalite, a discrete ion silicate.
iron spangles. Magnetic iron oxide, Fe203' used in the
production of aventurine-type glazes.
iron, spathic. See spathic iron.
iron spinel. (Fe,Mg)AI 20 4; sp. gr. 4.39; employed as a
refractory.
172
iron spot. A discoloration in refractory brick resulting
from a concentration of iron-bearing impurities.
ironstone china. A generic term for a fine, hard earthen-
ware of high strength and durability.
ironstone clay. (I) Brown; a natural iron oxide or brown
ironstone clay of variable composition but usually re-
ported as FeO(OH)·nH 20. (2) Red; a mineral composed
of ferric oxide and clay or sand.
iron sulfate. FeS04·7H20; see ferrous sulfate.
iron sulfide. FeS; iron pyrites; fool's gold or coal
brasses; mp 1749°C; sp. gr. 4.84; weathers to copperas.
iron tramp. A piece of unwanted iron, such as a nail,
bolt, or iron trimming, which finds its way into a bulk
material or batch.
iron vitriol. FeS04·7H20; see ferrous sulfate.
irradiance. Power per unit area; W m-2. Common term
in laser applications.
irregular edge dislocation. Any line in a plane which
has a Burgers vector for its normal satisfies the require-
ment for an edge dislocation, hence dislocations in such
a plane can be totally irregular.
irreversible adsorption. An adsorption-desorption cy-
cle showing hystersis.
irridizing compound. A strongly adherent film or coat-
ing of a metal oxide or other compound on glass or
vitreous surfaces as a decoration or to impart a desired
surface property such as electrical conductivity, or
scratch resistance. Tin oxide is often used.
irrigation pipe. A conduit of concrete, tile, or other ma-
terial employed in the transport of water for agricultural
irrigation.
ISE. Abbreviation for the indentation size effect.
isinglass. Another name for mica.
IS machine. A glass container making machine on
which the molds do not rotate on tables.
ISM bands. Frequency bands for dielectric heating proc-
esses allocated for industrial, scientific, and medical
use.
isobar. (I) A graphic indication of the quantity of a
substance adsorbed by a material, such as activated
carbon, plotted against temperature at a constant pres-
sure or concentration. (2) Any of two nuclides having
the same mass number, but different atomic numbers.
isochor. A line on a graph showing the variation of the
temperature of a fluid with the pressure, at constant
volume.
isochroous. Having uniform color.
isoelectric. Having the same electric potential.
isoelectronic. Having the same electronic configuration.
 173
isoelectronic point. The pH value at which the zeta po-
tential of a powder in a liquid equals zero.
isolate. To prevent interaction between circuits; insulate.
isomer. A compound of the same composition and mo-
lecular weight as another. but having different physical
or chemical properties.
isometric. (1) Relating to minerals which crystallize in
the cubic system having three equal axes at right angles
and having isotropic properties with respect to these
axes. (2) Having equal dimensions or measurements.
isomorphic. Having identical crystalline structures but
different chemical compositions.
isomorphic coprecipitation. Precipitates in which the
cations form solid solutions; this is usually determined
by ionic size differences and control of the pH. Most
coprecipitates are produced sequentially and so are
mixtures where one solid coats the first to precipitate.
isomorphous mixture. A type of solid solution in which
minerals of analogous chemical composition and
closely related crystal habit crystallize together in vari-
ous proportions.
isophorone. A solvent with moderate power to dissolve
common thermosetting resin matrix materials encoun-
tered in ceramic-polymer composites.
isopleth. A graphical presentation of equilibrium pres-
sure-temperature data in a solid-gas system which pre-
sents lnp versus lIT. where p is the equilibrium
pressure and T is the isothermal temperature.
isostatic pressing. A technique for compacting powders
into shapes of high. uniform density in which a flexible
mold containing the powder is sealed in an impermeable
envelope and subjected to high pressure via a surround-
ing fluid from all sides.
isostere. A graphical presentation of equilibrium con-
centration or pressure against temperature when the
quantity adsorbed per unit of a material, such as acti-
vated carbon, is held constant.
isotherm. (I) A line on a chart representing the relation-
ship or changes in volume or pressure at constant tem-
perature. (2) A plot of the quantity of material adsorbed
per unit of another material, such as activated carbon,
against equilibrium concentration or pressure at con-
stant temperature.
isothermal forging. The use of hot isostatic pressing
methods to shape and join.
isothermal transformation. A phase change occurring
at constant temperature.
IZOD IMPACT TEST
isotherm, Freundlich. See Freundlich isotherm.
isotherm, Langmuir. See Langmuir isotherm.
isotope. Nuclides having the same atomic number but a
different mass number.
isotopic assay. The determination of the percentage. by
weight or by atoms, of isotopic components in source
or special nuclear materials.
isotopic composition. The relative amounts of the vari-
ous isotopes of an element in a sample of material,
expressed as a ratio.
isotron. A machine for separating small quantities of
isotopes by ionizing them and separating the ions in an
electric field.
isotropic dielectric. A dielectric polarized in the direc-
tion parallel to an applied electric field, and a magnitude
which does not depend on the direction of the electric
field.
ISV. Abbreviation for in situ vitrification. A thermal
treatment process that converts contaminated soils into
durable, leach-resistant material, similar to obsidian or
basalt. Electrodes are inserted into the ground and a
layer of frit plus graphite is put between them on the
surface. As a current is passed the frit melts causing soil
to melt and the molten zone spreads deeper until the
power is switched off.
Italian asbestos. See tremolite.
Italian red. One of the several shades offerric oxide red
pigments.
ITE. Abbreviation for integral throat entrance, which is
a ring-shaped ceramic structure used to line the inside
of rocket nozzles where hot gases at around 2800°C
exit.
iteration. A process using successive approximations,
each one improved by the result of the previous value,
to converge on a correct answer.
ITO. Acronym for tin-doped indium oxide, a material
used as a solid electrolyte in electrochromic devices. An
ITO/w0iIrOx·nH20 device becomes blue on applica-
tion of a negative bias as electrons from ITO and H+
ions from IrOx·nH20 transfer to the W0 3 sandwich.
i-type semiconductor. See intrinsic semiconductor.
Izod impact test. A measure of the impact strength of a
material in which the height of a pendulum swing after
striking a specimen, usually notched, is reported as the
energy required to fracture the specimen.
 J
J. Abbreviation for joule.
jack. The model from which working molds are made.
Also known as a case mold.
jack arch. A sprung arch in which the outer and inner
surfaces are constructed along horizontal planes, or in
which the inner surface is constructed with a relatively
large radius.
jack brick. A type of refractory brick employed as the
base on which glass-melting pots are placed, and which
is designed with openings or holes to accommodate the
fork of a fork-lift truck or similar device for easy
transport of the pots from one location to another.
jacket. A reinforced covering providing environmental
and mechanical protection for the insulation, core,
shield, or armor of a cable.
jacket, primary. See primary jacket.
jackhammer. A compressed air-driven, hand-held ham-
mer drill used for drilling ceramics and rocks.
jade. One of either of the minerals jadeite, NaAI(Si03h,
or the double-chain silicate actinolite,
CaFes(Sig022)(OH,F)2. The actinolite form is known as
nephrite jade. All forms are shaded from white to black
but mostly green with a glassy luster. Tough; hardness
6.5-7.0; sp. gr. 3-3.5; both of these high values are a
consequence of its high-pressure formation. Can be
cleaved and carved into jewelery and art objects.
jadeite. See jade.
JOOn-Teller effect. Certain ceramic crystals containing
d-transition metal ions possess a distortion from their
expected symmetry because an electric field of lower
symmetry caused by distorting the oxide anion polyhe-
dra around the cation is able to produce an overall lower
energy state of the transition metal cation; this is the
Jahn-Teller effect.
jamb. The vertical structural member forming the side
wall of the opening or port of a furnace superstructure
carrying the port crown load.
174
jamb brick. A brick modified so that the corner of one
end and side is rounded to provide a radius approxi-
mately equal to the width of the brick; used to construct
curved walls and other curved structures.
jamb wall. (1) The side wall of a furnace or kiln between
the flux block and crown, but not including the ends. (2)
The refractory wall between the pillars of a glass-melt-
ing pot furnace and in front of or surrounding the front
ofapit.
jam-socket machine. A machine designed to shape the
sockets of clay sewer pipes.
Japanese brush. A chinaware decorating brush fash-
ioned so that the bristles come to an extremely fine
point; used for brush stroke decoration.
Japanese porcelain. A porcelain similar to Chinese por-
celain, but fired at a lower temperature to provide a
softer appearance.
jar crusher. See jar mill.
jardiniere glaze. A type of unfritted glaze, either hard or
soft, containing the oxides of lead aluminum, calcium,
potassium, silicon, and zinc; used as a decorative glaze
on products such as flowerpots.
jargon. (1) Language evolved in specialized areas of
study such as ceramic science. (2) Colorless, yellowish,
or smoky varieties of zircon, ZrSi04• produced by heat-
ing the sample.
jar mill. A small rotating closed cylinder of porcelain or
porcelain-lined steel containing pebbles or porcelain
balls. and in which materials are ground or blended; a
laboratory mill.
jarosite. KFe3(S04h<0H)6; a yellow-brownish secon-
dary mineral; hexagonal crystals of basic hydrated sul-
fate of iron and potassium.
jasperware. A vitreous, opaque. colored. unglazed
stoneware developed by Josiah Wedgewood and which
is characterized by relief decoration of white or con-
 175
trasting colors and containing a substantial amount,
approximately 50%, of barite, BaS04'
jawbreaker. See jaw crusher.
jaw crusher. A crushing or fragmenting machine con-
sisting of a moving jaw, hinged at one end, which
swings toward and away from a stationary jaw in a
regular oscillatory cycle; in some designs, both jaws
may be actuated.
jaw face. The surface of a tensile tester jaw that holds the
specimen.
jaws. The parts of a clamp that hold the specimen in a
tensile test.
Jena glass. An early variety of chemically, and some-
times thermally, resistant optical glass having good
resistance to thermal and mechanical shock.
jeroboam. A wine bottle having a capacity of about
four-fifths of a gallon or 3.03 liters.
jet. (I) A strong well-defined stream of gas or fluid
emanating from an orifice or moving in a contracted
duct. (2) A hard black form of lignite that takes a
brilliant polish and is used for jewelery.
jet abrader. A device for providing a very fine jet of
abrasive powder and monitoring the time to break
through a coat to the substrate.
jet dryer. A dryer in which ware is dried by jets of warm
air, steam, or both, injected into the drying chamber.
jet mill. An efficient and effective milling device, pro-
ducing solids of extremely small and frequently control-
led sizes, in which the particles are actuated by
high-pressure air, steam or other medium and are frag-
mented by mutual collisions at high speeds.
jet nozzle. A specially shaped refractory nozzle em-
ployed in the production and exhaust of extremely
high-temperature jet streams.
jet spinning. The use of a directed blast of hot gas to
extend molten a drop into a fine fiber.
jetting. A thin stream of material emerging from an
injection molder gate that does not spread out to fill the
mold. Usually caused by a too small gate diameter.
jetware. A pottery-type ware fabricated from a red-clay
body and coated with a black, manganese-bearing
glaze.
jewel. (I) In the ceramic context, a synthetic alumina-
bearing gem, such as a ruby or sapphire, which is used
as a bearing material in watches and delicate instru-
ments. (2) In general a precious or semi-precious stone.
jeweler's rouge. A finely powdered form of ferric oxide,
Fe203' used to polish metal.
jeweleryenamel. A specially formulated porcelain-
enamel, frequently melting at temperatures lower than
those of conventional porcelain-enamels, employed on
JOGS
gold, silver, iron, etc., in the manufacture of jewelery,
art objects, insignia, and similar products.
jig. A device employed to hold and position work during
manufacture or assembly.
jigger, jiggering. A mechanically operated device simi-
lar to a potter's wheel on which ceramic ware is formed
from a plastic body by the differential rotation of a
profile tool and mold, the mold having the contour of
one surface, and the profile tool having the contour of
the other surface of the ware.
jiggerman. (I) The operator of a jigger. (2) The work-
man who returns the glass residue from a ladle to the
charging end of a glass-melting furnace.
jigging. A process for the separation and beneficiation of
concrete aggregates and other particulate materials on
the principle of hindered settlement, and in which the
aggregate is passed over a perforated plate in a tank of
water and subjected to vertical pulsations by air jets or
by vibrating diaphragms; lightweight materials are
floated off and discarded.
jig, hand. See hand jig.
jigsaw. A mechanical saw with a very fine steel blade for
cutting intricate shapes in sheets of material.
J-integral. Mathematical device to analyze the local
stress-strain field around a crack; e.g., for a 2-D crack
with a front parallel to the z-axis in the x-z plane the
f
integral is J = (Wdy- nOJ1l8xl ds), where W is the
strain energy de~sity, y is the path required to enclose
the crack tip, ds is an increment of contour path, T is the
outward force vector on ds, and ~ is the displacement
vector at ds.
JJ. Abbreviation for Josephson junction.
JM process. A manufacturing route to rock wools; a thin
stream of silicate melt falls onto a train of rotating
spinning wheels.
job-cured specimen. A specimen of concrete cured at
the site of use and under the presumed same conditions
to which the commercial concrete installation is, or will
be, exposed; such specimens may be tested or retained
for future reference.
job shop. A factory which produces parts or ware for use
or for sale by another organization, frequently under the
purchasing organization's trade name.
jockey pot. A glass-melting pot of such size and shape
that it may be supported in a furnace by two other pots.
joggle. A plaster or brass insert serving as a key to ensure
the correct alignment and adjustment of two halves of
a plaster mold. Also known as a natch.
jogs. (1) The junctions between portions of a dislocation
lying in parallel slip planes; for a jog to move, material
must be transferred by the creation or destruction of
vacancies and so movement is diffusion controlled. (2)
Points of electrical charge on an edge dislocation equal
to ± elz where extra atoms add to the bottom of the
JOINT
incomplete plane that forms the edge dislocation. Com-
pensation occurs by formation of vacancies in the crys-
tal lattice.
joint. (I) The point, position, or surface at which two or
more things, such as mechanical or structural compo-
nents, are joined. (2) The interstice between masonry
units. (3) A connection between two pipe sections,
made either with or without the use of additional parts.
joint assembly. An assembly of dowels and supporting
framework for holding the dowels in place during the
placing of concrete, particularly in the construction of
pavements.
joint, cold. See cold joint.
joint, construction. See construction joint.
joint, contraction. See contraction joint.
joint, control. See either expansion or contraction joint.
joint, dipped. See dipped joint.
joint, dummy. See dummy joint.
joint, expansion. See expansion joint.
joint filler. Premolded strips of a bituminous material or
asphalt cement containing a filler, self-expanding cork,
fibrous material, sawdust, felt, or similar material satu-
rated with a bituminous substance, which are manufac-
tured in suitable dimensions and inserted in concrete or
other joints to permit movement of the joint without
damage to the structure.
joint, hinge. See hinge joint.
jointing. (I) The filling or caulking of masonry joints.
(2) The process of striking, slicking, or raking the joints
between masonry units to provide a desired surface
appearance and to improve the tightness and strength of
the joint.
jointing yard. An area situated between the grinding and
polishing operations in the continuous manufacture of
plate glass in which plaster joints holding the glass are
remade. Also known as a laying yard.
joint, lap. See lap joint.
joint line. The seam, mold mark, or line reproduced on
glass and cast ceramic ware by the joint between two
mold parts.
joint, warping. See warping joint.
joint, weakened-plane. See weakened-plane joint.
joist. A beam made of timber, steel or concrete used in
floor and roof constructions.
176
jolly, jollying. The process of forming or shaping ce-
ramic hollowware by means of a machine in which a
rotating plaster mold has the contour of the bottom
surface and a profile tool, lowered on the body from an
otherwise stationary position, forms the other surface of
the body.
jolt molding. A process for the shaping of refractory
forms in which the plastic body is subjected to mechani-
calor manual jolting or jerky movements; a mold plate
actuated under pressure sometimes may be employed to
shape the top of the body.
jorum. A large drinking bowl.
Josephson junction. A device made from two supercon-
ductors separated by a very thin insulating barrier. A
simple Josephson junction is a switch, which can be
switched from the superconducting to the resistive state
either by the application of a voltage or by exceeding
the critical junction current. Switching speed is ex-
tremely fast, 10-12 s. Control is a simple wire generating
a magnetic field near the junction and the field will
activate the resistive state.
Josephson effect. An effect arising from the presence of
a sufficiently thin layer of insulating material in a
superconductor; a superconducting current can flow
across the junction in the absence of an applied voltage.
This is the direct-current Josephson effect.
joule. J; the SI unit of energy or work; it is the work done
when the point of application of a force of 1 newton is
displaced through a distance of 1 m in the direction of
the force. One joule is equivalent to 4.187 calories, 107
ergs, or 1 watt-second.
J-phase. Y4Si207N2; one of the oxynitrides occurring
when silicon powder is heated in N2 in the presence of
Y203·
jug. An earthenware, glass, or metal container for liq-
uids, usually having a short neck and small mouth,
stopper, and handle.
jumbo brick, jumbo block. A generic term indicating
a brick or building block larger than standard in size;
sometimes produced to specifications. See standard
brick for normal sizes.
jumper, jumping. A defect occurring in porcelain-
enamel ground coats characterized by the spontaneous
popping of relatively small circular-shaped flakes of
ground coat from the ware. The defect usually appears
in random areas, and may appear in the ground coat or
the first cover-coat of porcelain-enamel on sheet steel,
particularly on a radius or edge.
Jun ware. Bright-red or ruby-red ware colored by cop-
per red glaze; first made during the Sung dynasty.
Extremely difficult to fire to a uniform color.
 K
k. Symbol for kilo meaning one thousand.
K. Symbol for (I) Kelvin; a temperature scale. (2) In
computing, 1024 words, bytes, or bits.
Kagome nets. A way of describing crystal structures in
terms of layers of atoms present in the structure. An
example of the notation is: J.(B6C2)3, which indicates
that there are infinite 2-D layers of boron and carbon
atoms forming 8-membered rings in three orientations
related by a threefold rotation axis.
kainite. KCI·MgS04·3H20; a white mineral containing
magnesium sulfate and potassium chloride; used as a
source of potassium salts and as a fertilizer.
kaki. A reddish-brown, opaque stoneware glaze resem-
bling the color of persimmon; produced when a layer of
iron oxide crystals spreads over the surface of the glaze.
kalsilite. Nepheline mineral which contains no sodium
ions and so the formula is simplified to K[(AI,Si)02h-
kalsomine. A white or pale-tinted wash for brick walls.
kame. A ridge of sand and gravel deposited by water.
kanthal. A commercial name for sintered rods of MoSi 2;
used as furnace heating elements. When first heated in
the air a protective glassy layer is formed and the
elements can then be used up to 1900°C giving furnace
temperatures up to 1750°C.
kaolin. A group of refractory white or nearly white-burn-
ing clays having the approximate composition
AI 2Si20 5(OH)4 plus small amounts of alkalies and iron;
sp. gr. 1.28-2.6; pyrometric cone equivalent 34-35;
employed in ceramic bodies to impart high strength,
plasticity, and workability during forming; used exten-
sively as a body and glaze ingredient in a wide variety
of products, including cements. Also called china clay,
china stone.
kaolin, calcined. See calcined kaolin.
kaolin, Florida. See Florida kaolin.
177
kaolinite. Hydrated aluminum disilicate, AI 2Si 20 5(OH)4;
the most common constituent of kaolin and a constitu-
ent in most clays.
kaolinization. Conversion of aluminosilicate rocks into
kaolin by weathering.
kaowool. Discontinuous fiber formed from AI20 3 and
Si02; available commercially as aluminosilicate insu-
lating and strengthening fiber; sp. gr. 2.56; Young's
modulus 84 GN m-2.
karat. Alternative spelling of carat.
Kavalier glass. A high-potash-content, chemical-resis-
tant glass.
KDP. Abbreviation for potassium dihydrogen phos-
phate, KH2P04, large crystals of which can be grown
that possess double refraction behavior.
keatite. A rare form of silicon dioxide formed at high
pressure; it has an almost zero thermal expansivity.
Keene's cement. Anhydrous, calcined gypsum; a hard,
white, finish plaster containing additions of materials,
such as potassium sulfate or potash alum, to accelerate
the set.
Kelley consistency test (concrete). A test in which a
metal ball of prescribed dimensions and weight is
placed on the surface of freshly prepared concrete and
the depth of penetration is taken as a measure of the
consistency of the mix.
Kelvin. The absolute, or thermodynamic, temperature
scale in which the degree intervals are the same as those
of the centigrade (Celsius) scale, and 0 K is the equiva-
lent of -273. 16°C, or absolute zero.
kenyaite. Na2Si2004o(OH)2·9H20; a synthetic hydrated
sodium silicate with a layered structure and zeolite-like
properties.
keratin. A protein extract from hair and horny sub-
stances; used as an addition to retard the set of plaster.
KERF
kerf. A slit or notch made in a body by a saw or cutting
torch.
Kerr cell. The basis of the electro-optic shutter. Two
parallel electrically charged plates in a glass cell con-
taining a liquid are sandwiched between crossed polar-
izer and analyzer. No light will pass when the electric
field is off but when the field is on the liquid phase
becomes doubly refracting and light passes. If the cell
is at 45° to the polarizer the wave has parallel and
perpendicular vibrations with respect to the electric
field and since these travel at different speeds a phase
difference develops which leads to elliptically polarized
light.
Kerr component. See Kerr magneto-optic effect.
Kerr constant. j; this defines the magnitude of the
change of phase of two vibrations produced in a Kerr
cell by the electrooptic effect: j = &PIlE2A, where 6. is
the optical path difference for the two components, dis
the plate separation, I is the plate length, E is the
potential difference across the plates, and A is the wave-
length in the medium. E is measured in esu, where I esu
= 300 volts, and d and I are in centimeters.
Kerr electro-optic effect. The double refraction of light
in glass and other substances produced by an electric
field. Caused by anisotropic molecules being aligned by
the field.
Kerr magneto-optic effect. The phenomenon of plane-
polarized light, reflected at normal incidence from a
polished face of an electromagnet, becoming ellipti-
cally polarized. The magnetic field produces a vibration
component called the Kerr component, perpendicular to
the incident light vibration.
Kessler abrasion tester. A device designed to evaluate
the resistance of surfaces to abrasion in which corun-
dum of specified size is fed at a specified rate between
the surface of an inclined specimen and a notched
revolving steel wheel suspended so as to provide a
constant, specified weight on the specimen.
Ketteler-Helmholtz equation. A formula used to calcu-
late the optical dispersion of glass: n2 =
n.2 + LMm(A2._ A2m> - I, where n is the refractive in-
dex for a wavelength A, n. is the index for an infinitely
long wavelength, and LAm are the wavelengths of the
absorption bands for each of which there is an empirical
constant, Mm.
kettle. (1) A container for molten glass. (2) A metallic
container in which gypsum is converted to plaster of
paris.
key. (1) An elevation or depression formed in a concrete
joint surface to provide shear strength across the joint.
(2) A device designed to lock mechanical or structural
parts together.
key brick. A wedge-shaped brick placed at the crown of
an arch to close and tighten the arch.
kevlar. A generic name for aromatic polyamide fibers
now used in reinforcing ceramics and metals; they have
178
strengths about 25% greater than glass fiber, E values
twice as great, and have approximately one-third the
density of glass fiber.
K-factor. A relative measure of thermal insulation.
K feldspar. A potassium-bearing feldspar, KAlSi 30 S'
KHN. Abbreviation for Knoop hardness number.
kibble. To grind or divide materials into relatively large
particles or pellets.
kibbler rolls. Toothed rolls used in roll-crushing ma-
chines to reduce clays and other minerals to sizes and
shapes more amenable to further grinding and use.
kIc' Symbol for fracture toughness parameter; units are
MNm-312.
Kick's law. The energy required to crush a solid sub-
stance to a specified fraction of its original size is the
same regardless of the original size of the feed material.
kick wheel. A potter's wheel operated by a foot pedal.
kidney. A kidney-shaped instrument made of rubber,
plastic, polished wood, or leather used to smooth the
surface of pressed, unfired ceramic bodies.
kidney ore. Kidney-shaped masses of the ore hematite,
Fe203' occurring in red-brownish deposits.
kieselguhr. Diatomaceous earth; a finely powdered sedi-
mentary siliceous material composed essentially of the
skeletal walls of diatoms; employed as filtration me-
dium, abrasive, aggregate for lightweight concrete, and
as a component in brick.
kieserite. MgS04 ·Hp; a white mineral deposit of mag-
nesium sulfate.
kiln. A structure in which a material or product is fired,
calcined, sintered, or otherwise subjected to elevated
temperatures.
kiln, ACL. See ACL kiln.
kiln, annular. See annular kiln.
kiln, archless. See archless kiln.
kiln, bank. See bank kiln.
kiln, Belgian. See Belgian kiln.
kiln block, rotary. See rotary kiln block.
kiln, bottle. See bottle kiln.
kiln, Bull's. See Bull's kiln.
kiln car. A movable truck with one or more platforms on
which ware is placed for transport through a kiln.
kiln, cement. See cement kiln.
,
kiln, chamber. See chamber kiln.
kiln, clamp. See clamp kiln.
 179
kiln, continuous. See continuous furnace.
kiln, continuous-chamber. See continuous-chamber
kiln.
kiln cycle. The time and temperature condition em-
ployed in a firing operation.
kiln, direct-fired. See direct-fired furnace.
kiln, down-draft. See down-draft kiln.
kiln, dry. See dry kiln.
kiln, elevator. See elevator kiln.
kiln, envelope. See envelope kiln.
kiln furniture. Small refractory shapes, such as stilts,
pins, spurs, cranks, saddles, etc., and slabs, posts, and
setters of various sizes and shapes upon which ware is
placed for firing.
kiln, groundhog. See groundhog kiln.
kiln, HotTman. See Hoffman kiln.
kiln, intermittent. See intermittent kiln.
kiln, lime. See lime kiln.
kiln, longitudinal-arch. See longitudinal-arch kiln.
kiln marks. Deformation of a brick caused by slumping
under load during firing.
kiln, mume. See muffle kiln.
kiln multipassage. See multipassage kiln.
kiln, periodic. See periodic furnace.
kiln, pusher. See pusher kiln.
kiln, roller-hearth. See roller-hearth kiln.
kiln, rotary. See rotary kiln.
kiln, round. See round kiln.
kiln run. Brick, tile, or other product from a kiln which
has not been sorted or graded for size, uniformity, color
variation, or other property.
kiln, sandwich. See sandwich kiln.
kiln, scove. See scove kiln.
kiln scum. Discoloration of the surface of a body, such
as brick or roofing tile, caused by the diffusion of
soluble salts from the interior to the surface or by the
reaction of kiln gases with surface constituents during
drying and firing.
kiln, shaft. See shaft kiln.
kiln, shuttle. See shuttle kiln.
kiln, sliding-bat. See sliding-bat kiln.
kiln, slip. See slip kiln.
KISS
kiln, smother. See smother kiln.
kiln, top-fired. See top-fired kiln.
kiln, top-hat. See top-hat kiln.
kiln, transverse arch. See transverse arch kiln.
kiln, truck chamber. See truck chamber kiln.
kiln, tunnel. See tunnel kiln.
kiln, tunnel updraft. See tunnel updraft kiln.
kiln wash. A coating, usually consisting of refractory
clay and silica, applied to the surfaces of kilns and kiln
furniture to protect them from volatile glazes or glaze
drops from ware being fired.
kiln white. A white scum which forms on the surfaces of
brick and roofing tile during firing as a result of dryer
scum or kiln atmosphere.
kiln, zigzag. See zigzag kiln.
kilo. k; denoting 103.
kilowatt. A unit of power equal to a thousand watts.
kimberlite. A type of peridotite which often contains
diamonds; found in South Africa.
kindling point. The lowest temperature at which a ma-
terial will ignite and continue to bum.
kinematic. Abstract motion without reference to mass or
force.
kinematic viscosity. A measure ofthe resistance to flow
of a fluid, equal to its absolute viscosity divided by its
density at the temperature of measurement.
kinetic energy. The energy possessed by a body as a
result of its motion equal to one-half of its mass times
the square of its velocity.
king closer. A brick cut diagonally, having one 5-cm end
and one full-width end.
King's blue. A blue ceramic colorant composed essen-
tially of cobalt and aluminum oxides.
kink. (1) A type of waviness occurring from the interior
surface to the edge of the surface of a coating. (2)
Connections between the sections of crystal disloca-
tions in adjoining low-energy directions known as
Peierls valleys. (3) In a fabric it is the short length of
yam that has doubled back on itself to form a loop.
kip. Abbreviation for a unit of force used in concrete
mechanical tests equal to 1000 lb. One kip equals 4448
N.
kish. Graphite formed on the surface of molten, carbon-
rich iron.
kiss. Accidental contact between two glazed ceramics in
a kiln during firing, resulting in glaze damage at the
points of contact.
KITE MARK
kite mark. In Britain, the official mark of quality and
reliability in the form of a kite emblem on articles.
klebe hammer. An instrument for preparing stand-
ardized compacts of mortars and cements for use in
mechanical strength determinations in which a standard
weight is dropped on the material to be tested from a
specified height to produce uniform compaction to a
specified density.
Klein turbidimeter. An apparatus for determining the
specific surface area of portland cement in which the
turbidity of a sample suspended in castor oil is measured
photoelectrically and the results are compared with a
calibrated curve.
klystron. An electron tube for generating and/or ampli-
fying microwave energy by velocity modulation.
km. Abbreviation for kilometer.
kneading. The manual or treading process of mixing and
working plastic clay and similar materials and masses
to a homogeneous texture.
knit line. The area where two flow fronts meet in a mold.
It is often a forming defect because the two flows do not
rejoin properly.
knives. (1) Sharp metal blades or specially shaped knives
used to advance and blend clay and water in a pug mill.
(2) Sliding blades or bars, positioned a specified height
above and parallel to the surfaces to be coated, used to
spread coatings of uniform thickness on the items.
knocking. The accidental chipping of glaze from a body
before firing.
knockout. A piece of pressed glass or other material
designed so that it may be knocked out of an item to
form a hole, usually of a specified dimension.
knockup. The oversize residue remaining on a screen
after a ceramic slip has been screened.
Knoop hardness. One of the several hardness scales
based on the depth of the indentation made in the
polished surface of a material by the diamond point of
a Knoop indenter. The hardness in N m-2 is the load
divided by the projected area of the indentation.
Knoop indenter. A hardness-testing instrument con-
taining a diamond with a rhombic base, so that the
diagonals have a 1:7 size ratio, and included angles at
the diamond edge of 130° and 172°30'. This geometry
produces shallow indentations and is useful in revealing
hardness anisotropy.
knop. An ornamental knob included in some glass and
porcelain designs for drinking vessels.
knot. An imperfection in glass resulting from an inhomo-
geneity in the form of a vitreous lump of a composition
different from that of the surrounding glass.
know-how. Experience, often of a technical kind.
180
knuckling. To throw on a potter's wheel, using the
knuckles of the hand on the outer surface of the body
being shaped.
Knudsen flow. A mechanism which controls gas flow
through porous membranes when the pores are in the
size range I to 5 nm. Permiability is independent of
pressure gradient in this process. Separation is related
to the inverse square root of the gas molecular weight,
hence, separation of close mixtures such as nitrogen and
oxygen is not efficient.
knurl. A small ridge. Several together provide a rough-
ened surface for gripping.
kohl. Powdered antimony sulfide.
konimeter. An air sampling device for measuring dust in
the atmosphere of cement plants and other industrial
areas in which a measured volume of air is drawn
through a jet and collected on a glycerin jelly-coated
glass, and the particles are counted with the aid of a
microscope.
Kordofan gum. See gum arabic.
kotoite. A mineral form of magnesium orthoborate,
Mg3(B03)2; it has a structure closely related to for-
sterite.
kovar. An iron-nickel-cobalt alloy used in glass-to- met-
al seals.
Kozeny-Carmen equation. An equation developed to
model the flow of fluids through powder beds contain-
ing capillary pores:/= K(AV3//Jl;2)(APIL), wherefis the
rate of fluid flow, 11 is the fluid viscosity, L is the depth
of the packed powder bed, A is the area of the bed, AP
is the pressure difference, S is the specific surface area
of the particles, V is the unit of voids per unit mass of
the bed particles and K is a particle shape constant.
K-phase. YSi02N; yttrium silicon oxynitride; a grain
boundary phase occurring in the Si3N4- Y20rAI203
system when the three components are heated together.
K-polaroid. A polaroid film made by treating a
stretched, oriented film of polyvinyl alcohol with hy-
drogen chloride to make it strongly dichroic.
Kramers-Kronig relation. A relation between the real
and imaginary parts of the index of refraction of a
substance, based on the causality principle and
Cauchy's theorem.
Kreiiger's ratio. A measure of the frost resistance of
building bricks based on the ratio of the 4-day cold
water absorption of the brick to its calculated total water
absorption.
Kroger and Vink notation. A description of crystal
structure defects using a series of symbols involving dot
and dash superscripts, and letter subscripts; for exam-
ple, OJ = interstitial oxygen atom, V~ = singly negatively
charged vacancy, ?(= doubly charged interstitial atom,
i.e., a cation.
 181
Kronig-Penny model. An idealized l-D model of a
crystal in which the potential energy of an electron is
an infinite sequence of periodically spaced square
wells.
Kiihl cement. A portland type of cement in which 7%
Kruetzer roof. A furnace roof characterized by an ar-
rangement of transverse and longitudinal ribs which
gi ves the appearance of boxlike compartments.
kX unit. The kilo X unit is a relative scale of distance
Krupp ball mill. A grinding device consisting of chilled
iron or steel balls grinding against each other in a die
ring of perforated spiral plates, each overlapping the
next; the ground material is discharged through a cylin-
drical screen.
kyanite. AI 20Si0 4 ; a member of the subsaturate group
kryptol furnace. A furnace in which heat is generated
by passing an electric current through a rammed refrac-
tory consisting of a mixture of graphite, silicon carbide,
and clay, of high electrical resistance.
ksi. Abbreviation for 1000 Ib per square inch, a com-
monly encountered unit of stress, particularly in con-
crete testing. 1 ksi = 6.895 MN m-2 .
KTP. Abbreviation for the ceramic phosphate,
KTiOP0 4 , which has a network crystal structure con-
sisting of chains of Ti0 6 octahedra and P04 tetrahedra
parallel to both [100] and [010] directions. Developed
for nonlinear optical and electro-optical applications
because of its good thermal and mechanical stability,
KYANITE
large transparency range, resistance to high-power laser
damage, thermally stable phase-matching properties,
and ease of preparation of large single-domain crystals.
each of alumina and ferric oxide replace part of the
silica.
based on the (200) plane spacing of calcite. One kX unit
is equal to the (200) plane spacing of calcite divided by
3.02945. It is related to the more common angstrom unit
by: 1 kX = 1.00202 A.
with a structure containing oxygen ions independent of
those contained in the discrete (Si04)4- tetrahedra. A
naturally occurring silicate of aluminum; sp. gr. 3.56-
3.66; hardness (Mohs) 5 along the long axis of the
crystal and 7 perpendicular to this direction; has the
same composition as sillimanite and andalusite, but
differs in crystal structure and physical properties; de-
composes to mullite and cristobalite at about 1300°C
with a decrease in specific gravity to about 3.0 and a
volume expansion of about 10%. Because of its me-
chanical strength and refractoriness, it is employed in
sanitary porcelains, refractories, precision-casting
molds, brake disks, wall tiles, electrical porcelains,
filters, and similar products.
 L
labradorite. A composition range in the plagioclase
feldspar solid solution series, (Na,Ca)(AI,Si)40g. The
end members of the series are albite, NaAISi30 g, and
anorthite, CaA1 2Si 20 g, with labradorite representing
about midrange in the series; heavily twinned so that
the crystals look like a series of layers and as a result
interference of reflected light causes chatoyancy; some
samples are prized for this property.
lacing. A course of upright brick forming a bond between
two or more arch rings.
lacquer. A glossy and quick-drying surface coating com-
posed of natural or synthetic cellulose esters or ethers
which dry by solvent evaporation.
ladder, rock. See rock ladder.
ladle. A deep-bowled, long-handled, spoonlike tool used
to dip up, transport, and pour molten liquids, such as
glass or metal; also used to fill open pots with materials
to be melted.
ladle brick. A refractory brick of appropriate shape, uni-
form size, low porosity, and relatively permanent ex-
pansion for use in ladles for the containment of molten
metal.
ladle, teapot. See teapot ladle.
Lafarge cement. A nonstaining white or near-white ce-
ment containing lime, plaster of paris, and marble pow-
der; used as a mortar and grout in the setting of marble,
granite, and limestone. Also called grappier cement.
lagging. Materials, such as asbestos and kieselguhr, used
to insulate kilns.
laitance. A weak, light-gray material, consisting essen-
tially of cement, water, and clay or silt, formed on the
surface of concrete during and immediately after con-
solidation, particularly when an excess of water is
mixed with the cement; a form of bleeding.
lake sand. A sand from near lakes.
lambda parameter. See inversion parameter.
182
lambert. The unit of brightness; see brightness.
Lambert's law. The ratio of the intensity of emergent
light to incident light is an exponential function of
thickness of the ware and a constant, depending on the
nature of the ware.
lamellar clay. Clay exhibiting microscopic disklike for-
mations; a characteristic of plastic clays.
lamellar habit. Description of crystals with one appre-
ciably shorter direction than the other two. There are
various types depending on dimensions, e.g., tabular
crystals are thick.
laminar. Arranged in, or consisting of, thin plates or
scales.
laminate. The product or process in which thin plates or
sheets, such as glass or other material, are bonded
together to form a panel of greater thickness for a
particular use, for example, safety glass, laminated elec-
trical contacts, laminated transformer cores, etc.
laminated glass. (I) A transparent safety glass in which
two or more glass sheets are bonded together with
intervening layers of plastic materials so that, when
broken, the glass will tend to adhere to the plastic rather
than fly. (2) A diffusing glass formed by sandwiching a
plastic-bonded glass fiber between sheets of ordinary
glass. See safety glass.
laminate, orthotropic. See orthotropic laminate.
laminations. Planes or contours of weakness which may
develop in a structural shape during forming.
laminato. A texture effect obtained on wall and floor
tiles by using dry glaze flakes as the frit. Roller-
quenched frits must be used.
LAMMS. Acronym for laser microprobe mass spec-
trometry, which is a technique for surface analysis of
ceramics and other solids. A laser is used to excite very
small areas on a surface and to generate ions. The ions
are separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio in
a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. All the ions from a
 183
pulsed single event are collected which makes the tech-
nique both sensitive and specific.
Lamotte comparator. An instrument employed to de-
termine the relative acidity or alkalinity of pickling
solutions used in preparing sheet metals for porcelain-
enameling by comparing the pH of the solutions with
appropriate standard solutions.
lampblack. A black pigment of almost pure carbon made
by burning carbonaceous materials with insufficient air;
used in cements, ceramic ware, mortar, and thermal
insulating compositions.
lampworking. Forming of glass articles from glass tub-
ing or cane by manipulation in a gas flame; used mostly
for creating small pieces such as vases, sailing ships,
glass eyes, radio and television parts, laboratory equip-
ment, etc.
Lancaster mixer. A countercurrent, pan-type mixer
which may be designed with various combinations of
muliers, plows, doctor blades, and scrapers.
Langevin function. A probability factor, L(a), used to
obtain the magnitude of orientational polarization in a
permanently polarized material in an applied electric
field.
Langmuir adsorption tbeory. The surface of an ad-
sorbent has only uniform energy sites, and adsorption
is limited to a monomolecular layer.
Langmuir isotherm. A plot of isothermal adsorption ex-
pressed as/= ap/(I + ap) in which/is the fraction of
surface covered, p is the pressure, and a is a constant;
used in gaseous systems.
lanthanum aluminate. LaAI0 3; sp. gr. 6.5; mp 2100°C;
a perovskite with a distorted cubic structure; used as a
substrate for thin film 1-2-3 superconductors because
the pseudocubic a-axis parameter of 0.755 nm nearly
matches the a-axis of superconductors.
lantbanum aluminum substrate. A perovskite, LaAI03,
which is a suitable substrate for laser deposition of thin
films of superconducting YBa2Cu307_x to form micro-
wave devices.
lanthanum boride. (1) LaB 4; sp. gr. 5.44. (2) LaB 6; mp
2149°C; sp. gr. 4.72; hardness (Vickers) 27.18
GN m-2; a semiconductor with a low work function and
as a result it is used in TV tubes; when illuminated by
light from aNd: YAG laser it emits an extremely bright
beam of electrons.
lanthanum chromate. (I) LaCr0 3; a perovskite-type
oxide capable of acting as an oxygen-sensing electrode
in a circuit containing LaF3; ferromagnetic with a Curie
temperature of 300 K.
lanthanum ferrite. LazFez06; a double perovskite with
ferromagnetic properties; mp 1871°C.
lanthanum gallate. LaGa03; mp l717°C; orthorhombic
perovskite substrate material used for high-temperature
semiconductor film deposition from which microwave
circuits are constructed.
LAP,TOP
lanthanum magnesium aluminate. LaMgA1 11 0 19 ; mp
1900°C; single crystals doped with neodymium are
used in lasers.
lanthanum manganite. LIIo.sSro.2Mn03; an electrically
conducting coating applied to metal electrodes as a thin
layer to protect them from oxidation.
lanthanum molybdate. Laz(Mo04); mp 1181 DC; sp. gr.
4.77; an electro-optic material when poled.
lanthanum nitrate. La(N03}z·6HzO; mp 40°C; b. p.
126°C; used in the production of gas mantles.
lantbanum oxide. La203; mp 2000°C; sp. gr. 6.5; used
in optical glass and incandescent gas mantles and to
give high refractive index to optical fibers.
lanthanum silicate. (1) La20Si04; a subsaturate; mp
1929°C; sp. gr. 5.72; hardness (Mohs) 5-7. (2)
La4(Si04)3; discrete ionic silicate; mp 1749°C; sp. gr.
4.85.
lanthanum titanate. (I) LaTi0 3; a perovskite semicon-
ducting phase. (2) LazTi 30 9 ; possesses semiconducting
properties.
lantbanum trifluoride. LaP3; used with neodymium ox-
ide in laser systems.
lanxide. A ceramic-metal composite formed by infiltrat-
ing aluminum metal into a porous Al 20 3 body.
lap. (1) An imperfection in glass consisting of a fold in
the surface of an article caused by improper flow during
forming. (2) A rotating abrasive wheel or disk used for
polishing glass, metal, stone, and other surfaces. (3) An
overlay of an item over the edge of another.
lap cement. A cementitious material used to seal the side
and end laps of corrugated roofing.
lap, head. See head lap.
lapidary. A person engaged in the art of polishing the
surfaces of solid substances, such as gems or ceramics
and metals for observation and visual examinations.
lapis lazuli. See lazurite.
lap joint. A simple joint between two items or sheets at
the point where one sheet overlaps the edge of the other,
as in roofing tile.
Laplace capillary forces. Liquids in a capillary, such as
those formed by interconnected porosity in a ceramic,
have a meniscus which generates a force equal to 2y/r,
where y is the surface tension of the liquid and r is the
radius of curvature of the meniscus.
lapping. The finish-grinding or polishing operation on
the surface of a solid by the use of abrasive grains
usually contained in a liquid carrier or medium.
lap, side. See side lap.
lap, top. See top lap.
LARGE-ANGLE GRAIN BOUNDARY
large-angle grain boundary. A boundary between ad-
jacent grains.
large calorie. A unit of heat equivalent to 1000 calories.
large-core multimode fibers. Fiber-optic communica-
tion system with fibers in which the core diameter is
200 Ilm or greater and whose numerical aperture is
greater than 0.37. They usually have a silica core coated
with a hard polymer optical cladding.
large 9-inch (22.9 em) brick. A rectangular brick hav-
ing a width 50% greater than a standard 22.9-cm brick;
that is, a width of approximately 17.2 cm.
larnite. I3-Ca2Si04; stable from 520 to 670°C; a metas-
table, monoclinic phase of calcium orthosilicate.
laser. A device that amplifies light to produce an intense
monochromatic beam by the stimulation of atoms in the
beam. The most striking feature of a laser is that it
produces a very intense, coherent beam of electromag-
netic radiation at a precisely defined frequency. By
definition it is a device that amplifies light by means of
a stimulated emission of radiation.
laser ablation. The process of vaporizing a solid with a
pulsed laser.
laser beam cutting. LBC; the use of a highly focused
high-energy laser beam to drill and cut ceramics and
other materials; works by melting and vaporizing ma-
terial.
laser beam machining. LBM; see laser beam cutting.
laser glass. A fluorescent glass which can amplify elec-
tromagnetic radiation by the stimulated emission of
radiation.
laser isotope enrichment. An emerging technology for
separating 235U from 238U which involves irradiating a
vapor containing these isotopes with laser radiation
tuned to excite the energy s£ectrum of 235U so that it
becomes ionized while 23 U does not. The ions are
collected on charged plates.
laser materials. Doped single crystals, ruby, etc., used
in lasers for drilling, machining, surgery, and many
similar applications. See laser.
laser microprobe mass spectrometry. See LAMMS.
laser semiconductor. A diode laser in which stimulated
emission of coherent light occurs at the p-n junction
when electrons are driven into the junction by carrier
injection, electron-beam excitation, impact ionization,
optical excitation, and other such means.
laser, sun-pumped. See sun-pumped laser.
latent heat. The amount of heat absorbed or evol ved per
unit of mass of a substance during a change of state at
constant temperature; for example, the change of a solid
to a liquid or a liquid to a gas or vapor, and vice versa.
latent heat of fusion. The increase in enthalpy accom-
panying the conversion of a unit mass of a solid to a
184
liquid at its melting point at constant pressure and
temperature.
latent heat of vaporization. The quantity of energy re-
quired to evaporate a unit mass of a liquid to a vapor at
its boiling point at constant pressure and temperature.
lateral. Transverse or sideward motion.
lateral force coefficient. The ratio of lateral force to the
vertical load.
lateral struggle. Penetration by implanted ions side-
ways beneath a mask put on to protect an area of device
surface during microchip manufacture.
laterite. A weathered material composed of the oxides of
aluminum, iron, titanium, and manganese such as, or
similar to, bauxite; sometimes used as a glaze colorant
producing reds, yellows, browns, blacks, and grays,
depending on the glaze composition and firing atmos-
phere.
lath. A material in sheet form employed as a base for
plaster or tile on walls and ceilings in buildings.
lath brick. A long, slender brick.
lathe. A machine in which a workpiece is held in a
holding device and turned while being shaped by an
appropriate tool.
lattice. A regular periodically repeated 3-D array of
points with each point having the same surroundings.
These points can be used to specify atom or ion posi-
tions in a crystalline solid.
lattice brick. A hollow, perforated type of building brick
used as thermal insulation.
lattice constants. The edge lengths and the angles be-
tween them of the unit cell of lattice.
lattice structure. (I) The regular periodic 3-D arrange-
ment of points in space. There are 14 such structures
known as the Bravais lattices. (2) A term sometimes
used to describe the 3-D covalent linkage of structural
units such as Si04 tetrahedra which constitute the struc-
ture of glasses.
lattice water. Water which is an integral part of a clay
structure, as opposed to interlayer water, and which may
be removed by heating in the range of about 450 to
600°C.
launder. An inclined, refractory-lined channel or trough
for the conveyance of molten metal, as from the taphole
of a furnace to a ladle.
lawn. A fine sheer mesh of metal, natural, or synthetic
fibers for use in silk-screen printing and sieves.
lawn brush. A decorating brush with a large head of
bristles of varying lengths and open cone aspect.
layer. (1) A thickness ofa homogeneous substance, such
as a surface coating or stratum in rock. (2) The workman
who lays plate or sheet glass in plaster on grinding and
polishing tables for finishing.
 185
layer, reinforcement. See reinforcement layer.
laying yard. The site where rough plate or sheet glass is
laid in plaster to hold it firmly on grinding and polishing
tables for finishing.
layout. A large-scale drawing of all the components
needed to make a single device.
lay-up. The way in which fiber-composite sheets are
placed relative to each other in the manufacture of a
laminate. Has a square bracket notation: e.g., [0/90/0]
to signify that layer 2 has the fiber direction at 90° to
layer I and then layer 3 is parallel to I. Subscripts are
used to denote incorporations such as adhesives into a
layer, e.g., [0/0/Al90/90/90iA/0] which indicates a
second layer containing adhesive parallel to the first,
then a wholly adhesive layer, then a 90° layer, then
another 90° layer but containing adhesive strips, then
three con sec uti ve 90° layers, etc.
lazulite. (Mg,Fe)Al z(P04MOH)z; a blue mineral occur-
ring in some metamorphic rocks.
lazurite. (Na,Ca)4-8(AI 6Si 60 Z4 )(S04,S)I-2; a sodalite
mineral also known as lapis lazuli; deep blue color; an
aluminosilicate containing sulfate and sulfide ions.
Also known as hauynite.
lazy flame. A slow-burning, yellow-colored flame re-
sulting from a gas-rich mixture that deposits soot. Not
usually hot enough for industrial process firing.
lazy tongs. Tongs attached to a framework of hinged,
crossed rods to allow objects to be gripped at a distance.
LC so . The concentration in parts per million of a danger-
ous substance in the atmosphere that is lethal to 50% of
the test animals exposed to it.
LCD. Abbreviation for liquid crystal display.
LDso. A materials toxicity test whereby 50% of a set of
test animals die from a given dosage.
L-D process. A process for making steel by blowing
oxygen upon or through molten iron to remove most of
the carbon and other impurities by oxidation.
Lea and Nurse permeability apparatus. A device for
the measurement of the specific surface area of a
powder in which the air permeability of a prepared
bed of the powder is determined by the equation S =
l4[p3/KV(l - p2)], in which S is the specific surface
area, p is the porosity of the powder bed, V is the
kinematic viscosity of the flowing air, and K is a con-
stant.
leach. To dissolve and wash soluble components from a
material by passing a liquid, usually water, through the
material.
lead. To begin the batching of concrete by introducing a
material into the mixer ahead of another material.
lead acetate. Pb(CH 3CO)z; a white crystalline, toxic
solid used in some enamel formulations. Also called
sugar of lead.
LEAD METATANTALA TE
lead antimonate. Pb 3(Sb04 )z; an orange-yellow powder
used as yellow colorant in glass and overglazes. Also
known as Naples yellow, antimony yellow.
lead arsenate. Pb 3(As04)z; a white, toxic, insoluble
powder used as a fungicide in some formulations.
lead-barium crown glass. An optical flint glass con-
taining a substantial quantity of barium oxide.
lead bisilicate. PbOSi 20 S; a low-melting stable frit used
in lead-bearing glazes to minimize lead solubility.
lead borate. Pb(B0 2h; sp. gr. 5.6; used as a flux in
low-temperature frits, vitrified colors, conducting coat-
ings, and bonded mica.
lead borosilicate. (I) A mixture of lead borate and lead
silicate used in the manufacture of optical glass. (2)
U sed also in glazes to produce coatings of low lead
solubility.
lead carbonate. PbC0 3; decomposes at 315°C; sp. gr.
6.43; used in glass, porcelain-enamels, and glazes as a
flux and fining agent.
lead chromate. PbCr04; mp 844°C; sp. gr. 6.1; used as
a flux and colorant.
lead crown glass. An optical flint glass containing a sub-
stantial proportion of lead oxide, PbO, to improve light
dispersion and brilliance.
lead crystal glass, full. See full lead crystal glass.
leaded glass. Windows made from pieces of colored or
clear glass held in position by strips of lead having an
"H" or "U" cross section.
lead germanate. PbSGe30 II; a dielectric ceramic used
in the fabrication of multilayer ceramic capacitors.
Often abbreviated to PG.
lead glass. Glass containing a substantial quantity oflead
oxide as a flux and to give a high index of refraction,
optical dispersion, and surface brilliance for use as
optical glass.
lead glaze. A glaze containing lead oxide in a substantial
amount as a flux to lower the fusion temperature and
viscosity, to improve the flow properties during firing,
and to increase the brilliance, luster, smoothness, resis-
tance to water solubility, and resistance to chipping.
lead lanthanum zirconate titanate. PLZT; a ferroelec-
tric ceramic (Pbl_xLax)(Til_yZry)03 possessing electro-
optical properties. When poled it is a useful
piezoelectric ceramic.
leadless glaze. A glaze containing only an imperceptible
amount of lead in any form.
lead metaniobate. PbNb z0 6; used in defense electron-
ics, thickness gauges, flaw detectors, accelerometers,
air-blast gauges, and other instruments requiring dielec-
tric, piezoelectric, or ferroelectric properties.
lead metatantalate. PbTa206; a ferroelectric.
LEAD MOLYBDATE
lead molybdate. PbMo04; mp 1062°C; employed with
antimony compounds as an adherence-promoting agent
in porcelain-enamels.
lead oxide, red. See red lead.
lead oxide, yellow. See yellow lead oxide.
lead poisoning. The prolonged ingestion or absorption
oflead into the human body, primarily the lungs, result-
ing in anemia, colic, inflammation of the peripheral
nerves, and brain impairment.
lead release. The mass of lead dissolved from a glass
enamel by soaking in acetic acid.
lead selenide. PbSe; mp 1088°C; used in semiconductor
applications.
lead sesquioxide. Pb20 3; used in glass, glazes, porce-
lain-enamels, and ceramic cements.
lead silicate. (I) PbSi03; a pyroxene; mp 725 to 775°C;
employed in lead-fluxed bodies of high dielectric
strength and in lead-fluxed steatite bodies of a wide
firing range. (2) Pb2Si04; sp. gr. 5.8-6.5; used as a
substitute for lead carbonate to minimize evolution of
carbon dioxide; used as a mill addition because of good
dispersion and suspension qualities and freedom from
gassing.
lead stannate. PbSn03; forms limited solid solution
with BaTi03 and reduces the Curie peak in barium
titanate capacitors and the tendency to depolarize when
used in piezoelectrics.
lead strontium copper oxide. See PSYCCO.
lead sulfide. PbS; mp 1170°C; sp. gr. 7.13-7.70; used in
semiconductors and in the glazing of clay wares.
lead tantalate. PbTa206; Curie temperature 260°C; a
possible electroceramic and ferroelectric.
lead telluride. PbTe; mp 902°C; used as a semiconduc-
tor and photoconductor in the form of single crystals.
lead titanate. PbTi03; employed as an additive to bar-
ium titanate to improve piezoelectric properties.
lead, white. See white lead.
lead zirconate. PbZr0 3; a perovskite used as a compo-
nent in piezoelectric bodies.
lead zirconate titanate. PZT; Pb(Ti 1_..a-x)03; a ferroelec-
tric, eleclr<H>ptic material having use in piezoelectric bod-
ies. The structure contains noncentrosymmetic Ti4+, Zr4+
ions within 0 6 octahedra which are attracted to the
negative electrode producing an applied field to give
rise to a crystal deformation. This is the piezoelectric
effect in which the induced strain is proportional to the
applied electric field.
leakage current. IR; watt loss per operating voltage in a
ZnO varistor device: IR = VsslRgb' where Vss is the
steady-state voltage at which the device works and
Rgb is the grain boundary resistance.
186
leakage, magnetic field. See magnetic field leakage.
leakage, magnetic flux. See magnetic flux leakage.
leak detector. A device for locating holes or cracks in a
coating or walls of a vessel, either by electric spark
discharge or by fine jets of helium.
leak testing. A technique to determine the presence of a
void, fracture, or other discontinuity in a coating or
body structure in which a penetrant is applied to one
surface, and the opposite surface is observed for indica-
tions of penetration by the testing solution.
lean. Colorant plus oil mixtures of such composition that
they do not flow smoothly onto ware being decorated.
lean cement. A concrete with insufficient cement.
lean clay. A clay of low plasticity and poor green
strength.
leaner. A bottle grossly out of vertical.
lean fuel. Fuel low in combustibles; for example, a fuel-
air mixture with a low percentage of fuel and a high
percentage of air.
lean gas. Fuel gas low in butane and heavier fuel gases
with an excess of air at the burner.
lean lime. A lime containing an inordinate amount of
impurities and which will not slake readily with water.
lean mix. (\) A concrete of low cement content. (2) See
lean fuel.
lean mortar. A mortar deficient in cementitious compo-
nents and which is usually harsh and difficult to spread.
least count. The smallest change in indicated load on a
tensile test machine that can be determined.
least squares. A statistical method which obtains best fit
solutions by minimizing the sum of the squared differ-
ences between the mean and individual values.
leather hard. Clay that is sufficiently dry and stiff
enough to be handled without deformation, but suffi-
ciently damp to be joined to other pieces with slip.
leathery texture. A rough texture on the surface of por-
celain-enamel which is similar to, but of larger and
more coarse pattern, than eggshell.
Le Chatelierite. A glassy form of Si02.
lecithin. Waxy phosphorus-containing substances which
have emulsifying and wetting properties, and which are
used to lower surface tension in silk-screen media.
LeFarge cement. See grappier cement.
lehr. A heated oven in which glassware is annealed to
reduce residual thermal stresses.
lehr loader. A machine which places and spaces glass-
ware on a continuous lehr belt.
 187
length. (I) The horizontal dimension of a unit in the face
of a wall. (2) The longest dimension of an item. (3) The
extent of a period of time.
lengthwise direction. In load application it is the direc-
tion of the long axis of a rod or tube, but in other shapes
it is the direction of the strongest axis. When neither of
these are present it is along the grain direction.
lens. (I) A highly polished, highly transparent, defect-
free, and appropriately shaped flat piece of glass (or a
substance like a plastic) either or both sides of which
may be flat or curved as required so as to cause trans-
mitted light rays to converge or diverge to form an
image; used in optical instruments such as eyeglasses,
microscopes, telescopes, and other such devices. (2) An
architectural term for a translucent or transparent
pressed glass unit, which may be square, round, or
specially shaped, for use in construction.
lens-fronted tnbing. Graduated glass tubing designed
for the containment of liquids for use in temperature,
pressure, and similar instruments of measurement, but
modified so as to magnify the liquid column for easy
reading.
lens makers formula. An equation involving the refrac-
tive index for the yellow sodium line, n, and the required
focal length, f, which allows lens radii of curvative to
be chosen: II! = (n - I )(llr1 + I1r2 ).
leoxit. A porous refractory containing mullite and corun-
dum manufactured for kiln furniture use because it can
withstand large thermal shocks; maximum working
temperature 1450°C.
lepidolite. K2(Li,AI)5-6(Si6-7 A12-1 )s020(OH,F)4;
mp 1170°C; sp. gr. 2.9; hardness (Mohs) 2.5-4.0; a
mica group mineral with the muscovite structure and
pink color; employed essentially as a flux in opal and
flint glasses, porcelain-enamels, glazes, and ceramic
bodies to reduce the coefficient of expansion, brittle-
ness, and devitrification tendency, and to increase the
firing or working range, index of refraction, brightness,
and surface hardness. Also known as lithia mica and
amblygonite.
LET. Abbreviation for linear energy transfer which de-
termines the biological effect of radioactive decay par-
ticles. a-particles have high LET and so deposit most
of their energy in a single cell with large resultant
damage.
let-go. An area where there is no longer adhesion be-
tween glass and other layer in a laminated glass.
leucite. KAISi 20 6 ; sp. gr. 2.5; hardness (Mohs) 5.5-6; a
framework silicate of the felspathoid group closely
related to nepheline, an essential mineral in nepheline
syenite.
level, acceptance. See acceptance level.
level, confidence. See confidence level.
level, cut-off. See cut -off level.
level, gate. See gate level.
LIGHT DENSITY
level, rejection. See rejection level.
level, test quality. See rejection level.
level, threshold. See threshold level.
levigated abrasive. A fine, chemically neutral, abrasive
powder used as a burnishing medium.
levigation. The method of refining clay and other pow-
dered materials by carrying them in a stream of water
which deposits the particles at different stages in terms
of relative particle size.
lever rule. A scheme to find the relative quantities of
phases present at any temperature from a phase dia-
gram:!, =(a -1)1(s -I), where!, is the fraction of solid,
I, a, and s, represent the component of interest's con-
centration in liquid, alloy, and solid, respectively.
lherzolite. A peridotite rock containing olivine and or-
thorhombic pyroxenes.
Iherzolithe. U1trabasic rock composed of olivine, or-
thopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and spinel.
Libbey-Owens-Ford sheet process. A method of mak-
ing sheet glass by bending a vertic all y drawn sheet over
a roll which establishes the definition of the draw.
lid. A movable cover or top of a container such as a dish,
crucible, or other receptacle.
life test. A test, frequently accelerated, to estimate the
normal service life of a product.
lift, lifting. (I) A defect characterized by the spontane-
ous separation of sheet-like pieces of porcelain-enamel
or glaze from the surface to which it has been applied.
(2) A layer or depth of concrete placed at one time.
lift-off effect. The effect observed in a magnetic test
system output due to a change in magnetic coupling
between a test system and a probe coil whenever the
distance between them is varied.
lift-slab construction. A method in which reinforced
concrete floor or roof slabs are cast on the ground floor
of a building under construction and raised to final
position by means of jacks on top of the building col-
umns.
lift truck. A small truck for lifting and transporting
loads.
light. (I) Electromagnetic radiation capable of inducing
visual sensation through the eye; that is, the product of
the visibility and the radiant power. (2) The subclass of
a lower index of refraction in optical glass.
light, black. See black light.
light density. The quantitative measure of film blacken-
ing as calculated by the formula D = log loll, in which
D is the density, 10 is the light intensity incident on the
film, and I is the light intensity transmitted.
LIGHT-EXTINCTION METHOD OF ...
light-extinction method of particle suspension meas-
urement. A technique for measuring the concentra-
tion of particles in a suspension by determining the
amount of light absorbed from a transmitted beam.
light, monochromatic. See monochromatic light.
light oil. Oil having a boiling range of 110 to 210°C; used
as a lubricant to reduce friction between moving solids
in contact with each other.
light polarization. Light waves have dissymmetries of
vibration about the direction of propagation, and sepa-
ration of the wave in terms of these dissymmetries is
called polarization. It can be brought about by reflec-
tion, transmission through a pile of plates, dichroism,
double refraction, and scattering.
light-reducing glass. A general term describing flat
glass having reduced light transmittance.
lightweight aggregate. A lightweight, inert material
such as bloated clay, foamed slag, vermiculite, perlite,
and clinker used in reinforced concrete and similar
products as an aggregate to reduce weight and improve
the thermal and sound insulating values of the product.
lightweight concrete. Any concrete made with low-den-
sity aggregate.
lignin extract. A substance extracted from the wood
wall cells of plants; used as a binder in ceramic bodies
and glazes. Also known as lignone.
lignin sulfonate. Salts made from lignin; no melting
point, but decomposes above 200°C; used as a binder
in ceramic bodies and glazes.
lime. CaO; mp 2750°C; sp. gr. 3.40; a fluxing agent used
in glass, pottery, glazes, and porcelain-enamels, and as
a component in portland cement, mortar, and plaster.
lime blowing. Chipping or popping of small fragments
from the face of building brick due to freezing and
thawing of absorbed water or other stress such as the
carbonation of lime.
lime, burnt. See burnt lime.
lime-cement mortar. A masonry mortar composed nor-
mally of one part of masonry cement, one or two parts
of lime putty or hydrated lime, and five or six parts of
sand by volume.
lime crown glass. An optical crown glass containing a
substantial quantity of calcium oxide as a fluxing ingre-
dient.
lime, finishing. See finishing lime.
lime glass. A glass containing a high percentage of lime,
usually in association with soda and silica; widely used
in glass products, such as bottles and other such con-
tainers and products.
lime, hydrated. See hydrated lime.
lime, hydraulic. See hydraulic lime.
188
lime kiln. A furnace, frequently a long, tilted, rotating
cylinder, in which calcium carbonate is heated to tem-
perature above 900°C to produce lime.
lime matte. A matte glaze caused by the crystallization
of calcium silicate during firing and cooling.
lime mortar. A mixture of hydrated lime, sand, and
water used in the construction of non-load-bearing in-
terior walls in building construction.
lime pops. The spalling of brick due to the hydration and
carbonization of lime particles at or near the surface of
the brick.
lime putty. Hydrated lime in plastic form used as an
addition to mortar.
lime-slag cement. A cement produced from a mixture of
lime and granulated blast-furnace slag.
limestone. A sedimentary rock composed of more than
80% calcium or magnesium carbonate; used as a source
of calcium in glazes; also used as a building stone, in
the production of cement, in the smelting of iron ore,
etc.
limits, acceptance. See acceptance limits.
Limoges porcelain clay. A body renowned for its deli-
cate translucency and excellent workability; formulated
in potteries around the French town of the same name.
limonite. FeO(OH)·nH2 0; sp. gr. 3.6-4.0; hardness
(Mohs) 5.0-5.5; a mineral mixture widely found arising
from siderite; used as a yellow to brown ceramic color-
ant.
Lindemann glass. A lithium borate-bery Ilia glass con-
taining no element having an atomic number greater
than 8; used in applications requiring high transmission
of x rays.
lineage structure. Deviations noted in the alignment of
what should be parallel arms of dendrite in a microstruc-
ture.
linear change, permanent. See permanent linear
change.
linear drying shrinkage. The percentage linear con-
traction shown by a moist body during drying; calcu-
lated from 100(L p - Ld)/L p' where Lp is the wet
specimen length and Ld is the length of the dry speci-
men.
linear elastic fracture mechanics. See fracture me-
chanics.
linear equation. A first-order equation where no terms
are exponential.
linear motor. An electric motor in which the stator and
rotor are linear and parallel. If used to dri ve a train, one
part of the motor is in the locomotive, the other part is
in the track.
 189
linear shrinkage. The reduction in the length of a speci-
men during drying and firing. See drying shrinkage and
firing shrinkage.
linear thermal expansion. The expansion of a body in
one direction when subjected to heat.
line, flux. See flux line.
line, metal. See metal line.
line of flux. A hypothetical line whose direction at all
points along its length is that of the electric or magnetic
field.
line of reinforcement. The circumferential reinforce-
ment of concrete pipe, it being comprised of one or more
layers.
liner. (I) A coating or layer adhering to or in contact with
the interior surface and ends of asbestos-cement pipe
and related couplings, the coating or layer being more
chemically resistant than the pipe and related couplings.
(2) The material or coating on the interior of an item for
decorative or protective purposes, such as the lining of
a container, tank, or kiln.
lines. Fine cords or strings of molten glass, molten refrac-
tory, or partially molten sand; usually occurring on the
surface of flat glass as an imperfection.
lines of force, magnetic. See magnetic lines of force.
line tension. The force that produces the tendency for a
dislocation line to become straight; it is analogous to
surface tension. Line tension, T, is defined as !'J.U1f'o.L,
where !'J.U is the extra energy due to forming a zigzag
per unit length and f'o.L is the increase in length per unit
length of the line when a zigzag is formed.
lining, monolithic. See monolithic lining.
Iinish. A verb meaning to polish using abrasive powders.
Iinisher. A polishing machine adapted to use abrasive
powders for polishing.
Linseis plastometer. An instrument employing the ten-
sile strength as a measure of cohesion and the capacity
for the relative movement of clay particles without
rupture as a measurement of the plasticity of clay.
lintel. A horizontal piece across an opening, such as a
window or door, that carries the weight of the structure
above it.
lip. The edge or rim of a pot or other hollow-ware article,
or the part which encircles an orifice.
liquate. To separate one phase of a mixture by heating so
that the more fusible part melts.
Iiquation. A beneficiation process applied to lean ores
which involves melting the component of interest and
letting it drain from the gangue.
liquefaction. The conversion of a gas or gaseous mixture
to the liquid state by cooling or compression, or both.
LITHIA, MICA
liquefied petroleum gas. Any gas derived from petro-
leum, such as propane and butane, which has been
liquefied and stored under pressure in suitable contain-
ers for easy transport and future use as fuel.
liquid blast cleaning. The process of cleaning surfaces
by means of a high-velocity jet of abrasive suspended
in water or other liquid.
liquid bright platinum. Liquid organic mixtures con-
taining platinum with additions of palladium, gold, or
bismuth, which fire to a silvery finish on pottery, glass
or tile.
liquid crystal. A substance in a mesomorphic state and
so appears to be a liquid with some crystalline charac-
teristics, such as different optical properties in different
directions.
liquid crystal display. A display such as numbers in an
electronic calculator obtained by applying an electric
field to liquid crystal cells that change their reflectivity
in such a field.
liquid gold. An inexpensive gold resinate used in the
decoration of ceramic ware.
liquid phase sintering. The sintering process which, by
control of composition and temperature, maintains a
small volume of liquid around the powder particles and
brings about material transfer by a solution-precipita-
tion procedure. The commonest form of ceramic sinter-
ing.
liquidus. Line on a phase diagram representing the
boundary of a liquid phase field; a curve on a graph
showing temperature versus composition of a material
or mixture of materials which connects with tempera-
tures at which fusion is completed as the temperature is
raised.
liquidus temperature. The maximum temperature at
which equilibrium exists between a molten substance
and its primary crystalline phase.
liter. The volume of a kilogram of water at 4°C.
litharge. See red lead.
litharge glass. A soda-lime glass in which part of the
calcium is replaced by litharge.
lithia. Li 20; mp > 1700°C; sp. gr. 2.012; a powerful
flux; used in glasses having high electrical resistivity to
improve fluidity, working properties, and ultraviolet-
ray transmission; used in dinnerware, electrical porce-
lain, and sanitary ware to improve strength and gloss;
used in ceramic bodies and refractory specialties to
reduce thermal expansion and improve thermal-shock
resistance; used in porcelain-enamels to improve work-
ability and reduce firing temperatures.
Iithiation. The process of increasing the lithium content
of ternary oxide crystals such as LiNb0 3 by reaction
with melts containing Li+ cations.
lithia, mica. See lepidolite.
LITHIUM ALUMINATE
lithium aluminate. LiAI0 2; mp > 1625°C; sp. gr. 2.5;
used as a flux in refractory porcelain-enamels.
lithium aluminum silicate. (1) Li 2AI 2(Si04 )2; mp
1398°C; sp. gr. 2.36; hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
(2) Li 2AI 2(Si0 3)4; mp 1427°C; hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
(3) Li 2(AI 2Si 6)OI6; mp 1183°C; sp. gr. 2.41; hardness
(Mohs) 5-7.
lithium borosilicate. Used extensively in high-tempera-
ture, corrosion-resistant coatings.
lithium carbonate. Li 2C0 3; mp 735°C; sp. gr. 2.11;
used as a source of lithium oxide which serves as a flux
in ceramic bodies, glazes, and porcelain-enamels.
lithium cobaItite. LiCo0 2; mp > 1000°C; used in porce-
lain-enamel ground coats to combine the fluxing power
of lithium and the adherence promoting properties of
cobalt oxide.
lithium drifted germanium detector. Semiconductor
grade germanium crystal doped with lithium atoms to
produce a chip capable of y-ray energy determination
with good resolution
lithium feldspathoids. A group of minerals including
lepidolite, spodumene, and petalite, used in bodies,
glazes, and porcelain-enamels to reduce thermal expan-
sion and improve thermal-shock resistance.
lithium fluophosphate. Li4 P04(F)H20; an apatite-like
phase found in some fluorine containing glass ceramic
phases.
lithium fluoride. LiF; mp 870°C; sp. gr. 2.295; used as
a flux and minor opacifier in porcelain-enamels and
glazes, and as crystals in infrared instruments.
lithium magnetite. Li2Mn03; used as a flux in porce-
lain-enamels and in the production of ceramic-bonded
grinding wheels.
lithium metaborate dihydrate. LiB0 2·2H 20; mp
840°C; used as a flux in porcelain-enamels; also in-
creases tensile strength via the B-O network.
lithium molybdate. Li 2Mo0 4; mp 705°C; used as an
adherence agent for white enamels applied directly to
steel.
lithium niobate. LiNb0 3; hexagonal structure; incon-
gruent mp 1253°C; ferroelectric perovskite with a large
birefringence coupled with small dispersion; used to
make acoustic transducers and photo-optic devices,
such as optical waveguides.
lithium nitrate. LiN0 3; mp 261°C; used as an oxidizing
flux in porcelain-enamels, glazes, and glasses.
lithium oxide. See lithia.
lithium silicate. (I) Li 2Si0 3; mp 1215°C; sp. gr. 2.48;
hardness (Mohs) 5-7. (2) Li4Si04 ; mp 1253°C; hard-
ness (Mohs) 5-7. Both used in porcelain-enamels as a
flux to improve surface texture and as a minor opacifier.
190
lithium stearate. Li(OOC(CH2)16CH3); a solid-state lu-
bricant used in ceramic powder dust pressing as a die
lubricant and binder phase.
lithium tantalate. LiTa03; a perovskite used as a py-
roelectric sensor in the optical wavelength range 1-15
/lm.
lithium tetraborate. Li 2B 40?,xH 20; loses water at
200°C; used as a flux in glazes and porcelain-enamels.
lithium titanate. Li2 Ti0 3; used as a flux in porcelain-
enamels and as a mill addition in glazes.
lithium zirconate. Li2Zr03; used as a flux and opacifier
in porcelain-enamels.
lithium zirconium silicate. (I) Li 2ZrOSi04; a strong
flux used in porcelain bodies, porcelain-enamels, and
glazes. (2) LisZr3(Si04)s; mp 1154°C; sp. gr. 4.02;
hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
lithography. A technique for making ceramic decalco-
manias in which a design is printed on special paper
from a plane surface, such as a smooth stone or metal
plate, on which the image to be printed is ink-receptive
and the blank area is ink-repellant.
lithoid. Resembling stone or rock.
lithology. The physical characteristics of a rock, such as
composition, texture, color.
Iithomarge. A smooth compact kaolin with a mottled
reddish color.
Iithopone. White pigment consisting of a mixture of
ZnS, ZnO, and BaS04'
Littleton softening point. The temperature at which a
glass fiber 235 mm long and 0.65 ± 0.1 mm wide
extends at a rate of 1.0 mm min- 1 under its own weight
when hanging in a furnace.
liver, Iivering. A defect in glazes and dry-process enam-
els characterized by a wavelike form of abnormally
thick coating.
liver spotting. Stains of irregular shape occurring in sil-
ica brick as the result of the precipitation of ferric oxide
from solution.
lizard skin, snake skin. A decorative mottled glaze hav-
ing matte or shiny and sometimes colored spots on the
surface giving the appearance of lizard or snake skin.
load. (I) The quantity of glass delivered by a furnace
during a given period of time, usually 24 hr. (2) The
charge in a furnace or kiln. (3) The mechanical force
applied to a body.
load axis. An arbitrary reference axis along which, and
about which, forces and moments for the system are
calculated.
load-bearing tile. A tile used in masonry upon which
loads are superimposed during construction and during
the life of the completed structure.
 191
load-crushing strength, external. See external load-
crushing strength.
load-crushing strength test. A test of concrete pipe in
which external crushing forces are applied in specified
directions and locations on a specified length of pipe.
load deflection curve. A plot where flexural loads are
shown on the ordinate and deflections are shown on the
abscissa.
loaded concrete. Concrete containing elements of high
atomic number and of high neutron capture cross sec-
tion; used as a radiation shield in nuclear reactors.
loaded wheel. A grinding wheel which has been dulled
by becoming filled with particles of materials being
ground.
load factor. Average load over a given period divided by
peak load in the time interval.
loading. (1) Placing a charge in a furnace or kiln. (2) The
filling or clogging of the pores of a grinding wheel face
with the material being ground.
loading station. A site where materials or products are
loaded on a truck or other device for movement to some
other location.
load ratio. Minimum applied load over maximum ap-
plied load in a fatigue test.
loadstone. Deposits of magnetite, FeFe204' that are per-
manently magnetized; black color, black streak; hard-
ness (Mohs) 5.5-6.5; sp. gr. 5.20.
load-transfer device. Any device, such as a dowel or
key, for improving the load transference across a con-
crete joint; that is, to improve the shear strength of the
joint, and minimize wear.
loaf. A raised decoration in the center of a plate or bowl.
loam. (1) A creamy mixture of naturally bonded sand and
clay used as a facing over brickwork to complete a mold
or core. (2) A soil which is a mixture of clay and sand
containing vegetable matter; used in brick manufacture.
local field. The total electric field acting upon a dipole in
a dielectric material which takes account of the applied
electric field and the total effect of the permanent and
induced dipole fields in a solid. The Lorentz form of the
local field is given as Eloc = EI + PI3fQ where EI is the
applied field, P is the polarizability, and fQ, the electric
constant.
lock-up. A phenomenon observed in flexible brick pave-
ments; see interlock (2).
LOCOS. Acronym for local oxidation of silicon. This is
done by 0+ ion implantation to produce highly resistive
layers or localized areas.
loess. A fine claylike material, such as brick clay, which
is largely siliceous in composition but contains calcare-
ous malter, is characterized by the absence of strati fica-
LOOP TEST
tion, and contains sharply angular grains of quartz.
Aeolian or wind deposited. Sometimes spelt lOss.
logarithmic creep. Deformation by plastic flow under
constant stress where the strain, 'Y, is given by 'Y = alog
t, where a is a constant and t is the time under load.
logarithmic decrement. .6.; used to measure the me-
chanical damping in a torsion or vibration experiment
which is undertaken to measure internal friction and
dynamic shear modulus: .6. = Yn[ln ACI+n/Ail, where Ai
is the amplitude of the ith oscillation and A ,+n is the
amplitude n vibrations later.
logic chips. Integrated circuits consisting of arrays of
gates made to carry out a Boolean function. Computers
are a collection of such chips.
LOI. Abbreviation for loss on ignition.
long. A comparative term denoting a slow-setting glass.
long clay. A plastic clay of high green strength.
long glass. A slow-to-solidify glass.
longitudinal-arch kiln. A kiln in which the arch extends
parallel to the length of the kiln.
longitudinal magnetic field. A field of magnetism in
which the flux lines travel in a direction essentially
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the component.
longtitudinal modulus. Elastic moduli such as E or G
along the fiber direction in a unidirectional composite.
longos. Helical windings of fiber with a low angle.
long-range order. Identical coordination over many
atomic distances resulting in a crystalline structure.
lonsdaleite. A rare polytype of diamond with hexagonal
symmetry that occurs naturally.
loom. A machine for interlacing warp and fill yarns.
loom fly. A type of weaving defect in fiber composites
where broken fibers are woven into the reinforcing
fabric.
loop break strength. The strength of two filaments of
fiber arranged as one loop.
loop, hysteresis. See hysteresis loop.
loop knot. A snag and tangle of filling fiber caused by it
coiling upon itself.
loops, looping. A defect occurring in porcelain-enamel
ground and cover coats characterized by a sagged or
draped appearance.
loop test. Analogous to the bend test; fibers are drawn
into a loop of decreasing radius until failure just occurs
and the bending stress is calculated from cr = Eylp,
where y is the distance from the neutral axis to outer
fiber which is the fiber radius for cylindrical fibers, and
p is the radius of curvature of the tightest circle before
failure.
LOOSE SPLITTINGS
loose splittings. Heterogeneous shapes of mica packed
loosely in bulk form, but arranged in no particular order.
loose splittings with powder. Loose splittings of mica
dusted with mica powder; used as electrical insulation.
Lorentz-Lorentz law. States the relationship between
refractive index of a solid, n, molecular refractivity, R,
the molecular weight, M, and density, p: R =
n2 - lIn 2 + 2(M/p). A similar relationship exists for po-
larizability of dielectrics, see Clausius-Mosotti law.
Los Angeles abrasion test. A test of the hardness and
abrasion resistance of concrete aggregates in which a
standard sample is tumbled in a standard ball mill for a
certain number of revolutions.
loss. See loess.
loss angle. The angle whose tangent is the dissipation
factor.
loss factor. See dielectric loss factor, also loss index.
loss index. The value of the imaginary part of the relative
complex permitti vity; the product of the relative permit-
tivity and dissipation factor and is a measure of the
alternating current dielectric loss.
loss on ignition (LOI). The loss in weight which results
from heating a sample of material to a high temperature
after preliminary drying at a temperature just above the
boiling point of water; the loss in weight upon drying is
identified as free moisture, and the loss in weight oc-
curring above the boiling point of water as loss on
ignition, and is reported as a percentage of the weight
of the original dry sample.
loss tangent. tan Oerr: the ratio of the relative effective
loss factor to the relative dielectric constant.
lost-wax process. The process of preparing an invest-
ment casting mold by encasing a wax replica in a
bonded refractory powder, removing the wax from the
refractory by melting, and then sintering the resultant
mold prior to use.
lot. A quantity of material which is uniform in isotopic,
chemical, and physical characteristics, and which may
be composed of one or more batches, provided that the
same starting material is used for all batches.
lot sample, composite. See composite lot sample.
low-angle boundaries. Grain boundaries, either tilt or
twist, that require rotations of less than 15° to gain
coincidence of the grains forming the boundary. The
boundary consists of dislocation arrays.
low-duty fireclay brick. A fireclay brick having a py-
rometric cone equivalent of not less than cone 15 nor
higher than cones 28-29.
lower blades. An asbestos-cement product shaped so as
to allow the flow and control of air in the ventilation of
a building.
192
low.frequency induction furnace. A refractory-lined
furnace in which the charge is heated by eddy currents.
low gloss. Dullness or lack of gloss on a porcelain-
enamel or glaze surface.
low-heat cement. A portland cement containing a rela-
tively high percentage of dicalcium silicate and tetra-
calcium aluminoferrite, and a low percentage of
tricalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate, and having
a considerably lower heat of hydration than portland
cement.
low-load hardness. Indentation hardness determined by
using a load in the range 1.96 to 98.1 N where the
observed hardness is moderately load dependent.
low-melting glass. Glass containing selenium, arsenic,
thallium, or sulfur having a melting point of 127 to
349°C.
low-shaft furnace. A short-shafted, refractory-lined
blast furnace used to produce low-grade products by
using low-grade fuels.
low-soda alumina. Aluminum oxide with less than
0.15% sodium oxide, and which is used in high-grade
electrical insulators and other ceramic bodies.
low-solubility glaze. A lead-bearing glaze in which no
more than 5% of the lead oxide is soluble.
low-temperature glaze. A glaze which fires at a tem-
perature of 1050°C or below.
LPG. Abbreviation for liquefied petroleum gas.
LSCO. Abbreviation for lanthanum strontium calcium
copper oxide superconductor.
LSD-5% level. Abbreviation for least significant differ-
ence which is the difference between two measure-
ments, or two simple averages, that would be exceeded
only I in 20 times under random sampling conditions,
when popUlation differences have been specified.
L TS. Abbreviation for low temperature superconductor;
materials pre-1985 which become superconducting
only when cooled to a few degrees above the absolute
zero of temperature.
Lubbers process. The first mass production method for
making flat glass. It involved vertically drawing a 14-
m-long, I-m-diameter tube and then splitting it along
its length.
lubricant. (1) A material such as graphite used to lubri-
cate the die-punch interface and/or the green pellet-die
interface and/or the particle interfaces within the green
pellet during a pressing operation. (2) Substances which
facilitate the flow of nonplastic or poorly plastic mate-
rials in the formation of dense compacts under pressure.
(3) A solution which, when applied to glass fibers,
facilitates their handling by reducing mutual abrasion.
(4) The liquid used to lubricate the work face, promote
a more efficient action, and retard loading of the face of
an abrasive wheel. (5) A substance such as a lubricating
oil employed to reduce friction between moving parts.
 193
lubricant, mold. See mold lubricant.
Lucalox alumina. Trade name for sintered alumina of
such high density and small uniform grain size as to be
transparent. A grain growth inhibitor, zr0 2 , is added as
a sintering aid.
lucy tool. A tool for removing slip from molds; made
from soft plastic so as not to damage the molds.
Liiders bands. Also known as stretcher strains; they are
surface markings appearing at places of stress concen-
trations, such as shoulders in specimens, when the upper
yield point is reached. Their boundaries are surfaces
that divide those over strained parts of the crystal from
those still unyielded.
lug. A protuberance or knob on an item or tool used as a
handle.
lug brick. A brick formed with lugs to facilitate spacing
with adjacent brick.
luminescence. The production of light without generat-
ing high temperatures or incandescence, usually result-
ing from electromagnetic radiations, electron
bombardment, electric fields, and chemical reactions at
room or ambient temperatures.
luminous factor. The reflectance that a perfectly diffus-
ing surface must possess to appear as bright as a test
specimen under identical conditions.
luminous-wall firing. The firing of a furnace or kiln by
projecting the fuel onto an incandescent refractory sur-
face.
lump. A raised area or projection, usually rounded, on a
porcelain-enamel, glaze, or other solid surface.
lumped circuit. A radio-frequency circuit with induc-
tance and capacitance in the same physical component.
lunar glass. Small spherical glass beads frequently
found in samples of moon dust; assumed to be formed
when meteorites impact the surface basalt rocks of the
moon.
LYTAG
Lunden conducting tile. Tile, particularly floor tile, in
which an electrically conducting material such as carb-
on or metal has been incorporated as a means of dissi-
pating electrostatic charges.
Lurgi cement. A hydraulic cement produced by sinter-
ing the charge on a grate.
luster. An irridescent decorative surface appearance on
porcelain-enamels, glass, and glazes; usually produced
by the application of a very thin film of metal such as
gold, silver, platinum, copper, bismuth, and tin over the
coating surface; the luster is applied as an oxide or
resinate and fired in a reducing atmosphere.
luster, adamantine. See adamantine luster.
luster colors. Clear solutions of mineral pigments in or-
ganic solvents.
luster combination. The effects obtained by sequen-
tially applying and firing a sequence of luster colors on
top of each other.
luster, earthy. See earthy luster.
luster, greasy. See greasy luster.
luster, pearly. See pearly luster.
luster, resinous. See resinous luster.
luster, silky. See silky luster.
luster, vitreous. See vitreous luster.
lute. A clay or cement packed into a joint or applied as a
coating over a porous surface to render the joint or
surface impervious to gases and liquids.
luting. The joining of two leather-hard, unfired ceramic
surfaces with slip; for example, the joining of handles
to cups, vases, etc. , to form a monolithic structure.
lynn sand. A pure form of quartzose sand.
Lytag. Commercial material which is an aggregate of
sintered pulverized fuel ash used to make concrete.
 M
macerate. To chop fiber, yarn, or fabric.
machinability. The ease with which a material can be
machined.
machine tool. A hard, fracture-resistant attachment to a
machining apparatus used to cut, drill, shape, grind, or
polish a solid product.
machining. The process of cutting, grinding, or shaping
a piece of work.
machining stress. Residual stress in a body following a
machining operation.
mackinawite. FeS; a noncubic form of iron sulfide, sta-
ble in strongly anaerobic conditions; the name given to
the first product of iron corrosion in aqueous solutions
containing S2- ions.
Mack's cement. A quick-setting cement composed of
plaster of paris with additions of calcined sodium sul-
fate, Na2S04, and potassium sulfate, K2S04.
made. See chiastolite.
Macor. A commercial machinable glass-ceramic based
on internally nucleated fluormica crystals in glass.
Main machinable phase is fluorine-phlogopite,
KMg 3AISi 30 IO F2·
macro. (I) A prefix meaning large. (2) Structure that can
be seen without the aid of a microscope.
macrodefect-free cement. See MDF cement.
macropore. A pore of sufficient size that it will not retain
water by capillary action.
macropore volume. The volume fraction of a porous
solid comprising all interconnected pores. The size of
the pore opening is sometimes specified, e.g., 35-70 nm
in some aluminas.
macroscopic. Visible to the unaided eye.
Madelung constant. A crystal structure-dependent
number which is used to determine the attractive energy
194
of ions in a solid;it is the sum of a geometrical progres-
sion obtained by considering the attraction of nearest-
neighbors and repulsion of next-nearest-neighbors etc.
mafic minerals. A group of magnesium, iron, and cal-
cium silicates sometimes used as inexpensive substi-
tutes for feldspar; mp approximately 1250°C.
magadiite. Na2SiI2024«(lHh·9H20; a synthetic hy-
drated sodium silicate with a clay-like sheet structure
of linked Si04 tetrahedra with some alternation of the
apical oxygens above and below the layer; a zeolite-
type material.
magic angle NMR. See MASNMR.
maglev. Abbreviation for magnetic levitation; a process
whereby strong permanent magnets, such as neodym-
ium iron boride, attached to the body of a vehicle
running on magnetized rails provide a lifting force.
Magneli oxides. Series of oxides obtained from a par-
ticu
ar family structure by ordered omission of chains
of oxygen atoms and crystallographic shear. For exam-
ple, V0 2, rutile structure, gives rise to a series
Vn02n-I' for 3 < n < 10, where the new oxides may be
viewed as a string of n rutile blocks separated by a
distorted V203 unit of structure.
magnesia. MgO; see magnesium oxide.
magnesia brick. A refractory brick composed of ap-
proximately 85% magnesium oxide, MgO, and 15%
other oxides; used where corrosion by basic slags may
be severe.
magnesia cement. Magnesium oxychloride cement pro-
duced by adding magnesium chloride solution to mag-
nesia.
magnesia, dead-burned. See dead-burned magnesite.
magnesia-dolomite brick. A refractory brick produced
from a mixture of dead-burned magnesite and magne-
sia-rich dead-burned dolomite, the magnesite being the
predominant phase.
 195
magnesian matte. A matte glaze containing an excess of
magnesium oxide.
magnesia, refractory. See refractory magnesia.
magnesia, seawater. See seawater magnesia.
magnesiochromite. MgCr204; mp 2250°C; sp. gr. 4.41;
a spinel component of chrome magnesite refractories.
When doped with Ti4+ ions it is turned into a p-type
semiconductor which is used in humidity-sensing de-
vices.
magnesioferrite. MgFez04; mp 1750°C; sp. gr. 4.2; a
spinel phase sometimes present in basic refractories.
magnesiothermic reduction. Powdered mixtures of
magnesium metal and carbon are used to reduce oxides
around 1750°C to produce fine powders of carbide. For
example, BZ03 + Mg + C yields a composite ofB 4C and
MgO.
magnesite. MgC0 3; decomposes at about 350°C; sp. gr.
3-3.1; hardness (Mohs) 3.5-4.5; used as an ingredient
in basic refractories and glazes as a source of magne-
sium oxide, MgO.
magnesite brick. See magnesia brick.
magnesite-chrome brick. A refractory produced from a
mixture of dead-burned magnesite and chrome ore,
magnesite being the predominant ingredient.
magnesite, dead-burned. See dead-burned magnesite.
magnesite, grain. See grain magnesite.
magnesite refractory. A refractory product in which
magnesite is the essential starting raw material.
magnesite wheel. A grinding wheel in which magne-
sium oxychloride is the bonding agent.
magnesium aluminate. MgAl z04; see spinel.
magnesium aluminum silicate. (I) MgzA14SisOlS; mp
1471°C; sp. gr. 2.51; hardness (Mohs) 5-7. (2)
Mg4AlIOSizOZ3; mp 1454°C; hardness (Mohs) 5-7;
employed as a ceramic binder.
magnesium carbonate. MgC0 3; decomposes at 350°C;
sp. gr. 3.04; used both as a low-temperature refractory
and high-temperature flux in glass, porcelain, insulator
bodies, vitreous and semi vitreous ware, glazes, and
porcelain-enamels where it produces a satin-matte sur-
face when used in amounts up to 10% but above this it
can cause crawling or pinholing; improves craze resis-
tance; also used as a setting-up agent in porcelain-
enamel and other slips.
magnesium chromite. MgCr204; see magnesio-
chromite.
magnesium ferrite. MgFez04; see magnesioferrite.
magnesium fluoride. MgF 2; mp 1396°C; sp. gr. 3.0;
used as a flux in various ceramic and glass composi-
tions, particularly for infrared comEonents; used in
severe conditions and as a host for Ni + ions to produce
MAGNESIUM TITANATE
a laser with a wavelength of 1.93 11m and a power of 1.0
watt.
magnesium fluosilicate. MgSiF6·6H zO; used in ce-
ramic coatings and as a concrete hardener where its
waterproofing properties are also exploited.
magnesium flux. Magnesium fluoride, MgFz.
magnesium lime. Lime containing more than 20% mag-
nesium oxide; slakes more slowly and evolves less heat,
but sets more rapidly with less expansion, to produce
mortars of higher strength than high-calcium limes.
magnesium mica. KMg3AISi 30 lO (OHb sp. gr. 2.86;
hardness (Mohs) 2.5-3; used as thermal and electrical
insulation. Has the double-sheet silicate structure.
magnesium nitride. Mg 3Nz; decomposes at 1500°C; sp.
gr. 2.71; ionic nitride hydrolyzed to give ammonia; used
to make metal-melting crucibles.
magnesium oxide. MgO; magnesia in ceramic terminol-
ogy; mp 2800°C; sp. gr. 3.22; hardness (Mohs) 5-7; a
basic oxide unstable in acidic media; used in refracto-
ries, crucibles, thermocouple tubing, thermal insula-
tion, infrared windows, etc., as a viscous flux and an
opacifier; also used in the production of sorel (magne-
sium oxychloride) cement and some electronic compo-
nents.
magnesium oxychloride cement. Also known as sorel
cement; a mixture of magnesium oxide and an aqueous
solution of magnesium chloride; used for interior floor-
ing.
magnesium phosphate. Mg Z(P04lz; mp 1383°C; sp. gr.
2.6; used in glazes for sanitary ware as a replacement
for tin oxide to obtain improved color, opacity, bril-
liance, and texture.
magnesium silicate. (I) MgSi0 3; a pyroxene mineral;
sp. gr. 2.6-2.8; used as a component in glass, refracto-
ries, and other ceramic bodies. (2) Mg zSi04; an ortho-
silicate ionic silicate commonly known as forsterite; mp
191O°C; sp. gr. 3.22; hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
magnesium silicofluoride. See magnesium fluosilicate.
magnesium soaps. The product of the reaction between
magnesium hydroxide and organic fatty acids; used as
die pressing lubricants.
magnesium stannate. (I) MgSn03; used in dielectric
compositions and as a phosphor base. (2) Mg2Sn04; mp
1950°C; sp. gr. 4.74; a spinel-type phase.
magnesium stearate. Mg[OOC(CHz)16CH3lz; a soft
white powder, one of the magl'esium soaps, used as a
die lubricant and plastic stabilizer.
magnesium sulfate. MgS0 4; mp 1185°C; sp. gr. 2.65;
used as a suspension promoting agent in slips and as a
flux when used at the I % level in glaze compositions;
may be a source of scum formation.
magnesium titanate. (I) MgTi0 3 ; a perovskite phase,
mp 1690°C; sp. gr. 4.0; because of its low dielectric
MAGNESIUM TUNGSTATE
constant it is used in dielectric manufacture.
(2) MgTi 20 4 ; mp 1732°C; sp. gr. 3.52; a spinel phase
which when prepared slightly Ti-rich has supercon-
ducting properties. (3) MgTi 20 3; mp 1649°C; sp. gr. 3.
66.
magnesium tungstate. MgW04 ; an orthotungstate
sometimes used as a fluorescent pigment.
magnesium uranate. MgU04 ; mp 1749°C; a spinel.
magnesium wolframate. MgW04 ; see magnesium
tungstate.
magnesium zirconate. MgZr03; mp 2150°C; used in
dielectric compositions; also used as a setter for firing
titanates, ferrites, etc.
magnet. A material which produces a magnetic field
external to itself and which attracts iron; a piece of
ferro- or ferrimagnetic material.
magnetic. Exhibiting the property of a magnet.
magnetic analysis inspection. A nondestructive test to
identify variations in magnetic flux in ferromagnetic
materials of constant cross section which may be caused
by defects, discontinuities, irregularities, variations in
magnetic hardness, etc.
magnetic bottle. A set of magnetic fields in a particular
relationship to each other designed to contain the
plasma in controlled thermonuclear reactions.
magnetic bubbles. Ferrimagnetic domains in ceramics
such as rare earth orthoferrites and garnets whose shape
can be changed to a set of individual cylindrical do-
mains by the application of an externally applied field;
used to store information in computer memories.
magnetic ceramics. Fired mixtures of some transition
metal oxides which interact to produce perovskite,
spinel, and related phases, among themselves, or with
divalent metal such as barium, cobalt, copper, lead,
magnesium, manganese, nickel, strontium, or zinc,
which exhibit ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic,
magneto-optical, and magnetostrictive effects; used in
antennae, computer memory cores, TV yokes, telecom-
munication systems, etc.
magnetic circuit. A closed path described by magnetic
flux.
magnetic constant. Mo; the permeability of free space;
it has a value of 4 x 10-7 henry per meter. Also called
the absolute permeability.
magnetic dipole moment. A measure of magnetic
strength of a magnet or current-carrying coil, it is the
torque produced when the magnet has its axis perpen-
dicular to a unit magnetic field.
magnetic domain. Distinct regions in a crystal each
magnetically saturated in a different direction.
magnetic field. A field of force surrounding a permanent
magnet or a moving charged particle in which another
196
permanent magnet or moving charge experiences a
force.
magnetic field dependence. A slight magnetic field will
reduce the critical current of the Josephson junction;
used to make ultrafast switches and memory cells.
magnetic field leakage. The magnetic field that leaves
or enters the surface of a part at a discontinuity or at a
change in section configuration of a magnetic part.
magnetic field, longitudinal. See longitudinal mag-
netic field.
magnetic field meter. An instrument that measures the
strength of a magnetic field.
magnetic field, residual. See residual magnetic field.
magnetic field, resultant. See resultant magnetic field.
magnetic field strength. The measured intensity of a
magnetic field expressed in tesla per meter.
magnetic filter. A magnetic field through which pow-
ders and slurries can be passed in order to remove
magnetic impurities such as iron.
magnetic flaw detector. See magnetic-particle inspec-
tion.
magnetic flux. Mx. (I) A magnetic field. (2) The product
of the area and the magnetic flux density through it; a
measure of the strength of a magnetic field. Measured
as Maxell or Weber.
magnetic flux density. G; the strength of a magnetic
field at a given point expressed as flux lines per unit of
area. The vector product of magnetic flux density and
current in a conductor gives force per unit length. Also
called magnetic induction. G = 10-4 T.
magnetic flux leakage. The excursion of magnetic lines
of force from the surface of a specimen, particularly at
discontinuities and shape changes.
magnetic flux penetration. The depth to which mag-
netic flux is generated in a specimen.
magnetic hysteresis. The noncorrespondence in the
magnetization of a specimen when coming to the same
value of magnetizing force from an increasing or a
decreasing direction.
magnetic induction. Another name for magnetic flux
density.
magnetic ink. An ink containing magnetic-ceramic par-
ticles; used for printing characters for magnetic charac-
ter recognition.
magnetic lens. A set of magnets used to focus or defocus
a beam of charged particles such as electrons in an
electron microscope.
magnetic levitation. A superconducting ring mounted
over a magnetized rail will cause a lifting force as a
current is induced in the ring.
 197
magneticlines of force. Lines used to represent the
magnetic induction in a magnetic field such as are
produced when iron filings are sprinkled over a non-
magnetic sheet placed over a magnet.
magnetic moment. Short for magnetic dipole moment.
magnetic-particle inspection. A nondestructive test
procedure whereby discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials are revealed as magnetic particles sprinkled
over the surface collect at the site of the defects.
magnetic pick-up. A form of gramophone pick-up
where the stylus moves a ferromagnet core in a coil
causing a change in the magnetic field that produces the
current.
magnetic pulley. A magnetized pulley at the discharge
end of a conveyor which attracts and removes magnetic
impurities from a material cascading over the end of the
conveyor.
magnetic purification. The removal of magnetic parti-
cles from a slip or slurry by means of magnets.
magnetic resonance imaging. MRI; a new diagnostic
imaging method utilizing interactions between a mag-
netic field, radio-frequency radiation, and hydrogen
atoms. Differences in the magnetic properties of tissues
give rise to clear images. In ceramic manufacture it is
used to examine green state ware for flaws. The system
must contain nuclei with odd numbers of protons or
neutrons; most suitable for water-containing systems
and so can be used to monitor wall buildup in slip
casting.
magnetic saturation. The point at which the field
strength of a magnetized material will not increase by
application of additional magnetizing force.
magnetic separator. An apparatus in which fluid sus-
pensions are passed over a series of magnets to remove
magnetic substances and separate minerals and powders
according to their density and magnetic properties.
magnetic shielding. The use of superconducting wires
and sheets to create regions free from all magnetic fields
or to shape magnetic fields.
magnetic susceptibility. The amount by which the rela-
tive permeability of a material differs from unity; posi-
tive for a paramagnetic medium, negative for a
diamagnetic material; X =IIH, where I is the intensity
of magnetization at any point within the body and H is
the magnetic flux producing I.
magnetic tape. A long narrow plastic strip coated with
iron oxide or other ferroceramic; used to record sound
or video signals, or to store information in computers.
magnetic thickness gauge. An instrument used to meas-
ure the thickness of porcelain enamel in which the
magnetic force needed to lift a magnet from the coating
is calibrated to indicate the distance between the coating
surface and the coating-metal interface.
MAGTAPE
magnetic writing. A nonrelevant indication caused
when a magnetic part comes in contact with another
ferromagnet.
magnetism. (I) The property of attraction as exhibited
by a magnet. (2) A field of force caused by a moving
electric charge.
magnetism, free. See free magnetism.
magnetism, residual. See residual magnetism.
magnetite. Fe304 or FeFe204; an iron oxide spinel; mp
1594°C; sp. gr. 5.2; hardness (Mohs) 6; a ferromagnetic
ceramic; used as a colorant in the production of pale
green, celadon greens, and pale blues, and black glazes,
and as a permanent magnet. Also known as lodestone.
magnetization curve. A plot showing the relation be-
tween magnetic induction, B, and magnetizing force, H,
for a magnetic material; also known as a B-H curve.
magnetization, flash. See flash magnetization.
magnetization, swing-field. See swing-field magneti-
zation.
magnetization, yoke. See yoke magnetization.
magnetizing current. The flow of electric current in-
ducing magnetism into a substance.
magneto. A small electric generator in which the mag-
netic field is produced by a permanent magnet; often
used to produce sparks.
magnetochemistry. Branch of chemistry concerned
with the relationship between magnetic, structural, and
chemical properties.
magnetohydrodynamics. MHD. (I) The generation of
electricity by subjecting a plasma to a magnetic field
and collecting the deflected, free electrons. (2) The
study of conducting fluids in magnetic fields.
magnetometer. Sensors designed to measure magnetic
field strength.
magneton. (1) A unit of magnetic moment equal to
eh/4nm, where e and m are the charge and mass of an
electron, and h is the Planck constant; it has a value of
9.274096 x 10-24 joule per tesla. Also called the Bohr
magneton. (2) A thermionic device for generating mi-
crowave power; widely used in industrial applications
of microwave heating.
magnetostriction. A positive or negative reversible
strain along the axis of magnetization caused by the
magnetic dipoles in the solid being rotated into align-
ment. Conversely, pressure applied to a magnetic ce-
ramic changes its magnetic properties.
magnet, permanent. See permanent magnet.
magnum. A 1.5-liter glass or ceramic bottle.
mag tape. Abbreviation for magnetic tape.
MAIN ARCH
main arch. The crown or central part of a furnace, kiln,
or glass tank.
majolica. An earthenware of relatively high absorption
and low mechanical strength, usually coated with a
glossy, tin oxide-opacified white glaze, with colored
overglaze decoration fired at relatively low tempera-
tures. See Delft ware.
majolica glaze. A glossy, tin oxide-opacified white or
colored, overglaze decoration fired at a relatively low
temperature.
majority carrier. The type of carrier, for example, a
hole, in a semiconductor that constitutes more than 50%
of the charge carrier concentration.
maker. The chief man in a glassblowing team or chair.
malachite green. CU2C03(OH)z; basic copper carbon-
ate; used as a green colorant in stoneware and as a green
dye to indicate the absorption characteristics of ceramic
bodies.
male end of pipe. The end part of a pipe which is over-
lapped by the end of an adjacent pipe.
malfunction. Failure to perform in the normal or in-
tended manner.
malleable. Able to be shaped or worked by blows or
pressure without breaking.
mallet. A hammer with a head of wood, rubber, or raw-
hide, used to shape metal to be used in making porce-
lain-enamel artware.
maim. An easily crumbled limestone; used in the manu-
facture of brick. and as an antic razing ingredient in
stoneware.
malmstone. Chert used as a foundation material in build-
ing and paving.
mandrel. (I) A steel shaft on which bonded abrasives are
attached in the production of grinding wheels. (2) A
shaft inserted through a hole in a component to serve as
a support during machining. (3) A refractory tube used
in the production of glass rod and tubing. (4) A core
around which filament wound structures are formed.
manganese-alumina pink. A ceramic colorant consist-
ing of a calcined mixture of manganese carbonate,
aluminum hydrate, and borax.
manganese aluminate. MnAI 20 4; mp 1560°C; sp. gr.
4.12; a partially inverse spinel with magneto-ceramic
properties.
manganese aluminum silicate. (I) Mn2AI4Sis0I7; mp
1297°C; hardness (Mohs) 5-7. (2) Mn3A12Si301Q; mp
I I 98°C; sp. gr. 4.18; hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
manganese carbonate. MnC0 3; decomposes on heat-
ing; sp. gr. 3.125; used as a black, brown. and purple
colorant in glazes.
manganese dioxide. Mn02; a polymorphic oxide con-
verted to Mn203 at 535°C; sp. gr. 5.0; used in glass as
198
both a colorant and decolorizer depending on the fur-
nace atmosphere, as a mineralizer in whiteware bodies
and electrical porcelain, as a black, brown, and purple
colorant in glazes, and as an oxidizing agent, colorant,
and adherence-promoting agent in porcelain-enamels.
As the y -polymorph it is a promising cathode material
for high-energy-density lithium batteries.
manganese fenate. MnFe204; mpI571°C; sp. gr. 4.75;
a disordered spinel with electrical and magnetic uses.
manganese fluoride. MnF2; large crystals can be easily
made with the fluorite structure in which Ni 2+ ions can
be substituted to make a laser with a wavelength of 1.93
/!m.
manganese pyrophosphate. Mn2P207; mpI196°C; sp.
gr. 3.7; used as a binder phase in castables.
manganese silicate. (I) MnSi0 3; mp 1323°C; sp. gr. 3.7.
(2) Mn2Si04; mp 1340°C; sp. gr. 4.05.
manganese titanate. (I) MnTi0 3; a perovskite with
magnetic properties; mp 1359°C; sp. gr. 4.54.
(2) TiMn204; mp 1454°C; sp. gr. 4.54; a spinel with
varying degrees of disorder; a ferromagnetic ceramic
with a Curie temperature of 77 K.
manganese vanadate. Mn2 V04; ferromagnetic spinel
phase with a Curie temperature of 62 K.
manganic oxide. MnZ03; sp. gr. 4.32-4.82; loses oxy-
gen at 1080°C.
manganite. y-MnO(OH); sp. gr.4.2-4.4; hardness
(Mohs) 4; a brown, monoclinic ore sometimes called
bog manganese; a source of manganese dioxide, Mn02'
manganosite. MnO; a rock-salt structure oxide; often
widely nonstoichiometric.
manganous-manganic oxide. Mn304; a spinel phase
better written as MnMn204; mp 1565°C; sp. gr. 4.82;
hardness (Mohs) 5-5.5; used for its semiconducting
properties; occurs naturally as the mineral hausmannite.
manganous oxide. MnO; mp 1650°C; sp. gr. 5.09-5.18;
used in glass compositions, in ferromagnetic materials,
and computer memory cores.
mangle. A vertical-type dryer in which ware is dried in
the molds in which it was formed.
manhole. A concrete structure serving as an access to
underground areas.
manhole base. Concrete slab foundation of the bottom
manhole riser section with or without an integrally cast
concrete floor over which a manhole is constructed.
manhole reducer. A concrete pipe serving as the transi-
tionjoint between manhole risers of different diameters.
manhole riser. The section of concrete pipe used in the
construction of a manhole, but excluding the base,
reducers, and top sections.
 199
manhole top. The concrete slab or conical top employed
to reduce the diameter of the manhole riser to that of the
desired access hole.
manifold. An arrangement in which a pipe or tube with
at least one inlet provides two or more outlets to other
pipes, such as in the delivery of fuel from a single line
to several burners in a furnace or kiln.
man-made mineral fibers. MMMFs; ceramic composi-
tions formed by a number of processes into substitutes
for natural asbestos fibers; the bulk of such production
is glassy forms of carbon, silicon carbide, boron nitride,
calcium sulfate, alumina, and glass itself.
manometer. An instrument to measure the difference
between two fluid pressures.
mantel. A horizontal structure over a space in a blast
furnace to carry the weight of the refractories and the
casing of the exhaust stack.
manufactured alumina. Alumina, and mixtures con-
taining alumina, subjected to thermal treatments suffi-
cient to produce crystalline products for use as
abrasives.
manufactured carbon. Family of materials which are
essentially a bonded granular form of carbon subjected
to temperatures between 900 and 2400°C. Each mem-
ber varies in such characteristics as pore density, pore
size, degree of crystallization, and orientation.
manufactured graphite. See manufactured carbon.
map, cracking. See pattern cracking.
mar. To mutilate a surface.
marble. A metamorphic rock of large grain size grown
from limestone or dolomite, that may be polished; mar-
ble dust is used as a source of calcium oxide, CaO, in
glazes.
marbled ware. A surface finish on ceramic and porce-
lain-enamel ware produced by the irregular blending of
slips of different colors, resulting in the appearance of
variegated marble.
marbles. Glass spheres used to load heated bushings
from which CF glass fibers are pulled. One marble
weighing 13.3 g will produce 234 Ian of single-filament
fiber.
marcasite. FeS2; a polymorph of iron sulfide commonly
formed in a cockscomb habit of orthorhombic crystals
with a metallic luster; pale bronze color; sp. gr. 4.88;
hardness (Mohs) 6-6.5.
marl clay. A crumbly clay containing magnesium and
calcium; used in the production of building bricks, and
as an anticrazing ingredient in stoneware.
mar resistance. Another measure of abrasive resistance
where a surface is abraided and then the gloss of the
abraided areas are compared with unabraided areas
using a glossmeter.
MASS ACTION LAW
Mars pigments. A series of pigments (yellow, orange,
brown, red, and violet) made by calcining to different
temperatures precipitates from solutions of calcium hy-
droxide and ferrous sulfate.
martensite. If the iron-carbon solid-solution phase
austenite is quenched rapidly it cannot transform by
carbon diffusion to ferrite or ferrite-cementite eutectic,
but does transform by a diffusionless mechanism to a
distorted tetragonal structure which is martensite.
Marteu's heat deflection temperature. The tempera-
ture at which a bar of rigid material is deflected by a
specified amount in a four-point bend test.
Martin's cement. A quick-setting gypsum cement in
which potassium carbonate is used instead of alum.
marver. A flat plate of metal or stone on which hand-
gathered glass is rolled, shaped, and cooled.
maser. Acronym for microwave amplification by stimu-
lated emission of radiation; a device for amplifying
microwaves dependent on the same principles as the
laser.
maser, optical. See optical maser.
mask. A protective covering placed over portions of a
surface to prevent subsequent treatments of coatings
from affecting those areas. Particularly used now in
preparing microcircuits on ceramic chips.
masking power. The ability of a coating, such as a glaze
or porcelain-enamel, to obscure the surface to which it
is applied.
MASNMR. Abbreviation for magic angle spinning nu-
clear magnetic resonance spectroscopy; a technique
developed to produce narrow-linewidth spectra from
solid-state samples. The sample is spun rapidly around
an axis aligned at 54.7° to the direction of the applied
magnetic field; used to examine 27 Al and 29Si sites in
aluminosilicates and so obtain structural data concern-
ing tetrahedral linkage patterns. A nondestructive test.
mason. A worker engaged in the building of stone struc-
tures.
masonry. A construction of brick, tile, concrete, and
stone, used separately or in various combinations: usu-
ally bonded with mortar.
masonry cement. A hydraulic cement composed of a
mixture of natural or portland cement, hydrated lime,
and sand for use in mortars for masonry construction.
masonry, prefabricated. See prefabricated masonry.
masonry, reinforced. See reinforced masonry.
masonry unit. Natural or manufactured building units of
fired clay, stone, glass, gypsum, or concrete.
masonry unit, modular. See modular masonry unit.
mass action law. A statement to the effect that in a sys-
tem at constant temperature the rate of a chemical
MASS BALANCE
reaction is proportional to the concentration of the
reactants.
mass balance. (1) A comparison of the masses of reac-
tants used and the products obtained in a chemical
process. (2) A structural counterpoise.
mass concrete. Concrete placed in large masses, such as
in dams or large footings, frequently containing pozzo-
lans and large aggregate, and set without structural
reinforcement.
mass, critical. See critical mass.
mass driver. A track surrounded by a series of electro-
magnetic rings used to accelerate magnetic materials.
massicot. The form of lead monoxide, PbO, prepared
below the fusion temperature.
mass number. The total number of neutrons and protons
in an atomic nucleus.
mass spectrometer. A sensitive method of analysis in
which the vapor species above a solid are ionized and
passed through a magnetic field to separate them by
their momentum and mass/charge ratio.
mass stress. The force per unit mass per unit length in
fiber loading, for example, grams per denier.
mass transfer zone. The region in which the concentra-
tion of adsorbate in a fluid decreases from influent
concentration to the lowest detectable concentration.
master cylinder. A large cylinder in a hydraulic system
in which the working fluid is compressed by a piston.
master mold. A plaster mold cast around a model, in
which a case mold or replica of the model may be cast.
mastic. A pastelike material used as an adhesive in the
setting of tile or similar product.
mat. (1) A feltlike product made from glass fibers. (2) A
concrete footing under a post. (3) Mesh reinforcement
in a concrete slab. (4) A surface finish of low gloss.
mat, chemic'dly bound. See chemically bound mat.
matchmark. A mark made on mating components to
ensure that they are assembled in the correct relative
positions.
material. The substance of which a thing is composed or
made; component or constituent matter.
material balance. The comparison of input and output
of material quantities for a particular process: generally,
the comparison of inventory plus receipts at the begin-
ning of a process with the inventory plus shipments at
the end of the process.
material balance area. An area within a factory where
material records are maintained in a manner that a
balance may be taken from records to show the amount
of material for which the area is responsible.
material, conducting. See conducting material.
200
material, diamagnetic. See diamagnetic material.
material, ferromagnetic. See ferromagnetic material.
material, inSUlating. See insulating material.
material, nonrerromagnetic. See nonferromagnetic
material.
material, paramagnetic. See paramagnetic material.
material test. Any test designed to measure or evaluate
the chemical, physical, or mechanical properties of a
substance or product.
mat reinforcement. Tension-zone circumferential rein-
forcement secured to a cage in a concrete-pipe wall.
material transfer, arc. See arc material transfer.
matrix. (I) The solid matter in which aggregates or crys-
tal phases are embedded or bonded. (2) The bonding and
protective material part of a fiber composite.
matte. A liquid with a high freezing temperature consist-
ing mainly of molten sulfides.
matte enamel. A porcelain-enamel which after firing
has no gloss.
matte glaze. A fired glaze having little or no gloss. It
differs from gloss transparent glaze in the large quantity
of small crystals distributed throughout the glaze as
well as on its surface. Typical crystals are wollastonite,
diopside, and willemite. Typical glaze composition in
molecular presentation is: 0.545 Na20, 0.044 K20,
0.335 CaO, 0.076 ZnO, 0.307 A1 20 3, 0.006 Fe203'
5.420 Si02, 0.893 8 2°3' 0.408 zr0 2.
matte, lime. See lime matte.
matte porcelain-enamel. A fired porcelain-enamel of
little or no gloss.
Matthiessen's rule. Vacancies quenched into both
sub lattices of a binary compound contribute to the re-
sistivity with an equal proportion at all temperatures.
maturation. The extent of reaction of the clay decompo-
sition reaction and transformation in traditional ceramic
ware after the firing cycle.
maturing. The final stages of processing during which
ceramic bodies and coatings develop desired chemical,
physical, and mechanical properties.
maturing range. The combination of time and tempera-
ture required to develop desired chemical and physical
properties in a ceramic body, coating, or related mate-
rial.
maturing temperature. The temperature at which ce-
ramic bodies and coatings develop desired chemical and
physical properties over a reasonable time interval.
mat, vacuum. See vacuum mat.
 201
maximum size. The smallest sieve opening through
which the entire amount of a material, such as aggre-
gate, is permitted to pass.
maximum thermometer. A thermometer that gives a
permanent indication of the maximum temperature at-
tained during a period of time and has to be reset for
subsequent tests.
mazarine blue. A rich, dark-blue ceramic color contain-
ing approximately 50% cobalt oxide; used as under- or
over-glaze colorant.
MBI. Abbreviation for the methylene blue index. A spec-
trophotometer is used to determine the end-point of
methylene blue dye absorption on suspended clay par-
ticles by detecting a surplus left in solution; expressed
as mg g-l of dry clay; it is a measure of clay surface
area.
MCF. Abbreviation for metal coated fiber.
MDF cement. A composite involving an inorganic hy-
draulic cement such as OPC, and a water-soluble poly-
mer, such as PV A (polyvinyl acetate) mixed with water
at a low water-to-cement ratio, 0.10-0.15, and mixed
by mechanical shearing to remove the macro-sized
pores as the mixture sets.
mean life. In radioactivity it is the average lifetime of a
particular nuclei; the half-life divided by 0.693.
mean stress. cr;
the simple mean of the maximum and
minimum stress in one cycle of a dynamic loading
fatigue test.
mechanical analysis. Mechanical separation of parti-
cles, such as aggregate, on a nest of sieves of graded
sizes to determine particle-size distribution in the parent
material.
mechanical anharmonicity. The effect a non parabolic
restoring potential has on an oscillator when the restor-
ing force is not proportional to the displacement.
mechanical boy. A mechanism to manipulate the mold
in the hand-forming of glass.
mechanical damping. Mechanical resistance to the
movement of solids in a structure.
mechanical dissipation factor. The loss modulus di-
vided by Young's modulus of elasticity.
mechanical equation of state. Various relationships
between stress, strain, strain rate, and temperature,
where one variable is expressed as a linear equation of
the others.
mechanical hysteresis. A situation where an elastic un-
loading stress-strain curve does not follow the loading
curve. The area contained by the two curves equals heat
generated by the system.
mechanical impedance. Zm: the ratio of the mechanical
force along the direction of motion to the velocity of the
resulting vibration.
MEDIUM-DUTY FIRECLAY BRICK
mechanical integrity factor. MIF; the mechanical
strength of square-cell, cellular-ceramic catalyst sup-
port systems: MIF =?-IL(L - t), where t is the cell wall
thickness and L is the cell repeat length. MIF times the
ceramic material strength gives the cellular structure
strength.
mechanical interlock. (1) Failure of electrical contacts
to separate due to surface asperities formed by oxida-
tion. (2) The joining of two components by means of
hooks, dowels, keys, dovetails, etc.
mechanical press. A press in which ware is formed in a
die under a mechanically applied pressure.
mechanical properties. Properties of materials associ-
ated with elastic and inelastic reactions in response to
an applied force; they are related via relationships in-
volving stress and strain.
mechanical separation. A process where materials are
separated into fractional components by settling, filtra-
tion, or centrifugal action.
mechanical shovel. A machine controlling a large scoop
which can be manipulated to transfer solid materials
into containers or trucks.
mechanical slip. A fine surface layer produced by
smoothing a wet clay surface.
mechanical spalling. Breaking away of chip-like pieces
of a ceramic or glass under the influence of impact or
pressure.
mechanical water. Uncombined water, usually added to
a body or slip to produce plasticity or workability, and
which is removed by evaporation during drying or the
early stages of firing; calculated as the difference in
weight of a sample of the plastic body and its weight
after drying to constant weight at 110°C; may be re-
ported as a percentage of the plastic or the dry weight
of the sample, the latter being preferred. Also called free
water, or uncombined water.
mechanical wear. Removal of surface material due to
mechanical action such as abrasion.
media. The aggregate used in ball mills.
median vent. The crack initiated below the contact point
of a Vickers pyramid indenter when a critical load is
exceeded. On removal of the indenter this crack ex-
tends, driven by the residual stress, to become part of
the surface cracks known as lateral vents and from
which fracture toughness parameters can be calculated.
medina quartzite. A variety of quartz containing 97.8%
silica; mp 1900°C.
medium. A surrounding substance in which bodies exist
and move, and through which a force acts, or an effect
is produced: for example, water is the medium in which
glazes and porcelain-enamel frits are milled.
medium-duty fireclay brick. A refractory fireclay
brick with a peE value of at least 29 and no greater than
31.5.
MEERSCHAUM
meerschaum. A lightweight mixture of sepiolite and
other minerals; easily carved.
megalith. A stone of great size.
Meissen. The first hard-paste porcelain to be made in
Europe in 1710, following the discovery by Bottger in
Saxony.
Meissner effect. The expulsion of magnetic field from a
superconductor. If a superconductor is taken toward a
magnetic field it sets up screening currents on its surface
which create an equal but opposite magnetic field to
cancel the original field and allow none into its interior.
The reverse process causes a superconductor to lift
above a magnetic field when it is cooled down to its
critical temperature. If the magnetic field becomes too
great the Meissner effect is overcome, magnetic field
penetration occurs, and the material loses its supercon-
ductivity.
melamine formaldehyde. An amino resin made from
formaldehyde and melamine; used as a matrix for some
glass-fiber composites and as a bonding agent for glass-
fiber insulation.
melanite. A form of andradite garnet.
melanterite. A natural ore containing ferrous sulfate,
FeS04·H20.
melilites. Silicates that contain discrete (Si20 7)6- ions,
such as akermanite, Ca2MgSi207'
melt. (l) A change of state from solid to liquid effected
by raising the temperature of the solid. (2) A molten
substance. (3) A specific quantity of glass melted at one
time.
melter. (l) The chamber of a glass tank in which a glass
batch is melted. (2) A person supervising a glass tank
during the filling and melting operation.
melting. Fusion; the thermal process of converting a
solid to a liquid.
melting, boost. See boost melting.
melting, congruent. See congruent melting.
melting end. The main chamber of a tank furnace into
which the batch is charged and melted.
melting furnace. Any of the several types of furnace in
which raw batches of glass and porcelain-enamel are
melted.
melting, incongruent. See incongruent melting.
melting point. The temperature at which crystalline and
liquid phases of the same composition coexist in equi-
librium.
melting temperature. The temperature range at which
heterogeneous mixtures, such as a glass batch, glazes,
and porcelain-enamels, become molten or softened.
202
melting zone. The section of a glass tank or smelter in
which batches of glass or glass-forming mixtures are
melted.
melt phase epitaxy. A surface layer growth technique in
which a substrate of higher melting point and with a
small lattice mismatch is chosen for device manufac-
ture. A fine powder of the device material is sprinkled
on the surface and the temperature is raised until it just
melts; slow cooling then produces the epitaxial layer.
LiNb0 3 layers about 6 !lm thick on top of LiTa03 are
made this way.
melt spinning. The process in which molten glass is
extruded through a spinneret into fibers.
membrane. Any thin pliable sheet of material.
membrane curing. The process of curing concrete by
spraying a liquid, such as a bituminous compound, onto
the surface to form a solid impervious layer which seals
it and prevents moisture loss during the curing process.
membrane waterproofing. The laying of alternate lay-
ers of bitumen and felt or fabric and concrete to produce
a waterproof foundation or roof.
menhaden fish oil. A natural-product dispersant; used
in the ceramics industry, after it has been conditioned
by blowing air at 90°C through it; used to disperse
aggregated AI 20 3 and ferrite powders in aqueous and
organic suspensions. Reactive toward basic particles.
meniscus. (I) The curvature observed where a still liquid
makes contact with the walls of a container. (2) A
bulblike mass of glass at the origin of the drawn sheet
produced in the Fourcault process.
merch brick. Discolored, off-size, or distorted building
brick.
mercurous chromate. Hg2Cr04; a green pigment for
ceramics.
mercury barometer. A pressure-measuring instrument
in which variations in atmospheric pressure are meas-
ured in the rise and fall of a column of mercury con-
tained in a partially evacuated glass tube sealed at the
top, the open end resting in a reservoir of mercury
exposed to the atmosphere.
mercury porosity. The volume fraction of connected
pores in a material as determined by injecting mercury
metal at high pressure into the solid sample.
merthiolate. A powerful germicide and fungicide; used
to prevent fermentation in porcelain-enamel, glaze, and
other slips.
merwinite. Ca3Mg(Si04h; an ionic silicate.
mesa. A raised area with very sharp sides and a flat top;
the description given to masked areas of a ceramic
microchip when surrounding areas have been etched
away.
 203
mesh. (1) The open spaces in a screen or sieve. (2) A
woven or expanded metal or ceramic fiber construction
resembling an open basket weave.
mesh marks. A fault in screen printed designs caused
when the ink does not have good flow properties and it
leaves a fine crosshatch of the screen fabric on drying.
mesh number, mesh size. (1) A code number indicating
the number of openings in a screen per linear inch or
centimeter, e.g., mesh number 10 has apertures 1.68
mm. (2) The designated size of particles passed through
a screen, the number being derived from the number of
openings in the screen per linear inch.
mesogen. A liquid crystal unit.
mesophase. An intermediate hybrid material describing
a transfer between two phases, e.g., graphite-meso-
phase-pitch. Can act as crack arrester to improve tough-
ness.
metaborate. See borates.
metachromatism. A change in color caused by a change
in temperature.
metacinnabarite. Black mercuric sulfide; HgS.
metal. (1) The contents of a glass melting unit. (2) Any
of a number of chemical elements such as copper, iron,
titanium, etc., which are ductile and have a metallic
luster as well as being good conductors of electricity.
metal base. A metal product to which a coating, such as
porcelain-enamel, is applied.
metal blister. A blisterlike bloating occurring in sheet
metal; a source of defects in porcelain-enameling.
metal-ceramic. See cermet.
metal drift tube. A cylindrical metal tube to which a
voltage may be applied so that ions entering the tube are
accelerated to change their drift velocity.
metalkase brick. Basic brick contained in thin steel cas-
ing or boxlike enclosures as protection against hostile
environments, particularly corrosive atmospheres at
high temperatures, as in flues.
metallic bond. A chemical bond type arising from the
increased spatial extension of the valence electron wave
functions when an aggregate of atoms are brought close
together.
metallic color. A suspension of metallic powders, such
as gold, silver, and platinum, in an oil; used to produce
metallic decorations when fired onto ceramic ware.
metallic mortar. A ceramic mortar containing substan-
tial amounts of lead powder; used to form plasters,
casting sections, and blocks for x-ray and nuclear
shielding.
metallic soap. Anyone of a number of colloidal
stearates, palmitates, and oleates, of aluminum, cal-
cium, magnesium, iron, and zinc, used as pressing aids,
METASTABLE PHASES
fungicides, drying agents, waterproofing agents, lubri-
cants, and binders.
metal line. (1) The upper surface of metal or glass in a
melting tank or pot. (2) The line of contact between the
upper surface of molten glass and the refractory of a
melting tank or pot. (3) A line of maximum corrosion
of the refractory by the glass.
metallization. The process of turning an oxide ore into
the metal by chemical reduction.
metallized ceramic. A ceramic to which a thin metallic
coating has been deposited to facilitate making ce-
ramic-to-metal seals.
metallizing. The process of coating or impregnating the
surface of glass or ceramic with a metal. Often involves
vapor deposition.
metalloid. Resembling a metal; a nonmetallic element,
such as silicon, that has some of the properties of a
metal.
metallurgical coal-base refractory. A commercial re-
fractory made of metallurgical coke.
metallurgy, powder. See powder metallurgy.
metal marking. A line of discoloration formed when a
metallic object, such as a knife, is drawn across the
surface of a ceramic body, glaze, or porcelain-enamel.
metal oxide resistor. A resistor consisting of a layer of
ceramic oxide deposited onto a ceramic substrate.
metal oxide semiconductor. (I) A metal insulator-
semiconductor system in which the insulating layer is
the oxide of the metal substrate. (2) Material, such as
NiO of intermediate resistance value, whose resistance
decreases as the temperature is increased.
metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. A
magnetic field effect transistor having an insulated gate
consisting of silicon dioxide, Si0 2 .
metaloxide varistor. See varistor.
metal tender. A workman supervising the temperature
and melting operations of a glass tank.
metal transfer. The transfer of material from one elec-
trical contact to another in a mating situation.
metameric color. A color which will appear the same
under one condition of lighting, but will assume a
different color in different lighting.
metamorphic. Altered considerably from the original
structure and composition by pressure and heat.
metaphosphoric acid. (HP03)x; a glassy, deliquescent,
polymeric solid used as a dehydrating agent.
metastable. Having a state of apparent equilibrium but
capable of changing to a more stable state.
metastable phases. Phases formed under nonequili-
brium conditions and which do not appear on a phase
METASTABLE STATE
diagram. They tend to decompose at temperatures
where diffusion is appreciable.
metastable state. An excited state of an atom capable of
existing for as long as a few seconds.
metatitanates. Ceramics with the general composition
MTi0 3 ·
metatungstic acid. See tungstic acid.
met-cars. Recently discovered metal cluster carbides,
such as Ti g C 12 ,which have the dodecahedral structure
of fullerene, C 20 , but are more stable because of the
presence of metal-carbon sigma bonds.
methacrylate resin. An acrylic resin derived from po-
lymerization of methacrylic acid, CH 2C(CH 3)COOH.
methoxide. A saltlike compound in which the hydrogen
atom in the hydroxyl group of methanol is replaced by
a metal atom; used in sol and gel preparations.
methuselah. A glass or ceramic bottle of 6 liter capacity
for table wines, or 4.5 liters for sparkling wines.
methylacetate. A colorless liquid which can be polym-
erized into transparent sheets that are used as a liner
between sheets of glass in the production of safety glass
to prevent the glass from shattering into sharp fragments
if broken.
methylcellulose. A gum made from cotton cellulose;
used as a binder, lubricant, wetting agent, plasticizer,
and suspension agent in the manufacture of refractories,
whiteware, abrasives, and general structural clay prod-
ucts.
metric ton. A unit of mass equal to 1000 kg. Also called
tonne.
Meyer hardness. The hardness value obtained when a
spherical indenter is used to indent a polished ceramic
surface and the applied load is divided by the projected
area ofthe arc-shaped indent. Although this is the same
principle as the Brinell test the two scales do not corre-
spond.
Meyer's law. This relates the applied load, P, and inden-
tation diagonal length, a, in a Vickers hardness test: P
=KLan, where KL is the load needed to make an indent
of a size where a = I ~m, and n is the ISE index. When
n = 2, hardness will be load independent.
M-glass. A silica glass containing substantial amounts of
beryllia, BeO, designed to make high modulus fibers.
MHD electrodes. Conducting electrodes made from
ceria, Ce02, doped zirconia, Zr02, able to function at
I 800°C in magnetohydrodynamic generators. In such a
generator an electrically charged gas is moved at high
velocity through a magnetic field thereby generating a
d. c. current which is collected by these electrodes.
mho. See siemens.
mica. A group of mineral silicates having similar physi-
cal characteristics and crystal structures, but of varying
204
chemical compositions, containing hydroxyl, alkali,
and aluminosilicate groups; used as electrical insula-
tion. May be colorless, brown, red, yellow, green, or
black. These minerals are derived from the structure of
talc or pyrophyllite in which some Si4+ is replaced by
A1 3+ in the electrically neutral sheets.
mica, book. See book mica.
micaceous crystals. Crystals of lamellar habit with one
very thin dimension and the lamellae can be peeled off
along cleavage planes.
mica, crude. See crude mica.
mica, full-trimmed. See full-trimmed mica.
mica, glass-bonded. See glass-bonded mica.
mica, half-trimmed. See half-trimmed mica.
mica, hard. See hard mica.
mica schist. A variety of laminated mica containing sil-
ica, feldspar, and other minerals; used in refractories
and roofing compositions.
mica, soft. See soft mica.
micelle. A colloidal particle and its surrounding bound
water molecules. Some salts, for example, soap, al-
though appearing to dissolve do not do so completely
but form a colloidal solution. In the case of soap the
cations dissolve but the anions are insoluble in water;
however, the positive ions cause the anions to cluster
into colloidal aggregates which are the micelles.
micro. Prefix meaning small.
microcline. KAlSi 30 g; a potassium-rich feldspar in
which the A13+ and Si4+ in the tetrahedral sites are
ordered; hardness (Mohs) 6; sp. gr. 2.54-2.57.
microcrystalline. Possessing a microstructure in which
all the grains are submicron in diameter.
microcrystalline alumina. Small, rough grains of alu-
mina, A1 20 3, recrystallized from the melt for use as an
abrasive.
microelectronics. The branch of electronics dealing
with electronic components of miniature size usually
incorporating solid-state semiconductors.
microelement. Any electronic component (resistor,
transistor, capacitor, diode, etc. ) mounted on a thin
ceramic substrate wafer; such components may be pot-
ted, stacked, interconnected, and arranged to form mi-
cromodules.
microglass. Very thin glass plates used for microscope
cover slips.
micrograms per gram. A measure of the content of a
substance, such as an impurity, in a material; reported
as micrograms of substance per gram of parent liquid or
solid.
 205
microhardness. The value for the indentation hardness
of a surface obtained by one of the normal indentation
procedures (e.g., Vickers) using loads in the range
0.0098 N to 1.96 N, usually involving specialized
equipment and high-quality microscopes.
micron. /lm; 10-{; or one millionth of a meter; approxi-
mately 0.00004 inch.
micropore. A pore sufficiently small that it will retain
water against the force of gravity and retard water flow.
micropore volume. The volume fraction of a porous
solid which consists of all interconnected pores whose
openings are smaller than any arbitrary set value; in
some alumina products about 14 nm.
microscope. An instrument employing a system of
lenses to produce magnified images of objects too small
to be seen by the unaided eye.
microsegregation. The occurrence of concentrations of
elements and compounds within the volume of a grain.
microstructure. An outline of the individual grains of a
polished and etched specimen that requires a micro-
scope to make it visible. It is defined in terms of grain
boundaries, grain size, grain shape, and phase distribu-
tion.
microwave drying. Using the polar structure of water to
heat it with ultrashort electromagnetic waves and hence
evaporate it from solids and suspensions.
microwaves. Electromagnetic radiation with wave-
lengths ranging from I mm to 1m in free space; frequen-
cies range from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. Depending on a
ceramic's dielectric properties, the radiation can be
transmitted or absorbed. Now used in drying and firing
ceramic ware.
midplane. The middle surface of a laminate; usually
designated the z = 0 plane.
midplane symmetric. A laminated composite in which
the midplane is a mirror plane for the lamination se-
quence.
MIF. See mechanical integrity factor.
migration, water. See water migration.
mil. One thousandth of an inch or 0.0254 mm.
mild abrasive. An abrasive material, usually in powder
form, having a hardness (Mohs) of 1-2; for example,
talc.
milk glass. A transluscent white opal glass made by add-
ing alumina, A1 20 3, and fluorspar, CaF 2, to a soda-lime
glass.
milkiness. A cloudy appearance in glass.
mill. A machine employed to reduce the particle size of
solids.
MILL,ROD
mill addition. A material, other than frit, charged into a
mill to complete the batch formula of a porcelain-
enamel or other ceramic slip.
mill, ball. See ball mill.
mill, colloid. See colloid mill.
mill, edge-runner. See edge-runner mill.
millefiori. (1) A decorative technique meaning thou-
sands of flowers. (2) Glass containing a decorative
design of multicolored glass rods or shapes in a clear
glass matrix. (3) Small-cross-section colored glass rods
that can be fused into the surface of porcelain-enamels
in regular or random decorative patterns.
Miller index. The method used to identify and specify
parallel planes in crystals and lattices. It consists of
parentheses enclosing three integers: (hkl), where h, k,
I, are the Miller indices and describe the number of
intersections the planes make with the a, b, and c
dimensions of the unit cell of the structure.
millerite. NiS; found in some serpentines that are used
in ceramic preparations; also a component of meteor-
ites. The crystal habit is long slender needles, brass-yel-
low in color, the crystal class is hexagonal; nonbasal
cleavage; hardness (Mohs) 3-3.5; sp. gr. 5.36.
mill, flint. See flint mill.
mill, fluid-energy. See fluid-energy mill.
mill, hammer. See hammer mill.
mill, Hardinge. See Hardinge mill.
millibar. An atmospheric pressure measurement unit in
the cgs system equal to 10-3 bar, 102 N m-2 , or 0.75006
mmHg.
milligram. mg; one thousandth of a gram.
milliliter. ml; one thousandth of a liter.
millimeter. mm; one thousandth of a meter.
mill, impact. See impact grinder.
milling. The process of grinding, pressing, or crushing in
a mill.
milling, dry. See dry milling.
milling, wet. See wet milling.
mill, jar. See jar mill.
mill, jet. See jet mill.
mill, pebble. See pebble mill.
mill, pin. See pin mill.
mill, prall. See prall mill.
mill, pug. See pug mill.
mill, rod. See rod mill.
MILL SCALE
mill scale. A black, magnetic form of iron oxide, mainly
Fe304' formed on the surface of iron and steel before
and during rolling and forging.
millstone. A hard, tough stone used to grind minerals and
cements.
mill, tube. See tube mill.
mill, vacuum pug. See vacuum pug mixer.
mill, vibratory. See vibratory crusher.
mill, vibroenergy. See vibroenergy mill.
mill wash. The residues obtained by washing the interior
of a mill after a charge has been removed.
mimetite. Pbs Cl(As04 )3; a yellowish mineral oflead and
arsenic.
min. Abbreviation for: (I) minute, (2) minimum, (3)
mineralogy.
mineral. A naturally occurring substance of charac-
teristic chemical composition and physical properties,
usually expressed by a chemical formula and having a
family name; for example, feldspar, ilmenite, fireclay,
etc.
mineral, economic. See economic mineral.
mineral fiber. Nonmetallic inorganic fibers either natu-
rally occurring, such as asbestos, or synthesized, like
carbon fiber.
mineral green. See copper carbonate.
mineral inclusion. Foreign matter of different physical
and chemical characteristics contained in a parent min-
eral, such as metallic oxides in mica which appear as
deep, distinct, and saturated colors in transmitted light.
mineralizer. A small quantity of a material, such as a
flux, added to a refractory brick or other refractory
composition to promote crystal growth and aid sinter-
ing.
mineralogy. The branch of geology concerned with the
study of minerals.
mineral oil. (I) Any oil of mineral origin, especially
petroleum. (2) Liquid paraffin.
minerals, accessory. See accessory mineral.
mineral sands. Beach sand deposits found in several
parts of the world which contain zircon, ZrSi04 , in
association with other heavy minerals, such as ilmenite,
FeTi0 3, rutile, Ti0 2 , and monazite, (Ce,La,Th)P04 .
mineral tar. A natural, black, viscous tar intermediate in
properties between asphalt and petroleum.
mineral wax. Another name for ozocerite.
mineral wool. Fibrous products of random orientation
produced by blowing air or steam through a molten
stream of rock, slag, or glass; used for sound and ther-
206
mal insulation, fireproofing, and as a filter medium.
Also called rock wool.
minimum thermometer. A thermometer which leaves a
marker at the lowest temperature reached during an
interval of time.
minium. See red lead.
mirror. Polished glass with an adherent coating of silver
on the back side to produce a highly reflective unit.
mirror plane. In a crystal structure it is the plane on
either side of which the structure repeats itself.
miscibility. The ability of two or more liquids to mix and
blend into one uniform phase.
MISFET. See MIS field effect transistor.
MIS field effect transistor. Partial acronym for metal-
insulator-semiconductor field effect transistor; a con-
ducting channel formed by a strip of n- or p-type
semiconductor adjacent to a gate of p- or n-type mate-
rial.
mismatch. To match or fit inaccurately or unsuitably,
such as colors, joints, mold parts, expansion charac-
teristics, etc.
miter bevel. A bevel made for decorative or aesthetic
purposes, or for making a right -angle joint such as with
two pieces of glass.
miter cut. A cut made by the V-shaped edge of an abra-
sive wheel.
miter joint. A joint made by beveling each of two sur-
faces to be joined, usually at a 45 0 angle, to form a 90 0
corner.
mix. (I) To combine and blend into a homogeneous
mass. (2) A blended mixture or batch ready for process-
ing.
mixed alkali effect. An effect observed in glasses when
a second alkali ion is substituted on a cation basis for
the alkali in the composition; resistivity is higher for the
mixed-alkali glass than for that containing a single type
of alkali cation.
mixed halide effect. An effect observed in lead silicate
glasses into which alkali halides have been dissolved;
as a second halide is added the glass resistivity increases
sharply from that found for a single halide solute. This
is the anion analogue of the mixed alkali effect in
glasses.
mixer. A machine designed to mix batch ingredients.
mixer, batch. See batch-type mixer.
mixer, dual-drum. See dual-drum mixer.
mixer, muller. See muller.
mixer, pug. See pug mill.
mixer, shaft. See shaft mixer.
 207
mixer, truck. See truck mixer.
mixer, vacuum. See vacuum mixer.
mixer, vacuum pug. See vacuum pug mixer.
mixing. The process of combining and blending ingredi·
ents into one mass or mixture until the individual con-
stituents are indistinguishable.
mix, lean. See lean mix.
mix proportions. (I) The ratio, by weight or volume, of
ingredients constituting a batch. (2) The actual amounts
of ingredients in a batch.
MLC capacitors. Multilayer ceramic capacitors devel-
oped on BaTi03 materials in order to achieve size
reductions by utilizing the capacitance density of bar-
ium titanate and vapor deposition methodology. An
MLC capacitor with n dielectric layers is equivalent to
n disk capacitors in parallel.
mm. Abbreviation for millimeter, 10-3 m.
mmHg. Abbreviation for millimeter of mercury, which
is a unit of pressure equal to the pressure that can
support a column of mercury I mm high. 13.595 x
980.67 x 10-2 N m-2.
MMMFs. Abbreviation for man-made mineral fibers.
MMR. Abbreviation for magnetically modulated micro-
wave reflection spectroscopy; used to estimate Tc for
superconductors and to assess grain size effects.
mm waves. Electromagnetic radiation with a frequency
above 30 GHz.
mobility. The workability or freedom of a plastic mass
to move, either in a random motion or under the influ-
ence of a force.
mobility edge. A concept used to interpret semiconduc-
tion in some amorphous ceramics. It is the critical
density of states above which all states show a finite
mobility for transport of free carriers but below which
all states are localized.
mobilometer. An instrument to evaluate the flow char-
acteristics of slips and slurries. See Gardner mobilome-
ter.
mocha stone. Another name for moss agate.
mock-up. A scale model of an apparatus for demonstra-
tion, testing, or study.
MOCVD. Abbreviation for molecular chemical vapor
deposition; a gas-phase technique for growing ultrathin
layers from vaporized organometallic compounds, e.g.,
mixtures of y, Ba, and Cu-~-diketonates will produce
YBa2Cu307_x superconducting ceramic films in the
presence of oxygen.
mode. An electromagnetic energy density pattern caused
by the interference of two or more waves within a
confining structure. The confining volume is called a
cavity.
MODULUS OF RIGIDITY
mode diameter. A diameter that occurs most frequently
in a distribution as determined graphically.
model. A pattern or representation of an object which is
to be fabricated.
moderating ratio. M; a measure of the efficiency of a
material to reduce the energy of neutrons without cap-
turing them; M = AsolAa' where As and Aaare the scat-
tering and absorbtion cross sections, respectively, and
o is the fractional energy loss per collision.
moderator. A material, such as boron, used in nuclear
applications to reduce the energy of neutrons without
appreciable capture.
mode spectral density. The density of modes in a given
cavity within a frequency band.
mode stirrer. In dielectric heating applications it is a
device which alters the modes in the cavity to give a
more uniform effect.
modification. A change in composition or design in
products.
modified design. A change in the specifications of a
standard.
modified-design pipe. A concrete pipe of a design dif-
ferent from a standard.
modified-groove pipe. The enlarged end of a pipe into
which the normal end of an adjoining pipe is inserted.
modified-tongue pipe. The normal end of a pipe which
is inserted into the enlarged end of an adjoining pipe.
modillion. An ornamental bracket under a cornice.
modular brick. A brick of a size which will fill a 10.2-
cm modular unit, including the mortar joint.
modular masonry unit. A masonry unit of nominal di-
mensions based on a 1O.2-cm module.
module. Any in a series of units of standardized size and
shape for use together, as in the design and construction
of a building.
modulus. A number or quantity expressing a measure,
function, force, or effect.
modulus, iron. See iron modulus.
modulus of elasticity. The ratio of stress to strain within
the elastic range; commonly taken to be Young's modu-
lus.
modulus of resilience. The energy per unit volume ca-
pable of being absorbed without producing a permanent
distortion. Found by integrating a stress-strain curve
from zero to the yield point and dividing by the starting
volume of the sample.
modulus of rigidity. The resistance of a material to a
shearing stress; the ratio of shear stress to the displace-
ment per unit length of sample.
MODULUS OF RUPTURE
modulus of rupture. MOR; the transverse or cross-
bending strength of a nonductile material which is the
outer fiber stress, given by: M = 3Pl12bd 2 , where M is
the modulus of rupture expressed in N m-2 , P is the
breaking load in newtons, I is the distance between the
knife edges of the test apparatus, b is the width of the
test specimen in m, and d is the thickness of the test
specimen in m.
modulus of rupture, effective. See effective modulus
of rupture.
modulus, secant. See secant modulus.
modulus, secondary. See secondary modulus.
modulus, silica. See silica modulus.
modulus, tangent. See tangent modulus.
modulus, torsional. See torsional modulus.
modulus, Young's. See Young's modulus.
Mohr's circle. A geometrical construction used to trans-
form a state of plane stress from one set of axes to
another or for transforming strain between different sets
of axes in order to show different perspectives of the
state of stress or strain in the body. In the case of stress,
values of shear stress are plotted on the vertical axis of
the diagram but half the value of shear strain only is
plotted in the case of strain. The horizontal axis contains
values of longitudinal stress or strain. A circle is drawn
centered on the point Ex + EYh' 0, with diameter Ex, Y'Y/z
to Ey, Y'Y/z' This circle is the locus of all states of strain
that can be obtained by rotating the axes around Oz.
Mohr's theorem. Used to find the slope and deflection
of a beam-shaped specimen by relating the slope and
deflection to the way the bending moment and force are
related to the load.
Mohs hardness. An empirical scale of hardness in which
the scratch resistance of a material is rated on a scale of
minerals ranging from the softest, talc, to the hardest,
diamond, as follows: I-talc, 2-gypsum, 3--calcite,
4-fluorite, 5-apatite, 6-orthoclase, 7-quartz, 8-
topaz, 9--corundum, and lO-diamond.
moil. (1) The glass remaining on a blowpipe or punty
after a gob has been cut off, or after a piece of ware has
been blown or severed. (2) Glass originally in contact
with the blowing mechanism or head which becomes
cullet after the article has been severed.
moisture. Water that can be eliminated by heating at 105
to 110°C.
moisture adsorption. The mass of water vapor taken
from the atmosphere by a surface; distinguished from
water absorption which relates to immersing the surface
in liquid water and measuring the weight gain.
moisture barrier. A material or coating applied to retard
the passage of moisture into a wall.
moisture content. The quantity of water in a substance,
expressed as the percentage, by weight, in the mass.
208
moisture distribution. In a composite it is the moisture
adsorbed by the reinforcement compared with that of
the matrix material.
moisture expansion. The increase in the dimensions or
bulk volume of an article caused by the reaction with
water or water vapor.
moisture, free. See free moisture.
moisture pressure. '1'; a multifactor concept which rec-
ognizes the fact that several physical and chemical
factors contribute to the tendency of a porous body to
change its moisture content. It is determined by meas-
uring the vapor pressure in equilibrium with a porous
body of a given moisture content.
moisture regain. The percentage weight gain of a dried
material held in an atmosphere containing specified
amounts of water vapor.
moisture stress. The change in the specific free energy
of a liquid when it is removed from a gel.
molal solution. One mole of solute per kilogram of sol-
vent.
molar solution. One mole of solute per liter of solution.
molar volume. Traditionally obtained by dividing the
relative molar mass of a compound in grams by the
density expressed as g cm-2 ; therefore expressed in cm3
and to express in m3 such values are divided by 106.
mold. (1) A form in or around which an item is shaped.
(2) The process of forming in or around a mold.
moldability. The capability of a material or composition
to be shaped by molding.
mold, blank. See blank mold.
mold, block. See block mold.
mold, blow. See blow mold.
mold brick. An insulating brick shaped to fit the top of
an ingot mold.
mold, case. See case mold.
mold cycle. (1) The time taken to complete the full se-
quence of operations needed to make a green shape on
a molding press. (2) The complete sequence of opera-
tions needed to make the component on a molding press.
mold, double-cavity. See double-cavity mold.
molded. Formed in a contoured cavity or around a model.
molded glass. Glass shaped in a mold.
mold, finish. See finish mold.
mold, hot. See hot mold.
molding, injection. See injection molding.
molding machine. A machine designed to compact sand
around a pattern to form a mold.
 209
mold, ingot. See ingot mold.
molding pressure. The stress required to press a plastic
substance into all areas of a mold chamber.
molding sand. (I) The sand applied to the surface of the
wooden molds in which soft-mud brick are formed as a
means of texturing the surface of the brick and to
facilitate removal of the brick from the mold. (2) Sand,
low in organic malter, mixed with various bonding
agents, used to form molds in foundries.
molding, shell. See shell molding.
mold lubricant. A substance applied over the work sur-
face of a mold to reduce friction, prevent adhesion, and
facilitate separation of ware from the mold; e.g., graph-
ite, soap, etc.
mold mark. A seam line on ware at the junction of mold
parts.
mold, master. See master mold.
mold, neck. See neck mold.
mold, parison. See parison mold.
mold, paste. See paste mold.
mold plug. A refractory clay, graphite, or metal seal for
the boltom of an ingot mold.
mold, porous. See porous mold.
mold release agent. A lubricant such as a metal soap
applied to mold surfaces to assist in the release of
molded articles.
mold, ring. See ring mold.
mold seam. Line, on a molded or laminated piece, dif-
fering in color or texture from the general surface;
caused by the parting line of the mold.
mold, semipermanent. See semipermanent mold.
mold, three-cavity. See three-cavity mold.
mold wash. A suspension, or emulsion used to coat the
cavity of a mold to facilitate the release of ware from
the mold after it has been formed.
mold, waste. See waste mold.
mold, working. See working molds.
mole. A mass equal to the molecular weight of the sub-
stance. Most commonly expressed in grams. It is the
amount of a substance containing the same number of
particles as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of 12c.
MOLE. Acronym for molecular optical laser examiner
or Raman microscope. A microscope utilizing the
Raman effect and used to determine chemical compo-
sition and crystalline form of very small areas of sur-
faces.
molecular sieve. Ceramic materials with crystal struc-
tures containing large tunnels through which small at-
MOLY-MANGANESE PROCESS
oms or molecules can pass quickly while larger ones are
held back; used to purify liquids. Naturally occurring
examples are attapulgite, sepiolite, and zeolite. Many
manufactured for specific separation purposes.
molecular volume. The volume occupied by I mole of a
material. It is therefore the molecular weight di vided by
the density.
molecular weight. The sum of the atomic weights of all
atoms in a molecule.
Molochite. A proprietary shell mold refractory for in-
vestment casting; made by firing china clay to 1525°C.
Also used to make kiln furniture able to withstand
intense heat.
molten cast refractory. A refractory product made by
casting the molten ingredients into molds.
mole. wt. Abbreviation for molecular weight.
molybdenite. MoS 2 ; naturally occurring ore with a lay-
ered crystal structure; mp 1185°C; sp. gr. 4.7; hardness
(Mohs) 1.5; used as a lubricant and drawing compound.
molybdenum. Mo; mp 2470°C; sp. gr. 10.2; used as a
winding for electrical furnaces, glass-to-metal seals,
electro-optical applications. and for filaments, screens,
and grids in vacuum tubes.
molybdenum carbide. (I) M0 2C; mp 2687°C; sp. gr.
9.2. (2) MoC; mp 2690°C; sp. gr. 8.4. Both phases are
encountered in refractory hard metal compositions
where they are bonded by cobalt metal.
molybdenum disilicide. MoSi 2 ; mp I 870-2030°C;
used as a furnace winding for furnaces working at
1700°C when it is commonly called kanthal, also used
in electrical resistors, high-temperature protective coat-
ings, in combination with AI 20 3 in kiln furniture, sand-
blast nozzles, saggers, induction brazing fixtures, and
hot-press and hot-draw dies; used on occasion to pro-
mote special porcelain-enamel adherence.
molybdenum disulfide. See molybdenite.
molybdenum enamel. A white or pastel-colored porce-
lain-enamel containing molybdenum oxide as an adher-
ence promoting agent.
molybdenum oxide. See molybdenum trioxide.
molybdenum trioxide. Mo0 3 ; mp 1463°C; sp. gr. 4.5;
an adherence-promoting agent in porcelain-enamels, an
opacifier in enamels, glazes, and glass, and a wetting
agent in whiteware bodies. Acts as a flame retardant in
polyester fabrics.
moly-manganese process. Used to braze alumina,
Al 20 3 , to metals. A slurry ofMo, Mo0 3 , Mn, and Mn02
powders with various glass-formers, is applied to the
alumina surface as a paint and the coated ceramic heated
in a wet-hydrogen atmosphere to I 500°C to produce a
metal and glass surface to which metal parts can be
brazed.
MOMENT
moment. A stress couple producing a bending or twisting
action.
moment arm. The perpendicular distance from an axis
to the line of action of a force.
moment of inertia. The sum of the products of all mass
elements and the squares of their moment arms.
monazite. (Ce,La,Th)(P04); sp. gr. 4.9-5.3; hardness
(Mohs) 5-5.5; used as a source of rare earths; a compo-
nent of mineral sands.
monel. A nickel-copper alloy of high resistance to acids
used in pickle baskets.
monitoring. (I) Periodic or continuous examination of a
process. (2) Instrumental examination of an area or an
individual to determine the amount of radiation or ra-
dioactive contamination.
monkey wall. The section between the front and back
walls and the port side walls of an open hearth furnace.
monochromatic light. Light of a single wavelength.
monochrome decoration. A decoration of a single
color.
monoclinic. A crystal system characterized by three axes
of unequal length and only one angle between the axes
equal to 90°.
monocoque. A method of construction in which all
stresses are carried by the thin covering skin. Suitable
for sheet-composite designs.
monofilament. A single fiber of long length.
monofilamentary. Formed from long fibers lying paral-
lel to each other.
monolith. An artifact made entirely from one massive
piece, be it polycrystalline or polyphase, as opposed to
being constructed from units. Casting is a typical form-
ing method used.
monolithic lining. A furnace lining with no joints,
formed from a refractory which is rammed, cast,
gunned, or sintered into place.
monolithic refractory. See monolithic lining.
monolithic refractory construction. A joint-free re-
fractory installation.
monomineralic. A description of a natural raw material
that is essentially pure containing more than 98% of one
kind of mineral.
monomolecular layer. An adsorbed layer one molecule
thick covering the whole surface of the adsorbate.
monopressatura. A ceramic concept whereby a body
and its glaze are pressed together in one process before
a single firing process is employed.
monorail. A conveyor system employing a single over-
head rail for the transport of ware.
210
monotectic. A phase system where a single liquid on
cooling decomposes into a solid plus another liquid of
different composition than the first liquid, the process
being reversible.
montan wax. A lignite wax used as a mold lubricant.
Monte Carlo simulation. A technique used in computa-
tional statistical mechanics.
monticellite. CaMgSi04; a discrete ionic silicate phase
sometimes formed in basic refractories containing silica
and lime.
montmorillonite. AI3.33Mgo.67(Si20S)4·0.67Na; clay
mineral with an expanding structure; used as a lubricant
in pottery bodies, as a filler, and a suspending agent;
also known as fuller's earth.
Mooney equation. An improvement applied to equa-
tions used to model the properties of composites intro-
duced to take account of the agglomeration of
reinforcement.
moonstone. A white to translucent form of feldspar hav-
ing a pearly or opalescent appearance.
moonstone glass. An opal glass resembling moonstone
in appearance; made by adding fluorides to the batch
composition.
moresque. Adjective used for ceramic designs and archi-
tectural features of Moorish style.
morion. A smoky-brown or gray variety of quartz valued
as a gemstone.
morpholine. C4HgNOH; a hygroscopic liquid base used
as an emulsifying agent for ceramic binders and as a rust
inhibitor when grinding or lapping ceramics.
morphology. The study of the physical form of materials
at macro, micro, and crystal structure levels.
mortar. (I) A mixture of cement and sand used as a
binder in the placement of brick or masonry. (2) A hard,
abrasion-resistant bowl-shaped container in which sub-
stances may be broken and powdered with a pestle.
mortar admixture. A material added to mortar to con-
trol the setting rate and sometimes to serve as a water
repellent or coloring agent.
mortar, agate. See agate mortar and pestle.
mortar, Cat. See fat mortar.
mortar, grog-fireclay. See grog-fireclay mortar.
mortar, ground fireclay. See ground fireclay mortar.
mortar, heat-setting. See heat-setting mortar.
mortar, lean. See lean mortar.
mortar, lime. See lime mortar.
mortar-mix clay. A finely ground clay used as a plasti-
cizer in masonry mortar.
 211
mortar, pneumatically applied. See pneumatically ap-
plied mortar.
mortar, refractory. See refractory mortar.
MOSA. Acronym for metal oxide surge arrestor which
is another designation of varistor; ZnO is an example.
mosaic. A decorative design or picture made by setting
small colored pieces, such as tile or glass, in mortar.
mosaic faience. Glazed or unglazed earthenware tile
with characteristic variations in face, edges, and glaze
to give a characteristic handmade appearance, and hav-
ing facial dimensions less than 39 cm 2, and thicknesses
of 8 to 9.5 mm; usually mounted on a backing to
facilitate setting.
mosaic gold. SnS2; stannic sulfide suspended in lacquer
for use in decorating surfaces.
mosaic tile. Glazed or unglazed porcelain or natural clay
tile, shaped by dust-pressing or plastic forming to facial
dimensions of less than 39 x 39 cm and thickness of 6.4
to 9.5 mm; frequently mounted on a backing to facilitate
placement.
moss agate. A milky chalcedony containing dendritic
patterns and not the usual agate-banded structure. The
dendrites are formed by manganese and iron oxide
inclusions.
Miissbauer effect. The study of the energy of emitted
y-rays from nuclei that show no recoil loss because they
are rigidly bound into a crystal structure; the y-ray
energy equals that of the excitation energy of the nu-
cleus. Now frequently used in structural studies of
ceramics.
moss opal. A form of amorphous silica containing
branching inclusions.
Mossotti catastrophe. The situation where the electric
susceptibility of a ferroelectric material becomes infi-
nite when the ratio naJ3r.o assumes a value of unity,
where n is the number of dipoles per unit volume, a. is
the polarizability, and EO is the permittivity of free
space.
mother lode. The principal seam or load in a mining
system.
mother-of-pearl. A hard iridescent substance composed
mainly of calcium carbonate. that forms the inner layer
of some seashells, such as oyster. Also called nacre.
mottled finish. A speckled finish, frequently of different
colors, produced as a decorative effect on porcelain-
enamels and glazes.
Mott transition. The possibility of a sudden metal-to-
insulator transition with variation in atomic spacing as
first described by Sir Neville Mott.
mounted wheel. Small, variously shaped, abrasive prod-
ucts mounted on steel spindles or mandrels.
MULLITE
mouth. The opening into a machine or processing opera-
tion into which a batch is charged.
moving bed, continuous. See continuous moving bed.
moving bed, intermittent. See intermittent moving
bed.
MOVPE. Acronym for metal organic vapor phase epi-
taxy; a process where a substrate crystal is used to
orientate the growing semiconductor layer so that it
adopts the same crystal structure as the substrate.
mp Abbreviation for melting point.
mucilage. A sticky preparation used as an adhesive.
mucky. A colloquial expression for a soft cast formed
when the mold removes the water too slowly.
mud. A fine-grained, soft, wet deposit occurring on cer-
tain grounds after rain.
mud jacking. The process of raising a concrete slab by
pumping a cement-soil-water slurry under the slab.
mudstone. A dark-gray, laminated rock similar to shale.
mud-up. To seal a smelter, furnace, pot, gas line, etc., by
the insertion of wet clay.
muff. A blown cylinder of glass which is cut and flat-
tened while plastic to form small segments of window
glass.
muffle. A refractory enclosure or chamber in a furnace
designed to protect ware from the flame and products
of combustion. See muffle kiln.
muffle kiln. A kiln in which fuel combustion occurs
within a refractory enclosure to protect ware from the
flame and products of combustion, the heat being trans-
ferred by conduction to the area in which the ware is
being fired.
mulcorit. A porous ceramic of low density containing
mullite and cordierite; maximum working temperature
l300oe.
muller. A heavy roller or wheel, usually of metal,
mounted in a heavy pan for grinding, mixing, and
tempering. The bottom pan is usually perforated to
allow powder to be collected.
muller crusher. See muller.
muller mixer. See muller.
mullet. A knife-like instrument used to separate hand-
blown glass from the blowpipe.
mulling. The wet or dry process of grinding, mixing, and
tempering substances by means of a muller.
mullite. The highest melting aluminosilicate, which, be-
cause of its unusual solid-solution behavior, is of uncer-
tain structure and composition. The composition is
expressed as a range in old-fashioned notation:
3A1 20 3 ·2Si0 2 to 2AI 20 3 ·Si0 2, called respectively 3;z
MULLITE PORCELAIN
and 2/\ mullite. The structure is believed to be related
to sillimanite and its acicular crystal habit helps to
impart strength to matrices in which it is a common
second phase; mp l810°C; softening temperature
l650°C; used as a refractory in high-temperature appli-
cations and as a strength producing phase in stoneware
and porcelain where it arises via a topotactic decompo-
sition of kaolinite.
mullite porcelain. A vitreous whiteware containing
mullite as the main crystalline phase; used for spark
plugs, laboratory ware, and other products where resis-
tance to thermal shock, chemicals, and deformation
under load are important.
mullite refractories. Refractory products in which mul-
lite is the main crystalline phase bonded by a few
percent of a high-silica-content glass.
mullite whiteware. Any ceramic whiteware in which
mullite is the main crystalline phase formed by the
topotactic thermal decomposition of kaolinite.
multiaxial multilayer. A type of reinforcing fabric
where yams are inserted in different directions from 0
to 90 0 •
multibucket feeder. Machine equipped with a series of
buckets mounted on an endless chain to scoop up mate-
rials for deli very to a container or vehicle for movement
from one location to another.
multicolor machine. A ceramic ware decorating ma-
chine capable of applying more than one color at a time.
multifilament yarn. From 5 to 100 monofilament fibers
slightly twisted together.
multilayer ceramic. A ceramic made by casting thin
layers of green ceramic on top of each other before
firing.
multilayer ceramic composite. A sandwich structure in
which the middle layer contains the main component of
the outer layers mixed with partially stabilized zirconia.
This arrangement increases both strength and tough-
ness.
multilayered disk capacitor. A disk-shaped ceramic
capacitor made by building up alternate dielectric and
electrode annular layers, firing, and then coating the
inner and outer diameters with silver.
multimode cavity. In microwave applications it is a cav-
ity, large in relation to the free wavelength, which then
allows a number of different standing waves to be
generated.
multimolecular layer. A film or coating more than one
molecule thick.
212
multipassage kiln. A kiln consisting of more than one
tunnel or passage for the concurrent firing of ware.
multiphase fibers. Fibers made by CVD, such as boron,
which contain central cores of substrate such as tung-
sten or carbon wire.
multiplicity. The number oflevels into which the energy
of an atom, molecule, or nucleus splits as a result of
interaction between orbital momentum and spin angular
momentum.
multiport burner. A burner with several nozzles for the
discharge of fuel and air.
multiprogramming. Running several computer pro-
grams by a time-sharing method whereby each runs for
a short period in rotation.
multivibrator. An electronic oscillator containing two
transistors coupled so that the input of each comes from
the output of the other.
Munsell color system. A classification of colors based
on a 3-D representation of lightness, saturation, and
hue.
Munsell value. The daylight reflectance of a material
where 0 equals ideal and 10 equals ideal white.
muntin. See glazing bar.
Murgatroyd belt. The part of the sidewall of a bottle
near the bottom.
muriatic acid. HCl; hydrochloric acid used to clean and
pickel metals for porcelain-enameling.
murrhine, murrine. A still unknown substance used in
ancient Rome to make vases.
murrhine glass. Glassware made in the East from fluor-
spar decorated with pieces of colored metal.
muscovite. KAI2(Si 3Al)OlO(OHh; a mica found in
many clays; sp. gr. 2.7-3.1; hardness (Mohs) 2-2.5;
usually very clear in color, it has the form of small shiny
flakes of a bronze-golden color; used mainly as a paint
extender and as a plastic filler.
mushroom anvil. A steel form having a mushroomlike
appearance used in shaping metal bowls for porcelain-
enameled artware.
mutual inductance. The mutual induction between two
magnetically linked circuits; quantified as the ratio of
the induced emf to the rate of change of current produc-
ing it; measured in henries.
mylonite. A metamorphic ore showing banding formed
by rolling the original structure.
 N
n, nD. A symbol for index of refraction, generally used
with a subscript indicating the spectral line; for exam-
ple, nD is the index of refraction for the sodium D line.
Nabarro-Herring creep. Deformation in heated ce-
ramic structures caused by grain boundary sliding along
a few boundaries, combined with grain boundary
squeezing on the majority of boundaries. The creep rate
is proportional to applied stress and smaller grains
undergo faster deformation.
nacre. The technical name for mother-of-pearl.
nacreous. Having the luster of mother-of-pearl.
nacrite. AI 2Si20 5 (OH)4; a mineral of the kaolinite group
but layer stacking leads to monoclinic symmetry.
nailing concrete. A lightweight concrete containing a
material such as sawdust in proportions that it will
receive nails.
naked glass. Plane ware before decoration.
nanocrystalline solids. See nanophase ceramics.
nanometer. nm; 10-9 of a meter; used in the measure-
ment of the wavelength of light and the specification of
x-ray unit cell dimensions.
nanophase ceramics. Articles formed from powders
less than 50 nm in diameter, which is some 100 times
smaller than conventional powder. The powders are
made by vaporizing a source material in a gaseous flow
followed by rapid condensation. Such ceramics are
more ductile and more easily formed as the grain size
decreases. Sintering temperatures can be reduced as
much as 500°C below conventional powders. At lO-nm
diameter, at least 50% of the solid consists of low-
atomic-density boundaries.
Naples yellow. See lead antimonate.
nasicon ceramics. Ceramic materials with the general
formula MI+x+4yZr2_ySil_xP3_xOI2' with M usually lim-
ited to Na or Li, x in the range 0-3, and y in the range
0-1. The structure is a network of interconnected tun-
213
nels formed by a network of (Si2P)OI2 groups and so
they are fast 3-D ionic conductors. Often made by
sol-gel methods.
natch. See joggle.
natrium. A synonym for sodium.
natrolite. Na2AI2Si301Q·2H20; a colorless, white, or
yellowish zeolite mineral found as acicular orthorhom-
bic crystals.
natron. Na2C03·lOH20; hydrous sodium carbonate; a
whitish or yellowish mineral.
natural aging. The changes observed in material occur-
ring when it is exposed to normal environmental condi-
tions.
natural alumina. One of two types of alumina abra-
sives: corundum, which is of relatively high purity, and
emery, which is less pure, containing iron oxide as the
major impurity.
natural cement. A hydraulic cement produced by cal-
cining a naturally occurring argillaceous limestone at a
temperature below the sintering point and then grinding
it to a fine powder.
natural clay tile. A tile made by the dust pressing or
plastic method of forming from clays that produce a
dense body of distinctive, slightly t,extured appearance,
natural composite. All kinds exist, for example, wood,
which contains very long monofilament cellulose fiber
as reinforcement in a matrix of dilute polymer solution,
the sap; teeth containing dentine matrix and calcium
apatite particles; spider web, which is a gel core en-
closed in aligned polymer thread, etc.
natural diamond. A mineral consisting of carbon in its
cubic modification; sp, gr. 3,51-3,53; hardness (Mohs)
10; the hardest mineral known, The term "bort" some-
times refers to all diamonds not fit for use as gems or
for most other industrial applications, but are suitable
for the preparation of diamond grain and powder for use
in lapping or in the manufacture of diamond grinding
NATURAL FIBER
wheels. This type of bort is known as fragmented or
crushed bort. These diamonds also are used in glass
cutters, diamond drill bits, wire dies, and metal cutting
tools.
natural fiber. Organic or inorganic materials that pos-
sess the morphology of fiber, e.g., cellulose, asbestos,
cotton.
natural finish. Unglazed or uncoated facing tile and
other products fired to the natural color of the raw
materials from which the bodies were fabricated.
natural gas. A gas mixture containing mostly methane
trapped below ground and exploited for its energy value
as a fuel.
natural mica. A group of minerals, all of which contain
hydroxyl, aluminum, silicon, and alkali ions. All have
similar physical properties and atomic structure; all may
be split into flexible elastic sheets, but may be of varying
chemical compositions. Hardness (Mohs) 2.0-2.5. For-
mula: (K,Na,Ca)(Mg,Fe,Li,Alh_3(Al,Si)4010(OH,Fh.
natural resource. A deposit or accumulation of miner-
als, potable water, waterpower, and industrial materials
occurring in nature.
natural uranium. Uranium having an isotopic composi-
tion as it occurs in nature, 0.711 wt. % 235U, which has
not been altered.
NBO. Abbreviation for nonbridging oxygens; present in
oxide glass structures.
NDT. Abbreviation for nondestructive testing.
near net shaping. Forming processes designed to limit
the amount of final grinding and polishing needed to
meet specification. Forging and molding are two exam-
ples.
neat cement. A plastic mixture of portland cement, but
without aggregate.
neat grout. A grout consisting only of cement and water.
neat plaster. A base-coat plaster in which sand is added
at the site of use.
nebuchadnezzar. A ceramic or glass wine bottle of 15-
liter capacity.
neck. (1) The constricted portion of a bottle between the
shoulder and the opening or finish. (2) The part of a tank
furuace connecting the melting and working chambers.
(3) The section of a furnace structure connecting the
uptake and part of a furnace where the flame is dimin-
ished before reaching the stack. (4) The narrow section
of a pot. (5) An area in a solid where plastic flow has
concentrated under tension.
neck brick. A brick so modified that one large face is
inclined toward one end.
neck growth. Increase in the area of contact between
spherical particles in a compact when atomic diffusion
214
occurs on heating; excess vacancies in the neck region
diffuse away to be replaced by atoms.
necking. The concentration of plastic flow to a small
region in a specimen under tension.
neck mold. The segment of a metal mold employed to
form the neck and finish of a glass bottle or other article.
neck ring. A metal mold part used to form the finish of
a hollow glass container.
needle. (1) The vertical reciprocating refractory part of a
feeder in a glass-forming machine which alternately
forces glass through the orifice and then pulls it upward
after shearing. (2) A potter's tool for removing the
uneven top edge of wheel-thrown ware.
needle material transfer. The transfer of a material in
electrical contacts in which the buildup is needle-like
in appearance.
needle valve. (1) A valve with a needle-like controller
that can be moved to control fluid flow. (2) The control
device in a spray gun assembly designed to control the
flow of the fluid.
Neel temperature. A characteristic temperature of a ma-
terial at which the susceptibility of an antiferromagnetic
material has a maximum value. See antiferromagnetic
material.
negative. Having a negative charge as demonstrated
when an electrode or point possesses a lower electric
potential than another point in a system.
negative edge dislocation. A dislocation in which the
extra half plane of atoms lies below the slip plane.
negative feedback. The return of a part of a mechanical,
electronic, or other system to the input.
negative material transfer. The transfer of material in
electrical contacts in which the buildup occurs on the
negative contact.
negative resistance. A characteristic of some ceramic
electronic components whereby an increase in applied
voltage increases the resistance and so lowers the cur-
rent passed.
nematic. A mesomorphic state in which a linear orienta-
tion of the molecules occurs and causes anisotropic
properties; one of the two major classes of liquid crys-
tal.
neodymia. Nd20 3; see neodymium oxide.
neodymium. Nd; a trivalent, rare earth, metallic element
employed in the production of glass filters for color
television plates and in glass lasers having radiation
wavelengths beyond the visible range.
neodymium aluminate. NdAl03; hexagonal perovskite
used as substrate for superconducting oxide deposition;
mp 2160°C; becomes cubic at 1100°C.
neodymium gallate. NdGa03; an orthorhombic
perovskite used as an alternative to lanthanum alumi-
 215
nate, LaAl03, as substrates for superconducting oxide
thin films. It undergoes a structural transition at
1350°C, well above the deposition temperature, which
is an advantage over LaAl0 3.
neodymium glass. A glass containing small amounts of
neodymium oxide used in television filter plates; trans-
mits 90% of the red, blue, and green light rays and 10%
or less of the yellow.
neodymium glass laser. A glass doped with neodymium
having properties similar to those of pulsed ruby laser,
the wavelength of radiation is outside the visible range.
neodymium iron boride. Nd2Fe14B; a hexagonal com-
pound in which the boron atom at the 4g point site
induces considerable neodymium site anisotropy and
hence strong permanent magnetic properties. A ferro-
magnetic material discovered in 1983 to have some of
the best magnetic properties ever. Very high coercivity
and an energy product of 290 kJ m-3 but low Curie tem-
perature, 312°C.
neodymium iron carbide. Nd2FeI4C; new permanent
magnetic material isomorphous with neodymium iron
boride.
neodymium nickel oxide. NdNi0 3; a perovskite phase
which undergoes a transition from metallic conduction
to insulator below 200 K.
neodymium oxide. Nd20 3; mp 2271°C; sp. gr. 7.2; em-
ployed in glass to impart a violet color (red-violet in
artifical light and blue violet in daylight) and to sup-
press the yellow sodium line in technical glasses of high
boric oxide content. Glasses containing neodymium
oxide are employed in the production of lasers and
capacitors.
neodymium red. CaNdAI1_xCrx04; a nontoxic, high-fir-
ing range of ceramic red colors based on the K2NiF4
structure.
neodymium sulfate. Nd2(S04); used in small amounts
as a decolorizer in glass, and in larger amounts as a glass
colorant in tableware and in glassblower's and welder's
goggles.
Neoparies. A very white glass-ceramic made from silica,
feldspar,limestone, ZnO, and BaC03 mixtures by melt-
ing at 1480°C and quenching in water. The resultant
powdered glass is molded and reheated at 1 100°C when
acicular crystals grow from the particle boundaries as
they fuse.
neophane glass. A yellow glass tinted with neodymium
oxide to reduce glare; used in automobile windshields,
sunglasses, etc.
nepheline. (Na,K)(Al,Si}z04; sodium potassium alumi-
nosilicate; sp. gr. 2.5-2.6; hardness (Mohs) 5.5-6; a
feldspathoid mineral occurring in alkali-rich volcanic
rocks usually having higher alkali and alumina contents
and a lower silica content than conventional feldspars;
used as a substitute for feldspar because of its lower
melting point; changed by water to zeolite.
NEUTRAL
nepheline syenite. An igneous rock consisting of a mix-
ture of nephelinic minerals, potash feldspar, soda feld-
spar, and minor quantities of magnetite, hornblende,
and mica; sp. gr. 2.61 (crystalline) and 2.28 (glassy);
hardness (Mohs) 6; starts to sinter at cone 8 and has a
PCE of about cone 7; employed in sanitary ware, floor
and wall tile, semivitreous ware, electrical porcelains,
glass, porcelain-enamels, and other ceramic products as
a substitute for feldspar to lower firing temperature,
shorten firing time, and increase firing range; to reduce
warpage, expansion, and water absorption, and to in-
crease mechanical strength; tends to increase shrinkage.
Its use also results in lower fuel and refractory costs.
nephelite Another name for nepheline.
nephelometry. Measurement of the intensity of light
scattered at 90°C to the incident beam in order to
measure particle size.
nephrite. Ca2Mgs(Si4011}z(0H,F}z; a compact, fibrous
form ofthe amphibole, double-chain silicate, tremolite.
nephrite jade. See jade.
Nernst body. A ceramic body consisting essentially of
zirconia, thoria, and yttria, plus small additions of other
rare-earth oxides; employed as a resistor in laboratory-
sized, high temperature furnaces.
netting analysis. A type of mechanical analysis used for
fiber composite structures prepared by filament wind-
ing. The working assumptions are that all the stress in
the structure is carried by the fibers and that they carry
only axial tensile loads.
net weight. The weight of the contents of a container,
generally determined as the difference between the
gross weight and tare weight of the container.
network. (I) A system of electrical components assem-
bled to perform a specific function. (2) A system of ions
which together will form a 3-D structure, as in glass or
crystalline silicates.
network-forming ion. An ionic material which will
form a partially covalent network with other ionic ma-
terials in the structure of a glass, for example, Si02,
B203,Ge02'
network-modifying ion. An ion of low valency and of
relatively large radius, such as the alkaline earths and
alkali metals, which modifies but does not directly form
an atomic network in the structure of glass.
network structure. See network.
Neuberg blue. A blue ceramic colorant composed of
copper carbonate and a mixture of iron ferrocyanide and
iron sulfate.
Neumann-Kopp rule. A statement that the change in
heat capacity resulting from the formation of a solid
compound from its solid elements is equal to zero; e.g.,
it can be written: Cp(MxSiy) = xCp(M) + yCp(Si).
neutral. (I) Neither acid nor alkaline; having a pH of7 .0.
(2) Possessing zero charge or potential.
NEUTRAL ATMOSPHERE
neutral atmosphere. An atmospheric condition that is
neither oxidizing nor reducing; usually the term is ap-
plied to the firing zone of a furnace or kiln.
neutral axis. The plane on which there is no compressive
or tensile stress in a bent beam specimen.
neutral glass. A term employed to describe a glass that
is resistant to chemical attack.
neutralizer. (l) A dilute alkaline solution employed as a
treatment in the preparation of sheet-metal ware for
porcelain-enameling in which acids remaining on the
ware following the pickling process are neutralized. (2)
An aqueous solution of a chemical or a mixture of
chemicals which has a pH greater than 7.
neutralizer, cyanide. See cyanide neutralizer.
neutral refractories. Refractories that are chemically
neutral and are resistant to both acidic and basic refrac-
tories, fluxes, and slags at high temperatures.
neutral solution. An aqueous solution which exhibits
neither acidic nor alkaline properties and has a pH close
to 7.
neutral tinted glass. A glass employed as a light filter to
reduce the transmission of light with minimal selective
absorption of specific wavelengths.
neutron. A fundamental atomic particle having no elec-
trical charge and a mass slightly greater than that of a
hydrogen atom or proton, or 1.00897 atomic mass units.
It is a constituent of the nuclei of all atoms except those
of hydrogen.
neutron-absorbing glass. A cadmium borate glass con-
taining additions of titania and zirconia having a high-
neutron-capture cross section.
neutron cross section. A measure of the probability that
a nucleus will capture a neutron, the cross section being
a function of the neutron energy and the structure of the
target nucleus.
neutron diffraction. The interference processes which
will occur when neutrons are scattered by atoms in
solids, liquids, and' gases; the intensities of the dif-
fracted beams are measured by means of a radiation
counter or an ionization chamber.
neutron flux. The number of neutrons which pass
through an area of one square centimeter per second,
equal to the number of neutrons per cubic centimeter
times the average neutron velocity.
neutron leakage. The escape of neutrons from a reactor.
newton. N; a fundamental SI unit; the unit of force
required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram one meter
per second; equal to 100,000 dynes.
Newtonian. Adjective used to describe a liquid such as
glass that has a viscosity which is independent of stress
or velocity gradient over a wide range of values.
216
Newton's rings. The interference pattern observed when
a plano-convex lens is placed in contact with a reflec-
tive plate so that the convex face makes a point contact
to produce a variable thickness air film which then
causes a concentric ring interference pattern emanating
from a dark central spot.
Nextel 312. Family name for a group of ceramic rein-
forcing fibers melt-spun from compositions in the
Al20rB20rSi02 system; nonoxidizing, chemically
resistant, low thermal conductivity, and good abrasion
resistance; used to sew composite laminates when com-
bined with 10% fugitive rayon. Continuous use at
1200°C possible. Nextel 440 is another alumi-
noborosilicate fiber. Nextel Z-II is a continuous alu-
mina fiber containing Zr02'
nib. (I) A tungsten carbide die employed in the drawing
of wire and similar materials. (2) A small projecting
point occurring as a defect or fault in a comer or edge
of plate glass during cutting. (3) The protrusion formed
on the end of roofing tile to anchor the tile in place in
roofing construction.
nib bed sagger. A series of projections fabricated on the
interior walls of a sagger on which ware is placed during
the firing operation.
nibber. The blade of a squeegee employed in rubbing
coloring pastes and inks through a silk screen in the
decoration of ware.
nicalon. Silicon carbide fiber made by pyrolyzing dode-
camethy1cyclohexasilane; contains considerable
amounts of oxygen from the pre fire needed to stabilize
the polymer, along with free carbon; composition is
approximately SiC (65.3%), Si0 2 (23.0%) and free
carbon (l1.7 %).
niccolite. The ore NiAs which lends its name to a hex-
agonal group of minerals containing pyrrhotite; pale
copper-red color; sp. gr. 7.83; hardness (Mohs) 5-5.5.
niche. A recess in a wall usually made to contain a statue.
Nichrome. A commercial alloy of nickel, iron, and chro-
mium, used to make electrical furnace heating ele-
ments.
nickel aluminate. NiAI 20 4 ; mp 2020°C; sp. gr. 4.45; a
partially inverse spinel with semiconductor and mag-
netic uses.
nickel aluminide. (I) NiAl; mp l640°C; sp. gr. 5.90;
x-ray density 6050 kg m-3; hardness (Rockwell A) 68-
72; coefficient of thermal expansion 15.1 x 10-6 K- 1;
electrical resistivity at room temperature is 25 ~n cm;
excellent oxidation and thermal shock resistance; resis-
tant to molten glass; may be used in turbine blades,
combustion chamber applications, and glass-processing
equipment. (2) Ni3Al; another cubic alloy used in tur-
bine blade manufacture.
nickel arsenide. NiAs; see niccolite.
nickel bloom. See annabergite.
 217
nickel blues. A generic term for a number of iron blue
pigments made from iron ferrocyanide and iron sulfate.
nickel-bonded titanium carbide. A particulate com-
posite oftitanium carbide, TiC o.97 , with nickel to serve
as a bonding agent. Also known as TiC-Ni cermet.
nickel carbonate. NiC0 3; sometimes used as an ingre-
dient in ceramic colors and glazes.
nickel dip, nickel flash, nickel pickle. A thin film of
metallic nickel deposited on the surface of steel ware to
be porcelain-enameled; the process involving galvanic
action, reduction, or both.
nickel ferrate. NiFe204; mp 1660°C; sp. gr. 5.34; a par-
tially inverse spinel exhibiting variable semiconduction
of the hopping charge variety; also ferromagnetic with
a Curie temperature of 858 K.
nickel manganate. NiMn03; a ferromagnetic
perovskite with a Curie temperature of 437 K.
nickel nitrate. NiN03·6H20; sometimes used in the
manufacture of brown ceramic colors.
nickel nitride. Ni3N; an electrical conductor having a
resistivity of 2.8 x 10-3 Qcm.
nickel oxide. (1) NiO; absorbs oxygen at 400°C to form
Ni 20 3 which is reduced back to NiO at 600°C; mp
1985°C; sp. gr. 6.6-6.8; hopping charge-type semicon-
ductor; employed as an adherence-promoting agent in
porcelain-enamel ground coats, as a blue, green, gray,
brown, and yellow coloring agent in glazes and porce-
lain-enamels, and as a decolorizing agent in glass. One
of the first metal oxide thermistors. (2) Ni 20 3; sp. gr.
4.84; reduced to NiO at 600°C; employed as a source
of NiO in porcelain-enamels, glass, and glazes.
nickel pickling. See nickel dip.
nickel stannate. NiSn03·2H20; loses water of hydration
at 125°C; employed in barium titanate bodies to reduce
the Curie temperature.
nickel sulfate. (I) NiS04; sp. gr. 3.4-3.7; loses S03 at
840°C. (2) NiS0 4·6H20; sp. gr. 2.03-2.07; loses 6H 20
at 280°C. (3) NiS04·7H 20; sp. gr. 1.98; loses 7H20 at
98-100°C. All are employed in nickel-dipping. See
nickel dip.
Nicol prism. An optical device made by cutting diago-
nally a calcite crystal into two parts and then cementing
them back together with Canada balsam so that total
internal reflection of one of either the ordinary or ex-
traordinary rays occurs at the interface so formed. It is
used to produce and analyze polarized light.
niello. Black, artificially made metal sulfides; used as
inlay decoration.
nine-inch brick. A rectangular brick measuring ap-
proximately 22.9 x 11.3 x 6.4 cm; used as the standard
unit of size in the refractories industry.
nine-inch equivalent. The volume of a 9-inch brick,
1.66 x 10-3 m3, (100 in3); used to express the amount
NITS, NITTY ENAMELS
of material in a single shape, shipment, or period of
production of refractory materials.
niobium carbide. (1) NbC; mp about 3500°C; sp. gr.
7.82; hardness (Vickers) 24.7 to 23.0 ON m-2, depend-
ing on the stoichiometry, have been reported (above 9
on Mohs scale); modulus of rupture (25°C)
240 MN m-2; specific electrical resistivity 147 JlQ cm
at room temperature and 254 JlQ cm at the melting
point; employed in cemented carbide-tipped tools. (2)
Nb2C; mp 3087°C; sp. gr. 7.85.
niobium oxides. (1) Nb20 5 ; sp. gr. 4.5-5.0; mp 1520°C;
coefficient of linear thermal expansion 6 x 10-7 K-I
(298-675 K); Curie temperature 200-275°C; a fer-
roelectric material. (2) NbO; mp 1945°C; sp. gr. 6.27.
(3) Nb20 3; mp 1773-1777°C.
nip. (I) A small glass bottle of approximately 250 ml
capacity. (2) The largest angle that will just grip a lump
between the jaws, rolls, or mantle and ring of a crusher.
niter. KN03; potassium nitrate; sp. gr. 2.09-2.27; mp
334°C; decomposes at about 400°C; hardness (Mohs)
2; employed in glass, glazes, and porcelain-enamels
because of its powerful oxidizing and fluxing proper-
ties.
nitric acid. HN03; mp -41.65°C; decomposes at 86°C;
sp. gr. 1.503; viscosity (25°C) 0.76 cP; used to some
extent in glass-etching processes and ore flotation.
nitride-oxide semiconductor. A semiconductor con-
sisting of a layer of silica, Si02, on a substrate of silicon,
over a layer of silicon nitride, Si 3N4.
nitrides. Binary compounds of nitrogen and a metal
more electropositive, characterized by the formula:
MxNy; the boron and silicon nitrides are stable to about
1500°C and nitrides of titanium, zirconium, hafnium,
tantalum are moderately stable in oxidizing atmos-
pheres; most nitrides are stable in reducing atmos-
pheres; boron nitride is used in composite structures for
yarns, fibers, and woven products of high strength. BN
and Si3N4 have assumed considerable importance as
engineering ceramics and as reinforcements in compos-
ites. Other nitrides are used in particulate composites.
nitrobarite. Native barium nitrate, Ba(N03h.
nitrogen surface area. The surface area of a powder or
a compact as calculated from the relationship SBET
(m2 g-I)=4.37 Vrn , where Vrn is the monolayer capacity
(cm3 g-I) calculated from the adsorption isotherm and
the BET equation: PI(P s - P) x IIV = IIVrn C + (C -
1)IVrnC x PIPs'
nitroparaffins. Any organic compound derived from the
methane series in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by
a nitro group; employed in formulations for the electro-
phoretic deposition of ceramic materials for a variety of
technical ceramic applications.
nits, nitty enamels. Defects in dry-process porcelain-
enamels characterized by minute surface pits visible
only on close examination.
N-MELILITE
N-melilite. Y2Si303N4; a yttrium silicate containing
SiN4 as well as Si04 tetrahedral structural units, made
when silicon powder is mixed with AI20 3, Y203 and
nitrided.
NMR. See nuclear magnetic resonance.
node. A place where a wave function has zero amplitude,
and therefore at which the probability of finding an
electron is zero; it may be a point, a line, or a surface.
nodular fireclay. A rock containing aluminous or fer-
ruginous nodules, or both, bonded by fireclay.
nodule. A rounded or spheroidal mass or agglomerate of
solid material.
no-fines concrete. A concrete containing no aggregate
of less than 9.52 mm in maximum cross section.
noise. (1) A varying voltage across a pair of electric
contacts due to conditions at their interface. (2) Any
nonrelevant signal that tends to interfere with the nor-
mal reception or processing of a desired flaw signal
during electromagnetic testing. Such signals may be
generated by inhomogeneities in the inspected part that
are not detrimental to the end use of the part.
nominal dimension. A dimension that may be greater
than the specified masonry dimension by the thickness
of a mortar joint.
nominal maximum size. The smallest sieve opening
through which the entire amount of aggregate is permit-
ted to pass as designated in specifications or descrip-
tions of the aggregate to be employed in the concrete
batch.
nominal stress. A stress calculated on the basis of the
nominal dimensions which disregards any local necking
or the presence of pores, etc.
nomogram. A graphic representation of information or
data which consists of lines marked off to scale and
arranged in a manner that, by using a straightedge to
connect known values on two lines, an unknown value
may be read at the point of intersection of another line.
nonaqueous developer. In liquid penetrant inspection, a
developer consisting of fine particles suspended in a
volatile solvent which helps dissolve the penetrant out
of the discontinuity and bring it to the surface where it
dries out, thus fixing the indication.
noncombustible. Any material that will neither ignite
nor actively support combustion in air at 648°C when
exposed to fire.
nondestructive measurement. A measurement that in-
volves no loss in the utility of a material or product
being measured.
nondestructive test. Any test method which does not
involve or result in damage to a test sample, e.g., x-ray,
NMR, and ultrasound investigations.
nondrying oils. Oils which do not form dry surface films
when exposed to the atmosphere.
218
nonre~romagnetic material. A material that is not mag-
netIzable or affected by magnetic fields, including
paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials.
nonlinear coefficient. a; An important parameter of a
zinc oxi~e varistor; it is the reciprocal of the slope of
the deVice current-voltage curve; defined as a =
dlnlldlnV.
nonlinear voltage. The applied voltage in a varistor at
which the current increases many orders of magnitude
for only a small further increase in potential. It is related
to the barrier voltage, Vgb , the number of grain
boundaries, Ng, and device thickness t according to
V=VgbNgf.
non-load-bearing tile. Tile designed for use in masonry
wall or other construction carrying no superimposed
loads.
nonlustrous glaze, nonlustrous finish. A glaze or fin-
ish on the surface of a product which consists of an
inseparable fire-bonded ceramic glaze or enamel of
low-gloss or dull appearance.
nonmechanical stress. Stresses arising from chemical
reactions, moisture absorption, matrix curing, etc.
nonmetallic inclusion. A nonmetallic particle, such as
sand, which is entrapped or embedded in steel during
solidification from the molten state or during sub-
sequent processing, and causes defects in porcelain-
enamels.
nonplastic. A solid material which exhibits only elastic
deformation prior to fracture when stressed.
nonplastics. A trade term referring to ceramic materials
other than the plastic clays.
nonpolar. A solid possessing no concentrations of elec-
tric charge in its atomic or molecular units of structure.
It therefore shows no dielectric loss.
nonreOecting glass. Glass on which a film of transparent
material of refractive index less than the glass has been
deposited to form a layer one-quarter of the wavelength
of incident light so that interference suppresses reflec-
tion.
nonreinforced pipe. A concrete pipe designed and con-
structed without reinforcements.
nonrelevant indication. An indication observed in an
inspection test which cannot be associated with a dis-
continuity or flaw.
non-self-sustaining discharge. An electrical discharge
that depends, at least partially, on an independent
source for the supply or generation of charge carriers.
nonshattering glass. A plastic-laminated or tempered
glass which will not shatter when broken.
nonslip concrete. Concrete having a mechanically
roughened surface or a sandlike surface made by addi-
tions of sand to the concrete surface just before it
 219
hardens; used for steps and other areas of pedestrian
traffic to prevent slipping.
nonstoichiometric. A situation in which the numerical
relationship or ratio of elements in a compound differs
from that expected by the requirement to satisfy formal
valencies, e.g., TiC o.97 '
nontronite. (Alo.05Fe1.93 MgO.02)(Si3.5Alo.5)O\O(OHh; a
smectite-type, montmorillonite three-sheet 2: 1 layer
lattice clay mineral in which ferric iron and magnesium
replace most of the A1 3+ in octahedral sites with charge
compensation through A1 3+ replacement of Si4+ in tet-
rahedral sites.
nonvitreous. The degree of vitrification evidenced by
relatively high water absorption, more than 3%, except
for floor and wall tile, which are considered non vitreous
when the water absorption exceeds 7%.
nonwetting. Failure of a liquid to coat evenly any sub-
strate to which it is applied.
nonwoven mat. A random mass of ceramic fibers used
for composite manufacture.
normal cure. A condition of curing asbestos cement at
atmospheric pressure with incidental external heat.
normal-cure cure. The method of hardening or setting
asbestos-cement products wherein the portland cement
is allowed to hydrate at atmospheric conditions of pres-
sure, preferably under conditions to inhibit water loss.
normal permeability. The ratio of the induction of elec-
tromagnetic materials, made cyclically to change sym-
metrically about zero, to the corresponding change in
magnetizing force.
normal segregation. Areas on a micrograph which con-
tains constituents in triple points that have lower melt-
ing points and in those regions last to solidify.
normal spinel. A ceramic with the spinel structure and
inversion parameter of 1/2 because all A cations occupy
tetrahedral sites and all B cations occupy octahedral
sites.
normal uranium. Uranium containing the same weight
percentage of 235U as occurs in nature. It may be ob-
tained by blending uranium of different isotopic com-
positions or by processing in a diffusion plant. Loosely,
it means uranium as it occurs in nature.
Norman brick. A brick having nominal dimensions of
6.8 x 10.2 x 30.5 cm.
Norman slabs. Square or rectangular panels of clear and
colored glasses cut into special shapes; used in the
construction of stained glass windows.
norstrandite. AI(OHh; aluminium trihydroxide with an
alternate stacking of AI(OH)6 layers to produce an
intermediate structure between bayerite and gibbsite;
occurs in some tropical soils but is usually obtained by
reaction of AI(OH)3 gels with aqueous alkylenediami-
nes.
n- TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
nose. (I) The working end or refining chamber of a
glass-melting tank. (2) The refractory opening through
which a steel-making converter is charged and dis-
charged.
notch. A flaw on a surface capable of acting as a surface
stress raiser.
notch acuity. A method of expressing the severity of a
surface flaw as a stress raiser; for example, if the depth
of the notch is small compared with its width the acuity
is dlr, where d is notch depth and r is the radius of
curvature at the bottom of the notch.
notch brittleness. Brittle fracture produced at points of
stress concentration. It is assessed by comparing the
tensile strength of unnotched and notched specimens.
notch depth. The distance from the surface to the root of
the notch.
notch rupture strength. Applied load divided by the
original area of minimum cross section in a stress rup-
ture test of a notched specimen.
notch, slag. See slag notch.
notch test. A test in which the transverse strength of a
notched specimen is correlated with the low-tempera-
ture spalling resistance of fireclay refractories.
Novacite. Commercial product consisting of microcrys-
talline silica.
Novacubite. Commercially available quartz filler for
plastic matrices with uniform fine grain size.
nozzle. (I) The opening in a ladle through which steel is
teemed. (2) The discharge opening of a spray gun in
which a suspension is atomized. (3) A projecting pipe
or spout used to discharge fluids. (4) In a jet or rocket
engine, the duct that directs the effluent to generate
thrust.
nozzle brick. A tubular refractory shape with a hole
through which steel is teemed at the bottom of a ladle,
the upper end of the shape serving as a seat for the
stopper.
nozzle, jet. See jet nozzle.
nozzle, refractory. See refractory nozzle.
nsutite. y-Mn02; a manganese dioxide polymorph whose
structure consists of irregular intergrowths of the py-
rolusite and ramsdellite forms of Mn02; a potential
material for electrodes in lithium batteries.
NTC. Abbreviation for negative temperature coefficient
thermistor, e.g., NiO, CoAI 20 4 ; electrical resistance
decreases as temperature increases.
nth. Used to represent an unspecified ordinal number.
NTP. Abbreviation for normal temperature and pressure
which are standard conditions of ODC and 10 1.325 kPa.
n-type semiconductor. A semiconductor in which ex-
cess electrons in the conduction band are responsible
NUANCE
for its current-carrying ability. The excess electrons are
promoted from energy levels in the band gap region
provided by suitable dopant atoms, for example, phos-
phorus atoms doped into silicon.
nuance. A subtle difference in color.
nub. (1) A small lump or protuberance. (2) A small
fibrous knot in yam.
nuclear engineering. The technology dealing with the
design, construction, and operation of nuclear reactors
and their auxiliary facilities, the development and fab-
rication of materials, and the handling and processing
of reactor products.
nuclear fission. The splitting of an atomic nucleus into
approximately equal parts, usually accompanied by en-
ergy release.
nuclear fuel. Any fissionable material, such as pluto-
nium 239, uranium 235, and uranium 233, which is
capable of acting as a source of energy and a source of
neutrons for the propagation of a chain reaction.
nuclear grade. Material of a quality adequate for use in
a nuclear reactor.
nuclear magnetic resonance. NMR; the observation of
the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by magnetic
nuclei in materials, in the presence of an externally
applied magnetic field. Usually a fixed radio-frequency
field is applied to the sample and the magnetic field is
varied until radiation is absorbed most strongly by the
transition between the possible neutron spin energies.
nuclear poison. A material, such as cadmium, having a
high neutron-absorption cross section which, if present
in a reactor, reduces the neutron flux.
nuclear reaction. A process where the structure and en-
ergy of an atomic nucleus are changed by interaction
with another nucleus or atomic particle.
nuclear reactor. A device in which the chain reaction of
neutrons can be sustained and regulated for production
of thermal energy, synthetic elements, and radioiso-
topes.
nuclear reactor ceramics. Ceramics which are em-
ployed in nuclear fuel elements, such as the compounds
of uranium; as moderators, such as carbon and beryl-
lium compounds; and as control materials, such as
boron carbide and the rare-earth oxides.
220
nucleated glass. Glass containing a nucleating agent to
promote the formation of a crystalline structure in the
glass during cooling or subsequent heat treatment.
nucleation. The appearance of a critical sized embryo
which can sustain a decrease in free energy as it grows
in size. It becomes the first step in the process of
crystallization, in which the characteristic atomic ar-
rangement is first established.
nuclei. Points at which crystals begin to grow during
solidification.
nucleon. A proton or neutron.
nucleonics. The branch of science concerned with nu-
clear energy.
nucleus of slip. The smallest region of slip distortion in
a crystal that can be made to grow by applied stress on
its own. Any smaller region will return to the original
perfect configuration once the thermal fluctuation caus-
ing the original slip has passed.
nuclide. An atomic species characterized by its atomic
number and its mass number.
nugget. A small piece or lump.
null. Involving measurement in which conditions are
adjusted so that an instrument has a zero reading.
nu value. Expressed by the Greek letter v or by the
English letter V, designating reciprocal dispersive pow-
ers by the formula nu value = (nD - 1)/(nF - nc)' in
which nD is the index of refraction for the sodium line
at 589.3 nm, and nF and nc are the indices for the
hydrogen lines at 486.1 and 656.3 nm, respectively.
NVRAMs. Abbreviation for non-volatile random access
memories; usually ferroelectric oxides based on lead
zirconium titanate films, PbxZryTil-(x+y)03.
NZP. Abbreviation for NaZr2(P04)3, a phosphate with a
hexagonal structure which gives an ultralow thermal
expansion coefficient plus low thermal conductivity.
Developed as a ceramic coating for advanced heat en-
gine cylinders, pistons, and valves.
NZP glass-ceramics. Glass-ceramics containing
NaZr2(P04h crystals and related isostructural phos-
phates containing isolated P04 tetrahedra linking
chains of M06 octahedra; they have negative or zero
expansion coefficients.
 o
obscure glass. A glass which will transmit and also dif-
fuse light so that objects beyond cannot be distinguished
clearly.
obscuring process. Any process, such as acid etching,
sandblasting, etc., which is designed to diffuse light and
thereby obscure vision, in varying degrees, through
glass.
observable quantity. A physical quantity which can be
measured.
obsidian. A highly siliceous natural glass, usually of
volcanic origin, which is transparent but dark in color
and which resembles granite in composition.
obsolescence, obsolete. No longer in use because of im-
provements or revised requirements.
occlusion. Any material enveloped by a larger mass of
another solid. Often formed in the creation process, e.g.,
coprecipitation or rapid crystallization.
occult material. A component of a material which can-
not be observed by optical means, but which may be
detected by chemical analysis.
oceanite. A basalt consisting of at least 50% olivine and
up to 50% plagioclase.
ocher. A natural, sometimes plastic earth containing iron
oxide, clay, and sand; employed in engobe slips, under-
glaze colors, and overglaze decorations to produce yel-
low, brown, and red colors.
octosilicate. Na2H2(SisOlS)O·9H20; a synthetic sodium
silicate hydrate containing layers of linked silicate tetra-
hedra. Developed to occlude water and organic mole-
cules between the layers in the structure.
octyl alcohol. CSH 170H; several isomeric compounds
employed as deairing agents during the ball milling of
some ceramic slips.
on grinding. Cylindrical grinding on the circumference
of a specimen or item.
221
odorant. A material added to an odorless gas, such as
fuel gas, for purposes of detection by its smell, identi-
fication, safety, etc.
odor test, threshold. See threshold odor test.
oersted. The cgs electromagnetic unit of magnetic inten-
sity equal to the intensity of a magnetic field in a
vacuum in which a unit magnetic pole experiences a
mechanical force of one dyne in the direction of the
field. In the SI system 1 oersted is equal to 10-4 tesla.
offal. Trimmed waste material from formed composite
panels.
off-beader. An operator who removes excess beading
enamel from porcelain-enameled ware, or smooths por-
celain-enamel at the edges of coated ware prior to firing.
off-beading. The removal of excess slip from the edge of
porcelain-enameled ware preparatory to the application
of beading enamel.
oftband glass. Glass prepared by an artisan working
without benefit of molds.
oftband grinding. Freehand grinding of work held in the
hand of the operator, usually without the use of guides
or patterns.
oftband process. The forming of glassware without the
aid of molds.
offset. (l) An imperfection resulting when mold parts are
not properly matched. (2) A finish, or base offset from
the body or neck of an item. (3) The distance on the
strain ordinate separating the initial part of a stress-
strain curve and a line parallel to that line which inter-
sects the stress-strain curve at a value of stress where
permanent set begins, i.e., the yield strength.
offset finish. A finish that is not symmetrical to the axis
of a bottle.
offset lithography. A process of printing in which an
inked impression from a surface is first made on a
OFFSET PRESS
rubber cylinder and then transferred to the ware being
decorated or printed.
offset press. A printing press in which a lithographic
stone or a plate of metal, paper, or other material is used
to make an inked impression on a rubber blanket which,
in turn, transfers the impression to paper, such as is used
in the production of decalcomanias, or other surface
being printed.
offset punt. The bottom of a bottle that is asymmetric to
the axis of the bottle.
off-the-shelf. A product available for immediate ship-
ment.
ohm. The derived SI unit of electrical resistance pro-
duced when a current of I amp flows in a conductor
under a potential difference of I volt.
ohmic device. A circuit component in which the current
is proportional to the applied voltage.
oil bath. A heating device.
oil, bunker. See bunker fuel oil.
oil, bunker C. See bunker fuel oil.
oil burner. A liquid-fuel burning device in which mix-
tures of atomized or vaporized oil and air are employed
for combustion.
oil emulsion. A mixture or suspension of finely divided
oil minutely dispersed in a medium, such as water, in
which the oil is insoluble.
oil filter. A device or a material employed to remove
contaminants from circulating oil.
oil-fired furnace or kiln. A furnace or kiln in which oil
is employed as the heat-producing fuel.
oil, form. See form oil.
oil, heavy. See heavy oil.
oil, light. See light oil.
oil mark. A defect in glass consisting of streaky, brown-
black discoloration in the body of the glass.
oil-oxygen binder. A synthetic liquid oil-based binder
that reacts with an oxygen release agent to partially
harden at room temperature; baking completes the hard-
ening process.
oil spots. Lustrous decorative metallic markings on
stoneware glazes produced by excess additions of iron
oxide, manganese oxide, and cobalt oxide to the glaze.
oil, squeegee. See squeegee oil.
oilstone. A natural or synthetic abrasive stone, generally
impregnated with oil, for putting the final edge on
cutting tools by abrasion.
oil, vegetable. See vegetable oils.
222
oil-well cement. A special kind of hydraulic cement
which is slow setting at the temperatures encountered
in oil wells; used to support pipes and to bypass un-
wanted areas in the wells.
oligoclase. The name of the plagioclase solid solution
series in the composition range 90-70% albite,
NaAlSi 3 0 S, to 10-30% anorthite, CaAI 2 Si 20 s ; triclinic
soda-lime feldspars.
olivine. (Mg,FehSi04; a group of natural minerals in-
cluding chrysolite, forsterite, fayalite, peridot, mon-
ticellite, and tephrolite; sp. gr. 3.2-3.6; hardness
(Mohs) 6.5-7; used in refractories, cement, and foundry
sand; purer grades are used in the manufacture of elec-
tronic components and ceramic-metal seals.
olivine sand. Crushed olivine.
once-fired. Ware manufactured with only one firing
stage.
one-coat ware. (1) Articles finished in a single coat of
porcelain-enamel. (2) A contraction of one-cover-coat
ware in which a single porcelain-enamel cover coat is
applied over a ground coat.
one-fire finish. A porcelain-enamel applied to ware and
subjected to a single firing operation.
one-way slab. A steel-reinforced concrete slab in which
the reinforcement rods are perpendicular to the support-
ing beams.
on-glaze. A glaze applied and fired on a previously
glazed surface of ceramic ware.
on-glaze decoration. Any decoration applied and fired
on a previously glazed surface of ceramic ware.
on-off control. A method of temperature control which
allows the heat imput to be either on or off only and does
not proportion or throttle like a modulating control.
onion. A bulblike mass of glass at the origin of a drawn
sheet produced by the Fourcault process.
oolitic aggregate. An aggregate of prismatic crystals ra-
diating from a common center to form a spherical
surface with each group of crystals being less than 3
mm.
OOR. Abbreviation for out of roundness in shape.
opacifier. A material used in porcelain-enamels, glazes,
and glass to impart or increase the diffuse reflection,
refraction, and to produce an opaque appearance, by
reducing the transparency of the product.
opacity. (I) The property of reflecting light diffusely and
nonselectively. (2) The covering power and relative
ability of porcelain-enamel to reflect incident light and
produce whiteness.
opal. (1) An amorphous form of hydrated silica found in
nature in many varieties, colors, and iridescence. (2) An
opaque glass made so by small precipitated particles.
 223
opalescence. The quality or state of reflecting an irides-
cent light.
opalescent glaze. A ceramic glaze with a milky or irides-
cent appearance caused by the presence of fluorides in
the frit composition.
opal glass. Glass having a white, milky appearance, usu-
ally with a fiery translucence.
opalizer. Any fluoride compound, such as cryolite, fluor-
spar, sodium fluoride, etc., which will produce an opal-
escent appearance in glasses and glazes.
opaque glaze. A nontransparent, white or colored ce-
ramic coating of bright satin or glossy finish on the
surface of a ceramic product.
opaque medium. (I) A material which is not transparent
when observed by eye. (2) A medium which does not
transmit electromagnetic radiation.
open. To start a hollow or an opening in a ball of clay as
it spins on a potter's wheel.
open-arc furnace. A furnace heated by an electric arc
held above the furnace charge.
open-cast mining. See open-pit mining.
open cells. Bodies in which the cells are interconnected.
open circuit. An incomplete electrical circuit in which
no current flows.
open clay. Porous or sandy-textured clays
open firing. Firing in which the flame may impinge on
or through the ware.
open frontal area. OFA; a physical shape factor of cel-
lular ceramic catalyst support design that relates to
component weight. OFA = (L - t)2/L2, where L is the
cell repeat distance and t is the cell wall thickness.
open gaseous inclusion. A bubble at the surface of glass
which has burst or is open, leaving a cavity at the surface
of the ware.
open gold. Nondrying gold.
open-hearth furnace. A steel-making furnace of the re-
verberatory type in which the charge is laid on a shallow
hearth over which play flames of burning gas and hot
air.
open-hearth furnace, basic. See basic open-hearth fur-
nace.
opening force. The force needed to open electrical con-
tacts.
opening material. Sand, flint, grog, chamotte, pitchers,
and the like added to plastic clay to increase the poros-
ity, decrease shrinkage, and expedite drying.
open pit. An open or surface-working excavation from
which minerals are removed, the opening being the full
size of the excavation.
OPTICAL ACTIVITY
open-pit mining. The removal of minerals located near
the earth's surface by first removing the overlying ma-
terial, or overburden, and excavating the minerals. Also
known as open-cast mining or strip mining.
open pore volume. The volume of pores in a solid body
which may be penetrated by a liquid or gaseous sub-
stance applied to the outer surface of the body, ex-
pressed by the formula: Po = 100[(1 - Db)/Dal, where
Po is the total volume of open pores, Db is the bulk
density, andDa is the apparent density of the specimen.
open pot. A glass-melting pot open to the flames and
gases of combustion.
open setting. Ware placed in a kiln and fired with the
flames passing over, around, and between the items.
open storage. The storage of raw materials out doors and
exposed to the weather.
operand. A quantity or function upon which a mathe-
matical operation is performed.
operating stress. The stress to which a component is
subjected in service.
operation. (I) An item of work, usually performed at one
location, consisting of one or more work elements. (2)
Any procedure, such as multiplication, differentiation,
integration, etc., in which one or more numbers or
quantities are operated upon according to stated rules.
operation analysis. A study of all the procedures and
activities involved in the design and improvement of
production, including materials, equipment, processes,
inspection, and conditions of work.
operations research. The application of scientific and
mathematical methods to the study and analysis of
complex problems.
operator. (I) A person who operates, adjusts, and main-
tains a piece of equipment. (2) Any symbol or term used
to indicate a specific operation or process in mathemat-
ics.
ophite. Greenish mottled rocks, such as dolerite, with
ophitic texture.
ophitic. A type of microstucture common in some rocks
where small elongated, unoriented feldspar crystals are
embedded in a ferromagnesian matrix.
ophthalmic glass. Glass of great compositional uni-
formity, having specified optical and physical proper-
ties; used to make spectacle lenses.
optic. (I) A lens or prism in an optical instrument. (2)
Glassware having variations in wall thickness which
produce refractive effects. (3) Pertaining to the eye.
optical activity. A feature of materials having a helical
structure based on tetrahedrally coordinated structures,
such as those in quartz. Such materials have different
refractive indices for left- and right-hand circularly
polarized light. Thus, a plane-polarized light rayon
passing through an optically active material will have
OPTICAL AMPLIFIER
its plane of polarization rotated according to e =
rrd(nL - nR)/'A, where d is the length of the sample, A. is
the wavelength of the light, and nL and nR are the
refractive indices for left- and right-hand components.
optical amplifier. Lengths of fiber, spliced into a normal
optical fiber, that are doped with erbium so that when
pumped with laser light the erbium-enriched section
behaves like a laser itself to boost incoming optical
signals.
optical analysis. The study of the chemical composition,
particle size, and other properties of a material or mix-
ture' by means of transmitted light, such as absorption,
polarization, refraction, and scattering.
optical annealing temperature. The temperature at
which the stresses, as revealed by polarized light, in an
unannealed rod disappear when heated at 2°C min-I, the
rod being 40 mm long and 6 mm diameter.
optical blank. Optical glass formed to the approximate
specified dimensions required, and from which final
lenses are made.
optical composites. A fiber composite of optical clarity;
so far not achieved, the nearest being a transparent to
translucent body of polyurethane containing 40% glass
fiber.
optical crown glass. Optical glass having a nu value be-
tween 50.0 and 55.0, and a refractive index greater than
1.6.
optical damage. See photorefractive effect.
optical density. Synonym for transmission density.
optical emission spectrograph. A spectrograph for re-
cording electromagnetic radiation in one or more of the
following regions: ultraviolet, visible, or infrared.
optical fiber. A long, thin thread of a highly transparent
substance, such as glass or plastic, which transmits light
along the fiber by a series of total internal reflections.
To do this the fiber must have a variable composition
from the inside to the outside and this is obtained by
vapor deposition of silica inside a tube and then collaps-
ing the tube by heating and pUlling.
optical figuring. The final shaping, grinding, and polish-
ing of glass components for optical instruments.
optical Oat. A polished flat glass having an overall flat-
ness of 0.05 ~m, used as a standard in comparative
linear measurements.
optical flint glass. Optical glass having a nu-value less
than 50.0 or between 50.0 and 55.0 if the refractive
index is less than 1.6.
optical glass. Glass of great compositional uniformity
and free of imperfections having closely specified opti-
cal properties in terms of transmission, refraction, and
dispersion of light; used in the manufacture of optical
systems.
224
optical glass numerical designation. A numerical des-
ignation based on the index of refraction for sodium line
(nD) and nu value (v). The unity value for the refractive
index is dropped (for example, 1.496 becomes 496) and
the decimal point for the nu value is deleted (for exam-
ple, 64.4 becomes 644). Thus, a glass may be specified
as 496/644 without reference to its chemical composi-
tion. The numerical designation may be preceded, if
required, by symbols to indicate composition.
optical maser. A device that utilizes the vibrations of
atoms or molecules in solids for generating or amplify-
ing electromagnetic waves in the microwave region of
the spectrum.
optical path. nd; the distance in vacuum that light would
travel in the same time that it goes a distance d in the
medium of refractive index n.
optical pyrometer. An instrument for measuring high
temperatures in which the color of an electrically heated
filament in a telescope or similar device is matched with
the color of the surface of a heated object so that against
this background the filament disappears; the tempera-
ture is shown on a calibrated scale for the instrument.
optical reOectometer. An instrument which measures
the surface reflection of light waves in or near the
visible region.
optical spectrometer. A calibrated instrument used to
measure the wavelength of light transmitted by trans-
parent materials.
optical surface. The interface between two media, such
as air and glass, which is used to reflect or refract light.
optical switch. A device with one or two optical fiber
inputs and two output fibers; using electronic control,
the light can be directed from one input fiber to either
of the output fibers with switching speeds on the order
of milliseconds. For single mode switching, LiNb03 is
used to move the output fiber and align it with the input
fiber.
optical system. A collection of mirrors, lenses, prisms,
and other devices placed in some specified arrangement
which reflect, refract, disperse, absorb, transmit, or
polarize light.
optical waveguide. A dielectric cylindrical fiber im-
mersed in a medium of smaller refractive index or
epitaxial layers of different dielectric constant such as
is obtained when a layer of semiconductor is ion bom-
barded to half depth. Such arrangements have two dif-
ferent refractive indices side by side and the material
with the larger refractive index is able to guide optical
signals.
optical weave. Reinforcement in which optical fibers
form the warp and conventional ceramic fibers the fill;
used to provide background lighting.
optic axis. The one direction in a birefringent crystal,
such as calcite or quartz, in which the ordinary and
extraordinary rays behave alike in all respects.
 225
optics. The science which deals with light, its origin and
propagation, the effects it undergoes and produces, and
other phenomena with which it is associated.
optimization. To make as near perfect, functional, or
effective as possible.
optimum frequency. In electromagnetic testing, that
frequency which provides the largest signal-to-noise
ratio obtainable for the detection of an individual mate-
rial property, each property of a particular material
having its own optimum frequency.
optosensor. Ceramics that respond to radiation frequen-
cies which, via the piezo-effect, generate an electrical
potential that can be used to make a sensor device;
lithium niobate, LiNb0 3, and zinc sulfide, ZnS, are
examples.
orange mineral. See red lead.
orange peel. A pattern of roughness or waviness on por-
celain-enameled, glazed, pickled, painted, or other sur-
face which resembles the skin of an orange in texture.
orbital. The quantum-mechanical wave description of
the state of an electron, including its energy and its
time-averaged spatial distribution.
ordering. The process within a crystal structure of form-
ing a superlattice.
order, short-range. See short-range order.
ordinary ray. The refracted ray of light in a double
refracting crystal, such as quartz, that does obey Snell's
law: sin$/sin$' =n, where $ is the angle of incidence,
$' is the angle of refraction, and n is the refracti ve index
of the crystal.
ore, refractory chrome. See refractory chrome ore.
organic bond. (1) An organic material, such as rubber,
synthetic resins, or shellac, employed to bond abrasive
grains in the production of grinding wheels. (2) A gum,
starch paste, or similar material incorporated in a ce-
ramic body or glaze to increase its green strength.
organic fiber. A natural or synthetic polymer fiber hav-
ing an aspect ratio of 100 or more.
organic solvent. Any organic liquid used to dissolve or
disperse other substances.
organic test. A procedure used to determine the con-
taminating organic matter in sand. The sand, 50 ml, is
suspended in 100 ml of 3% sodium hydroxide solution,
and settled for 24 h. The darkness of the solution above
the sand is monitored against preset standards.
orientation. A process, usually involving heat and ap-
plied stress, that realigns the molecular or crystal struc-
ture. Uniaxial tension produces uniaxial orientation
known as fiber texture, biaxial tension produces a sheet
texture.
orientational polarization. When an electric field, E, is
applied to materials possessing permanent dipole mo-
ORTHORHOMBIC
ments, the moments tend to line up with the field to
produce an orientational polarization, Po' The value is
given as Po =NL(a)P, where N is the number of dipoles
per unit volume, P is the moment of each dipole, and
L(a) is the Langevin function, coth a - 1/a, where a =
pE/kT.
orientation factor. See resolved shear stress.
oriented inclusions. Material trapped in a crystal which
occupy spaces along definite crystallographic planes of
the host crystal so producing a symmetrical pattern;
such a microstructure is formed as a result of simulta-
neous crystallization or by exsolution.
oriented materials. Anisotropic materials produced by
orientation.
orifice ring. The ring or bushing in the feeder through
which glass flows to a forming machine.
O-ring. A flat or toroidal ring of rubber or plastic
squeezed between two flat surfaces to produce a vac-
uum or high-pressure seal.
Ormosil. Ceramic composites formed from nanometer-
sized powders.
ornamental tile. A decorative tile, frequently having a
patterned surface, or tiles of diverse size and shape, to
be installed in decorative patterns.
oroide. An alloy of copper, tin, and other metals, used as
an imitation gold decoration on pottery and glass.
orpiment. As 2S 3 ; arsenic trisulfide; formed when real-
gar is exposed to light; a yellow mineral; sp. gr. 3.48;
hardness (Mohs) 1.5-2.0; has a resinous luster.
Orsat analyzer. A gas analysis arrangement in which
the gases are absorbed into a series of solvents and solid
phases.
orthicon. See image orthicon.
orthoborate. See borates.
orthoclase. A word meaning straight fracture.
orthoclase feldspar. KAISi 30 g; a potash-bearing feld-
spar found as monoclinic crystals in which there is
partial ordering of the Si4+ and A1 3+ ions at tetrahedral
sites; employed in the manufacture of glass, electrical
and other porcelains, vitreous sanitary ware, and pot-
tery.
orthogonal weaves. A way of forming 3-D composites
in which fibers are oriented along the x, y, and z-axes.
The carbon, glass, or other fibers are woven dry to fill
about 40% of the volume and this matrix is impregnated
from the liquid or vapor state.
orthopedic implant. A device, often a composite or a
porous glass-ceramic, surgically introduced into the
human body.
orthorhombic. The crystal system with three unequal
perpendicular axes.
ORTHOSCOPIC
orthoscopic. Yielding an undistorted image.
orthotitanates. Ceramic phases of general composition
M 2Ti04 ·
orthotropic. A system of three mutually perpendicular
planes of elastic symmetry.
orthotropic laminate. A composite laminate whose lay-
up is such that the planar elastic properties have three
planes of symmetry, parallel respectively to the sides of
the specimen. See lay-up.
orthotungstic acid. See tungstic acid.
Orton cones. Trigonal prisms of standardized shapes,
sizes, and compositions which will deform by bending
under predetermined (,'lnditions of time and tempera-
ture, and which are employed to indicate the thermal
history of ceramic ware during a firing operation.
oscillator circuit. A circuit in which ac current is pro-
duced by an electronic valve working in conjunction
with inductance and capacitance, the values of which
determine the operating frequency.
0' -sialon. Phases formed by the partial replacement of
silicon by aluminum in silicon oxynitride; general for-
mula is: Si2-xAlxOl+..N"2-x' where x < 0.2.
osmosis. The diffusion of fluids through semipermeable
membranes or porous barriers.
osteoceramic. A mixture of ceramic phases, one of
which is biologically active and able to interact and
bond to bone, used in tooth and bone replacement and
strengthening. An example is a-calcium triphosphate
and MgAI20 4 spinel where the a-CTP is biologically
active and the spinel gives high strength.
ounce, troy. See troy ounce.
outer fiber. The outer layer of a nonductile material
stressed in three-point loading.
outer fiber stress. See modulus of rupture.
outgassing. The release of adsorbed and occluded gases
or water vapor from a body or substance by heating andl
or applying a vacuum.
out-or-round. A defect in glass and other products in
which the degree of roundness is no longer perfect.
out-or-roundness value. The difference between the
largest and smallest radius of a measured profile.
out-or-square. The deviation from 90°.
outwash deposits. Sands formed in front of advancing
glaciers; a common source of cement and ceramic
sands. The particle size depends on the distance it was
originally carried from the ice front.
ovaloid. (1) A surface generated by revolution about a
polar axis. (2) The end-closure of a filament-wound
cylinder.
226
oval ring, oval neck. A glass container defect consisting
of excessive visual out-of-round condition even though
still within dimensional specification.
oven. A heated chamber in which ware is dried, fired, or
otherwise thermally treated.
oven, bottle. See bottle kiln.
oven, chamber. See chamber oven.
oven, drying. See drying oven.
oven-drying loss. The reduction in weight which results
when a sample is heated in an oven under specified
conditions.
oven glass. A glass of low thermal expansion and high
resistance to thermal shock employed in the manufac-
ture of articles to be used in the cooking offood; usually
borosilicate compositions are chosen.
oven, hobmouth. See hobmouth oven.
ovenware. Ceramic whiteware or glass of high resis-
tance to thermal shock; formed as casseroles, ramekins,
etc.
overburden. Top soil, sand, gravel, or silt overlaying a
bed of clay, shale, or other mineral of commercial
significance.
overfire,overfiring. (1) Heating ware to a temperature
sufficient to cause pronounced deformation, bloating,
or other defect. (2) The firing of porcelain-enamel at
temperatures too high or for periods too long, resulting
in pinholes, pitting, or an unwanted dull finish.
overflow. An excess of a mat)rial, usually liquids, ex-
ceeding the capacity of its container.
overflush. A fault in glassware caused by an excessive
flow of glass at a mold joint.
overglaze. A glaze coating applied over a previously
glazed surface of ceramic ware.
overglazed. Ware coated with a glaze.
overglaze decoration. A ceramic or metallic decoration
applied and then fired onto a previously glazed surface
of ceramic ware.
overgrinding. A reduction in the particle size or parti-
cle-size distribution of a material, or mixture, by grind-
ing or milling to a degree less than desired or required.
Overhauser effect. A nuclear interaction whereby nu-
clear polarization can be transferred from one group of
atoms through mutual relaxation mechanisms.
overlay. A concrete topping employed to repair worn
concrete surfaces.
over pickling. Pickling of metal shapes for porceJain-
enameling for excessive time, excessive temperature, or
in solutions of the wrong pH, with the result that the
finished ware has defects, such as blistering, fishscal-
ing, etc.
 227
overpress. An imperfection in glassware consisting of a
projection or fin of excess glass due to an imperfect
closing of mold joints.
oversanded. An excess of fine aggregate in a concrete
mix.
oversize. The material retained in the maximum speci-
fied sieve.
overspray. (1) The portion of the slip from a spray gun
which passes by or which is not deposited on ware
during the spray operation. (2) The application of a
second coat of porcelain-enamel over a previously ap-
plied, but unfired, coat which, in effect, produces two
coats of enamel requiring a single firing operation.
Ovonic memory switch. A device consisting of two
glassy semiconductor thin films which form a low-re-
sistance and a high-resistance state around a critical
voltage, VI' The device is in the low-resistance state
without a holding current and switching back to the
high-resistance state happens when a current pulse is
applied.
Ovonic threshold switch. A device formed from a
glassy semiconductor thin film with two stable states,
one of high resistance, one of low resistance, symmetric
with respect to voltage. Switching from a high-resis-
tance to a low-resistance state happens when a voltage
greater than the switching voltage, VT , is applied. The
low-resistance state is maintained by a minimum hold-
ing current, fR' and if the current falls below fR the
switch returns to the high-resistance state.
Owens process. A bottle forming process in which the
blank or parison mold is filled by suction.
oxidation. (1) A chemical reaction in which the oxygen
content of a compound is increased. (2) A chemical
reaction in which an atom or ion loses electrons or in
which the positive valence is increased.
oxidation state. A formalism used to describe the
changes that happen to an element in its chemical
reactions, for example, when titanium metal, Ti, is
burned to the oxide, Ti02, the titanium changes from
oxidation state zero to oxidation state four, IV.
oxide. A compound of oxygen with one or more elements
or radicals.
oxide ceramics. Ceramics made by dry-pressing or slip
casting essentially pure oxides, such as alumina, mag-
nesia, zirconia, etc., followed by sintering at high tem-
peratures.
oxide color. An oxide material, usually one of the tran-
sition metal oxides, which may be added as a batch
ingredient or as a mill addition to produce color in
porcelain-enamels, glazes, and ceramics.
oxide-fuel reactor. A nuclear reactor in which the fuel
is uranium oxide, V0 2, or plutonium oxide, Pu02'
oxide, graining. See graining oxides.
OXYNITRIDE GLASSES
oxide mineral. A naturally occurring mineral in which
the components are in essentially oxide form, such as
Si02, zr0 2, Fe203, etc.
oxide nuclear fuel. Fissionable uranium or plutonium
oxide.
oxides. (1) Compounds containing oxygen ionically or
covalently bonded to another element but not as part of
a radical, such as sulfate, (S04)2-, etc. (2) Color- and
opacity-producing additives added to the mill in the
preparation of porcelain-enamels and glazes.
oxides-2212. High-Tc superconductors; see 2212-bis-
muth oxides.
oxides, surface. See surface oxides.
oxide superconductors. A group of ternary and quater-
nary oxides that become superconducting at tempera-
tures higher than 30 K; also known as high-Tc
superconductors. Examples are:
Te(K) Be(T)
(La,BahCu04 35 36
YBa2Cu307 92 100
Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu301O 110 120
Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu301O 128 120
oxidizing agent. A compound which removes or dis-
places hydrogen in another compound, attracts elec-
trons, or gives up oxygen easily.
oxidizing atmosphere. An atmosphere with a partial
pressure of oxygen in which oxidation reactions can
take place during firing or when using a ceramic.
oxidizing condition. The presence of air in a kiln in
excess of that needed to completely bum the fuel.
oxidizing flame. A flame in which oxygen is present in
amounts greater than is required for complete combus-
tion.
oxidizing period. The time span of a firing operation in
which any carbonaceous material in the composition is
burned out.
oxidizing temperature. The temperature at which the
rate of oxidation of carbon, or other element, or com-
pound in a product becomes detectable.
oxygen parameter. 11; a quantification of the degree of
distortion present in the oxygen ion close-packing in the
spinel structure arising from the cations in the tetrahe-
dral sites. Defined as 0.25 + Ii, where Ii is the ratio of
the distance from the center to the comer of a cation-
filled tetrahedron to the length of the body diagonal of
the crystallographic unit cell; Ii = 0.375 for perfect
cubic-close-packing.
oxynitride glasses. Noncrystalline phases with the gen-
eral composition Si02_ 3xN 2x produced by the reaction
of ammonia gas with fumed silica in the temperature
OZOCERITE OR OZOKERITE 228

range 600-1200°C; significant differences in physical ozocerite or ozokerite. A grayish-brown wax found
properties in the two ranges of composition: 0-12 wt. around petroleum deposits; used for making waxed
% nitrogen and 12-28 wt. % nitrogen. paper and as a green state binder.
 p
p. Symbol for several scientific entities: (1) Pressure. (2)
Momentum. (3) Proton. (4) Pico.
P. Symbol for: (I) Power. (2) Poise. (3) Phosphorus. (4)
Parity.
Pa. Abbreviation for pascal. the synonym for N m-2.
pack. (1) The quantity of ware contained in a package.
(2) The ratio of ware contained in a package to that
theoretically possible.
packaged brick. One or more brick encased in a package
to facilitate handling and to minimize breakage.
packaging. The general name given to semiconductor
and related circuit supports. such as sintered cordierite
wafers. disks. and rings.
packerhead. A mechanical device in which concrete
pipe is formed by compacting the concrete against a
stationary. outside. vertical mold with a revolving shoe
or "packerhead."
packing. (I) A material used to cushion packed goods.
(2) A substance used to make watertight or gastight
joints.
packing density. (I) The density of an aggregate. ex-
pressed as grams per milliliter. or pounds per cubic foot.
packed in a container under specified and controlled
conditions. (2) The percentage of the space of a unit cell
occupied by spherical atoms of the same size when
ordered into one of the layer sequences. such as cubic
close packed.
packing factor. Ratio of true volume to bulk volume.
pad. The refractory brickwork floor under the molten
iron in a blast furnace.
padding. The rough shaping of a piece of glass by pad-
dles or tools prior to the pressing of optical-glass blanks.
paddle and anvil. A procedure for the shaping and deco-
ration of plastic pottery bodies by means of a textile or
cord-wrapped paddle on which a design may be carved;
the anvil. a smooth piece of wood. stone. or stiffleather.
229
is held against the interior wall to resist the beating of
the paddle on the outside; a technique used by ancient
civilizations to shape and decorate vessels made from
plastic clay; cord-wrapped paddles were used to com-
pact the vessel and produce characteristic patterns.
Padmus method of expansion measurement. A tech-
nique for calculating the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion based on the birefringence resulting from the stress
generated at the juncture when glass and another glass
of known expansion and a similar transformation tem-
perature are fused together.
pad print. A way of decorating ware whereby an image
is transferred from an engraved plate to an object by
means of a silicone rubber pad.
paillons. Small pieces of metal foil over which a porce-
lain-enamel is applied and fired as a form of artware;
for example. jewelry. mobiles. etc.
painting. The process of applying a pigmented coating
or design to ware by means of a brush. silk-screen.
roller. spray gun. dipping. or other technique for the
purpose of decoration or protection. or both; a design
so applied.
paint mill. A mixer used to suspend enameling frit in
organic liquids.
pale glass. A pale. usually green-colored. glass.
pale oxide of iron. Fe203; used as a pigment; normally
a red color.
palette. A small board upon which an artist lays and
mixes color for use.
palette knife. A blunt spatula used for blending colors.
Palissy ware. A type of fine faience coated with a bright-
colored. tin-enamel glaze.
palladium chloride. PdCI 2; decomposes at 501°C;
sometimes used in porcelain-enamel compositions.
pallet. (I) A low. portable platform upon which materials
or products are stacked for easy handling. movement by
PALLET DRYER
forklift, and storage. (2) A tool used by potters for
smoothing and rounding plastic-clay surfaces. (3) A
tool used by glassmakers for shaping the foot of stem-
ware.
pallet dryer. A periodic dryer in which ware, stacked on
pallets, is charged, dried, and removed.
palletizing. The stacking of brick, materials, and other
products on a platform to facilitate handling and mov-
ing.
pall ring. A slotted ceramic cylinder used as packing in
chemical distillation columns.
palmette. An ornament or design resembling a palm leaf.
palygorskite. Mgs_xAlxSig020(OHh· 8H20; a family of
tough, fibrous, lightweight clays related to attapulgite
in which a large amount of magnesium is replaced by
aluminum; used as a source of both magnesia and
alumina.
PAM. Abbreviation for pneumatically applied mortar.
PAN. Abbreviation for polyacrylonitrile; an addition-
type polymer capable of being fiberized.
pan crusher. A large crushing device consisting of a pan
in which one or more muliers or grinding wheels roll
over the material being ground.
panel. (I) A brick with depression in the bed surface to
improve its adherence with mortar. (2) A large, but
relatively thin sheet of material, such as plasterboard,
used in construction.
panel brick. A long silica brick employed as the refrac-
tory in the wall lining a coke oven. See stretcher.
panel spalling test. A test in which the loss in weight, by
fragmentation, of a refractory panel subjected to a series
of heating and cooling cycles is taken as an indication
of spalling behavior in service.
panel wall. A non-load-bearing wall.
PAN fiber. Fibers derived from polyacrylonitrile poly-
mer. A precursor of carbon fiber.
pan, sludge. See sludge pan.
pan, tempering. See tempering pan.
pan tile. S-shaped roofing tiles which interlock with the
sides of adjacent tile.
Pantone system. A decorating ink matching system
which allows an almost infinite shade variation from a
range of very few stock colors.
pan, wet. See wet pan.
paper. A generic term for matted or felted fibers of any
kind formed into sheets from water suspension by pour-
ing on to fine wire mesh screens.
paper resist. A decoration process in which paper, cut in
the desired design or configuration, is smoothed tightly
230
on the surface of an item being decorated to prevent the
deposition of colors, glazes, or slips in the covered area.
paramagnetic material. A material that possesses
paramagnetism which is a property of atoms or mole-
cules possessing unpaired electrons. As a result of the
permanent moment of the atom there is a magnetic
moment in the direction of the applied field increasing
the permeability to a value greater than unity. The
magnetizing force has little effect on the change in
permeability.
parameter. A quality or constant whose value varies
with the conditions of its application.
paramorphism. A structural change in a material with-
out change in the chemical composition. Synonym for
polymorphism.
paratungstic acid. See tungstic acid.
parget. (I) A rough ornamental plaster on walls, or a
rough-cut plaster used to line chimneys. (2) A cement
mixture sometimes used to waterproof outer walls of
constructions.
parian cement. A gypsum cement to which borax is
added to produce a hard finish.
parian paste. A body composed of two parts of feldspar
and one part of china clay; fired at approximately
1200°C.
parian ware. A soft, usually unglazed porcelain resem-
bling white marble in appearance, and which is com-
posed of two part of feldspar and one part of china clay;
used in making figurines and statuettes.
parison. (I) A preliminary shape or blank from which a
glass article is formed. (2) A hollow tube from which a
glass bottle or other hollow glass object is blow molded.
parison mold. A metal mold that first shapes glass, in the
manufacture of hollow ware, prior to finishing shaping
of the item.
parison swell. The ratio of the cross-sectional area of a
parison tube to the opening of the die in which an item
is to be blow molded.
Paris white. CaCO); decomposes at 825°C; sp. gr. 2.7-
2.95; used in portland cement, soda-lime glass, pottery,
and coatings for printed circuits and capacitors.
partial dislocation. A dislocation whose Burgers vector
is not a lattice vector and hence is the boundary of a
faulted region in a crystal; formed when it is energeti-
cally profitable for a dislocation to slip in two or more
stages where the sum of the Burgers vectors of the
partials equals the Burgers vector of the full dislocation.
partially densified aerogel. See PD A.
partially stabilized zirconia. See PSZ.
particle. A variously shaped very small quantity of mat-
ter composed of one or more single crystals. The size
and shape depend on the cohesive forces.
 231
particle density. The weight of a unit volume of a sub-
stance under specified conditions, including its pore
volume but excluding interparticle voids. Also called
block density.
particle inspection flaw indications, magnetic. See mag-
netic particle inspection.
particle inspection, fluorescent-magnetic. See fluo-
rescent magnetic inspection.
particle inspection, magnetic. See magnetic particle in-
spection.
particle orientation. The geometrical relationships be-
tween particles in a structure.
particle shape. The surface or spatial configuration of a
particle.
particle size. (I) The general dimensions of the particles
of a granular or powdered substance or mixture, usually
assuming all particles to be spherical in shape. (2) The
controlling linear dimensions of a particle or mixture of
particles as determined by a sieve analysis or other
means.
particle-size analysis. The determination of the propor-
tion of particles of defined sizes contained in a pow-
dered or granular sample.
particle-size distribution. The percentage of each size
fraction into which a powdered or granular sample may
be classified.
particle sizing. The separation of the particles of a pow-
dered or granular sample into defined size fractions.
parting agent. Another name for release agent; a lubri-
cant, often wax, used to coat a mold cavity.
parting compound. A powdered or colloidal material
applied to a mold to facilitate the separation of a molded
material from the mold.
parting line. The line or seam on glass, ceramic, or other
molded product caused by the joints of the mold parts.
parting wheel. A thin abrasive wheel, usually organic
bonded, used to cut, slice, or slot a material.
partition tile. Tile used in the construction of non-Ioad-
bearing partitions.
parts per million. ppm; the measurement of the number
of parts of a substance, such as an impurity, per million
parts of the parent material, usually expressed as micro-
grams per gram.
Pascal. Pa; derived SI unit of stress equal to one newton
per square meter. 6.89 x 103 Pa = 1.0 Ib in 2 and 1.013
x 105 Pa = I atmosphere.
passivation. To make a normally chemically active sur-
face stable and inactive.
PAVERS
paste. (I) The clay body used in the fabrication of ware.
(2) The cementing ingredient in concrete consisting of
cement and water.
paste, graining. See graining pastes.
paste, hard. See hard paste.
paste mold. A carbon-lined mold used in the forming of
blown glassware. It is dipped into water before use so
that a cushion of steam forms between mold and glass.
paste, parian. See parian paste.
paste, porcelain. See porcelain paste.
paste, screening (squeegee). See screening ink.
paste, soft. See soft paste.
patch, hot. See hot patch.
patching cement. (1) A mixture of portland cement and
fine aggregate used to repair concrete. (2) A fireclay
cementitious material, used to patch furnace walls, the
bottoms of glass molds, and to make corrections in
molds.
pate dure. Ceramic whiteware fired at relatively high
temperatures.
pate-sur-pate. A technique for the decoration of ceramic
ware in which a relief pattern is built up mostly by hand
with successive layers of slip.
pate tendre. Ceramic whiteware fired at relatively low
temperatures.
patina. A thin, usually decorative film with a colored or
metallic sheen, formed in various ways on the surface
of ware during firing, frequently in a reducing atmos-
phere.
pattern burnishing. Special effects obtained on the sur-
faces of clay vessels by polishing the leather-hard clay,
or overglaze gold, with a stone, sand, or steel tool.
pattern cracking. A random distribution of cracks on
the surface of concrete as a result of surface shrinkage
or internal expansion; also known as a cracking map.
pat test. An estimate of the soundness of concrete in
which thin cylinders of concrete are submerged in either
boiling or cold water for specified periods of time, and
then examined for cracking, warping, and disintegra-
tion.
Pauli exclusion principle. The statement that no two
electrons can be described by the same four quantum
numbers, which implies that only two electrons can
occupy one orbital and then only if they spin oppositely.
pavement, flexible brick. See flexible brick pavement.
pavers. Unglazed porcelain or natural clay tiles formed
by the dust-pressing method, and similar to mosaics in
composition and physical properties, but relatively
thicker, with 37.5 cm2 or more of facial area.
PAVING BRICK
paving brick. Low-absorption vitrified brick of high
strength, usually with spacing lugs, produced with
smooth or wire-cut surfaces; used in the construction of
roads, driveways, sidewalks, etc.
paving-brick clay. Impure refractory fireclays and
shales which are used to form paving brick of high
tensile strength and durability.
paving train. A battery of road-construction equipment
on a road-paving job.
PCB. See printed circuit boards.
PCD. Abbreviation for polycrystalline diamond; a form
of abrasive made by CVD methods.
PCE. Abbreviation for pyrometric cone equivalent.
PCSS. Abbreviation for photoconductive semiconductor
switch; often based on gallium arsenide, GaAs.
PDA. Abbreviation for partially densified aerogel which
is an aerogel with a porous structure capable of acting
as a host medium for pore-filling materials. The original
aerogel has to be sintered to a specific gravity in the
range 0.3 to 1.2 in order that it has sufficient strength to
resist the capillary forces on filling with a liquid.
PDS. Abbreviation for photothermal deflection spectros-
copy, which is used to study the optical properties of
ceramics. The sample is immersed in an organic liquid
and a focused laser beam is directed parallel to the
sample surface.
peach bloom red glaze. A traditional copper-red glaze
often blemished by the appearance of suffuse green
areas. The green color is caused by areas of CuS adher-
ing to the surface of bubbles which causes internal
reflection. See copper-red glaze.
peacock ore. A colloquial name given to the copper ore
bornite, CU5FeS4' because of its red color usually over-
laid with purple tarnish; sp. gr. 5.07; hardness (Mohs)
3; x-ray lattice in the cubic system.
pearl ash. Commercial potassium carbonate, K2C0 3 ;
mp 909°C; sp. gr. 2.3; used in glass, glazes, and porce-
lain-enamels as a flux.
pearlite. A lamellar aggregate of almost pure iron and
cementite forming the miqostructure of cast iron and
carbon steels.
pearly luster. The appearance of a surface of a mineral
or ceramic that shows changing colors due to light
interference effects.
pebble mill. A rotating steel, ceramic, or ceramic-lined
cylinder in which materials are pulverized by cascading
flint pebbles or porcelain balls.
pebble mill, vibrating. See vibrating ball mill.
pebbles. (1) Sedimentary rocks in the size range 2-64
mm. (2) Hard flint, porcelain, or other heavy, abrasive-
resistant material used as grinding media in ball mills.
232
PECVD. Abbreviation for plasma enhanced chemical
vapor deposition.
PEEK. Abbreviation for polyetheretherketone; a ther-
moset polymer used as a matrix for carbon fiber or SiC
fiber composites which are extremely strong and tough.
peeling. A defect characterized by the separation of
flakes of a porcelain enamel, glaze, or engobe from the
base to which it was supplied, usually as a result of poor
adherence or subjection to critical compressive stresses.
peel strength. The force required to peel apart two sheets
of material; units are N m- I of width.
peephole. A small opening in the door or wall of a
furnace or kiln to permit observations into the interior
of the structure. Sometimes called peepdoor.
pegmatite. A rock consisting essentially of feldspar,
quartz, and mica; used as a source of lithia, zircon, tin,
tungsten, tantalum, or uranium.
Peierls distortion. A lattice distortion caused by an elec-
tron-phonon coupling effect. The changed periodicity
arising from new atom-atom distances introduces en-
ergy gaps, the Peierls gap, at the Fermi level. In 1-D
systems this is seen as a change from metallic to semi-
conductor behavior.
Peierls gap. See Peierls distortion.
Peierls-Nabarro model. A description of dislocations
in terms of atomic structures providing semiquantita-
tive predictions of the anisotropy of dislocation behav-
ior with crystallographic orientation.
Peierls valley. Straight sections of jagged or kinked dis-
locations of low energy.
pellet. A small compacted shape, usually cylindrical,
formed by pressing a powdered or granulated material
in a die, by casting, or by other technique; used for test
or reference purposes.
pellet, green. See green pellet.
pelletize. To form powdered or granulated materials into
pellets.
pelletizing. The process of forming pellets.
pellet, sintered. See sintered pellet.
Peltier effect. A thermoelectric effect concerning two
dissimilar electrical conductors joined together which,
when a current is passed, results in one junction becom-
ing hot and the other cold. The reverse of the Seebeck
effect. Silent refrigeration is possible using this effect.
PEM. Abbreviation for photoelectron microscopy.
pencil glide. A mode of deformation of a crystal arising
when several members of a family of planes, for exam-
ple, {112} in a body-centered cubic structure, simulta-
neously act as slip planes to produce say (112) and (121)
surface planes which have fixed angles between them
so that the slipped surface has the appearance of a
 233
bundle of hexagonal pencils after the glide has oc-
curred.
pendulum hardness. A measure of hardness based on
the time taken to damp the oscillations of a loaded
diamond-tipped fulcrum on a polished surface to half
the initial amplitude. The diamond usually has the shape
of a Vickers indenter and the load must be sufficient to
cause penetration and be applied below the center of
gravity of the device. Sometimes the instrument is
called a Shore sclerometer.
penetrant. A liquid capable of permeating a body
through openings or discontinuities in the body; usually
employed as a test of the surface porosity of a body.
penetrant, fluorescent. See fluorescent penetrant.
penetrant, post-emulsifiable. See post-emulsifiable
penetrant.
penetrant, visible. See visible penetrant.
penetration. The process by which a penetrant enters or
impregnates a substance.
penetration depth. (1) The depth to which a penetrant
permeates a body. (2) The depth at which a magnetic
field of induced eddy currents has decreased to 37% of
its surface value. (3) The depth below the polished
surface achieved by an indentation diamond test.
penetration, effective depth of. See effective depth of
penetration.
penetration indication. An observation which marks
the presence of a discontinuity.
penetration, magnetic flux. See magnetic flux penetra-
tion.
penetration time. The total time, including application
and draining, in which a penetrant is in contact with the
surface of a specimen.
penetration twin. Crystal twins where one twin appears
to be penetrating the other as the twins are formed about
an axis instead of a plane. Fluorite is a common example
of interpenetrating cubes, while pyrites form "iron
crosses."
pentlandite. (FeNi)9Sg; a cubic iron-nickel sulfide ore
which looks like pyrrhotite but is nonmagnetic.
peppered sandblast. A finely textured, mottled appear-
ance produced on the surface of a substance by sand-
blasting; usually a decorative treatment.
peptize. (1) To convert to a colloidal solution. (2) To
liquefy a colloidal gel to form a colloidal solution. (3)
To deflocculate a slurry or slip.
percentage timer. An energy regulator working a sim-
ple on-off control to an emitter with the ratio of on/off
periods being adjustable.
perfect dislocation. A dislocation of unit strength which
means that its Burgers vector produces an identity trans-
lation.
PERM
perforated brick. A building brick containing symmet-
rically arranged holes parallel with the face of the brick
to reduce its weight.
performance test. A test to evaluate the ability of a
product to meet prescribed conditions of service.
peri. A prefix meaning enclosing, around, or adjacent to.
periclase. Natural MgO used in refractories; sp. gr. 3.56;
hardness (Mohs) 5.5. See magnesia.
pericline. Elongated crystals of white, translucent, al-
bite.
peridot. A green olivine used in jewelery.
peridotite. A dark, coarse-grained, plutonic, igneous
rock containing mostly olivine with no feldspar present.
perimorph. A phase that encloses another of different
type; usually used in mineralogical context.
periodic. Occurring repeatedly, at regular intervals.
periodic dryer. A dryer in which ware is placed, dried,
and removed prior to the introduction of a subsequent
batch.
periodic furnace. A furnace in which ware is placed,
fired, sometimes cooled, and removed prior to the in-
troduction of a subsequent charge.
periodic kiln. See periodic furnace.
peripheral speed. The rate of movement of a point on
the circumference of a revolving wheel, determined as
the product of the circumference and the rate of revolu-
tion, and expressed as a unit of distance per unit of time.
perish. To disintegrate or to be destroyed under condi-
tions of exposure, such as dampness or high tempera-
ture.
peritectic. A reaction process occurring on cooling some
alloys and ceramic solid solutions. On cooling, first a
liquid plus ~-phase solid occurs and then, on further
cooling to the peritectic temperature, the a-phase solid
occurs and change in composition occurs to reach that
of the peritectic point. The microstructure will show
regions of peritectically generated a along with parts of
unconsumed ~-phase.
peritectic temperature. The unique temperature at
which two solid and a liquid phase coexist.
peritectoid reaction. See eutectoid reaction.
perlite. A glassy rock consisting of 65 to 75% silica, 10
to 20% alumina, 2 to 5% water, and small amounts of
soda, potash, and lime; expands on heating to form a
light, fluffy material; used as a lightweight aggregate in
concrete and plaster, and as heat and acoustic insula-
tion.
perm. A measure of the resistance of a material to the
penetration of moisture; I perm is 10-3 kg (24 hr)-I
m-2 (mm Hg)-I.
PERMANENT DIPOLE BOND
permanent dipole bond. A weak binding force arising
from the attraction between dipoles.
permanent linear change. The percentage change in
the original length of a specimen free of applied
stresses, after the specimen is subjected to a prescribed
heat treatment; the change is irreversible.
permanent magnet. A strongly magnetized material
which retains its magnetic properties for a substantial
period of time. It needs a definite demagnetizing field
to destroy residual magnetism.
permanent mold. A reusable mold.
permanent set. The deformation which remains after the
tensile load is removed from a specimen after a definite
period.
permanent stress. Stress existing in a body not subject
to any external stress.
permeability. Q; (I) Q = (F/A)(dx/dp), where F is the
flow rate, A is the area, dp is the pressure drop, and dx
is the membrane thickness; it is the property of a body
that permits liquids or gases to seep into minute open-
ings of the body. (2) A property of a material which
describes the magnetization developed in that material
when excited by a magnetomotive force. (3) Magnetic
permeability, Il, is the ratio of magnetic flux induced in
the material to the applied magnetic field strength.
permeability constant. P; the product of the diffusion
coefficient D and the solubility coefficient 3; it is the
amount of a given species passing through unit volume
under unit pressure gradient in unit time.
permeability, effective. See effective permeability.
permeability factor. Expressed as kg per day per m2 ; it
is the permeability of a material at a gi ven temperature
and pressure.
permeability, incremental. See incremental permeabil-
ity.
permeability, initial. See initial permeability.
permeability, normal. See normal permeability.
permeability of refractories. The capacity of a refrac-
tory to transmit a liquid or gas through the pore struc-
ture.
permeability, relative. See relative permeability.
permeability test. A test to determine the movement of
a liquid or gas through a body under a hydraulic or
pressure gradient.
permeability variations. In electromagnetic inspection,
changes in the ability of a material to be magnetized that
occur along the body of a test specimen; the variations
mayor may not be indicative of the physical conditions
in the part that are detrimental to its end use.
permeance. The ratio of the rate of water vapor transmis-
sion per unit area at a steady state through a material
234
between two parallel surfaces to the vapor pressure
difference between the surfaces; units are metric perm.
permeation rate. Flow of gas per second through a square
meter of material under a stated pressure gradient.
per mil. In each thousand.
permissible variation. The maximum allowable error in
the value indicated on a testing machine.
permittivity. e; a measure of a materials ability to trans-
mit an electric field, defined as the ratio of its electric
displacement to the applied field strength; units are
farads per meter.
permittivity, absolute. See absolute electric constant.
permittivity, relative. See relative permittivity.
pernetti. (1) Small iron pins or tripods used to support
ceramic ware in the kiln during firing. (2) Marks on a
fired ceramic caused by the ware sticking to the sup-
porting pins during firing.
perovskite. See calcium titanate.
perovskites. Ceramic oxides of the general formula
AB0 3, where A is a large-sized cation of low charge,
such as Pb2+, and B is a small highly charged cation,
such as Zr4+; many of the family have useful magnetic,
electrical, optical, or piezoelectrical properties and are
therefore used in a wide range of devices.
peroxysulfuric acid. H2S0 5 ; an hygroscopic, unstable,
crystalline, oxidizing acid. Also known as Caro' s acid.
perpend. A brick extending through a wall from one side
to the other, serving to bind two segments of a wall
together.
Persian red. Red pigments derived from ferric oxide or
basic lead chromate.
persistent mode operation. A way of operating a super-
conducting magnet by short-circuiting it with a super-
conducting wire which can be warmed to make it
resistive. This produces a voltage across the terminals
and the magnet can be charged or discharged. For
persistent mode operation the heater is turned off and
the switch cools to the superconducting state and when
this is achieved the power supply may be turned off
without losing the field.
persistent switches. The short length of supercon-
ducting wire and its associated heater that connects
across the terminals of a superconducting magnet.
perthite. An intergrowth of sodium and potassium feld-
spars, KAlSi 30 g, NaAlSi 3 0 g, formed by exsolution
when the feldspar cooled.
PESM. Abbreviation for photoelectron spectromicro-
scopy.
pestle. A relatively small clublike instrument, usually
composed of porcelain, quartz, agate or hard metal
alloy, the working end being rounded and slightly
roughened, for use in pounding and grinding solid sub-
 235
stances in a mortar; may be manipulated manually or by
machine.
petalite. Li 2(AI 2Si g)020; mp 1400°C; sp. gr. 2.39-2.46;
hardness (Mohs) 6-6.5; a lithium feldspathoid; used as
a source of lithia in porcelain-enamels, glass, glazes,
and speciality bodies as a flux to promote fusion, to
reduce thermal expansion, and to improve thermal-
shock resistance. A mineral silicate containing a net-
work of corner-sharing tetrahedra in 5-ring units.
petrography. The science dealing with the description
and classification of rocks or the mineral composition
of a ceramic body.
petroleum-coke-carbon refractory. A refractory com-
posed substantially of calcined petroleum coke.
petrology. The science concerned with the origin, occur-
rence, structure, and composition of rock minerals,
particularly in terms of their use in ceramic composi-
tions.
petuntse. Name of the fusible rock used by early Chinese
ceramic makers as part of porcelain batches; a form of
feldspar.
PFN. Perovskite phases based on lead, iron and niobium,
PbFe~bl_x03; prepared to exploit their ferromagnetic
and electrical properties.
Pfund hardness. An indentation hardness scale based on
indentation of a hemisphere into the polished surface.
Hp = 1.27Pld 2, where H is the Pfund hardness, P is
the load in newtons, and d is the diameter of the pro-
jected indentation in meters.
PG. See lead germanate.
pH. A term used to express the hydrogen ion activity or
the relative acidity and alkalinity of a solution, meas-
ured on a reciprocal log scale, neutral solutions being
numerically equal to 7, decreasing with increasing acid-
ity and increasing with alkalinity.
phanerocrystalline. A description of a mineral micro-
structure in which the crystals are so large they can be
seen by the unaided eye.
phase. (1) A separate, but homogeneous, fraction of a
system with a clearly defined boundary. (2) A fraction
of a cycle of a periodic quantity completed at a specified
time; expressed as an angle.
phase angle. 9; the angle between two periodic distur-
bances such as voltage and current. The cosine of 9
times 100 is known as the power factor.
phase contrast microscopy. A method for making vis-
ible transparent objects that normally show little con-
trast. It is essentially a method of converting phase
variations on a wave front leaving the object, into
variations of intensity in the plane of the image. To do
this a phase plate and an annular diaphragm are added
to an optical microscope.
phase diagram. A graphical representation of the equi-
librium relationships between different compounds,
PHONON
mixtures, and solid solutions under varying conditions
of temperature and pressure.
phase equilibria. The equilibrium relationships be-
tween gas, liquid, and solid states of a compound,
mixture, or solid solution under varying conditions of
temperature, composition, and pressure.
phase field. The range of compositions and temperatures
over which a phase exists.
phase, primary. See primary phase.
phase rule. A statement that the number of degrees of
freedom in a material system at eqUilibrium is equal to
the number of components minus the number of phases
plus the constant 2.
phase-sensitive detector. PSD; a frequency-changing
device which converts the input frequency to a lower
frequency by multiplying the input signal by + alter-
nately, hence the output signal is a function of the phase
difference between the input signal and the reference.
phase-separated glass. A glass like Vycor, prepared by
quenching from the melt into the two-liquid-phase im-
miscibility gap, followed by heat treatment to complete
the separation into two glasses. One glass is very high
in alkali oxide content and so is soluble and can be
extracted to leave the high silica glass, Vycor.
phase separation. Partially used to describe glasses
which separate into two mutually immiscible liquid
phases.
phase shift. A change in the phase relationship between
two alternating quantities of the same frequency; noted
in electromagnetic measurements.
phase transition. The change of a substance from one
phase to another, such as from a solid to a liquid.
phenacite. Be2Si04; the hexagonal orthosilicate of be-
ryllium.
phenol formaldehyde. A thermosetting resin; used as a
bonding agent for fiberglass insulation and glass-fiber
cloth laminates used in electrical application.
phenoliclaminate. A glass-fiber laminate bonded with
a thermosetting phenolic resin; used in electrical, struc-
tural, and mechanical applications.
phi scale. A scale for particle-size determination in
which the diameter value of a sedimentary particle is
replaced by the negative logarithm to the base 2 of the
particle in millimeters.
phlogopite. K(Mg,Feh(Si3AI)OlO(OH}z; a biotite mag-
nesium mica; sp. gr. 2.86; hardness (Mohs) 2.5-3.0;
used in electrical and thermal insulators. Thin sections
show asterism.
phonolite. A volcanic igneous rock contammg fine
grains of alkaline feldspar and nepheline.
phonon. A quantized vibration of a crystalline lattice
which may be envisaged as a particle of energy h added
PHOSGENITE
to the system; transverse and longitudinal phonons oc-
cur and are defined relative to the atom displacements
in the lattice. Ionic solids generate acoustical and opti-
cal phonons. In electrical insulators heat is transported
byphonons.
phosgenite. Lead chlorocarbonate mineral, Pb2CI2C03;
recognized by its fluorescence.
phosphate. A generic term frequently used to indicate a
phosphorus-bearing compound, such as bone ash, cal-
cium phosphate, potassium phosphate, or similar mate-
rial; used in glass, ceramic bodies, and glazes.
phosphate-bonding agent. Reagents such as H3P04,
(NH4hP04 which react with silicate or oxide materials
to produce aluminum phosphate bonding phases so that
the products can be used as refractories; used to repair
furnace linings.
phosphate crown glass. An optical crown glass contain-
ing a substantial amount of phosphorus pentoxide,
P20 S , as a glass-forming agent. See optical crown glass.
phosphate fiber. Fibers of calcium sodium metaphos-
phate; used as a substitute for asbestos fiber in friction
pads.
phosphate glass. A glass in which an essential glass-
forming ingredient is phosphorus pentoxide, P20 S, as a
partial replacement for silica, Si02, and which is resis-
tant to hydrofluoric acid.
phosphate slag. A phosphate-bearing slag used in glass-
making.
phosphides. Binary compounds of phosphorus and met-
als having a potential use as semiconducting and fer-
roelectric materials; not so hard as the corresponding
carbides, but generally more stable thermally than the
nitrides.
phosphor. A luminescent material used to produce fluo-
rescent colors, usually red, green, or violet, in porce-
lain-enamels and other ceramics when they are
subjected to ultraviolet light. More generally any sub-
stance capable of emitting light when irradiated.
phosphorescence. Luminescence caused by the absorp-
tion of radiation and which persists after the exciting
source is removed.
phosphoric acid. H 3P04; a rustproofing agent for met-
als; sometimes present as an auxiliary opacifier in
glazes and porcelain-enamels.
phosphorite. (I) A more or less impure source of cal-
cium phosphate, Ca3(P04}z. (2) Fibrous form of apatite.
phosphorous butoxide. P(OC4H9h; an alkoxide used to
prepare sols and gels by hydrolysis of the butanol solu-
tion.
photoceramic process. A process in which an emulsion
is applied to a ceramic or porcelain-enamel surface and
is developed to produce a positive photographic print
which subsequently is made permanent by firing.
236
photochemical glass. A photosensitive glass that can be
cut by acid. Pictures, designs, etc. can be reproduced on
it from photographic film, then subjected to an acid bath
to leave a 3-D design. Areas subjected to light nucleate
glass-ceramic crystals which are insoluble compared to
the glassy areas.
photochemical reaction. A chemical reaction initiated
by the absorption of light.
photochromic glass. A glass which darkens on exposure
to light, but which returns to its original color and
cleamess when the light is removed; used in sunglasses.
photoconductor. A material in which the conductivity is
increased when it is exposed to electromagnetic radia-
tion.
photodegradation. A process encountered in some plas-
tic matrix composites where ultraviolet radiation is
absorbed which promotes electrons to higher energy
levels. The excited electrons then cause oxidative and
cleavage reactions.
photoelasticity. A technique for measuring the stresses
and strains in a glass by observing the change in the
double refraction of the glass when it is subjected to
stress. When polarized white light passes through a
stressed sample the birefringence causes colored pat-
terns.
photoelectric colorimeter. An instrument which classi-
fies color by means of a photocell or phototube; a set of
standardized color filters, an amplifier, and a metering
device.
photoelectric effect. The emission of electrons from a
metal surface when short-wavelength light falls on it.
photoelectric pyrometer. A photoelectric instrument
for measuring high temperatures based on the radiant
energy given off by a heated object.
photoelectron spectroscopy. XPS; a technique for sur-
face composition and atomic bonding studies which
analyzes the energy spectrum of photoelectrons emitted
after bombardment by x rays.
photographic emulsion. A light-sensitive silver halide
suspended in a gelatinous film on glass, porcelain-
enamel, or glaze surfaces as a means of producing a
photographic print which may be made permanent by
firing.
photoluminescence. An induced luminescence when a
material is exposed to visible, uv, or infrared radiation.
photolysis. The use of radiant energy to change the
chemical constitution of a substance.
photomasking. Making photomasks and then applying
them to make windows in photoresist coatings.
photometer. An instrument for measuring light and elec-
tromagnetic radiation in the visible range. See disap-
pearing-filament pyrometer.
 237
photomicrograph. A picture of the highly magnified
surface of a material.
photomultiplier. An instrument for measuring electro-
magnetic radiation consisting of a photocathode which
releases electrons in proportion to the number of inci-
dent photons and an electron multiplier to amplify and
produce a detectable pulse of current.
photon. The quantum of electromagnetic energy, gener-
ally regarded as a discrete particle having no mass, no
charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime. The energy
depends on the wavelength of the photon.
photorefractive effect. Commonly known as optical
damage, it refers to an optically induced change of the
refractive indices and affects an optoceramic's ability
to act as an optical waveguide. A typical example is a
blue-green laser focused onto lithium niobate, LiNb0 3 ,
which causes a change in nu. It is hoped to use the effect
to build optical information storage systems.
photorefractive material. Doped ceramic single crys-
tals such as LiNb03, Bi 12Si020 , in which low-power
lasers cause excitation of charge carriers from impurity
centers and these then migrate to other carriers outside
the illuminated area and become trapped. The resulting
space-charge field changes the refractive index of the
crystal. Hence the laser appears to change the crystal
optical properties; used in fiber-optic switching de-
vices.
photoresist. A material which has a radiation-induced
change, such as crystallization, which when applied to
a substrate, exposed and developed, masks parts of the
substrate from subsequent etching.
photosensitive glass. A light-sensitive glass containing
submicroscopic particles of gold, silver, or copper
which precipitate during the photographic process to
produce 3-D color pictures when developed by heating
to 538°C; the precipitation of the metals permits the
ultraviolet light to penetrate deeper into the shadowed
areas while passing through the negative to promote the
3-D effect.
photothermal deflection spectroscopy. PDS; used to
analyze the role of impurities in varistors and PLZT. A
low-power, fine focused laser beam is sent parallel to a
sample surface which is covered by an organic liquid.
Fluctuations in the surface temperature lead to refrac-
tive index changes in the liquid which then deflect the
beam into a photocell placed near the opposite end of
the sample.
phototransistor. A junction transistor where the base
signal is generated by illuminating the base material
with light; the emitter current increases with the inten-
sity of the light.
phototube. A photocell in which radiation falling on a
piece of photocathode material causes electrons to flow
to an anode and so produce an electric current.
photovoltaic effect. An effect produced when electro-
magnetic radiation falls on a thin film of one substance
PICKLING, NICKEL
coated on a dissimilar solid and produces a potential
difference between the two solids.
photozone counter. A light beam passed perpendicu-
larly through a volume and measured to detect the
presence of particles in the volume illuminated.
phyllite. A mica-rich rock, compact and lustrous, de-
rived from clay rock.
phyUo-. Having a leaflike form.
physical adsorption. The binding of an adsorbate to the
surface of a solid by forces whose energy levels ap-
proximate those of condensation.
physical assay. An analysis of material made by physi-
cal means.
physical property. A property of a substance which may
be changed without change in its chemical composition.
physical separation. The separation of solid particles by
mechanical means, such as by screening.
physical stability. The ability of a solid substance to
resist change in its physical characteristics under con-
ditions of service.
pi-bonding. A form of covalent bonding produced by
sideways-on overlap p or d of wave orbitals above and
below the plane of the atoms. Most commonly encoun-
tered in polymers and ceramic carbides.
piceous. Resembling or related to pitch.
pick. One filling yarn running the complete width of a
woven fabric perpendicular to the warp.
pick count. The number of filling yams per inch of fabric.
pickle, pickling. The process of cleaning and etching
iron and steel in an acid bath preparatory to porcelain-
enameling.
pickle acid. The acid, usually sulfuric or hydrochloric,
used to pickle iron and steel for porcelain-enameling.
pickle basket. A woven or perforated, corrosion-resis-
tant metal container in which ware is placed for clean-
ing and pickling prior to porcelain enameling.
pickle pills. Small gelatinous capsules containing pre-
scribed amounts of appropriate chemicals which are
used to measure the strength of pickling solutions, the
strength being estimated by the color of the solution in
which a capsule is dissolved.
pickle stain. The discoloration of metal following the
pickling operation; usually the result of inadequate
washing, improper neutralization, insufficient drying,
or undue exposure to the atmosphere.
pickling, anodic. See anodic pickling.
pickling, gas. See gas pickling.
pickling, nickel. See nickel dip.
PICK-UP
pick-up. The amount of porcelain-enamel retained on
dipped ware per unit of area, usually expressed as
ounces per square foot or grams per square meter.
picotite. A chrome spinel frequently occurring in basic
refractory slag; sp. gr. 4.08; hardness (Mohs) around 8.
pi-electrons. Electron wave functions involved in pi-
bonding.
piezoelectric. A ceramic material such as barium ti-
tanate, lead zirconate-titanate, etc., which generates
mechanical force when electrical force is applied; used
in sonar, ultrasonic devices, phonograph cartridges, etc.
piezoelectric ceramic actuator. Composite consisting
of two piezoelectric ceramic plates either as a pair or as
a stack of several plates bonded by adhesive. When an
electric field is applied the composite elongates. Appli-
cations are in the areas of displacement control for
precision machine tools and optical instruments.
piezoelectric d constant. d[xyj; a measure of the charge
density generated by an applied stress in a piezoelectric
ceramic crystal in the parallel, [33], transverse, [31],
and shear, [15], directions of a transducer. A high d
value is needed to generate motion.
piezoelectric g constant. g[xyj; a measure of the field
generated by an applied stress in a piezoelectric ceramic
crystal in the parallel, [33], transverse, [31], and shear,
[15], directions of a transducer. A highg value is needed
to generate electrical signals.
piezoelectricity. A property of some crystalline ceram-
ics which develop electrical polarization proportional
to an applied mechanical stress. Conversely such mate-
rials develop a mechanical strain proportional to an
applied electric field; discovered in 1880 by P. I. Curie.
After poling, only modest stresses generate significant
voltages, e.g., 0.25 MN m-2 produces 125 V.
pig. A rest for a blowpipe or punty used during the
glass-gathering operation for glass blowing.
pigbed. A sand bed in which pig iron is cast.
pigment. A solid powder employed to give black, white,
or other color to bodies and coatings by reflecting light
of certain wavelengths and absorbing light of other
wavelengths.
pigment strength. kls; the ratio of light absorption, k, to
light scattering, s. It is found by measuring the reflec-
tance, R, at the maximum absorption wavelen~ of the
pigment and using the expression: kls = (1- R) 12R. The
larger the kls value the greater is the pigment strength
and less is needed to produce particular hues and color
depths.
pigskin. A porcelain-enamel or glaze imperfection in
which the surface resembles pigskin in appearance.
pilaster. A shallow rectangular column built onto the
face of a wall.
pile. (1) A column of concrete or other material placed
in the ground to support a vertical load or to resist lateral
238
pressure. (2) Nuclear material contained in a reactor in
a quantity and order so as to sustain nuclear fission. (3)
The yarn in a fabric that stands up or out from the weave.
pile shoe. A pointed iron casting fitted to the lower end
of a concrete pile.
Pilkington process. A glass making process in which
molten glass is poured continuously from the tank and
passed between rolls to fonn a continuous sheet of
prescribed thickness.
pillar. (1) A column for supporting a section of a super-
structure, such as in a kiln or steel furnace. (2) The
upright post used in conjunction with cranks to provide
support for dinnerware, tile, and other ware during
firing.
pills. Bobbles of tangled fibers on the surface offabric to
which they are joined by at least one fiber.
pilot plant. A small version of a planned industrial plant
employed to evaluate materials and processes prior to
their use on a production scale.
pimple. A small rounded or conical defect occurring on
the surface of porcelain-enamels, glazes, and other
coatings during firing.
pin. An item of kiln furniture consisting of a triangular
refractory bar or peg employed as a support for ware
during firing.
PIN. Acronym for product identification number.
pinch effect. The crazing of tile due to the contraction of
the setting medium.
pinholes. Imperfections occurring in porcelain-enamels,
glazes, and ceramic bodies having the appearance of
pinpricks, burst bubbles, or small conical holes.
pinite. A fonn of mica, chiefly muskovite, used in the
production of dense, abrasion-resistant refractories.
pin marks. Visible imprints or marks on the back of
porcelain-enameled ware caused by the firing tools.
pin mill. A disintegrating device consisting of a rotating
disk equipped with the pinlike protrusions which pro-
vide the disintegrating force or action.
pinning. (1) The arranging of pins, such as posts, pre-
paratory for the placement of ware in a kiln for firing.
(2) The use of defects in superconductors to localize
vortices in magnetic flux. (3) The use of precipitates in
grain boundaries to prevent their movement in the final
stages of sintering.
pin scratching. The fonning of lines or designs in por-
celain-enamels and glazes by scratching the coating
with a sharp instrument before firing.
pin seal. A wire positioned and sealed through the inside
diameter of a ceramic bushing for use in electrical and
electronic applications.
 239
pip. A type of kiln furniture which consists of a rounded
refractory with a protruding point upon which ware is
rested during firing.
pipe. (1) A tubular structure of concrete, metal, or other
substances used to convey gases, liquids and finely
divided solids. (2) A cavity formed in metal by contrac-
tion of the metal during solidification.
pipe, agricultural. See agricultural pipe.
pipe blister. A blisterlike formation in handblown glass-
ware caused by an unclean or scaled blowpipe.
pipe, blow. See blowpipe.
pipe body. The clay mixture from which vitrified clay
pipes are made.
pipe, bustle. See bustle pipe.
pipe clay. A fine-grained plastic clay marl, or fireclay,
but usually a ball clay, containing little or no iron.
pipe, culvert. See culvert.
pipe diameter. The inside diameter of a pipe.
pipe, drain. See drain pipe.
pipe, field-drain. See drain pipe.
pipe, grooved. See grooved pipe.
pipe, irrigation. See irrigation pipe.
pipe, modified-design. See modified-design pipe.
pipe, modified-groove. See modified-groove pipe.
pipe, modified-tongue. See modified-tongue pipe.
pipe, nonreinforced. See nonreinforced pipe.
pipe-rack dryer. A steam-heated dryer in which ware is
placed directly on the steam pipes for drying.
pipe, reinforced. See reinforced pipe.
pipe section. A single pipe, usually of standard or speci-
fied length.
pipe, sewer. See sewer pipe.
pipe, tamped. See tamped pipe.
pipette, pipet. A graduated, tubular-glass device em-
ployed to transfer small measured volumes of liquids.
pipe, vibrocast. See vibrocast pipe.
pipe, vitreous clay. See vitreous clay pipe.
pipe wall. The structural element composed of concrete
or concrete and steel between the inside and outside
surfaces of a concrete pipe.
pipe, well-hole. See well-hole pipe.
PIT,SLUDGE
pise. An adobe-type construction in which walls are
formed by pounding or stamping straw-tempered clay
in place.
pisolitic aggregate. Prismatic crystals between 3 and 12
mm radiating from a common center to form an aggre-
gate of spherical surfaces.
piston extruder. A machine in which clay is forced
through a die by a mechanically operated cylinder.
pit. A small shallow depression or dimple in the surface
of a porcelain-enamel, glaze, ceramic body, or compos-
ite with a width approximately equal to its depth.
pitch. (1) The dark, highly adhesive, sticky residue re-
maining from the distillation of tar or petroleum. (2)
The distance between the centerpoints of adjacent crests
of a corrugated product. (3) The ratio of the rise of a
roof to its span.
pitchblende. U02 ; the major ore of uranium often oxi-
dized to a composition between U02 and U3 0 8 ; crys-
tallizes in the cubic system; black-brown brittle
material; sp. gr. 8-10.88; hardness (Mohs) 5-6. Also
called uraninite.
pitch-bonded basic brick. Unburned basic refractory
shapes bonded with pitch; if the shapes subsequently
are heat-treated to minimize softening of the bond on
reheating, they are identified as a tempered product. In
use the residual carbon produces localized reducing
atmospheres.
pitch-bonded basic refractories, tempered. See tem-
pered pitch-bonded basic refractories.
pitcher. A large jug usually rounded with a narrow neck
made from earthenware; used mainly for holding water.
pitchers. Fragments of broken pottery, sometimes
ground to a powder, for use as an ingredient in bodies,
glazes, and coloring compounds.
pitch-impregnated refractories. Burned basic refracto-
ries which subsequently are impregnated with pitch
after they have been fired.
pitching tool. A masonry tool for rough work.
pitch polishing. A glass-polishing operation in which
pitch is employed as the carrier of the polishing agent
instead of felt.
pitch stone. A glassy, dark colored volcanic rock with
composition similar to granite.
pithos. A large ceramic container for oil or grain.
Pitot tube. A small tube used to measure fluid pressure
and velocity. The open end is placed against the flow
and the bottom is connected to a monometer.
pit, rouge. See rouge pits.
pit run. Aggregate in its natural state, as excavated.
pit, sludge. See sludge pan.
PIT, SOAKING
pit, soaking. See soaking pit.
Pittsburgh sheet-glass process. A procedure for mak-
ing sheet glass in which the glass is drawn vertically
from the surface of the melt through a drawing slot of
the desired thickness, the edges of the resultant sheet
being formed by rollers.
place. (I) To pour concrete. (2) To pack ware in saggers
for firing.
place brick. An underfired, relatively soft brick of gen-
erally poor quality, often salmon colored; used in tem-
porary or noncritical installations.
placing. The setting of ware in kilns for firing.
placing sand. Silica sand used to prevent ware from
sticking to shelves, setter plates, etc., during firing.
plagioclase feldspar. Coupled substitution of Ca2+ and
A13+ for Na+ and Si4+ in albite produces plagioclase
feldspar. The series is divided into compositional
ranges: oligoclase 90-10 to 70-30% NaAISi30 8 ; an-
desine 70-30 to 50-50%; labradorite 50-50 to 30-
70%; bytownite 30-70 to 10-90%.
plain Molten glass relatively free of seeds and bubbles.
plain concrete. Unreinforced concrete.
plain weave. Each fill yarn passes alternately under and
over each warp.
planar helix winding. A composite reinforcement
where the filament path on each dome lies on a plane of
intersection of the dome and a helical path over the
cylinder connects the dome paths.
planar winding. A reinforcement winding in which the
filament path lies on a plane of intersection of the
winding surface.
planches. A support used in the firing of porcelain-
enamel artware.
plan dimensions. The width and breadth of bricks or
pavers.
plane polarized. Light that is vibrating parallel to a
plane through the axis of the beam. Such asymmetry is
only made apparent in double reflecting or transmission
experiments.
plane strain. A 2-D simplification for stress analysis
involving long-length to small diameter cylinders.
plane stress. The stress components in a thin plate of
material supported at two ends which can be simplified
for analysis by equating several stress components to
zero.
planetary head. A sample holder on an automatic
polisher which while holding the sample against the
rotating polishing cloth moves in a circular orbital
fashion.
planing. The smoothing of plaster molds and other sur-
faces by means of a tool equipped with a cutting edge.
240
plant. The building, machinery, tools, fixtures, instru-
ments, equipment, and facilities employed in a manu-
facturing operation.
plant ash. A soda-rich, low-potassium product obtained
by burning plant material that can be used in glass batch
compositions.
plant layout. The arrangement of production facilities in
a factory.
plant test. A production trial of a material or process
development before incorporating it into the manufac-
turing schedule.
plaque. A flat refractory ceramic upon which pyrometric
cones are placed, frequently in triangular indentations,
to go into kilns in which ware is to be fired.
plasma. An ionized gas usually produced by passing
high-energy electrons through the gas.
plasma chemical processing. Deposition of chemical
substances onto substrates at relatively low tempera-
tures from a glow discharge with control oflayer thick-
ness in the submicron range.
plasma gun. A device to convert gases into high-veloc-
ity plasmas.
plasma sintering. A method of producing sintered ce-
ramic ware with a fine-grained smooth surface. A fine
powder is melted in a plasma torch and projected onto
the normally-formed ceramic body by the hot gas
plasma.
plasma spraying. The application of a refractory ce-
ramic or metallic coating to a surface by means of a
plasma gun. The coating material passes through the
plasma arc as a fine powder where it is melted and
projected along the flame onto the surface to be coated
which is of course heated by the flame.
plaster. (I) Plaster of paris, CaS04'~ H20. (2) Any of a
group of plastic pastes made by mixing gypsum and
lime with sand and water for building applications. (3)
A mold for casting or jiggering ceramic bodies.
plaster, aridized. See aridized plaster.
plaster-base finish. A rough, combed, or scored surface
on the back of ceramic tiles to help them adhere when
placed.
plaster bat. A flat surface made of plaster on which clay
is worked.
plasterboard. A flat wallboard consisting of a hardened
gypsum plaster core encased in an envelope of paper,
felt, or pulpboard; used as a substitute for plaster in
construction; panel sizes are: 1.22 x 2.44, 1.22 x 2.54,
or 1.22 x 3.66 minarea, and 9.5,12.7,or 15.9mmthick.
plaster, casting. See casting plaster.
plaster coat. A layer of plaster applied as a coating on
walls and ceilings.
 241
plaster ground. A section of wood, usually placed
around doors, windows, archways, and at the floor in
building construction as a control for plaster thickness.
plaster, gypsum. See gypsum plaster.
plaster, hard-finished. See hard-finished plaster.
plaster of paris. Calcined gypsum, CaS04·~H20, which
forms a quick-setting cement when mixed with water;
used in building construction, as a casting mold mate-
rial, as a bedding medium in glass grinding and polish-
ing, and sometimes as a batch ingredient in glasses and
glazes.
plaster retarders. Substances, such as dextrin, glue,
hair, and blood, which slow the setting rate of plaster.
plastic. (1) A pliant substance capable of being molded.
(2) The common name for a polymer, particularly man-
made polymers.
plastic cement. A pliant cementitious material used to
seal holes and openings in concrete.
plastic clay. Any clay that will form a moldable mass
when blended with water.
plastic cracks. Cracks developing in concrete while it is
still green.
plastic deformation. Permanent change in the size or
shape of a body under stress which exceeds the elastic
limit.
plastic fireclay. Fireclay which, when tempered with
water, can be molded, extruded, or tamped into shapes
or forms.
plastic flow. Permanent deformation of a solid under a
sustained stress greater than the yield point.
plasticity. The property of a material or mixture to
change permanently in size or shape when subjected to
a measurable force exceeding its yield value.
plasticity, water of. See water of plasticity.
plasticizer. A substance which will impart or increase
plasticity in a material or mixture.
plastic pressing. The forming of plastic bodies in dies
under pressure.
plastic refractory. See plastic fireclay.
plastic refractory fireclay. Water-molded fireclay cho-
sen to have physical and thermal properties such that it
can be rammed into place to form a monolithic furnace
lining.
plastic shrinkage. The shrinkage of concrete while in
the plastic state or before the development of apprecia-
ble strength after the concrete has become rigid.
plastic size. An emulsion in water of polyvinylacetate
and a resin acceptor; used to protect individual fiber
filaments before forming strands and to act as a chemi-
PLINTH
cal cement with the chosen matrix when used to make
composite-laminates.
plastify. Applied to thermoplastics it means to soften
such materials by heat alone.
plastisol. Organic coating or molding material made by
dispersing vinyl monomer in a liquid containing plasti-
cizer.
plastometer. A device to evaluate the flow properties of
plastic materials or mixtures.
plate etching. Acid-etched decoration arrived at by
transferring a wax resist from an etched plate to a glass
body and then exposing the article to hydrofluoric acid.
After the resist has been removed the final article has a
similar appearance to cut glass.
plate feeder. A type of conveyor consisting of overlap-
ping plates between roller chains which delivers pulver-
ized materials to a process or packaging unit.
plate glass. High-quality flat glass with plane, parallel
surfaces formed by a rolling process; both sides are
ground and polished to permit undistorted vision.
plate glass, polished. See polished plate glass.
plate mounted. A bonded abrasive product attached to a
steel wheel or plate for use on a grinding machine.
platen. (1) The mounting platform of a press to which the
whole mold assembly is bolted. (2) A plate of metal that
exerts or receives pressure. (3) A radio-frequency ap-
plicator.
plate, screen. See screening plate.
platinum. Pt; a metal used in the production of metallic
colors.
platinum, liquid bright. See liquid bright platinum.
platting. A layer of fired brick forming the top of a scove
kiln.
plattner mortar, percussion mortar. A crushing and
powdering device consisting of a block, cylinder, and
pestle made of hardened tool steel. The pestle is a close
fit into the cylinder and the cylinder fits a depression in
the block. The pestle is usually hit with a hammer.
PLD. Abbreviation for pulsed laser deposition, which is
a process used to grow thin films on substrates by laser
vaporization of a target material. A laser pulse of 1-10
J cm-2 produces a plasma plume able to coat a substrate.
PLE. Abbreviation for pulsed laser evaporation, which
is a process where high power inherent in a pulsed laser
removes material from a target in a vapor plating proc-
ess.
pleat. Two reversals of direction, that is, folds, in a
fabric.
plinth. (1) A flat member forming the base of a column
or pier. (2) The base of a figurine or vase.
PLIQUE-A-JOUR
plique-a-jour. A decorative form of porcelain-enamel in
which colored enamel is fused between metal partitions
and subsequently polished, giving an appearance of a
stained glass window.
plucking. (I) A blemish in glazed ware where the fused
coating, adhering to the points of the firing supports, is
broken during removal. (2) A surface defect in flat glass
caused by the glass adhering to the rollers.
plug. (1) The reciprocating part of a glassblowing ma-
chine which forces molten glass into the mold, or forms
the initial cavity in a blank mold for subsequent blow-
ing. (2) A wad of plastic fireclay used to seal the tap
hole of a smelter.
plug clay. A damp plastic clay used to seal the tap hole
of a smelter.
plug feeder. A shaped refractory controlling the rate of
glass flow in the feeder channel of a glass tank.
plug flow. Movement of material without any shearing
within the mass.
plugging compound. A mixture of inorganic materials,
such as powdered frit, clay, and water, of puttylike
consistency used to fill holes and to provide a smooth
surface in cast iron prior to porcelain-enameling.
plug, mold. See mold plug.
plumbago. Graphite or clay-graphite refractories used
as linings in metallurgical furnaces and as a mold and
core coating material.
plumbing fixtures, sanitary. See sanitary ware.
plumose habit. A lamellar crystal of featherlike appear-
ance.
plunge grinding. Grinding and polishing operations in
which the grinding wheel rotates and moves radially
toward the work.
plunger. The reciprocating section of feeder which
forces molten glass into a mold or forms the cavity in a
blank mold for subsequent blowing.
plutonic. Derived from magma that has solidified be-
neath the earths surface.
plutonium oxide. (I) PUO; sp. gr. 13.9 (2) Pu20 3; mp
2216°C; sp. gr. 10.2-11.2. (3) Pu02; mp 2241°C; sp.
gr. 11.46; a fluorite structure oxide; used with U02 as
a nuclear fuel.
ply or plies. (I) The layers of fiber in a laminated com-
posite. (2) A layer, fold, or thickness of cloth, wood, or
thin sheet material.
plyglass. A generic term for a colored sandwichlike
structure consisting of a layer of glass fibers between
two layers of sheet glass; usually employed in decora-
tive applications, such as light fixtures.
plying. Twisting together yams.
242
ply orientation angle. The angle made by single fibers
or the warp direction in reinforcing fabric with the main
reference axis of a reinforced composite part.
PLZT. Abbreviation for lead lanthanum zirconium ti-
tanate, Pbl_)-ax(ZryTi3_y)1-.vP3; the general formula
assumes that all the perovskite A sites are filled by Pb
and La and charge compensation occurs with vacancies
in the B sites. More than 8% La leads to transparency
in a highly coercive, tetragonal material; a 0.25-mm
plate is 100% transparent. Two polymorphs exist: a
cubic form which is paraelectric and optically isotropic,
and a ferroelectric, tetragonal polymorph, made by pol-
ing, which is birefringent and so can be used as an
optical shutter by varying the applied field.
PMC. Abbreviation for polymer matrix composite.
PMMA. Abbreviation for polymethylmethacrylate.
PMN. Abbreviation for lead magnesium niobate,
Pb(Mgo.33NbO.66)03; an electrostrictive material able to
elongate up to 0.1 % on the application of electric fields
without hysteresis on reducing the field strength; used
in actuators.
PMN ceramics. Mixed perovskite and pyrochlore
phases in the series PbMg.,Nbl_x03; used as capacitor
materials.
pneumatically applied mortar. A concrete mortar of
cement, sand, and water driven into place by com-
pressed air.
pneumatic clay. Natural clay which has been subjected
to hot liquids and gases during formation. Also known
as pneumatolytic clay.
pock. A partially closed cavity on the surface of a ce-
ramic or ceramic coating.
pocket, air. See air pocket.
pocket, rock. See rock pocket.
pocket setting. A technique of hand-placing refractory
shapes in a kiln to minimize deformation and the devel-
opment of stresses in the ware during firing.
pocket, side. See side pocket.
pocket, skimming. See skimming pocket.
pocket, slag. See slag pocket.
podzol. A type of clay soil with a leached gray-white
color; characteristic of coniferous forest regions.
podzolic. A residual clay following acid leaching of soil.
point bars. A rack made from a high-temperature alloy
which contains points upon which porcelain-enameled
ware is placed for firing.
point defect. The family name of one of the two basic
types of imperfection in a crystal structure, namely
those involving single atoms. Point defects can take two
forms either involving just atoms of the parent crystal
or impurity atoms. Vacancies, Schottky, and Frenkel
 243
defects do not involve impurity atoms. Replacement of
a lattice atom by an impurity atom is a substitutional
point defect.
polarizing angle. The angle of incidence of a ray of light
point group. In crystallography another term for crystal
class.
pointing. The insertion of mortar into unfilled masonry
joints, such as brickwork.
point mark. A small fracture on the back of porcelain-
enameled ware occurring at the point of contact with
the burning tools during firing.
poise. A measure of viscosity equal to 10-1 N s m-2 .
poison, burnable. See burnable poison.
poison, nuclear. See nuclear poison.
Poisson ratio. u; the ratio of the transverse contracting
strain to the elongation strain in a bar or rod when forces
are applied at the ends parallel to its axis. The value for
ceramic crystals and glass is 0.21-0.30.
Polanyi adsorption potential. e; a thermodynamic pa-
rameter used to determine interfacial energies from its
variation as a function of surface coverage of adsorbate
on adsorbent: e =RTln(P/P), where the relative pres-
sures are defined in the BET equation.
polar crystal. A crystal containing permanent ionic or
molecular dipoles. See dielectric.
polariscope. An instrument for viewing objects in polar-
ized light.
polarity reversing switch. A device for reversing the
current direction in a superconducting magnet.
polarization. A term having different meanings in dif-
ferent contexts: (1) In a dielectric medium it is the
electric dipole moment per unit volume. It occurs when
an electric field is applied because this results in the
creation of an equivalent dipole at the site of each atom
as the nuclei are displaced toward the field and the
electrons are displaced in the opposite direction. There
are two types: ionic polarization in ionic ceramics as the
anions and cations are displaced; and electronic polari-
zation. (2) In an electric cell it refers to increases in
internal resistance as bubbles form on the electrodes.
(3) For wave motion it describes the direction of the
disturbance relative to the direction of propagation of
the wave, e.g., with light, confinement of the wave
vibration to a single plane. See light polarization. (4) In
particle beams it is the preferential orientation of the
particle spins.
polarization, orientational. See orientational polariza-
tion.
polarization, spontaneous. See spontaneous polariza-
tion.
polarized ceramic. substance, such as barium titanate,
having high electromechanical conversion efficiency;
used as a transducer in an ultrasonic system. The effect
POLISHING WHEEL
arises from small highly charged cations being off-cen-
ter in octahedra of oxygen anions.
for which the reflected polarized ray is at 90° to the
refracted ray.
Polaroid. Thin sheets of nitrocellulose, i.e., cellophane,
packed with ultramicroscopic polarizing crystals with
their optic axes all parallel.
polaron. A defect in a crystal that is formed when an
excess of charge at a point polarizes the adjacent lattice;
for example, an electron captured by an ionic crystal
forms a polaron at the anion site where it is captured
and distorts the lattice locally. Movement of this elec-
tron through the solid requires movement of the distor-
tion too which of course slows it down.
polar winding. A type of composite structure in which
the reinforcing filament path passes tangent to the polar
opening at one end of the chamber and tangent to the
opposite side of the opening at the other end.
pole. (1) The part of a magnet toward which the lines of
magnetic flux converge or from which they diverge. (2)
A terminal of a battery.
pole face. The end surface of the core of a magnet
through which magnetic flux passes.
pole piece. The part that supports the mandrel in a fila-
ment winding machine.
poling. (1) The mechanical stirring of molten glass or
porcelain-enamel with a metal rod to facilitate re-
moval of gases from the molten batch. (2) The process
used to align dipoles in piezoelectric materials such
as Pb(Zr,Ti)03 by applying voltages in excess of 2 MV
m- I across a specimen as it is cooled through the Curie
temperature when the higher symmetry polymorph
transforms to the lower symmetry form and M n+ ions
are aligned in asymmetric sites.
polish. To render a surface smooth and glossy by rubbing
it with a finely milled abrasive, such as rouge, cerium
oxide, or a similar material.
polished plate glass. Plate glass ground and polished to
render both surfaces flat and parallel to minimize reflec-
tion and visual distortion.
polished section. A small sample of a substance, highly
polished on one surface, for microscopic examination.
polished wire glass. Wire-reinforced glass which has
been ground and polished on both sides.
polishing, acid. See acid polishing.
polishing, edge. See edge polishing.
polishing, pitch. See pitch polishing.
polishing, surface. See surface polishing.
polishing wheel. A fine-grained abrasive wheel or disk
used for mechanical polishing.
POLLUCITE
pollucite. CsAl(Si03h·iH20; a mineral source of ce-
sium occurring in some coarse granites. The main crys-
talline phase found in pollucite glass-ceramics recently
developed to fix and store nuclear wastes.
pollucite glass-ceramic. See pollucite.
polyacrylamide. A water-soluble polymer,
(CH 2CHOONH2 )x employed as a suspension agent or
thickening material for ceramic slips and slurries.
polyacrylonitrile. PAN; a polymer of CH 2CHCN, fibers
of which are used as the starting material in the manu-
facture of carbon fiber.
polybasic. A chemical compound which, in solution,
will yield two or more hydrogen ions per molecule; for
example, sulfuric acid, H 2S04 ,
polycerams. Alternative name for nanophase ceramics
or ormosils.
polychrome. A multicolored decoration.
polycide. A composite of polysilicon and titanium
silicide or tungsten silicide, MSi 2 ; used in integrated
circuit devices.
polycrystalline. Composed of variously oriented crys-
tals.
polydimethylsiloxane. A silicone elastomer often used
mixed with silica fume to increase its strength; used as
a bonding agent to bind glass fibers to a polymer matrix.
polyelectrolyte. A highy polymerized substance con-
taining ionic components.
polyester laminates. Sheets, bars, and structural shapes
made by impregnating glass fibers and fabrics with
polyester-resin solutions, followed by curing.
polyester resin. A class of thermosetting resins pro-
duced by esterification of polybasic organic acids with
polyhydric alcohols; in the cured state, they have high
strength and resistance to moisture and chemicals; used
as a bonding agent for glass fibers and laminated prod-
ucts.
polyetheretherketone. See PEEK.
polyethylene glycol. A family of colorless water-soluble
liquids and solids used as binders, lubricants, and emul-
sifying agents.
polyethylene resins. A family of tough, water-repellent,
thermoplastic materials composed of polymers of eth-
ylene; used as protective coatings for glass bottles, glass
fibers, and fabrics of glass fibers; also used as an injec-
tion molding material for ceramics.
polyethylene terephthalate. PET; a condensation poly-
mer formed from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid
extensively used as a fiber and as a moldable matrix for
composites; very hard and wear resistant.
polyglycoldistearate. A distearate ester of polyethylene
glycol; used as a plasticizer.
244
polymeric cement. A cement that is caused to set by the
development of an addition-type polymerization reac-
tion.
polymers, acrylic. See acrylic polymers
polymorphism. The existence of a chemical compound,
such as silica, in two or more distinct crystallographic
forms.
polyphase. A composite fiber consisting of a polycrys-
talline core enclosed in an amorphous glassy phase
sheath. This arrangement allows high-modulus ceram-
ics to be drawn into fibers as thin as 25 J.Lm.
polypivalolactone composite. A composite formed in
situ by anionic polymerization of pivalolactone mono-
mer mixed with carbon fiber.
polysynthetic twins. Contact twins repeated on the same
composition plane at close intervals across the crystal.
Results in striated appearance and can cause chatoy-
ance.
polytypism. A special l-D type of polymorphism.
Polytypes are the same in two dimensions of the close-
packed planes that define the structure, but differ in the
stacking sequence perpendicular to the close-packed
planes, u- and ~-SiC are examples.
polyvalent. An atom or radical with more than one half-
filled atomic orbital.
polyvinyl acetate. A thermoplastic polymer, insoluble
in water, employed as a binder in sizing compounds for
glass-fiber textiles and as an adhesive for ceramic ma-
terials.
polyvinyl alcohol. A water-soluble polymer; used as an
addition to glazes and bodies to improve dry strength
prior to firing, as a sizing and adhesive for glass fibers,
and as a thickening and suspension agent for ceramic
slurries.
polyvinyl butyral resin. Used as a plasticizer for the
inner layer of laminated glass.
polyvinyl chloride. Used as a coating for glass bottles,
glass-fiber fabrics, and as a component of molding
compounds to minimize damage by abrasion.
ponti!. An iron rod to which glassware is attached and
held for easy manipulation during fire polishing or
finishing. Also known as a punty.
pop-off. A porcelain-enamel defect in which segments of
ground coat separate spontaneously from the base met-
al.
popout. A blemish in concrete in which a conical piece
is pushed out of the surface due to expansion of an
aggregate particle at the apex of the cone.
poppers. A porcelain-enamel defect in which small de-
tached disks of ground coat appear in sheet-steel cover
coats.
 245
popping. (1) The rapid expansion of aggregate materials
in lightweight cellular products. (2) The fracture of
small segments from the face of building brick.
pops, lime. See lime pops.
population inversion. A state where more ions or atoms
in a lasing ceramic are in an upper energy state than in
the ground state, which is the situation needed to sustain
a high rate of lasing ability.
porcelain. A generic term for a glazed or unglazed ce-
ramic whiteware of high quality, high strength, low
absorption, and often good translucency in thin sec-
tions.
porcelain capacitor. A capacitor in which the dielectric
is a high-quality porcelain fused to alternate layers of
silver electrodes to form an essentially monolithic unit
requiring no hermetic seal.
porcelain cement. A cement, such as a mixture of gutta-
percha and shellac, used to bond porcelain to porcelain.
porcelain, chemical. See chemical porcelain.
porcelain clay. Kaolin.
porcelain, cordierite. See cordierite porcelain.
porcelain, dental. See dental porcelain.
porcelain, eggshell. See eggshell.
porcelain, electrical. See electrical porcelain.
porcelain-enamel. A substantially vitreous or glassy,
inorganic coating, applied to a metal surface and sub-
sequently fired to temperatures above 425°C to develop
a bond between the coating and the metal.
porcelain-enamel, aluminum. See aluminum enamel.
porcelain-enamel fineness. The particle size of porce-
lain-enamel frit reported as grams of dry residue re-
tained on a designated screen size from a measured
sample.
porcelain-enamel frit. Selected ingredients which will
form a glass capable of bonding to porcelain are mixed,
melted, and then quenched in water or air to form small
friable particles which are processed by milling with
clay, electrolytes, and color oxides for application as a
coating for metal.
porcelain-enamel renectivity. The reflectance of a por-
celain-enamel coating of sufficient thickness that an
additional thickness does not change the reflectance
value.
porcelain-enamel sanitary ware. Porcelain-enameled
ware, such as bathtubs, lavatories, sinks, and other
products used for sanitary and hygienic purposes.
porcelain, forsterite. See forsterite porcelain.
porcelain insulator. Any electrical insulator made of
porcelain, the body and glaze frequently being fired
simultaneously.
PORE VOLUME, SEALED
porcelainite. A synonym for mullite, an aluminum sili-
cate, 3AI20 3·2Si0 2. See mullite.
porcelain, muilite. See mullite porcelain.
porcelain paste. Unfired porcelain bodies, usually in the
plastic state.
porcelain process. The process of producing porcelain
ware in which the body and glaze are fired simultane-
ously.
porcelain, Reaumur. See Reaumur porcelain.
porcelain, semi. See semi-porcelain.
porcelain, steatite. See steatite porcelain.
porcelain tile. A dense, fine-grained, smooth, usually
impervious tile having a sharp face; generally produced
by dust pressing. Colors may be granular or of the clear,
luminous type.
porcelain, titania. See titania porcelain.
porcelain, zircon. See zircon porcelain.
porcelain, zirconia. See zirconia whiteware.
porcelaneous. Resembling unglazed porcelain.
pore. (1) An internal cavity in a solid substance, usually
one which can be exposed by cutting, grinding, or
polishing. (2) Voids between grains of a grinding wheel.
pore diameter. The average diameter of pores in a solid
substance.
pore diffusion. The passage of a gas or liquid into and
through the porous structure of a solid.
pore pressure. The pressure in the liquid phase sur-
rounding solid particles in contact. It arises when the
total stress added exceeds the hardness stress cap.
pore size. The average pore volume contained in a solid
substance.
pore-size distribution. The range of the size variation of
pores contained in a solid.
pores, sealed. See sealed pores.
pore volume. The total combined volume of open and
sealed pores contained per unit of volume or weight of
a solid, calculated by the formula Pt =(1 - Dt/Dt) x 100,
where Pt is the total volume of pores reported as a
percentage of the total bulk volume of the specimen, Db
is the bulk density, and D t is the true density of the
specimen.
pore volume, closed. See sealed pores.
pore volume distribution. The distribution or arrange-
ment of pore volume among pores of varying dimen-
sions.
pore volume, open. See open pore volume.
pore volume, sealed. See sealed pores.
PORE WATER
pore water. The tempering water contributing to the
pore structure in clays and bodies during and after
working and forming.
poromeric. An essentially polymeric solid which will
transmit water vapor but remains proof to liquid water.
porosimeter. An instrument used to measure porosity in
a solid substance.
porosity. (I) The ratio of the volume of pores, both open
and closed, to the total volume of a body. (2) The ability
of fired ware to absorb water or other liquid by capillary
action.
porosity, apparent. See apparent porosity.
porosity, sealed. See sealed porosity.
porous. Containing or being filled with pores.
porous area. A volume in a body into which a dye will
penetrate through the surface if an opening should exist.
porous carbon. An item fabricated from carbon parti-
cles pressed together without use of a binder, greater in
strength but less resistant to oxidation than porous
graphite.
porous graphite. An item fabricated from graphite par-
ticles pressed together without use of a binder, lower in
strength but more resistant to oxidation than porous
carbon.
porous mold. A forming mold containing numerous
open pores or channels through which gases and liquids
can pass as a means of removal from a formed body.
porous wheel. A vitrified or resin-bonded grinding
wheel having a porous structure.
port. An opening in a furnace wall serving as an entrance
for fuels or flames, and as an exit for exhaust gases.
portable grinder. A grinding machine which is sup-
ported and manipulated manually by an operator.
portal. An entrance gateway.
portico. Covered walkway formed by columns support-
ing a roof.
portland blast-furnace slag cement. A hydraulic ce-
ment consisting of an intimately ground mixture of
portland cement clinker and granulated blast-furnace
slag.
portland cement. A hydraulic cement produced by
finely pulverizing a calcium aluminum silicate clinker
together with additions of gypsum or other forms of
calcium sulfate. Named after the Isle of Portland be-
cause its color resembles the stone quarried there. It
contains four main phases: CaSi04, CU3Si05'
Ca3A1206' and Ca2AlFe05.
portland cement, white. See white portland cement.
portlandite. The name given to calcium hydroxide,
Ca(OH)2' found in hydrated portland cement.
246
portland-pozzolan cement. A hydraulic cement con-
sisting of a mixture of portland and pozzolan cements.
positive edge dislocation. An edge dislocation in which
the extra half plane of atoms lies above the slip plane.
positron. The positive counterpart of an electron, having
approximately the same mass and magnitude of charge.
post. An upright member of a kiln-furniture assembly
which holds the pins upon which ware is placed for
firing.
postcleaning. The removal of a penetrant from a speci-
men following a penetration-porosity study, usually by
wiping or washing.
post-emulsifiable penetrant. A penetrating test liquid
for porosity determination which contains an emulsify-
ing agent to make it water washable and hence more
easily removed from the specimen.
post-emulsification cleaning. The removal of a pene-
trant from a specimen by means of an emulsifying agent
following a penetration-porosity study.
post forming. The heating and then mechanical shaping
to a mold of cured composite laminate.
post-HIP. Sintered material is transferred to the HIP
machine for completion after it has reached a state
where there is little or no interconnected porosity.
post-tensioned concrete. A prestressed concrete to
which a tensile stress is applied to the prestressing
tendons after the concrete has attained sufficient
strength.
pot. A rounded refractory container or crucible in which
glass is melted and refined.
pot arch. A furnace for the preheating or firing of a
glass-melting pot.
potash. Potassium carbonate, K2C0 3 .
potassium acetate. KC 2H30 2; used as a flux in the pro-
duction of crystal glass.
potassium aluminum silicate. (I) K2(AI2Si06). (2)
K2(AlSi04)z; mp 1749°C; sp. gr. 2.6; hardness (Mohs)
5-7. (3) K2A12Si4012; mp l688°C; sp. gr. 2.47; hard-
ness (Mohs) 5-7. (4) KAlSi 30 S; feldspar; mp 1149°C;
hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
potassium bifluoride. KHF2; employed as a glass
etchant.
potassium carbonate. K2C03; potash; mp 909°C; sp.
gr. 2.3; used as a fluxing agent, glass former, and
sometimes as an opacifier in glass, glazes, and porce-
lain-enamels.
potassium chloride. KCl; sylvite; mp 776°C; sp. gr.
1.98; used as a set-up agent in porcelain-enamel slips.
potassium chromate. K2Cr04; mp 971°C; sp. gr. 2.73;
used as a yellow or orange pigment in porcelain-enam-
els and glazes.
 247
potassium cyanide. KCN; mp 634°C; sp. gr. 1.52; used
as a neutralizer in the pickling of metals for porcelain-
enameling; extremely poisonous.
potassium dichromate. K2Cr207; mp 396°C; sp. gr.
2.69; used in glass for aventurine effects and for the
production of green colors; used in glazes for the pro-
duction of chrome-tin pinks, low-fire greens, and pur-
plish-red colors.
potassium feldspar. A potassium-bearing feldspar of
the general formula KAlSi30 s.
potassium fluoride. KF; mp 800°C; sp. gr. 2.5; em-
ployed as a glass etchant and as a flux in the preparation
of ferroelectric crystals of barium titanate.
potassium fluorrichterite. KNaCaMg5Sis022F2; an
amphibole with acicular crystals that are the main phase
of a glass-ceramic of this name of very high chemical
durability. Glazes bond well to it and it is now used as
high-performance institutional tableware with appear-
ance similar to bone china.
potassium fluosilicate. See potassium silicofluoride.
potassium gold chloride. KAuCI4·2H20; used to deco-
rate glass and ceramics.
potassium metatantalate. KTa03; a perovskite; used in
special ferroelectric and ferromagnetic applications.
potassium niobate. KsNb60 13 ; a ferroelectric com-
pound having a Curie temperature of 420°C.
potassium nitrate. KN03; mp 337°C; sp. gr. 2.1; em-
ployed in glass, glazes, porcelain-enamels as a flux and
oxidizing agent.
potassium nitrite. KN02; mp 297-450°C; sp. gr. 1.9;
employed as a color stabilizer, anti-tearing agent, and
set-up addition in porcelain-enamels.
potassium orthophosphate. K3P04 ; mp 1340°C; used
as a suspension and dispersing agent in porcelain-
enamel and glaze slips.
potassium oxide (potash). K20; decomposes on heat-
ing; sp. gr. 2.32; used as a flux and color stabilizer in
glass, glazes, and porcelain-enamels, and as a defloccu-
lating agent in engobes, in casting and glaze slips.
potassium pyrophosphate. K4P20 7·3H20; mp 1090°C;
sp. gr. 2.33; used as a suspension and dispersing agent
in porcelain-enamel and glaze slips.
potassium silicate. K2Si0 3; pyroxene silicate; sp. gr.
1.25-1.39; used as a source of potassium and silica and
as an antiblooming agent.
potassium silicofluoride. K2SiF6 ; sp. gr. 3.0; used as a
fluxing ingredient in porcelain-enamels.
potassium sulfate. K2S04 ; mp lO72°C; sp. gr. 2.66;
used as a raw material in glassmaking.
potassium tantalate. KTa03; used in ferroelectric and
ferromagnetic applications.
POTTER'S CLAY
potassium tetrasilicate. K2Si40 9 ; glasses of this com-
position show a decreasing viscosity as the pressure is
increased; Raman spectra show the presence of Si06
octahedra, a most uncommon occurrence; the high pres-
sure crystalline polymorph has the wadeite structure.
potassium titantate. K2Ti0 3; mp 1370°C; sp. gr. 3.2;
used in the production of thermal insulating fibers. The
fibers are in fact whiskers with dimensions 6 x 0.1 11m
and are used to reinforce thermoplastics.
potassium zinc silicate. K2ZnSi04 ; mp 1297°C; a dis-
crete tetrahedral ionic silicate.
pot bank. (1) A battery of glass-melting pots or cruci-
bles. (2) A pottery factory.
pot, cannon. See cannon pot.
pot clay. Refractory clays used in the manufacture of
glassmaking pots and crucibles.
pot, closed. See closed pot.
potentiometer. An instrument for the measurement of
potential difference in an electric circuit.
potentiometer, sliding. See slide potentiometer.
pot furnace. A furnace into which pots and crucibles are
placed for the melting of porcelain-enamels, glass, and
glazes.
pot glass. Glass melted in pots or crucibles.
pot, glass. See glass pot.
pot, glazed. See glazed pot.
pot, jockey. See jockey pot.
pot life. The length of time, or the number of cycles, a
pot is in actual use before it is discarded.
pot, open. See open pot.
pot, revolving. See revolving pot.
pot ring. A floating refractory ring on the surface of
glass melted in a pot, to prevent the accumulation of
scum in the gathering area.
pot sherd. A fragment of pottery.
pot, skittle. See skittle pot.
pot spout. A connecting refractory shape through which
molten glass is transferred from a glass tank to a revolv-
ingpot.
pot stone. A massive form of soapstone originally used
to make cooking vessels by hollowing-out.
potter. A workman, usually an artisan, engaged in the
production of pottery and similar artware.
potter's clay. Any ball clay used in the production of
pottery.
POTTER'S RED CEMENT
potter's red cement. A cement composed of a mixture
of portland cement and sintered red clay which has been
crushed; used as a decorative cement.
potter's wheel. A rotating wheel or disk, powered manu-
ally or mechanically, upon which pottery is shaped by
manual manipulation.
pottery. (1) A generic term denoting ware, such as vases,
bowls, plates, and pots, shaped from moist clay and
hardened by firing. (2) The building or establishment in
which pottery is made. (3) The craft or occupation of a
potter.
pottery-body stains. Finely ground pigments used in
coloring terra-cotta, tile, abrasives, and other ceramic
products where the pigment becomes part of the body.
potting. (1) An embedding process in which an elec-
tronic assembly is encased in a thermosetting material
to protect the assembly from the effects of vibration,
shock, moisture, and corrosive agents. (2) The process
of making pottery and similar artware.
potting material. The thermosetting insulating material
used to protect potted electrical components from
shock, vibration, air, moisture, etc.
pot wagon. A cartlike vehicle used to transport pots from
a pot arch to a pot furnace.
pot warping. The distortion of pots during drying or
firing.
pour. (1) To empty a pot, crucible, or other container of
its contents, usually in a stream, by tipping the con-
tainer. (2) The batch removed from a pot, crucible, or
other container by pouring. (3) To place concrete. (4) A
batch of concrete in a single continuous placement.
pour density. The weight of a powdered or granular
material poured into a graduated container divided by
its volume.
pouring-pit refractory. (1) The refractory shapes used
in the flow control of steel between the furnace and the
mold. (2) A refractory used in casting molten metal.
pouring, top. See top pouring.
pour point. (1) The lowest temperature at which a liquid
will flow. (2) The optimum temperature for the pouring
of a molten substance or batch, such as glass or a glassy
composition.
powder. Dry, finely divided particles of a solid substance
in the size range 0.1 to 1000 /-lm.
powder blue. A mixture of cobalt oxide, silica, and po-
tassium carbonate or other flux used as a colorant in
glass, glazes, and porcelain-enamels.
powder density. The density of a material in powder
form, including all pores; calculated as the ratio of the
mass of the material to its true volume.
powder, diamond. See diamond paste.
248
powdered activated carbon. Activated carbon pre-
dominately of SO-mesh and smaller particle size.
powdered loose splittings. Loose splittings of mica
dusted with mica powder.
powdering. (I) The process of reducing the particle size
of a substance to powder form. (2) The process of
applying powdered coatings or decorations to pottery
or other ceramic ware.
powder metallurgy. The technologies involved in
manufacturing articles by pressing powders and sinter-
ing to consolidate.
powder, separating. See separating powder.
powder, sinterable. See sinterable powder.
power density. See intensity.
power factor. In an alternating electrical circuit it is the
ratio of electric power dissipated in a component to the
effective voltage and current. When the load is purely
resistive the power factor is 100% but when the load
introduces inductance via motors or coils, the sine wave
of the current lags behind that of the voltage by an angle
called the phase angle, cp, which when determined,
cosined, and multiplied by 100 gives the power factor.
Hence, power factor = 100 coscp.
power law crack velocity relation. An approach to
making ceramic failure predictions using the static fa-
tigue equation: tf =B(Sj)"-2((Jar", where tf is the time
to failure under the applied stress (Ja' Sj is the initial
strength, and Band n are crack growth parameters.
power pack. Compact device used to convert the current
from a supply into direct or alternating current at the
voltage required by an electronic device.
pozzolan. Siliceous and aluminous materials, such as
certain fly ashes and blast-furnace slags which, in finely
divided form, will exhibit cementitious properties when
mixed with lime and water.
pozzolan cement. A cement produced by grinding port-
land cement with a pozzolanic material or a mixture of
pozzolanic material with hydrated lime.
ppm. Abbreviation for parts per million.
Prague red. A red pigment consisting essentially of red
iron oxide.
prall mill. An impact mill consisting of a rotating impel-
ler, a baffle rotating in the opposite direction, and a
stationary baffle.
prase. A translucent light -green form of natural silica or
quartz.
praseodymium barium copper oxide. PrBa2Cu307; an
oxide isomorphous with YBa2Cu307 but semicon-
ducting and not superconducting; used to pin vortices
in YBCO superconductor materials.
praseodymium nickel oxide. PrNi03; a perovskite
which undergoes a metal-insulator transition below
 249
135 K when the metallic conduction properties change
to insulator behavior.
praseodymium oxide. (1) Pr6011; used in the produc-
tion of yellow and green ceramic colors. (2) Pr02;
fluorite structure. (3) Pr203; mp 2l99°C; sp. gr. 10.9.
praseodymium silicate. Pr20Si04; mp 1398°C.
praseodymium yellow. A glaze colorant composed of a
mixture of silica, zirconia, and approximately 5% pra-
seodymium oxide.
preamp. Short for preamplifier; an electronic device
used to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of an elec-
tronic device and boost a low-level signal before it is
transmitted to the main amplifier.
precast concrete. Concrete which has been cast in molds
or forms at a location other than the site of its ultimate
use.
precious stone. Any of several rare minerals such as
diamond, opal, emerald, ruby, or sapphire.
precipitate. In a chemical sense it is to undergo or cause
to undergo a process in which a dissolved substance
separates from solution as a fine suspension of solid
particles. A common way to produce pure, fine-parti-
cle-sized ceramic powders. The solution can be a liquid
or a solid solution and the process is brought about by
a chemical reaction or a change in temperature.
precipitation color. A color in glass arising from the
presence of colloidal particles, usually Cu, Au, or CdS;
the color is usually orange or red.
precipitation hardening. An increase in the measured
hardness of a solid brought about by inducing a very
fine, well-distributed precipitate in the system to pro-
vide obstacles to dislocation movement.
precision. The highly accurate agreement of repeated
measurements, particularly measurements which vary
minimally from an established standard.
precision.bore glass tubing. Glass tubing heated to
softness and then shrunk over a metal mandrel or core.
precision casting. The forming of a product of precise
dimensional measurements by casting in a mold.
precision grinding. The machine grinding of an item to
specified and precise dimensional measurements.
precleaning. The removal of surface contamination
prior to subsequent treatment or use.
precoat. The preliminary application of a refractory
slurry to a casting pattern prior to application of the
main slurry.
precursor. Original fiber from which carbon fibers are
prepared by pyrolysis.
precursor binder. An additive in an extrusion-mix com-
position that does not bum out but adds to the matrix on
firing; silicones, for example, yield silica.
PRESS·AND·BLOW PROCESS
precursor wire. Fiber yams prepared for metal matrix
composite manufacture by passing them through liquid
metal baths of the chosen matrix.
predryer. Preliminary drying of a substance prior to
further treatment or processing.
prefabricated masonry. Masonry products fabricated
in a factory or other location for rapid assembly at the
site of construction.
preferential adsorption. The adsorption of certain ma-
terials to a greater extent or at a more rapid rate than
other materials.
preferred orientation. A situation where crystals in a
microstructure or chains in a molecular structure are
aligned in the same direction throughout the solid.
preform. (1) T)Ie initial fabrication of a shape. (2) A
sintered or pre fired compact of powdered glass used in
the production of glass-to-metal seals. (3) A preshaped
fibrous reinforcement formed to the desired shape on a
mandrel before being placed in a mold.
preheat. To subject to heat treatment prior to firing.
preheat zone. The section of a continuous furnace or
kiln preceding the hot or firing zone.
prehnite. Ca2AI2SiOIO(OH}z; sp. gr. 2.8-2.95; hardness
(Mohs) 6.0-6.5; a natural hydrous silicate of calcium
and aluminum related to the zeolites.
preload. A stated internal tensile stress in an artifact.
premature stiffening. The false or erratic, abnormal
quick-setting of cement in concrete due, usually, to the
presence of unstable calcium aluminate and gypsum in
the cement.
premix burner. A burner in which the fuel and air are
mixed prior to the injection and ignition in the combus-
tion chamber of a furnace or kiln.
prepregging. Initial wetting of fiber surfaces during im-
pregnation with a thermoplastic or thermosetting resin
liquid when manufacturing fiber-reinforced compos-
ites.
prepreg. A resin-impregnated woven ceramic fabric
used to form composite shapes; used increasingly in the
aerospace industry where the ceramic fabric is often
carbon.
preset cracks. Cracks occurring in concrete before the
concrete has set.
presintering. A preliminary heat treatment prior to sub-
sequent sintering or firing; usually to remove lubricants
and binders.
press. An apparatus for maintaining pressure on an as-
sembly.
press·and·blow process. A process of glass manufac-
ture in which the molten, seed-free glass is pressed into
a preliminary shape and subsequently is blown to the
final shape of the ware.
PRESS CLOTH
press cloth. The cloth, such as nylon, cotton, or jute,
which is used in filter presses for dewatering slurries.
pressed brick. Brick densified under pressure before fir-
ing; usually made from clay of low moisture content (5
to 7%).
pressed density. Another name for green density. See
pressure density.
pressed glassware. Glassware formed under pressure
between a plunger and a mold while in the molten or
plastic state.
press, hydraulic. See hydraulic press.
pressing. The forming of ware under pressure, usually in
a die.
pressing blank. A rough shape, particularly glass, from
which a finished article is formed.
pressing die. A mold in which an item is formed under
pressure.
pressing, dry. See dry pressing.
pressing, dust. See dust pressing.
pressing, hot. See hot pressing.
pressing, impact. See impact pressing.
pressing, isostatic. See isostatic pressing.
pressing, plastic. See plastic pressing.
pressing, ram. See ram pressing.
pressing, wet. See wet pressing.
Pressley index. Vsed to rationalize the variation of fiber
strength as a function of fiber length tested; it is the
breaking load per unit mass at theoretically zero gauge
length for an II.8-mm-long fiber bundle.
press molding. The forming of ware by pressing in ab-
sorbent plaster molds.
press, offset. See offset press.
press, screw. See screw press.
press, slug. See slug press.
press, swing. See swing press.
press, toggle. See toggle press.
pressure. The compressive stress applied to a substance
or item, expressed as exerted force per unit of area;
Nm-2 .
pressure bag technique. A modification of the hand
lay-up method of forming glass fiber-polyester com-
posite shapes which allows two smooth-finished sur-
faces to be obtained simultaneously. A flexible bag is
inflated to press against the side of the object not in
contact with the mold.
250
pressure casting. The forming of ware by casting, fol-
lowed by the application of pressure to densify the
formed item in the mold, and to minimize drying shrink-
age and speed the rate of production.
pressure check. A crack in a glass article caused by the
use of excess forming pressure.
pressure, contact. See contact pressure.
pressure density. The density of a compacted substance
prior to firing or sintering.
pressure dye test. A porosity test in which a dye solution
is applied to a test surface under pressure.
pressure, hydrostatic. See hydrostatic pressure.
pressure measurement. The measurement of static or
dynamic pressures in units of newtons per square meter.
pressure, molding. See molding pressure.
pressure regulator. An instrument designed to control
the pressure exerted on a substance.
pressure sintering. The heat treatment of a substance
under pressure to form a coherent mass with or without
the presence of a liquid phase. See hot pressing and
HIPing.
pressure tank. An airtight container in which slurries
and liquids are placed under pressure and forced into a
spraying or other distributing system.
pressure, vapor. See vapor pressure.
press, vibratory. See vibratory pressing.
prestress. To introduce internal stresses into a structure
to counteract stresses or loads to which the structure will
be subjected in service.
prestressed concrete. Concrete in which a compressive
stress is applied by means of prestressed steel rods,
wires, or strands incorporated in the concrete mix dur-
ing the fabrication of a product.
pretensioned steel. Steel rods, wires, or strands placed
in tension for use in prestressed concrete, the tension
being released after the concrete has set, thus placing
the concrete under compression.
primary air. The air introduced into a burner or combus-
tion chamber together with the fuel.
primary boiling. The initial evolution of gas during the
firing of porcelain-enamel, sometimes resulting in blis-
ters or other surface defects.
primary clay. A feldspathic type of weathered clay
which remains geologically at the site of its formation.
primary colors. (I) In decorating inks: yellow, magenta,
also known as process red, and cyan, also known as
process blue. (2) In light: red, green, and blue
primary crusher. The initial crusher of a series em-
ployed to pulverize minerals.
 251
primary instability. The occurrence of bowing from
end to end in column failure.
primary insulation. The initial layer of insulating mate-
rial applied over a conductor.
primary jacket. An insulating material applied as me-
chanical protection over primary insulators.
primary phase. The first crystalline phase occurring
during cooling of a liquid.
primary recrystallization. Growth of new crystals from
nuclei within strained, work-hardened crystals, to re-
place the original crystals. The orientation of the new
crystals is generally unrelated to the original strained
ones and so the growth is incoherent.
primary standard. A specimen in which specific prop-
erties have been measured, and these measurements
have been adopted as standards for comparison.
prime mover. The mechanical energy that drives a gen-
erator.
primer. A coating applied to a surface to improve the
adhesion of a second coating.
priming. The application of a primer.
principal axis. Either of two mutually perpendicular
axes which lie in a cross-section plane of a beam or
column.
principal direction. Related to the specific coordinate
axes orientation when stress and strain components
reach maximum and minimum for the perpendicular
components and zero for the shear.
principal moment of inertia. The moment of inertia of
an area about either principal axis.
principal section. A plane passing through the optic axis
of a birefringent crystal and normal to a crystal surface.
principal stress. The maximum or minimum value of
the perpendicular stress at a point in a plane considered
for all possible orientations of that plane.
printed circuit. A circuit for electronic apparatus con-
sisting of a deposit of conducting material on an insu-
lating surface in a prescribed pattern.
printed circuit boards. Copper-clad laminate where the
copper provides point-to-point electrical connections
and such materials as glass fiber in the laminate provide
strength.
printer's bit. A refractory spacer used in the setting of
ware in a decorating kiln.
printing ink. A mixture of ceramic pigment and liquid
medium used in the decoration of ware.
printing, silk-screen. See silk-screen printing.
printing transfer. The marking or decoration of ware by
means of decals made from engravings or lithographs.
PROFILE DEPTH
prism. (I) A crystal consisting of three or more faces
parallel to the vertical axis. (2) A transparent polygonal
solid with triangular ends and rectangular sides, used to
~ispers~ light into a spectrum or for deviating light as
m a penscope.
prismatic. (I) Another word for orthorhombic in crystal-
lography. (2) Exhibiting bright spectral colors.
prismatic glass. A translucent glass consisting of paral-
lel prisms which produce an iridescent, sometimes mul-
ticolored, appearance.
prismatic habit. A crystal that is significantly longer in
one direction than the other two; amphiboles, asbestos,
and pyroxenes are examples. Other names are: acicular,
columnar, bladed, and fibrous.
probability. The occurrence or state of being probable;
the relative frequency of the occurrence of an event
based on the ratio between its occurrence and the total
average number of cases necessary to ensure its occur-
rence.
probe coil. A small coil or coil assembly used in electro-
magnetic testing which is placed near or on the inside
of a test specimen.
process. A series of operations directed toward a particu-
lar end result, such as a manufacturing process or a
forming process.
process control. The manipulation of manufacturing
conditions to obtain an end product of desired or speci-
fied quality.
process, dry. See dry-process enameling.
process, fishscale. See fish scale process.
processing. In the electroceramics industry it is the
preparation of a new material with desired properties on
a laboratory or industrial scale.
process time. See residence time.
process, wet. See wet process.
Proctor dryer. A type of tunnel dryer in which heat for
drying is obtained by circulating air over pipes contain-
ing stearn or waste heat.
producer gas. The gas produced by burning a solid fuel
with a restricted supply of air or by passing air and
steam through an incandescent fuel under conditions to
convert carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide.
production control. The planning, scheduling, routing,
dispatching, and expediting of the flow of materials in
an orderly and efficient manner through a manufactur-
ing operation.
profile. Surface contour of a substrate surface in relation
to the cross section of the substrate.
profile depth. Average distance between valley bottoms
and peak tops on a surface.
PROFILOMETER
profilometer. An instrument, designed to measure the
surface roughness of a flat solid, consisting of a needle
drawn across the surface, irregularities being recorded
by an appropriate instrument.
projected area. Area of a part or an indent that is pro-
jected onto a plane at right angles.
projector. A reflective metal housing containing an in-
frared emitter; the reflector is shaped to project a beam
of radiant energy to a target area.
promoter. A chemical additive that greatly enhances the
activity of a catalyst.
proof. A sample of molten glass obtained for inspection
by means of an iron rod stirred in the molten bath.
proof load. A selected load, usually a multiple of the
service load, to which a specimen or structure is sub-
jected before acceptance.
proof stress. (I) A selected stress applied to a part which
indicates its ability to withstand service loadings. (2)
The stress that produces a permanent small set in a
specimen.
proof test. A specified test that a material or component
must pass to show its suitability for an intended purpose.
propellant. (l) A material, such as the fuel in a rocket,
that causes propulsion. (2) The gas used to carry liquid
droplets in an aerosol spray.
propellor mixer. A rotating shaft to which blades are
attached which is used for mixing low-viscosity disper-
sions and maintaining a well-distributed suspension.
properties, mechanical. See mechanical properties.
proportional limit. The greatest stress a material can
sustain before Hooke's law ceases to apply, i.e., the
stress at onset of curvative of a stress-strain curve.
proppant. Any hard, high strength material produced in
a bead shape, with a narrow particle size range, used to
keep rock fractures apart at the foot of an oil or gas well
to increase the flow from the well.
proprietary. An article or process, which belongs to, and
is controlled by, the holder who may issue licenses to
other manufacturers, etc.
props. Refractory supports on which shelves are ar-
ranged for the setting of ware to be fired.
protium. The most common isotope of hydrogen having
a mass of 1.0.
prototype. A model built specifically to enable a com-
plete evaluation of the product to be made.
prototype mold. A temporary mold, capable of modifi-
cation, used to test designs; made from silicone rubbers,
plaster, and wood.
protoxide. That oxide of a series which has the smallest
oxygen-to-metal ratio.
252
proustite. Ag)AsS); silver arsenic sulfide; a red, hexago-
nal mineral.
provenance. Place of origin.
provenancing. Sourcing or obtaining raw materials.
proximate analysis. A mineralogical analysis of a sub-
stance calculated on the basis of its chemical composi-
tion.
prunt. A handle or other piece fused on art-, dinner-, and
similar glassware following the forming operation.
Prussian blue. The most common of the iron ferrocy-
anide blue pigments.
Prussian red. A family of red pigments made from ferric
oxide or potassium ferrocyanide.
PSD. See phase-sensitive detector.
psi. Abbreviation for pounds per square inch.
psilomelane. BaMnMng016(OH)4; a black, monoclinic
ore of manganese containing a mixture of Mn02 and
MnO(OH); sp. gr. 4.42; hardness (Mohs) 5-6.
psf. Abbreviation for pounds per square foot.
PSYCCO. Acronym for a high-temperature supercon-
ducting oxide of composition Pb2Sr2(Y,Ca)Cu)07+x'
PSZ. Abbreviation for partially stabilized zirconia which
is a mixture of zirconia polymorphs because insufficient
cubic phase forming oxide has been added and so a
cubic plus tetragonal zr0 2 mixture is obtained on cool-
ing.
PTC. Abbreviation for positive temperature coefficient
thermistor, e.g., BaTiO), in which the current decreases
as temperature rises.
p-type semiconductor. A semiconductor containing
small quantities of acceptor impurity, that is, an element
in a lower periodic group, which is able to take a few
electrons away from the atoms of the semiconductor to
form holes which then pass from atom to atom to
produce an electric current.
pucalla. A tool used to widen the mouth of a goblet or
other glass product during the forming operation.
puckering. Closely spaced wrinkles on the surface of
laminated composites; a form of defect.
pugging. The process of blending clays and water by
manual or mechanical means to produce tractable bod-
ies of formable consistency.
pug mill. A machine consisting of augerlike blades
mounted in a trough for use in the mixing, compression,
and extrusion of plastic clay bodies.
pug mill, vacuum. See vacuum pug mixer.
pug mixer. See pug mill.
pulforming. A modification of pultrusion to enable arti-
cles with variable cross section to be manufactured.
 253
pull. (I) The quantity of glass produced in a glass-melt-
ing tank during a designated period of time. (2) The
draft in a chimney or flue.
pulled stem. A stem of glassware pulled from the bowl
while the glass is in a plastic state.
pullout. A failure mechanism in fiber composites
whereby applied stress causes the fiber-matrix bonds to
be broken and the fiber to be drawn through the matrix.
This mechanism is a major contributor to increasing the
toughness of fiber composites.
pullout work. The energy needed to remove fiber from a
composite; a major contributor to composite toughness
as shown by the equation: P =fd (O'fu)2124Ym, where P
is the pullout work,f is the volume fraction of fiber, d
is the fiber diameter, O'fu is the ultimate tensile strength
of the fiber, and Ym is the shear strength of the matrix.
pull strength. The strength of an adhesive joint meas-
ured by pulling in a perpendicular direction to the joint
plane.
pUlpstone. Sandstone cut into wheels for use in grinding
and polishing operations.
pulsed laser deposition. See PLD.
pulsed laser evaporation. See PLE.
pulse-echo method. An ultrasonic test for the detection
of defects in which a sonic pulse is transmitted and the
reflection from the opposite side is received on the same
side. The reflection amplitude is a factor of defect
density and shape.
pultrusion. A continuous forming process whereby mol-
ten material is drawn through a process. Articles of
constant cross section are produced. For fiber compos-
ites the fiber is drawn through a resin impregnation bath
and into a shaping die for curing.
pulverization. Breaking down material to a powder; an-
other word for comminution.
pulverizer. Any machine designed to reduce solid sub-
stances to very small particle sizes.
pumice, pumicite. A lightweight, porous volcanic ash of
glassy composition and texture used as a polishing
medium, as a lightweight concrete aggregate, as a sound
and thermal insulator, and as a raw material in brick
manufacture.
pumpcrete. (I) Concrete pumped through a pipeline. (2)
A machine which pumps concrete through a pipeline.
pumping. The loss of concrete fines through cracks and
joints of a wet pavement under heavy traffic, which
creates a pumping action.
pump, vacuum. See vacuum pump.
punch test. A test in which a glaze is fractured by means
of a center punch to determine if the fired coating is
under tensile or compressive stress.
PU'ITY,LIME
punchware. Thin, handblown glassware, such as tum-
blers.
punt. The bottom section of a glass container.
punt code. The hallmark on the bottom of a glass article.
punt, offset. See offset punt.
punt, pushed. See pushed punt.
punty. (1) An iron rod used to gather glass gobs for the
production of pressed ware. (2) An iron rod to which
glass is attached while being shaped and fire polished.
Also known as ponti!.
pup. A long, refractory brick of square cross section.
purchase order. An order for the purchase or procure-
ment of merchandise under some condition of payment.
purchaser. An individual or organization issuing an or-
der to purchase.
pure clay. HAI(AISi)OsOH; aluminosilicic acid; a clay
consisting theoretically of 39.5% alumina, 46.6% silica,
and 13.9% water, in the old notation AI 20 3·Si0 2 ·H 20.
purge. To sweep a furnace atmosphere of undesirable
gases, usually by passing nitrogen through the chamber.
purity grade. The degree of purity of a substance, deter-
mined by chemical analysis.
purity grade, ultrahigh. See ultrahigh purity.
purple of Cassius. A ceramic pigment composed of
mixtures of tin and gold chlorides.
purpling. The change of chrome-tin pink to an off-color
during the firing operation due to an excess of borax and
alkali and a deficiency of lime.
push-bat kiln. A kiln in which ware is pushed through
the kiln on bats or refractory slabs.
pushed-down cullet. An imperfection in glassware
caused by the presence of collet in the drawing zone of
a glass-melting tank.
pushed punt. The concave bottom of a glass article.
pusher. A device designed to push ware through a kiln
during the firing operation.
pusher kiln. A kiln, usually small, in which ware, placed
on a platform, is pushed manually or mechanically
through the firing zone.
push schedule. The rate at which ware is pushed through
a firing kiln.
push-up. A pushed punt.
putty. (I) A white polishing compound. (2) A doughlike
cement composed of whiting and linseed oil used to set
glass in sashes.
putty,lime. See lime putty.
PUZZOLAN
puzzolan. An alternative spelling of pozzolan.
pycnometer. A container of known volume used to de-
tennine the density of a liquid, the density being calcu-
lated from the weight of the liquid in the container.
Pyrex. A commercial brand of borosilicate glass used for
laboratory ware because of its low thennal expansion
and good durability.
pyrite. FeS2; sp. gr. 4.9-5.2; hardness (Mohs) 6-6.5;
used in amber glass and as a filler in resin-bonded
abrasives and brake linings.
pyro. (I) An abbreviated tenn for tetrasodium pyrophos-
phate, Na3P207. (2) Denoting fire, heat, or high tem-
perature. (3) Denoting a new substance obtained by
heating another; for example, pyroboric acid is obtained
by heating metaboric acid. (4) Acid or salt between
ortho and meta acids or salts.
pyroborate. See borates.
Pyroceram. A proprietary, hard, strong, opaque-white
nucleated glass with a nonporous, crystalline structure
having good thermal shock resistance and high values
of flexural strength.
pyrochemical. Concerned with chemical changes at
high temperature.
pyrochlore. A ternary oxide with general composition
A(NbTe)06, where A is a large-sized group I element.
pyrochroite. Mn(OHh; an ore of manganese with the
hexagonal brucite structure; sp. gr. 3.25; hardness
(Mohs) 2.5; pearly luster from colorless to blue-black.
pyroclastic. Rocks fonned from solids erupted by vul-
canism.
pyroconductivity. The phenomenon of electrical con-
ductivity in a solid caused by heating it.
pyroelectric crystal. A polarization effect produced by
heat when negative charge accumulates at one end of
the crystal and positive charge at the other. Tounnaline
is an example which when heated will attract pieces of
paper, etc. to its ends.
pyrogenic silica. Silica fume; an ultrafine particle sized
fonn of Si02 made by the pyrohydrolysis process using
SiCI4 •
pyrohydrolysis. The decomposition of a substance by
the combined action of heat and water vapor.
pyrolusite. ~-Mn02; tetragonal mineral; sp. gr. 5.24;
hardness (Mohs) 6-6.5; used as a purple or red colorant
in glazes, glass, and porcelain-enamels and as an adher-
ence-promoting agent for porcelain-enamels on sheet
iron and steel.
pyrolysis. Chemical decomposition caused by high tem-
peratures.
pyrolytic coating. A coating fonned on the surface of an
article by thennal decomposition of a volatile com-
254
pound, such as a coating of silica, by the decomposition
of silicon tetrachloride.
pyrolytic graphite. A fonn of graphite of high purity
having high thennal and electrical conductivity; used in
high-temperature applications; highly oriented micro-
structure arising from the vapor deposition method of
production.
pyrometer. An instrument used for the measurement of
high temperatures.
pyrometer, disappearing filament. See disappearing
filament pyrometer.
pyrometer, optical. See optical pyrometer.
pyrometer, photoelectric. See photoelectric pyrometer.
pyrometers, sentinel. See sentinel pyrometers.
pyrometric cone. Small, slender, three-sided pyramids
composed of oxide mixtures which defonn at known
temperatures; used to indicate the thennal history of
fired ware. The degree of vitrification in a firing process
is determined from these cones by observing the degree
of distortion in a series of cones of different composi-
tion which therefore defonn at different temperatures.
Ceramic ware compositions are then classified accord-
ing to the pyrometric cone equivalent which is simply
a number; the higher the number the higher is the
softening and vitrification temperature.
pyrometric cone equivalent. The assigned identifying
number of a pyrometric cone which defonns or bends
so that its tip touches the supporting plaque or base
during a firing cycle to indicate the approximate tem-
perature and thennal history of ware during the firing
operation. See pyrometric cone.
pyrometry. The science of thermal measurement.
pyromorphite. Pb5CI(P04h; lead chlorophosphate; a
greenish-brown mineral with a hexagonal structure.
pyrophoric. The property of igniting spontaneously;
usually associated with very fine particle sizes.
pyrophosphoric acid. H4P20 7; a crystalline, soluble
acid fonned from the reaction of P20 5 with water.
pyrophotometer. An instrument to measure the light
emitted from an incandescent body in order to deter-
mine its temperature.
pyrophyllite. AI 2Si40 lO(OHh; a phyllosilicate mineral
resembling talc; mp 1800°C; sp. gr. 2.8-2.9; hardness
(Mohs) 1-2; employed in refractories, castables, plastic
and gunning mixes, insulator bodies, and tile to reduce
thennal expansion and as a source of alumina; also used
as a sealer in the pressure fonning of synthetic dia-
monds at elevated temperatures. Also known as soap-
stone.
 255
pyroplasticity, pyroplastic defonnation.
High-temperature elasticity resulting in a pennanent defor-
mation of a body under stress.
pyroscope. A shaped material such as a cone, ring, bar,
or pellet, which melts or softens at a definite tempera-
ture and which is placed in a kiln to serve as an indicator
of temperature conditions during a firing operation.
pyrosilicate. Those silicates containing the discrete
(Si20 7)6- anion fonned from two Si04 tetrahedra shar-
ing a common apex.
Pyrox. Trade name for refractory lanthanum chromite.
pyroxene. AB(Si03h; any group of silicate minerals
containing single chains of linked Si04 tetrahedra in
which each silicon shares two apical oxygens and which
can be packed together in several ways; two types of
cation, A and B, balance the [(Si03)2,ln charge. They
PZT
occur in many rocks and are formed in industrial proc-
ess, e.g., enstatite comes from heating serpentine.
Cleavage occurs in a direction along the chain axis.
pyroxenite. A coarse-grained ultrabasic rock consisting
entirely of pyroxene minerals.
pyrrhotite. Fel_xS; nonstoichiometric iron sulfide ore. It
has a hexagonal structure related to niccolite, NiAs, but
with vacancies on some of the Ni sites as well as As
sites. The vacancies cause the mineral to become mag-
netic. Hexagonal; bronze color; sp. gr. 4.58-4.79; hard-
ness (Mohs) 3.5-4.5.
PZT. Pb(Zrl_xTix)03; an acronym for lead zirconium
titanate which is used in piezoelectric transducers.
 Q
QA. Abbreviation for quality assurance.
QC. Abbreviation for quality control.
Q-factor. The ratio of energy stored in a device to the
energy dissipated in the device; a measure of device
efficiency.
q-p diagram. A plot of shear stress against isotropic
stress; used to quantify effects present in extrusion
processing.
Q-switch. A laser device which has the effect of a shutter
moving rapidly in and out of the beam to spoil the
resonator Q and prevent lasing action until a high level
of stored energy is achieved.
Quacor. A commercially available form of glassy amor-
phous carbon, formed by pyrolysis of polyfurfuryl al-
cohol.
quadrant mat. The tension-zone circumferential rein-
forcement secured to a cage in a concrete-pipe wall.
quadrupole. Four electrical charges arranged in such a
way that leads neither to net charge nor net dipole
moment. The electric potential due to a quadrupole falls
off with distance as II!'.
quadrupole spectrometer. An analytical instrument
that separates ions in terms of their masses as they pass
along the line of symmetry between four parallel cylin-
drical rods which produce a variable magnetic field.
qualification test. A test or series of tests designed to
evaluate the functional, environmental, reliability per-
formance, and other pertinent properties or charac-
teristics of a material, component, or system to assure
the producer, supplier, and consumer that the item or
product will meet stated performance targets.
qualitative. Making distinctions between samples based
on qualities rather than numerical values of properties.
qualitative analysis. An analysis in which some or all of
the components of a sample are identified but not quan-
tified.
256
quality. (I) The nature of a material or product. (2)
Degree or standard of excellence.
quality assurance. Activities undertaken by a manufac-
turer or supplier to assure a customer that a product is
acceptable in all respects.
quality circle. A regular meeting of management and
shop-floor workers to discuss production problems and
to explore solutions to technical and managerial prob-
lems.
quality control. Activities undertaken by a manufac-
turer or supplier to achieve the properties and quality
specified.
quality-control chart. A graphic representation of data
to indicate the properties or quality of a product in the
course of manufacture in order to maintain or adjust
procedures of production to meet prescribed specifica-
tions.
quality-control tests. Tests performed to verify and
maintain a desired level of quality in a product or
process.
quality factor. I1tan 0; reciprocal of the dissipation fac-
tor; 0 is the loss angle.
quality verification tests. Tests performed to maintain a
desired level of quality in a product or process.
quantitative analysis. Analyses in which the relative
amounts of some or all of the components of a sample
are determined.
quantitative microscopy. The application of statistical
procedures to micrographs of polished sections of sam-
ples in order to determine features, such as average
grain size, pore volume, phase distribution, etc.
quantity. Concerned with or related to the amount or
number, as opposed to the nature, of a sample; a speci-
fied amount in prescribed units; the product of a number
and a unit.
 257
quantum. The smallest quantity of some physical prop-
erty, such as energy, that a system can possess accord-
ing to the quantum theory.
quantum confinement. See quantum dot.
quantum dot. A three dimensionally quantum-confined
microstructure, such as that obtained when gallium
arsenide, GaAs, is deposited in pores < 6.0 nm in size,
in a phase-separated glass, by CVD methods. Blueshifts
in the optical spectrum occur as a result of the quantum
confinement.
quantum jump. A change in energy from one allowed
value to another.
quantum mechanics. A branch of mechanics used to
interpret the behavior of elementary particles which do
not obey Newtonian mechanics. Devised to work within
the constraints of the quantum theory wherein the sys-
tems studied have only discrete values of energy, sepa-
rated by forbidden regions.
quantum number. One of a set of integers, n, [, or m, or
half integers, s, which characterize the energy levels of
a particle, or set of particles.
quantum theory. A system based on Planck's idea that
certain properties of a system, such as energy, can only
be possessed in discrete amounts, i.e., in quanta.
quad block. A refractory shape employed as a burner
segment for the injection of gaseous or liquid fuel into
a glass-melting tank.
quarry. An excavation in the earth from which building
stone, limestone, slate, coal, sand, clay, gravel, or other
mineral is removed.
quarry tile. An unglazed tile, usually 39 cm2 or more in
top surface area, and \3 to 19 mm in thickness, made
by extruding natural clays or shales; highly resistant to
abrasion and corrosion and so used as flooring.
quarter. To divide a sample of a material, such as an
aggregate, into four equal parts to reduce the sample
size to one suitable for analysis.
quarter-wave plate. The simplest device for producing
or'detecting circularly polarized light. It consists of thin
mica sheets or of quartz cut parallel to the optic axis;
plate thickness, d, must be such as to produce a 90°
phase change, 0, between the ordinary and extraordi-
nary vibrations; d is given by: d =)Jj/21t(no - nE)' where
/... is the wavelength of the light, no and nE are the sodium
yellow line refractive indices of the ordinary and the
extraordinary rays, respectively. When the quarter-
wave plate is oriented at 45° to the plane of the incident
polarized light the emerging light is circularly polar-
ized.
quartz. Si0 2 ; mp 171O°C; sp. gr. 2.65; hardness (Mohs)
7; a naturally occurring crystal appearing in many forms
and varieties, such as agate, chalcedony, chert, flint,
opal, etc.; it is the most abundant and widespread of
minerals; used extensively as a glass former and as a
vitrification aid in ceramic compositions.
QUENCH AGING
quartz, alpha. See alpha phase.
quartz, beta. See beta phase.
quartz crystal. A natural or artificial crystal of Si0 2
having piezoelectric properties
quartz-crystal filter. An electronic filter in which a
quartz crystal is the essential component being cut to
and ground to a particular size so that it vibrates at a
particular frequency.
quartz-crystal resonator. A quartz plate having a natu-
ral vibration frequency such that it may be employed to
control the frequency of an oscillator.
quartz fibers. Fibers made from high-purity, > 99.95%
Si0 2 in the quartz and not silica modification. They are
stronger and have greater high-temperature strength
than silica fibers.
quartz, fused. See fused quartz.
quartz glass. (1) A transparent or translucent vitreous
silica made by the fusion of vein quartz or silica sand.
Also known as fused quartz. (2) A glass made by the
flame hydrolysis of silicon tetrachloride, SiCI4 . Also
known as silica glass. Both types are characterized by
their high melting point, excellent thermal shock resis-
tance, transparency to uv-light, and chemical inertness;
used in high temperature equipment and devices.
quartz inversion. The phase change on heating which
occurs at 573°C in Si0 2 as the tilt on the tetrahedra is
changed, this is the alpha-to-beta conversion which is
reversible on cooling.
quartz iodine lamp. A bright source of light consisting
of a quartz envelope containing an inert gas plus iodine
vapor and a tungsten filament. Also called quartz lamp.
quartzite. A metamorphic or sedimentary rock consist-
ing almost entirely of quartz grains bonded by silica,
and usually formed by the metamorphosis of sandstone;
used as a refractory, particularly in salt-glazing kilns.
quartz sand. Sand extracted with china clay, usually
about seven parts sand to one part clay; used to make
calcium silicate brick and in several ci vii engineering
applications.
quartz, synthetic. See synthetic quartz.
quartz, vein. See vein quartz.
quebracho extract. A tannin-rich material extracted
from the quebracho tree used as a deflocculant in dress-
ing muds, ore flotation, and ceramic slips.
queen closer. A cut brick having a nominal 50.8-mm
horizontal face dimension; used to close courses and
spaces less than normal depth in construction.
queen's ware. A type of white or cream-colored ware
developed by Wedgewood in England from 1759 to
1765.
quench aging. Induced aging produced by rapid cooling
from a prolonged heat treatment.
QUENCH CRACK
quench crack. A crack formed as a result of high thermal
stresses occurring on rapid cooling.
quenching. (1) The rapid chilling of molten porcelain-
enamel or other glassy material in water, causing it to
shatter into small, friable particles or flakes called frit.
More commonly known as fritting. (2) In superconduc-
tors it is the restoring of resistance to the conductor by
large magnetic fields and the subsequent appearance of
heat causes resistance to spread outwards from the first
quench volume.
quenching of fluorescence. The extinction of fluores-
cence by causes other than the removal of exciting
radiation.
quenching, spray. See ["ray quenching.
258
quern. Hand-driven mill consisting of a volcanic mill-
stone turning in a mortar.
quicklime. A calcined material, the major part of which
is calcium oxide, CaO, or CaO in association with lesser
amounts of magnesium oxide, MgO; may be slaked in
water; mp 2570°C; sp. gr. 3.4; used in mortars and
plasters, and as a refractory ingredient in other ceramic
products.
quill. A removable arbor or spindle; a holIow shaft fre-
quently surrounded by another shaft; employed in me-
chanical rotating devices.
quoin. (1) An external comer of a masonry wall. (2) A
wedge-shaped piece employed as the keystone of an
arch or vault.
Q-value. A synonym for nuclear-disintegration energy.
 R
rack-and-pinion. A device in which a gearwheel (the
pinion) engages with a flat toothed bar (the rack) in
order to convert rotary into linear motion.
rack car. A car containing racks on which ware is placed
without stacking for movement through the dryer.
rack, comb. See comb rack.
rack, hanging. See hanging rack.
rack mark. An imperfection on the surface of glass due
to malfunction of the rolling mechanism.
rad. (I) A unit of energy absorbed from ionizing radia-
tion by tissue equal to 10-2 J kg- 1 of tissue. (2) Abbre-
viation for radian.
raddle. An interweave.
radial. Emanating from a common central point.
radial brick. A brick with each end curved for use in
concentric, cylindrical, or circular construction.
radial marks. Lines present on a fracture surface that
radiate from the origin of fracture.
radial pressure coeficient. k; when a powder is
uniaxially compacted by a punch pressure, az' some of
the pressure, a p is transmitted to the container side
walls; k :0 a/az and describes the powder fluidity; if k
:0 1 the powder behaves like a fluid and uniaxial com-
paction will be equivalent to isostatic compaction.
radian. The unit of plane angle; the angle between two
radii of a circle that cut off on the circumference an arc
equal in length to the radius. 1 rad :0 57.296°.
radiance. Le; the radiant intensity in a given direction of
a small element of surface area divided by the orthogo-
nal projection of the area onto a plane at right angles to
the direction.
radiant. Sending out rays of light or other radiation.
radiant efficiency. The ratio of the power emitted by a
source of radiation to the power consumed by it.
259
radiant energy. Qe ; energy emitted or propagated in the
form of particles or electromagnetic radiation; meas-
ured in JOUles.
radiant exitance. The radiant flux emitted per unit area
at a given point on a surface.
radiant flux. !\Je; the rate of flow of energy as radiation;
measured in watts.
radiant heat. Heat transferred as electromagnetic radia-
tion rather than conduction or convection.
radiant heating. A system of heating a space by radiant
heat emitted from panels.
radiant intensity. Ie; radiant flux per unit solid angle
leaving a point source.
radiant-tube furnace. A porcelain-enameling furnace
heated by radiant tube~ in which the fuel is burnt within
the tubes and does not enter the firing chamber.
radiation. The transmission of energy, such as light,
heat, x-rays, etc., through space without the presence or
movement of matter in or through the Epace.
radiation damage. Changes in the properties of a sub-
stance induced by radiation-caused changes to the elec-
tronic or crystalline structure.
radical. A chemical species possessing one or more un-
paired electrons and commonly two or more atoms, e.g.,
(C0 3)2-.
radioactive blasting halos. The radial fracture pattern
found in quartz as a consequence of lattice breakdown
under the influence of a-particles from uraninite
trapped in hydrocarbon polymers onto which the quartz
has crystallized.
radioactive decay. Spontaneous nuclear disintegration
when one or more nuclei are formed and particles and
gamma rays are emitted.
radiocarbon. 14C; a radioactive isotope of carbon.
RADIOFREQUENCY
radiofrequency. A band of frequencies lying in the
range 10 kHz to 300 GHz.
radio-frequency heating. Heating a dielectric sub-
stance by means of alternating, induced high-frequency
currents. Also called dielectric heating.
radiograph. A shadow image produced on a photo-
graphic film or plate by uneven absorption of radiation,
such as x rays, transmitted through the sample.
radiographic testing. A nondestructive procedure for
the detection of defects in components by studying their
transmission properties of incident radiation relative to
the transmission characteristics ofthe nondefective ma-
terial.
radioluminescence. Luminescence from a radioactive
material that is induced by radiation.
radiometer. Any instrument for the detection or meas-
urement of radiant energy.
radius of gyration. S; the radial distance from a given
axis at which the mass of a body could be concentrated
without altering the rotational inertia of the body about
the axis.
radome. A strong, thin, domelike protective covering for
radar equipment made from a dielectric material trans-
parent to radio-frequency radiation.
raised gold. Embossing gold by over-printing on fired
flux or ceramic color.
rake. (I) A scratch on the surface of glass caused by
particles of cullet trapped in the polishing felt. (2) The
measure of inclination from a line or plane.
raku. A type of thick, coarse-textured pottery ware cov-
ered with a soft lead borosilicate glaze.
ram. That part of a molding press that enters the mold
cavity.
Raman band. The wavenumber shift, ;:"v, from Vo ± v rn.
See Raman effect.
Raman effect. Scattering of radiation, usually mono-
chromatic light, with a change in wavelength of the
scattered radiation. Raman radiation has very low inten-
sity and so requires special equipment for its detection
and measurement. Since wavelength shifts can be re-
lated to structural features it is used in structural deter-
minations. Scattered radiation with peaks at increased
wavenumbers, Vo + v rn ' are called Stokes bands, those
with smaller wavenumber, Vo - vm ' are anti-Stokes
bands.
RAM chip. An integrated circuit that provides random
access memory for a digital system such as a computer.
ram force. The total load applied by a ram; expressed as
the line pressure multiplied by the cross-sectional area
of the ram.
260
rammelsbergite. NiAs 2; an orthorhombic mineral,
white with red tinges and metallic luster; sp. gr. 7.1;
hardness (Mohs) 5.5-6.
ramming. The process of forcing or driving bodies into
place, such as by means of a pneumatic device, to form
monolithic furnace linings and shapes.
ramming mix. A mixture of water-tempered refractory
materials suitable for ramming into place to form mono-
lithic furnace linings.
ramming mix, pitch or tar-bearing. See tar-bearing
basic ramming mix.
ramp. A manufacturers sign molded into the side or
bottom of a bottle or jar.
ram pressing. A process of forming ware in plaster
molds in which water removal is expedited by the
application of a vacuum; ware is released from the mold
by applying air pressure through the porous structure of
the mold.
ramsdellite. y-Mn02; a rhombic polymorph of manga-
nese dioxide.
Ramsdell notation. A way of denoting the different (X-
SiC polytypes, e.g., 2H, 4H, 15R, 24R, etc., the number
refers to the number of layers in the unit cell and the
letter denotes hexagonal, H, or rhombohedral, R, sym-
metry.
ram seal. A seal in which a metal sleeve is forced to form
a thin circumferential line of contact over the sharp edge
of a ceramic shape, and then is completed by bracing or
plating a metal over the joint.
ranch-type roofing. A rectangular asbestos-cement
roofing panel which is lapped at the top and one side.
random cracking. Cracks formed on the surface of con-
crete in a random pattern due to surface shrinkage or
internal expansion.
random error. Deviations found in any measured value
resulting from averaging operations applied to the data
set.
random sampling. Sampling without bias toward any
combination of considerations.
random spinel. A ceramic with the spinel structure and
composition, AB 20 4 , but with one-half the tetrahedral
cations occupying the octahedral sites and one-quarter
the B cations occupying the tetrahedral sites:
(Ao.sBO.5)[Ao.sBI. S]04·
Rankine temperature scale. OR, a scale of absolute
temperature based on Fahrenheit degrees in which OR
is equal to OF + 459.67; (5/9) K.
ranking. Method of presenting material property values
in definitive order reflecting their importance.
rapid expansion of supercritical solution method.
See RESS.
 261
rare earth iron boride magnets. R2FeI4B; R is one of
the lanthanide elements; high-coercivity materials with
hexagonal or rhombohedral structures.
rare earth iron carbides. R2Fe14C and R2Fe17C; a se-
ries of high-coercivity materials with hexagonal or
rhombohedral structures. In the 2: 14 family the carbon
occupies the same site as the lanthanide, R, atoms and
so induces site anisotropy; in the 2: 17 materials the
carbon occupies octahedral interstitial sites.
rare earths. Oxides of the lanthanide elements; lantha-
num, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, prome-
thium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium,
dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and
lutetium. Yttrium, scandium, and thorium, although not
lanthanides, are closely associated. These oxides are
employed in numerous ceramic applications, including
coloring agents, glass decolorizers, ultraviolet absorb-
ers, polishing compounds, cores for arc carbons, incan-
descent gas mantles, laser glass, electronic components,
magnetic compositions, phosphors, etc.
Raschig rings. Short pipes made from stoneware, glass,
carbon, or metal used to fill the columns of absorption
and distillation towers.
rasorite. A sodium borate mineral used occasionally as
a substitute for borax.
ratchet marks. Visible lines on fatigue fractured sur-
faces resulting from the intersection of fatigue fractures
propagating from multiple origins.
rate of absorption. (I) The weight of water absorbed by
a partially immersed standard brick in one minute. (2)
The weight of water absorbed by a dry ceramic speci-
men, in grams, divided by the weight of the dry test
piece in a test of known time.
rate of flame propagation. The velocity of a flame front
as a mixture of fuel and air is burned.
rational analysis. The mineral composition of a material
calculated from its chemical composition.
rattler. A cylinder filled with steel balls in which paving
brick are rotated to test the impact and abrasion resis-
tance of the brick; calculated as the percentage loss in
weight.
raw batch. (I) A furnace-charge of glass raw materials
without cullet. (2) A blend or batch of raw materials
ready for processing.
raw cullet. A furnace charge of glass consisting entirely
of cullet.
raw data. Data ready for evaluation.
raw edge. The sheared edge of a porcelain-enameled
panel not completely covered by the coating.
raw glaze. A glaze compounded entirely of raw materi-
als and containing no prefused ingredients.
raw material. The starting materials used in a process-
ing operation.
REACTION, SURFACE
raw refractory dolomite. Natural mineral CaMg(C0 3h;
suitable for use as a refractory mineral.
raw shape. A metal part ready to be started through the
porcelain-enameling process.
Rayleigh scattering. The effect of small particles on
wave fronts. The linear dimensions of the particles must
be considerably smaller than the wavelength of the
radiation. As well as being dependent on the intensity
of the incident radiation and the square of the volume
of the scattering particles, the intensity of the scattered
radiation is dependent on the wavelength as 1/1.4 .
Rayleigh wave. An elastic wave propagating in a sur-
face; the particle motion is confined to a layer approxi-
mately two wavelengths thick.
Raymond concrete pile. A tapered metal shell driven
into the ground and filled with concrete to be used as a
structural base.
RBM. Abbreviation for reinforced brick masonry.
R-curve behavior. An increased resistance to crack
growth with increasing crack length; chiefly a feature
encountered in metals but partially stabilized zirconia
and coarse-grained alumina, A1 20 3, are ceramic exam-
ples.
reaction. (I) A chemical change where one or more
materials are consumed and one or more new ones
appear. (2) The equal and opposite effect generated by
an applied force.
reaction-bonded alumina. RBAO; aluminum metal
powder is added to alumina, A1 20 3 , powder and com-
pacted before sintering. Volume increase as aluminum
is oxidized compensates sinter shrinkage to give near
net shapes at the expense of strength and toughness.
reaction bonding. A method for producing ceramic
shapes in which a reactive powder is pressed to shape
and then heated in a reactive atmosphere; for example,
a mixture of silicon carbide fibers and powdered silicon
pressed and heated to 1450°C in nitrogen gas results in
silicon nitride, Si 3 N4, matrix-SiC fiber composites
which would otherwise have to be produced above
1750°C.
reaction cement. A cement which sets due to a conden-
sation-type hydrolysis, polymerization reaction.
reaction injection molding. RIM; a fabrication method
whereby two chemically reactive liquid streams are
injected into a mold where they form a solid shape. The
method can be extended by including short ceramic
fibers in one of the liquid streams and the process is
renamed reinforced reaction injection molding or
RRIM.
reaction sintering. Simultaneous formation of a ce-
ramic and sintering to shape; for example, silicon car-
bide, SiC, where a compact of silicon powder is heated
in a hydrocarbon atmosphere.
reaction, surface. See surface reaction.
REACTIVATION
reactivation. An oxidation process to restore the adsorp-
tive properties of activated carbon.
reactive aggregate. An aggregate which will react
chemically, such as some highly siliceous minerals,
with alkalies, causing the concrete to expand and crack
after it has hardened. See concrete cancer.
reactivity. The susceptibility of a material to chemical
change or action; governed by surface area, metastabil-
ity, composition, and the conditions of temperature,
pressure, and atmosphere.
ready-mixed concrete. Concrete mixed by any means
prior to delivery at a site.
reagent blank. The contribution to an analytical result
caused by substances in the reagents or the apparatus,
as determined by carrying out the analytical procedure
in the absence of the sample.
reagent resistance. The resistance of a composite to
chemical attack. Also known as chemical resistance.
realgar. AsS; arsenic sulfide; a red to orange mineral
which becomes yellow on exposure to light. The yellow
material is known as orpiment. Hardness (Mohs) 1.5-
2.0; sp. gr. 3.59.
ream. An imperfection in flat glass consisting of hetero-
geneous layers.
rearing. Glazed ceramic flatware set on edge during
firing.
Reaumur porcelain. A porcelain in which a fritted or
devitrified glass is the major constituent.
rebar. A reinforcing bar embedded in concrete.
Rebinder effect. The change in the measured indenta-
tion hardness value when the test is carried out on
surfaces covered in water or organic solvent; minimum
hardness occurs when the pH, or the salts in solution,
cause the zeta potential to reach a minimum value.
reboil. (1) The appearance of bubbles in glass after it
appears to be bubble-free. (2) A fine boiling occurring
in porcelain-enamel ground coat due to the evolution of
gas in the metal or the coating during repeated firing
cycles.
rebonded fused-grain refractories. A fired refractory
brick or other shape made predominantly from fused
refractory grains.
rebonded sand. Used molding sand mixtures restored to
usable condition by adding new bonding agent.
recalescence. A sudden spontaneous increase in the tem-
perature of a cooling solid resulting from an exothermic
change in crystal structure occurring at a particular
temperature.
recessed abrasive wheel. A grinding wheel with a con-
toured central recess on one or both sides.
262
reciprocal. (I) The value of a specific quantity divided
into 1. (2) A back-and-forth motion of a mechanical
part.
reciprocating feeder. A tray at the bottom of a bin,
hopper, or other container which moves back and forth
in a horizontal plane as it transfers material from the
container to a processing unit or transport car.
reciprocating screen. A screen which moves back and
forth in a horizontal plane; used to separate or classify
solid particles.
reciprocating screw. A modified extrusion screw which
is pushed back by the charge as it rotates. When suffi-
cient material has gathered in front of the screw it is
rapidly thrust forward into the die.
recirculating dip tank. A dipping tank for the applica-
tion of porcelain-enamels which has a mechanical
means or a pump to keep the slip in constant circulation
and the solid components in uniform suspension.
recirculating fan. A mechanical device to move air from
one location, such as a furnace, to another useful area,
such as a dryer.
reclaim. See reclaimed enamel.
reclaimed enamel. Porcelain-enamel and glaze residues
collected from spray booths, dip tanks, washed ware,
etc., and reconditioned for use. Often just called re-
claim.
reconstructive transformation. Crystal structure
changes that require bond breaking.
recovery. (I) A term denoting softening in work-hard-
ened crystals which occurs at temperatures below those
needed for recrystallization. (2) The movement of dis-
locations of opposite sign in a heavily strained speci-
men, toward each other so as to eliminate each other.
This process reduces the total strain energy in a crystal.
Since vacancy diffusion is required, the process de-
pends on the temperature.
recovery time. The time required for a freshly charged
periodic furnace to regain its set firing temperature; that
is, the temperature which is lost during the period the
furnace was open for discharging and loading the ware.
recrystallization. The process of producing strain-free
grains in a matrix that has been plastically deformed.
recrystallization, primary. See primary recrystalliza-
tion.
recrystallization, secondary. See secondary recrystalli-
zation.
recrystallization temperature. The minimum tempera-
ture at which ceramic particles bond together or at
which phase changes occur in the solid state, which take
place in sintering, precipitation, exsolution, or grain
growth.
rectangular kiln. A periodic kiln of rectangular shape.
 263
rectifier. A device which converts ac current to dc cur-
rent, such as a diode.
recuperative furnace. A furnace having a heat ex-
changer in which heat is conducted from the combus-
tion products to incoming air through flue walls or a
system of ducts.
recuperator. A continuous heat exchanger in which heat
is extracted from combustion products and supplied to
incoming cool air through flue walls or a system of
thin-walled ducts.
recycling. The recovery of commercially valuable mate-
rials from scrap or discarded products.
red clay. Any ferruginous, that is, iron-bearing, clay,
which produces a red color when fired; used to make
bricks, roofing tile, and some types of pottery.
red copper oxide. CU20; mp 121O°C; bp I 800°C; sp. gr.
5.75-6.09; used in glass, glazes, porcelain-enamels,
and other ceramics to develop red colors.
red earth. See ferric oxide.
red edge. Small cavities along the edges of plate glass
which are filled with rouge during the polishing opera-
tion.
red heat. The temperature at which a heated body or
furnace glows red; approximately 7OO-750°C.
red iron oxide. Fe304; decomposes between 500 and
530°C; sp. gr. 9.0-9.2; used extensively in optical,
electrical, and tableware glasses, and in glazes and
porcelain-enamels as a fluxing ingredient.
red lead. Pb30 4 ; decomposes between 500-530°C; sp.
gr. 8.32-9.16; a brilliant red pigment prepared by con-
verting lead to massicot at low temperatures, grinding
to a powder, and carefully reheating; used in glass
manufacture, varnish, paint, and printing ink. Also
called minium and orange mineral.
red lead ore. See crocoite.
red ochre. Natural red earths containing ferric oxide;
used as pigments.
redox. A synonym for oxidation-reduction reactions ob-
served in chemical systems.
reducer. A pipe fitting connecting two pipes of different
diameters.
reducer section, manhole. See manhole reducer.
reducer, water. See water reducer.
reducing agent. A chemical which lowers the state of
oxidation of other batch ingredients when the tempera-
ture is raised, itself being oxidized in the process.
reducing atmosphere. A furnace atmosphere deficient
in oxygen and containing a reducing gas, such as carbon
monoxide, hydrogen, etc.
REFIRE
reducing bushing. A device used as a liner to reduce the
size of an arbor hole for an axle, shaft, or spindle.
reducing flame. A flame deficient in oxygen resulting in
incomplete combustion of the fuel which often pro-
duces a reducing atmosphere in a kiln.
reducing glass. A lens or curved mirror that produces an
image smaller than the object viewed.
reduction. A chemical reaction in which a species gains
electrons, thereby reducing the positive valence of the
species.
reduction ratio. n; in the Bond and Wang crushing the-
ory, the initial mean particle size divided by the final
mean size of the powder.
redware. A type of porcelain body made of iron-bearing
clay which fires to a characteristic red color.
reel cutter. A device consisting of a tightly stretched
wire on a circular frame in association with a pugging
machine so that extruded clay billets can be cut to
desired lengths.
reentrant mold. A mold with an undercut which makes
it difficult to withdraw the molded part.
reeves. Tangled laminations causing imperfect cleavage
in mica.
Refel process. A manufacturing process for silicon car-
bide shapes, first pressed from Acheson process SiC
powder, and then molten silicon is made to penetrate
the porosity. The liquid silicon reacts with impurity
carbon to make secondary silicon carbide before a final
heat treatment produces a dense shape by reaction sin-
tering. The final body contains about 12% unreacted
silicon.
referee test. Analysis or measurement made by a third
party asked to adjudicate.
reference coil. The section of a coil assembly that ex-
cites and/or detects the electromagnetic field in the
reference standard in a comparative system.
reference standard. A specimen used as a basis for com-
parison or calibration.
refiner. The section of a glass-melting tank in which the
molten glass becomes virtually free of bubbles and
undissolved gases, and conditioning for subsequent
processing is completed.
refining. The process in which bubbles and undissolved
gases and solids are removed from molten glass.
refining temperature. The temperature just above the
melting temperature of glass at which the molten batch
is sufficiently fluid to permit the escape of gaseous
inclusions or to dissolve them.
refire. A second heat treatment given to a porcelain-
enameled item without complete coverage of the item
with new frit; the partial coating usually is to make a
repair or is an added decoration.
REFLECTANCE
reflectance. The fraction of incident light that is re-
flected diffusely by a surface, measured relative to
magnesia under standardized conditions; employed as
an indication of the opacity or covering power of a
porcelain-enamel, glaze, or other coating, as well as the
degree of obscuration of a glass.
reflectance over black backing. Ro; reflectance of a
coating applied to a substrate, the ideal reflectance of
which is zero but in practice is less than 4%.
reflectivity, porcelain-enamel. See porcelain-enamel
reflectivity.
reflectometer. A photoelectric device measuring the re-
flectance of visible light from a surface.
refraction. A change in the direction of a propagated
light wave, as when it passes from one medium to
another of different density, and is bent from its original
path.
refractive index. n; the ratio of the velocity of light in a
vacuum to the velocity of light in the substance. A
complex quantity with real and imaginary components
connected by the Kramers-Kronig relationship. It is
usually only the real component that is referred to as the
refractive index.
refractories. Inorganic, nonmetallic materials which
have high melting points, > 1200°C, and will withstand
high temperatures. Such materials frequently are hard,
resistant to abrasion, corrosion, and rapid thermal fluc-
tuations; examples are alumina, sillimanite, silicon car-
bide, and titanium boride.
refractories, acid. See acid refractories.
refractories, air-setting. See air-setting refractories.
refractories, aluminum silicate. See aluminum silicate
refractories.
refractories, basic. See basic refractory.
refractories, calcined. See calcined refractory dolo-
mite.
refractories, casting. See casting refractories.
refractories, electrocast. See electrocast refractories.
refractories, fused-grain. See fused-grain refractories.
refractories, fusion-cast. See fusion-cast refractories.
refractories, high-alumina. See high-alumina refracto-
ries.
refractories, insulating. See insulating refractory.
refractories, mullite. See mullite refractories.
refractories, neutral. See neutral refractories.
refractories, permeability of. See permeability of re-
fractories.
refractories, rebonded fused-grain. See rebonded
fused-grain refractories.
264
refractories, silicon carbide. See silicon carbide refrac-
tories.
refractories, slagging of. See slagging of refractories.
refractories, spalling of. See spalling of refractories.
refractories, structural spalling of. See structural
spalling of refractories.
refractories, thermal spalling of. See thermal spalling.
refractories, unburned. See unburned refractory.
refractoriness. The ability of a material to withstand
high temperatures, the environment, and conditions of
use without change in its physical or chemical identity.
refractoriness, underload. See underload refractori-
ness.
refractory. The property of being resistant to high tem-
peratures, usually in excess of 1200°C, while maintain-
ing good mechanical behavior at such temperatures.
refractory, aluminum silicate. See aluminum silicate
refractories.
refractory, anthracite-coal-based carbon. See anthra-
cite-coal-based refractory.
refractory brick. Brick containing high percentages of
mullite, sillimanite, etc., which in service is subjected
to temperatures in excess of lOOO°C.
refractory, carbon. See carbon refractory.
refractory, carbon-ceramic. See carbon-ceramic re-
fractory.
refractory, castable. See castable refractory.
refractory casting. The process in which materials are
cast at high temperatures into fireclay or other refrac-
tory molds.
refractory cement. Any of a variety of mixtures of
finely ground refractory materials which, when tem-
pered with water, become plastic and trowelable; used
as a mortar for the laying and bonding of refractory
brick, and filling of cracks.
refractory, chrome. See chrome refractory.
refractory, chrome-magnesite. See chrome-magne-
site brick.
refractory chrome ore. An ore, often used without pu-
rifying, for refractory brick manufacture, consisting
essentially of chrome spinel.
refractory clay. A clay with a melting point in excess of
l600°C used to make refractory products, such as fire-
brick, furnace linings, reactors, kilns, etc.
refractory coating. A coating containing refractory in-
gredients used to protect metals, brickwork, and other
structures subjected to high temperatures.
 265
refractory composite coating. A combination of heat-
resistant ceramic materials which mayor may not re-
quire heat treatment prior to application to metal or
other ceramic substrates.
refractory concrete. A heat-resistant concrete made of
a mixture of high-alumina or calcium aluminate cement
and a refractory aggregate.
refractory corrosion. The deterioration of refractory
surfaces when in service by chemical reaction with
gases, slags, and reactive solids.
refractory dolomite, raw. See raw refractory dolomite.
refractory enamel. A porcelain-enamel of special com-
position used to protect metals from attack by hot,
corrosive gases.
refractory erosion. Wear of refractory surfaces brought
about by fast-moving gases or by the washing action of
hot, moving melts.
refractory fibers. Inorganic fibers able to be used above
540°C.
refractory, fused-grain. See fused-grain refractories.
refractory, fused-silica. See fused-silica refractory.
refractory, fusion-cast. See fusion-cast refractory.
refractory, graphite. See graphite refractory.
refractory, heat-setting. See heat-setting refractory.
refractory, hydraulic-cement. See hydraulic refractory
cement.
refractory magnesia. Dead-burned, crystalline magne-
sium oxide, MgO, having a high resistance to heat and
corrosion; used to line furnaces and melting tanks,
either in the form of brick or cement.
refractory, magnesite. See magnesite refractory.
refractory, metal-cased. See metalkase brick.
refractory, metallurgical coke-base. See metallurgical
coal-base refractory.
refractory, molten cast. See molten cast refractory.
refractory, monolithic. See monolithic lining.
refractory mortar. A mixture of finely ground refrac-
tory materials tempered with water to produce a plastic
trowelable mortar for laying and bonding refractory
brick and shapes.
refractory, mullite. See mullite refractories.
refractory nozzle. A refractory shape containing an ori-
fice through which molten metal is poured from a ladle
or other container.
refractory patching cement. A finely ground mixture
of refractory ingredients which become plastic and
trowelable when tempered with water; used to repair
REGISTRATION MARK
damaged areas in furnaces, kilns, glass tanks, refractory
molds, etc.
refractory, petroleum-coke-carbon. See petroleum-
coke-carbon refractory.
refractory, pitch-bonded basic. See pitch-bonded ba-
sic brick.
refractory, plastic. See plastic fireclay
refractory, pouring-pit. See pouring-pit refractory.
refractory, rebonded fused-grain. See rebonded fused-
grain refractories.
refractory, semi-silica. See semi-silica fireclay brick.
refractory, sillimanite. See sillimanite.
refractory, single-screened. See single-screened ground
refractory material.
refractory, tar-bearing basic. See tar-bearing basic re-
fractory.
refractory, unburned. See unburned refractory.
refractory, zircon. See zircon refractory.
refractory, zirconia. See zirconia refractories.
Refrasil. A commercially available silica fiber; sp. gr.
2.1.
regal gold. A wide area of bright gold over a matte
design producing a two-tone effect of dull and bright
gold.
regelation. A phenomenon peculiar to materials which
contract on melting, such as silicon and ice, which when
subjected to an external pressure at a temperature not
too far below the melting point, melt and refreeze or
regelate on removal of the pressure.
regeneration. The process of restoring the adsorptive or
other properties of a substance.
regenerative furnace. A furnace equipped with a cyclic
heat exchanger which alternately receives heat from
gaseous combustion products and transfers it to air or
gas before combustion.
regenerator. A heat exchanger which utilizes heat from
the combustion process to preheat fuels and air entering
the combustion chamber.
register. (I) A mark which tells of recording with the
patents office. (2) A method of printing a series of colors
in alignment with each other.
registration. Putting two or more colors on a ceramic
article in relation to each other.
registration mark. Marks on the surface of an item used
to help align two or more colors in a decorating opera-
tion.
REGISTRATION PIN
registration pin. A spring-loaded prong within a chuck
which locates the ramp so that ware stops at the regis-
tration position.
regular alumina. A recrystallized grade of alumina,
Al 20 3, containing more than 95% alumina; has a rela-
tively large crystal size.
regular tetrahedron. See tetrahedron.
regulating wheel. A wheel on a centerless grinder which
controls the speed and pressure of an item being ground.
regulator, pressure. See pressure regulator.
regur tins. A colloquial name for black clay deposits
with swelling characteristics found in northeast Nige-
ria.
reheat behavior. The change in the dimensions or vol-
ume of a substance when subjected to a temperature
equal or greater than the temperature to which the
substance was previously heated.
reheat test. A prescribed heat treatment of a fired refrac-
tory or other product to determine the change in dimen-
sions or volume which occur during reheating.
reinforce. To strengthen with the aid of some additional
material or support.
reinforced beam. A concrete beam supported in tension,
compression, or torsion by steel bars, wire, rods, or
other structural material, such as ceramic fibers, embed-
ded in the concrete.
reinforced brickwork. Brickwork strengthened by met-
al bars, rods, mesh, or other material embedded in the
bed joints or mortar joints.
reinforced center. A grinding wheel in which steel rings
have been incorporated near the center to provide addi-
tional strength.
reinforced column. A concrete column in which longi-
tudinal metal bars, sometimes with ties, circular ties, or
other materials, are incorporated as reinforcing agents.
reinforced concrete. Concrete containing reinforcing
steel rods, bars, wire mesh, or other strengthening ma-
terial.
reinforced masonry. Masonry construction in which
steel bars, mesh, or similar materials are used as
strengthening components.
reinforced pipe. Concrete pipe designed with metal or
fibrous reinforcement to make a composite structure of
increased strength.
reinforced plastic. A polymer composition in which fi-
bers are embedded. The fibers can have a variety of
forms but must have strengths greater than the plastic
matrix.
reinforced product. A composite product containing
mechanical reinforcements to give added strength.
266
reinforced reaction injection molding. RRIM; A fab-
rication method where the two components of a conden-
sation polymerization process are simultaneously
mixed with chopped-strand reinforcing fibers and injec-
tion molded.
reinforced wheel. A grinding wheel containing me-
chanical reinforcement to give extra strength and safety
during use.
reinforcement, circumferential. See circumferential
reinforcement.
reinforcement layer. (I) Circumferential reinforcement
in a concrete pipe which is one bar or one layer thick.
(2) In a laminate stmcture it is that layer which is not
the matrix material, usually ceramic fiber or metal wire,
used to impart strength to the structure.
reinforcement, line. See line of reinforcement.
reinforcement, mat. See mat reinforcement.
reinforcing bars. Steel bars put into concrete and other
building materials to increase strength.
rejected material. A material or product which fails to
meet specifications.
rejection level. The composition or property level above
or below which a specimen or product is considered
rejectable or to be distinguished or sorted from accept-
able products. A test level of specified minimum and
maximum values.
relative detector efficiency. The product of the detector
efficiency and the detector geometry.
relative efficiency. The ratio of the performance charac-
teristics or property of a product or material to that of a
standard reference in a defined test.
relative humidity. The ratio of the actual amount of
water in the air to the maximum amount possible at the
same temperature and pressure.
relative permeability. Ilr; the ratio of magnetic perme-
ability in the medium to that in a vacuum, Ilo.
relative permittivity. Also called dielectric constant of
a capacitor; defined as the ratio of its capacitance with
a given dielectric between the plates to its capacitance
with a vacuum between the plates.
relative pore diameter. A structural feature of com-
pacts, it is the pore size divided by the mean particle
size; used to compare the effects of forming and heat
treatments.
relative standard deviation. The standard deviation of
a value expressed as a percentage of the mean value.
reliability. The probability that a material or product will
satisfactorily perform its intended functions under
specified conditions.
relict. A microstructure in a glass-ceramic where the
crystals faithfully inherit the original morphology of the
 267
parent phase-separated glass or the preceding metas-
table crystal.
relieving arch. A sprung arch above an opening in a
furnace wall; designed to support the wall, give it
strength, and reduce the strain on a second arch con-
structed below it.
remanence. The ability of a material to retain magneti-
zation or electrical polarization equal to the magnetic
or electrostatic flux density of the material after remov-
ing the magnetizing or electrostatic field.
remanent polarization. PR ; the magnitude of the polari-
zation which remains in a ferromagnetic material when
the applied field is reduced to zero.
remover, detergent. See detergent remover.
render. To cover the surface of brickwork or stone, etc.,
with a layer of plaster.
repeatability. The standard deviation obtained on the
same sample by the same operator using the same
equipment.
repellent, water. See water repellent.
replication process. A fiber manufacturing method
whereby a carbon fiber is impregnated with a precursor
ionic solution and the carbon is then burned out at
550°C before sintering to consolidate the new fiber so
formed.
representative sample. A sample collected so that every
component of a lot is truly represented.
repress. A machine used to press preformed blanks into
shape.
repressed brick. A brick formed by repressing blanks
cut from a column of clay from an extruding machine.
reprocessing. The recovery and separation of materials
for reuse.
reproducibility. The standard deviation of results ob-
tained by different operators using the same or different
instruments in different laboratories on the same sam-
ple, using the same analytical method.
reradiation. Radiation arising from previous absorption
of primary radiation.
reredos. (1) Fireback. (2) Wall decoration at the back of
an altar.
reseau. A network of fine lines cut into a glass plate and
used as a reference grid on a micrograph.
reservoir. A place where a liquid, especially water, is
stored for use when wanted.
residence time. The time taken for an emitter to reach its
working temperature after full rated voltage has been
applied.
residual clay. A clay which, geologically, remains at the
site of its formation.
RES~TANCE,APPARENTdcSURFACE
residual magnetic field. The field that remains in a
magnetized material after the magnetizing forces are
removed.
residual magnetism. The retention of a magnetic field
by ferromagnetic materials after magnetization.
residual strain. A permanent set in a sample due to the
presence of residual stress.
residual stress. (I) The internal stress still present in a
glass after annealing; complete removal by annealing
would take an unacceptable time. (2) Stress that remains
in a body as a result of plastic deformation.
residue. Matter remaining after something has been re-
moved.
resilience. The degree to which a body can rapidly re-
sume its original shape after a deforming stress has been
removed.
resin. Any of a class of natural or synthetic materials of
an organic composition which have a high molecular
weight, are solid, and have no well-defined melting
point.
resinoid bond. The bonding forces produced by thermo-
setting resins when joining solids together.
resinoid wheel. A grinding wheel in which the abrasive
grains are bonded together by a thermosetting resin.
resinous luster. A surface appearance like a brownish,
brittle-fracture plane.
resin, polyester. See polyester resin.
resin streak. A surface imperfection on a composite
laminate caused by local pockets of excess resin.
resin transfer molding. RTM; a pressure injection sys-
tem using polyester matrix material and ceramic rein-
forcing fibers.
resist. A patterned protective film, layer, or covering,
such as wax, paper, metal foil, or plastic, which is laid
over an area of surface to shield it from subsequent
application of colors, glazes, etching compounds, sand-
blast, etc.
resistance. Measured in ohms, it is the physical property
of a circuit element that accounts for permanent energy
loss. It is the ratio of the potential difference across a
conductor to the current flowing through it. For an ac
system it is the real part of the electrical impedance.
resistance, abrasion. See abrasion resistance.
resistance, acid. See acid resistance.
resistance, alkali. See alkali resistance.
resistance, apparent dc. See apparent dc resistance.
resistance, apparent dc surface. See apparent dc sur-
face resistance.
RESffiTANCE,APPARENT dc VOLUME
resistance, apparent dc volume. See apparent dc vol-
ume resistance.
resistance, chemical. See chemical resistance.
resistance, crazing. See crazing resistance.
resistance, dc insulation See dc insulation resistance.
resistance, electrical-erosion. See electrical-erosion re-
sistance.
resistance element. A material which resists or opposes
the flow of electricity, usually with the production of
heat.
resistance furnace. An electric furnace where heat is
produced by passing a current through a resistor sur-
rounding the furnace chamber, through a resistor em-
bedded in the charge, through the charge itself, or a
combination of these procedures.
resistance heating. The generation of heat by passing an
electric current through a resistor.
resistance, impact. See impact resistance.
resistance material. Any material showing a high resis-
tance to the passage of electric current per unit volume
and which may be used as a resistor.
resistance, surface. See surface resistance.
resistance, thermal shock. See thermal shock resis-
tance.
resistance thermometer. A thermometer in which the
temperature is calculated from the resistance of a coil
of wire or of a ceramic semiconductor placed where the
temperature is measured.
resistance welding. Parts to be joined are held toether
and the join-area heated by passing a current through
the resistor represented by the contact area of the two
surfaces.
resistazone counter. Monitoring devices where changes
in electrical resistance in a given volume are measured
as particles passing through a chamber change the re-
sistance.
resistivity. p; the resistance of unit len~ of a material
having a uniform cross section of 1m. It is the recip-
rocal of conductivity; units are ohm meters. When
multiplied by the density it is known as the mass resis-
tivity.
resistor. A device exhibiting resistance to the flow of
electric current through its structure or body and which
is used in an electric circuit for protection, operation, or
current control.
resistor color code. A series of colored bands put onto a
resistor to show its resistance value. From the left-hand
side the first two rings indicate the first and second
significant figure, the third gives the multiplier, and the
fourth gives the tolerance. The color values are tabu-
lated in the appendix to this dictionary.
268
resistor dryer. A dryer in which the heat need is gener-
ated by passing an electric current through a resistor.
resistor furnace. See resistance furnace.
resistor, glass. See glass resistor.
resistor, metal oxide. See metal oxide resistor.
resist, paper. See paper resist.
resist, wax. See wax resist.
resnatron. A tetrode used in high-frequency, high-
power generation.
resolution. (l) The ability of a microscope system to
reveal adjacent points without overlap causing distor-
tion. (2) In a spectrometer it is the smallest change in
wavelength detectable.
resolved shear stress. In a body under applied stress this
is the applied tensile load, P, multiplied by the orienta-
tion factor, cos$ cosA., where C\l is the angle between the
normal to a given crystallographic plane and the tensile
axis, and A. is the angle between the slip direction and
the tensile axis, divided by the area of cross section, A.
Hence: cr = (PIA)cos$ COSA.. When the critical resolved
shear stress on a plane is exceeded, crystallographic slip
occurs.
resolving power. See resolution.
resonance. (l) Concerning electric circuits, it is the state
when the frequency is such that the capacitive reactance
is just balanced by the inductive reactance so that large
alternating currents result. (2) The condition of a system
in which there is a maximum probability for the absorp-
tion of electromagnetic radiation. (3) The existence of
two or more hypothetical molecular structures with the
actual structure being the average of the hypothetical
ones.
resonant cavity. A space containing standing waves;
used as an applicator of microwave energy.
resonator, quartz-crystal. See quartz-crystal resonator.
resorption. Removal of a solid phase during cooling as
a result of eqUilibrium changes.
respirable, respirability. Fibers that enter the lungs
with respired air are termed respirable; respirability is
determined by the density and cross-sectional area, with
length being of minor importance.
response time. The time taken for an emitter to reach its
working temperature after full rated voltage has been
applied.
RESS. Acronym for rapid expansion of supercritical so-
lutions; a way of producing amorphous, ultrafine pow-
ders. The hot solution is heated to the supercritical
condition by adjusting pressure and temperature, after
which it is rapidly expanded through a nozzle to a
low-pressure and -temperature chamber where the dis-
solved solid precipitates very rapidly as an ultrafine,
narrow-size-distribution, powder.
 269
rest. A platform attached to a grinding wheel stand upon
which work, or a dressing tool, is supported during a
grinding operation.
rest mass. The mass of an object with zero velocity
relative to an observer. It is the mass used in Newtonian
mechanics.
resteel. Any form of steel used to reinforce concrete in a
construction.
resultant. The total effect of two or more forces on a
body.
resultant magnetic field. The magnetic field resulting
when two magnetizing forces are imposed on the same
area of magnetizable material.
retainer plate. A plate used to reinforce the cavity block
of an injection molder against the injection pressure; it
is often hollow which enables it to be heated or cooled.
retarder. A substance added to cement, mortar, plaster,
or stucco to slow the setting rate, but which will have
little or no effect on the properties of the product after
the initial set.
retention aid. A chemical, such as polyethylene imine,
added to improve drainage yet maximize retained solids
in the ceramic-paper making process.
retentivity. (I) The residual flux density corresponding
to the saturation induction of a magnetic material. (2)
The ability of a material to resist desorption of an
adsorbate.
retentivity, water. See water retentivity.
reticle eyepiece. A microscope eyepiece having on its
focal plane a scale for measurement.
reticulate. A netlike appearance or covered with a net-
work of openings.
reticulated foam. A continuous structure of fibers giv-
ing a reticulate framework of high strength, the large
openings of which can be filled with ceramic, polymer,
or metal; used in heat exchangers, aircraft structures,
and energy absorbers.
reticulated glass. Ornamental glassware containing an
interlaced network of decorative lines.
reticulation. Decoration deepening toward its center,
usually resulting from surface contamination by oily or
fatty deposits.
retort. A closed refractory chamber in which materials
are decomposed by heat.
retort carbon. A dense form of carbon or graphite
formed in the upper sections of a retort used in coal-gas
manufacture; used in glazes or other ceramics to bring
about localized reduction during firing and in producing
reducing atmospheres at high temperatures.
retort clay. A plastic, dense-burning, semi-refractory
clay used in the manufacture of gas and zinc retorts.
RHYOLITE
retort, vertical. See vertical retort.
retouch enamel. A fine overspray or brushed-on coating
of porcelain-enamel applied to cover or protect areas of
potential imperfection.
return. The actual number of cubic feet of concrete in a
one-cubic-yard batch based on tests made on the fresh
concrete.
reverberatory furnace. A furnace or kiln in which fuel
is burned at one end with the flame passing between the
charge and the furnace roof, the heat being radiated
from the roof onto the charge.
reverse. To reverse the direction of gas and air flow in a
regenerative furnace.
reversible adsorption. Adsorption in which the desorp-
tion isotherm approximates the adsorption isotherm
with little or no hysteresis.
revivification. An oxidation process to restore the ad-
sorptive properties of activated carbon.
revolving pot. The rotating circular container from
which glass is gathered in the Owens process.
revolving tube. A hollow cylinder, concentric with the
needle of a feeder, revolving in a molten glass batch,
the feeder delivering gobs of glass to a forming unit.
Reynolds number. NRe ; a number characterizing a fluid
system that defines the type of fluid flow occurring
within a vessel containing the fluid. For a tank with an
axial flow impeller, NRe = 0.2778 Nd 2 p/Tl, where N is
the impeller speed in rps, d is the impeller diameter in
m, p is the fluid density in kg m-3, and Tl is the dynamic
viscosity in N m-2 s.
R-glass. A type of glass used to make high strength fiber
for glass-reinforced composites.
RH. Abbreviation for relative humidity.
rhe. An old measure of fluidity, the reciprocal of poise.
rheogram. A plot of shear stress against shear rate of a
slip used to characterize the flow states of slips and
powders; the slope of this linear plot gives the plastic
viscosity.
rheology. The science of flow systems.
rheopexic. Suspensions which go to higher viscosity
when agitated.
rheostat. A resistor employed to regulate an electric
current by means of variable resistances, thereby con-
trolling the temperature of furnaces, etc.
rhodochrosite. MnC0 3 ; a pink, mineral form of hexago-
nal manganese carbonate.
rhodolite. A pale violet variety of garnet.
rhodonite. MnSi03 ; a pink-colored pyroxene mineral.
rhyolite. An acid lava.
Rm
rib. A tool made from hard wood, metal, stone, plastic,
or other smooth solid used to smooth the outer surface
of a pot or similar item while the item is being thrown.
ribbed rolls. A roll-type crusher in which the crushing
surface of the rolls are ribbed parallel with their axis.
ribbon. A continuous strip of glass in the plastic state
during processing.
ribbon feed. A batch procedure in concrete making in
which all ingredients are fed simultaneously into the
mixer.
ribbon machine. A double caterpillar track machine,
one above the other, where the top track carries blow
heads and the bottom one blow molds. Pockets of glass
hanging down from a continuous glass ribbon passing
between the two caterpillar tracks are blown into thin-
walled articles, such as lamp bulbs.
ribbon process. The process of delivering molten glass
to the forming operation in ribbon form.
rib mark. A wavelike front seen on the mirrorlike sur-
face of fractured glass. It shows where the propagating
crack front took a slight change of direction; such marks
are characteristic of relatively slow-moving cracks.
rice hull. A silicon-rich husk covering the rice seed and
normally considered to be a waste product which has
~ecently found ceramic use: first, when heated in the air
it yields a silica-rich cementitious material; second,
when heated in a vacuum or in nitrogen it yields silicon
carbide, SiC, whiskers.
rich clay. Plastic clay characterized by good workability
and green strength.
rich concrete. Concrete with a high cement content.
rich mixture. A fueUair mixture in which the fuel com-
ponent is high.
riddle. A screen or sieve used to remove foreign sub-
stances from granular materials.
rider arch. An arch or series of arches supporting the
checkerwork in the regenerator of a furnace.
ridge. A long narrow protrusion on a surface.
ridge roll. A half-round section of asbestos cement ap-
plied along the hips and ridge of a roof to conceal and
waterproof the apex joint of the roofing material.
rigid brick paving. A walk or roadway characterized by
having mortar joints between the brick pavers which are
laid on a bed of mortar itself on top of a concrete base.
rigidity. The property of being resistant to change in
shape.
rigidity modulus. The measure of the resistance of a
body or material to shear under stress.
rim. (I) Protrusion bordering a hole, pit, or pock at the
surface of a body. (2) The outer edge of a shape.
270
RIM. Abbreviation for reaction injection molding.
ring. (I) The part of a mold that forms the outer edge of
a pressed article. (2) A floating refractory ring on the
surface of molten glass which prevents scum from
collecting within the ring area from which the glass is
gathered.
ring crusher. A type of hammer mill consisting of steel
rings held outwardly by the centrifugal force of a hori-
zontal shaft rotating at high speed, the feed material
being crushed between the rings and the outer shell of
the mill.
ringhole. An opening or hole in a glass-melting tank
through which glass is gathered.
ring mold. The metal section of a glass mold that shapes
and finishes the neck of a bottle or other hollow glass
article.
ring, orifice. See orifice ring.
ring, pall. See pall ring.
ring, pot. See pot ring.
ring, safety. See safety ring.
ring section. A narrow peripheral section cut from a
glass article for inspection.
ring silicates. Silicate structures containing complex
anions with a ring structure; (Si04)4- tetrahedra share
two oxygens with adjacent tetrahedra to form the ring
units: [(Si03hl6- or [(Si03)61 12- which are close packed
with charge-balancing cations into the crystal structure.
ring test. (I) A test to evaluate the expansion or contrac-
tion properties of a glaze or porcelain-enamel in which
ceramic or metal rings, respectively, are coated on the
outside and fired; the rings are then cut open, and the
distance between previously scored reference marks
serve as the basis for evaluating the expansion or con-
traction properties of the coating. (2) A test to determine
the presence of cracks in a grinding wheel by tapping
the wheel while it is freely suspended in the arbor hold
or freestanding to the periphery.
ring wall. The refractory wall of the unit delivering hot
air to the tuyeres of a blast furnace.
rinse. A liquid bath to remove foreign matter or solutions
from the surface of an article or substance.
rinse dip. A procedure to remove foreign matter or solu-
tions from the surface of an item by immersion in a tank
of water or other cleaning solution which is sometimes
agitated.
ripple. A surface imperfection characterized by uniform
waviness over a substantial area of a porcelain-enam-
eled surface.
rise. The vertical distance between a plane connecting
the spring lines and the highest point on the undersur-
face of an arch.
 271
riser. The projection on a casting resulting from an ex-
cess of melt supplied to make certain that a mold is
completely filled during pouring.
riser, manhole. See manhole riser.
ROC. Acronym for rapid omnidirectional compaction; a
process also known as isostatic forging which involves
surrounding a ceramic form, about 66% dense, with
glass cullet, preheating, and subjecting to high pressure,
about 850 MN m-2, and then separating the glass. Full
densification is achieved in about 10 s.
rocaille. Decorative rock- or shellwork on ceramic ware
or on masonry.
Rochelle salt. KNaC 4H4 0 6 AH 20; a white naturally oc-
curring double salt with ferroelectric properties; used in
ceramic capacitors.
rock. Any aggregate of minerals that make up part of the
earth's crust. Can be consolidated, such as granite,
limestone, etc., or unconsolidated, such as sand, clay,
etc.
rock crystal. (1) A transparent, colorless form of quartz
used for lenses and prism components in optical instru-
ments. (2) Highly polished, hand-cut or engraved,
blown glassware.
rocker. A glass bottle or other item with a deformed
bottom which will rock when placed on a flat surface.
rocking furnace. A horizontal melting furnace designed
to rock back and forth as a means of producing uniform
melts.
Rockingham ware. An ornate earthenware or semi-vit-
reous ware coated with a brown or mottled manganese
glaze.
rock ladder. A series of inclined steps in a vertical ar-
rangement designed to break the vertical fall and to
minimize breakage of concrete aggregate as it is dis-
charged from a conveyor or chute.
rocklath. A sheet of gypsum board used as a plaster base
in construction.
rock pocket. A void in concrete due to incomplete con-
solidation of the mass.
Rockwell hardness. A measure of the hardness of a ma-
terial based on its resistance to indentation by a steel
ball or conical diamond, of various dimensions, with a
rounded point, under prescribed static or dynamic load;
reported as the depth of impression increase as the load
is increased from a fixed minor load to a major load and
then returned to the minor load.
rock wool. A mass of fine intertwined fibers formed by
blowing air or steam through molten rock or slag; used
for thermal and acoustic insulation, fireproofing, filters,
and similar applications.
rod crusher. See rod mill.
ROOF, BONDED
rod mill. A pulverizing apparatus consisting of heavy
metal rods impacting on a charge in a rotating metal
cylinder. The rods lie parallel to the cylinder axis.
rod proof. A sample of molten glass removed for inspec-
tion from a bath by means of a metal rod.
roentgen. R; the quantity of x- or y-rays which will
produce by ionization one electrostatic unit of electric-
ity in 1 cm 3 of dry air at O°C and 1 standard atmosphere.
In SI units it is 2.58 x 104 coulomb kg-I.
roll back. A form of crawling of porcelain-enamels
where the fired coating pulls away or rolls up at the
edges of the base metal or over areas of dirt or grease.
roll, corner. See comer rolls.
roll crusher. A pulverizer consisting of two horizontal
rolls rotating toward each other about their axes.
rolled glass. (1) Flat glass made by passing a roller over
the glass in a molten or plastic state; sometimes a design
may be worked into the glass surface by a patterned
roller face. (2) Optical glass rolled into plates instead of
being cooled in the melting pot and then processed.
rolled inlay. A decorative process for pottery in which
colored clays are pressed into the surface of the pot or
the clay slab from which the pot is formed before firing.
roller. A cylinder of blown glass which is cut in the soft
state and then flattened to form window glass.
roller coating. The application or transfer of designs
from a pattern to the surface of ware by means of a
roller.
roller conveyor. A gravity-type conveyor consisting of
freely rotating, parallel, cylindrical rollers mounted in
a rigid steel frame.
roller-head machine. A shaping machine for pottery
flatware equipped with a revolving shaping tool having
the shape of the back of the article.
roller-hearth kiln. A tunnel-type kiln through which
ware is moved on parallel rollers.
roller rim decorating. Applying color to the rim of an
item by using a rubber roller.
roll, graining. See graining roll.
rolling. A synonym for crawling; a defect in glazes and
porcelain-enamels.
rolls, bonded. See ribbed rolls.
rolls, compound. See compound rolls.
rolls, conical. See conical roll.
rolls, kibbler. See kibbler rolls.
rolls, smooth. See smooth rolls.
Roman brick. Brick of dimensions 5 x 10 x 30.5 cm.
roof, bonded. See bonded roof.
ROOF, BOXCAR
roof, boxcar. See boxcar roof.
roofing granules. Approximately 8-mesh particles of
crushed slag, slate, rock, tile, porcelain, or similar sub-
stances used in the production of asphalt roofing and
shingles.
roofing tile. Any of several designs of concrete or fired-
clay shapes with edges that overlap or interlock used for
roofing.
roof, Kruetzer. See Kruetzer roof.
roof, shell. See shell roof.
roof, sprung. See sprung arch.
roof, zebra. See zebra roof.
room, dryer. See dryer room.
room temperature. Any temperature in the range 20 to
30°C.
Rootare-Prenzlow relationship. The equation used to
determine surface areas of ceramic compacts from the
mercury-pressure method by integrating the curve of
volume of mercury intruded versus pressure: S =
(Y4'Y cos9)fv pdV, where S is the surface area, 'Y is the
surface tension of mercury, e is the contact angle,
usually'" 140° for oxides, p is the applied pressure, and
V is the volume of mercury intruded.
ropes. Defects in wet-lay nonwoven fabric consisting of
assemblages of fiber, with unaligned ends, clearly more
agglomerated than the general dispersion; formed when
fibers encounter a vortex in the stirred suspension me-
dium of about the same dimensions as the fiber length.
roping. A slip-casting defect consisting of a ropelike
formation of clay body on the side of the ware.
rose-cut. The morphology of a precious mineral cut with
a hemispherical faceted crown and a flat base.
rose quartz. A rose-pink, often translucent variety of
quartz.
rose window. A circular window with oruamental trac-
ery radiating from the center.
rosin oil. A yellow, fluorescent distillate of certain resins
used in the manufacture of carbon black.
rotameter. A small float suspended in a vertical glass
tube with the height of the float being a measure of
liquid or gas flow.
rotary crusher. A pulverizer in which a cone, rotating at
high speed on a vertical shaft, forces solid materials
against a metal encasement or shell.
rotary dryer. An inclined, rotating cylinder in which
tumbling particles are dried by rising hot air.
rotary feeder. A machine in which rotating fins deliver
granules or powders to an operation at a predetermined
rate.
272
rotary kiln. An inclined rotating, refractory-lined elon-
gated cylinder, fired from the lower end, which is
charged at the upper end and discharged at the lower
end; used for melting, clinkering, or calcining materials.
rotary kiln block. A curved refractory shape, usually
with a 22.9-cm chord and a smaller inside chord, 15.2
or 22.9 cm wide and 10.2 cm thick; used as segments in
the lining of rotary or circular kilns.
rotary smelter. A batch-type, refractory-lined cylinder
with conical ends in which porcelain-enamels or glazes
to be fritted are melted; the raw batch is charged at the
burner end, the cylinder is rotated as melting progresses,
and the mass is discharged at the flue end by tilting the
furnace when melting is complete.
rotating beam test. A fatigue test where a polished rod
is loaded as a beam and rotated about its long axis.
rotor. The rotating part of an electrical or mechanical
device.
rottenstone. A soft, decomposed, siliceous limestone
used as a polishing material; similar to, but softer than,
pumice. Also known as tripole.
rouge. Finely divided, hydrated ferric oxide used as a
polishing material and as a colorant.
rouge flambe. A decorative pottery glaze containing
colloidal copper which produces a typical red color
when fired in a reducing atmosphere.
rouge pits. Imperfections consisting of traces of rouge
entrapped in incompletely polished glass surfaces. See
rouge.
rough and burred edges. Frayed or serrated edges of a
ceramic, metal, or composite shape after cutting, stamp-
ing, shearing, trimming, or after fracture.
rough blank. A preshape used before final forming or
drawing.
rough cast. A rough plaster finish such as is obtained by
throwing the plaster on a wall with a trowel.
rough-cast glass. A flat glass having one textured sur-
face made by using a roller with a patterned face.
roughened finish tile. Tile having a back surface which
has been roughened by wire cutting, wire brushing, or
other mechanical means before firing to obtain in-
creased bond with mortar, plaster, or other substances.
rough glass. Rolled glass sheets cut into workable sizes.
rough grinding. The grinding of glass, metal, ceramic,
or other surface without regard to the quality of the
finish.
roughing pump. Usually a mechanical vacuum pump
used for the initial evacuation of a system.
rough machining. Machining with no regard to finish;
usually a preliminary operation.
 273
roughness. (1) The difference between the peaks and
valleys of a surface. (2) The relative degree of coarse,
ragged, pointed, or bristlelike projections on a surface.
roughness height rating. RHR; a measure of surface
finish expressed as the arithmetical average from a true
flat surface.
rough turning. The rapid and efficient removal of ex-
cess stock from a workpiece by a grinding or milling
machine without regard to the quality of the finished
surface.
rounded sand. Fully water-worn sand in which no
grains have sharp edges. River sand is a common exam-
ple.
round kiln. A kiln constructed in the form of a circle
with a series of fireboxes stationed around the periphery
of the structure. See circular kiln.
round table. A table upon which plate glass is laid for
grinding and polishing.
router. Various tools or machines for hollowing out a
solid.
routine. (1) Usual method or procedure. (2) In comput-
ing' a program or part of a program performing a
specific function.
rove. The product formed when several strands of ce-
ramic fiber are wound together in parallel with no twists
being inserted.
rove, taped. See taped rove.
roving catenary. The difference in length of ends, tows,
or strands in a length of roving.
row and column braider. A 3-D braiding method capa-
ble of manufacturing very complex shapes from fiber
reinforcement.
rowlock arch. An arch constructed of wedge-shaped
brick arranged in concentric rings.
rowlock course. A course of brick laid on edge with the
longest dimensions perpendicular to the face of a wall.
royal blue. A rich, deep blue ceramic color composed of
cobalt oxide and flux.
Royal Worcester. Worcester china made after 1862.
RPECVD. Abbreviation for remote plasma-enhanced
chemical vapor deposition; a method for producing thin
films of diamond, Si 3N4 , GaAs, and other semiconduc-
tors, in which the plasma generation tube is physically
separated from the deposition zone. Reactant gases are
introduced downstream of the plasma region with back
diffusion restricted by the main gas flow.
rpm. Abbreviation for revolutions per minute.
rps. Abbreviation for revolutions per second.
RRIM. Abbreviation for reinforced reaction injection
molding.
RUGOSE
RTA. Abbreviation for rapid thermal processing
whereby chips and semiconductor devices are heated
and cooled very quickly to limit dopant diffusion; laser
and plasma heating are usually employed.
RTP. Abbreviation for rapid thermal beam processing;
methods developed to reduce the thermal input to inte-
grated circuits of micron and submicron dimensions in
order to minimize diffusion and interfacial reactions by
using area-focused electron, ion, and laser beams.
rub. Closely arranged scratches produced simultane-
ously on a glass surface as a decorative treatment.
rubbed surface. A formed concrete surface rubbed with
carborundum stone, or with burlap and mortar, to obtain
an improved appearance.
rubber bond. A bonding material based principally on
natural or synthetic rubber.
rubber gasket. A rubber seal used in the joints of con-
crete pipe.
rubber set. The premature setting of cement in concrete
due to the presence of unstable gypsum.
rubber wheel. A grinding wheel bonded with rubber.
rubbing brick. A block abrasive used for rubbing down
castings, scouring chilled iron rolls, polishing marble,
etc.
rubbing stone. A fine-grained abrasive shape used to
remove imperfections from porcelain-enameled and
glazed surface by rubbing.
rubellite. A transparent red variety of the mineral tour-
maline.
rubidium carbonate. Rb 2C0 3 ; mp 837°C; used in spe-
cial glass formulations.
rubiginous. Rust-colored.
rub stone. A stone used for smoothing surfaces or sharp-
ening metal.
ruby alumina. Corundum, A1 20 3 , containing a few per-
cent of Cr3+ in place of A1 3+ where, in the distorted
octahedral environment, the chromium ions produce a
red color and bestow lasing ability; used as an abrasive
and as a laser.
ruby glass. A glass of deep red color produced by addi-
tions of selenium, cadmium sulfide, copper oxide, or
gold chloride; the color comes from colloidal metal
particles.
ruby, selenium. See selenium ruby.
ruby silver. See proustite.
ruby spinel. A red transparent form of spinel.
rudaceous. Composed of coarse-grained material.
ruddle or raddle. A name given to red ocher.
rugose. Wrinkled or wavy in form.
RULE OF MIXTURES
rule of mixtures. A statement of the linear volume frac-
tion relationship between a composite and its constitu-
ent parts for properties such as modulus and strength.
rule of thumb. A nonquantitative practical approach
based on experience rather than scientific theory.
Rumpf equation. An expression of the relationship be-
tween the strength of a green body and the volume fraction
of the powder, $: (J = 1.1 <l>AI( I - <1» l2rt2, where (J is the
green body strength, r is the mean particle radius, I is the
mean distance between particle centers, and A is a con-
stant on the order of 10-19 N m.
runner. Large blocks of chert used in the bottom of pan
mills. See chert.
runner bar. An iron casting attached to a circular grind-
ing head or runner for the abrasive grinding of plate
glass.
runner brick. A perforated refractory brick through
which molten steel is passed during the bottom pouring
of ingots. See bottom teeming.
runner cut. An imperfection in plate glass resulting
from the rupture of the surface by the runner bar. See
runner bar.
running. A situation where color runs down the side of
ware in droplet form during firing.
running batch. A glass batch formulated to produce a
desired composition when used with its own cullet.
274
running bond. A masonry bond invol ving the placement
of each brick as a stretcher and overlapping the bricks
in adjoining courses.
rupture. The breaking, or other complete failure, mode
under load.
rupture, effective modulus of. See effective modulus
of rupture.
rupture modulus. The transverse strength of a material
based on the length of the specimen between supports
and the cross-sectional dimensions of the specimen. See
modulus of rupture.
rustication strip. A strip of wood or other material at-
tached in a form to produce a groove in concrete at a
construction or panel joint.
rutile. Ti0 2 ; tetragonal mineral; mp 1640°C; sp. gr. 4.3;
hardness (Mohs) 6-6.5; used as an opacifying agent and
white colorant in porcelain-enamels and glazes, and as
a component in titanate dielectrics; excellent whiteness;
used in paint formulations.
R-value. A calculation of the partial light-dispersive ra-
tio of glass based on indices of refraction, determined
by the equation R =(nd - nc)/(nF - nc)' in which R is the
light dispersive ratio, nd is the index of refraction for
the sodium line at 589.3 nm, and nF and nc are the
indices for hydrogen lines at 486.1 and 656.3 nm, re-
spectively.
ryolex. A volcanic mineral consisting of Si0 2 and Al 20 3
used as lightweight insulation.
 s
S. Symbol for: (1) entropy, (2) siemens.
s. Abbreviation for second.
sable detail brush. A ware decorating brush with very
short, highly pointed hairs; used for feature and fine
detail application.
sabulous, sabulose. Gritty; of sandlike texture.
saddle. An item of wedge-shaped kiln furniture em-
ployed as a prop between plates packed on edge in a
kiln.
saddle arch. One of a series of arches which supports the
checkerwork in a regenerator.
saddle clay. A clay of fine particle size and high flux
content which fuses at a low temperature; used as a
stoneware and electrical porcelain glaze when it is
known as Albany slip.
saddle, serrated. See serrated saddle.
safety door. A door designed to contain catastrophic
conditions to a restricted area in the event of an emer-
gency, such as fire or an explosion.
safety flange. A type of flange with tapered sides de-
signed to hold parts of a wheel intact in the event of its
breakage during use.
safety glass. (I) A glass constructed of sheets laminated
with plastic films to prevent shattering in the event of
breakage. (2) A glass containing a network of wire to
improve its resistance to breakage and shattering. (3) A
glass which has been tempered by heat treatment so that
it will break into small fragments or grains which do not
scatter when broken and are less liable to cause injury
than ordinary glass.
safety glass, tempered. See safety glass (3).
safety requirements. The regulations required to pro-
tect persons against injury by failure, breakage, or other
accidents of a hazardous nature.
275
safety ring. A metallic ring embedded in organic-
bonded abrasive wheels to contain pieces if breakage
should occur on the grinder.
safety valve. A pressure-activated device designed to
permit the escape of steam or gases from boilers or other
equipment, and from hydraulic systems, when the inter-
nal pressures exceed safety working limits.
Safil. A commercially available alumino silicate fiber;
sp. gr. 3.3; high strength, 2.0 GN m-2 , and high Young's
modulus, 310 GN m-2 .
sag. See sagging.
sagger. A fired refractory container, usually of boxlike
shape, in which ceramic ware may be bisque or glost
fired to protect the ware from furnace gases, dirt, un-
even heating, thermal shock, and physical damage.
sagger clay. A fairly uniform open-firing refractory clay
which, when employed in saggers, will withstand con-
ditions of repeated heating and cooling.
sagger maker's bottom knocker. The operator who
beats out clay-grog mixes to form the bottoms of sag-
gers.
sagger, nibbed. See nibbed sagger.
sagging. (I) A defect consisting of a wavy line or lines
which flow or slide on the vertical surface of porcelain-
enameled ware during firing. (2) The process of forming
glass, usually flat, by reheating until it conforms to the
shape of the mold or form on which it rests. (3) A defect
characterized by the irreversible downward bending of
an article insufficiently supported during the firing op-
eration.
sagging, spray. See spray sagging.
Saint Venant's principle. The statement that the differ-
ence between the stress caused by statistically equiva-
lent load systems is negligible at distances greater than
the largest dimension of the stressed area.
SAL AMMONIAC
sal ammoniac. NH4Cl; a sublimate found near volcanic
fumaroles and in guano deposits; fibrous or dendritic
crystals of white to brown color; brittle; sp. gr. 1.54;
hardness (Mohs) 2.
salicide. Acronym for self-aligned silicide process; a
metal film is deposited on top of polysilicon and then
heated by a laser or a plasma to induce a reaction to form
MSi 2, where M is Ti, W, or Co. Such disilicide connec-
tors or components have a lower electrical resistance
than silicon.
salmanazar. A ceramic or glass wine bottle of 9-liter
capacity.
salmon, salmon brick. A relatively soft, underfired
brick of salmon color used where strength is not a major
consideration. Also known as chuff or place brick.
sal soda. Na2C03·IOH20; mp 32.5-34.5°C; loses water
at these temperatures; sp. gr. 1.44; used as an oxidizing
agent and flux in glasses and porcelain-enamels and as
a neutralizer in the pickling of iron and steel for porce-
lain-enameling.
salt cake. Impure sodium sulfate, Na2S04; mp 888°C;
sp. gr. 2.67; used in glazes and glass as a source of
sodium and as an anti-scumming agent.
salt glaze. A lustrous glaze produced on ceramic sur-
faces toward the end of the firing cycle by throwing salt
into the firing box, the salt volatilizing, and the resultant
fumes then entering into a thermochemical reaction
with the silicates and other components of the ceramic.
salt-glazed tile. Facing tile having a lustrous glaze finish
resulting from the thermochemical reaction between the
silicates of the clay body and the vapors of salt or other
chemicals during firing. The salt is introduced into the
kiln near the end of firing.
saltpeter. KN0 3; mp 334°C; decomposes at 400°C; sp.
gr. 2.1; used in glass, glazes, and porcelain-enamels
because of its powerful fluxing and oxidizing proper-
ties.
salt-spray test. An accelerated test of the resistance of a
material or product to corrosion in which a specimen is
subjected to a spray of a sodium chloride solution under
prescribed conditions.
salts, soluble. See soluble salts.
salt water. Molten sulfates floating on the surface of
molten glass in the glass-melting unit.
salvage value. The net worth of a material recovered
from a process.
samarium oxide. (I) Sm203; mp 2300°C; sp. gr. 7.43;
used in luminescent glasses, and infrared-absorbing
glasses, as a phosphor activator, and as a neutron ab-
sorber in nuclear applications. (2) SmO; a cubic oxide
with samarium in a lower valency state.
samarium silicate. (I) Sm20Si04; mp 1940°C; sp. gr.
6.36. (2) Sm4(Si04h; an ionic orthosilicate; mp
276
1921°C; sp. gr. 5.77. (3) Sm2Si207; a pyroxene ionic
silicate; mp 1777°C; sp. gr. 5.20.
samarium sulfate. Sm2(S04h; used in red and infrared
phosphors.
samarium sulfide. A group of compounds exhibiting
thermoelectric properties. (I) SmS; mp 1940°C; sp. gr.
6.01. (2) Sm3S4; mp l799°C; sp. gr. 6.14. (3) Sm2S3;
mp 1782°C; sp. gr. 5.83. (4) SmS2; mp 1730°C; sp. gr.
5.66.
samarskite. A black mineral of uranium and some of the
rare earths of complex composition and with a velvety
luster.
samel. An underburned brick, usually fired near the outer
rim of a clamp kiln where the temperature is lower than
the interior of the kiln.
Samian ware. A reddish-brown but occasionaly black,
fine earthenware pottery. Found in large quantities on
Roman archaeological sites. Named after the island of
Samos where the earth was of the same color. Also
called Arretine ware.
sample. (I) A part taken to be representative of the whole
material. (2) The number of specimens drawn from a
batch.
sample, archive. See archive sample.
sample, composite lot. See composite lot sample.
sample, container. See container sample.
sample log. A recorded listing of samples preserved for
reference purposes.
sampler. A device with which to obtain small samples of
materials for analysis.
sample, representative. See representative sample.
sample, sampling. A number of representative speci-
mens or fractions drawn from a lot to determine their
nature, composition, properties, quality, or other attrib-
utes of concern.
sample splitter. A device employed to mix and subdi-
vide a sample of powdered or granular material for
analysis or other evaluation.
sample thief. A device of suitable design employed to
remove a sample from a batch or lot of a material for
subsequent evaluation or analysis.
sampling plan. A procedure that specifies the frequency
and number of samples taken from a lot and the criteria
for accepting or rejecting the lot.
sampling, systematic. See systematic sampling.
sand. Fragments of rock composed essentially of
rounded grains of quartz ranging from 0.05 to 2 mm in
grain size; employed in glass, glazes, porcelain-enam-
els, ceramic bodies, portland cement, building and con-
struction work, and as an abrasive, as a setting medium
 277
for the firing of ceramic ware, as a core in foundry
molds, and numerous other applications.
sand, bank. See bank sand.
sand, bedding course. See bedding course sand.
sandblast fireclay. See slag sand.
sandblast, Grave. See Grave sandblast.
sandblasting. The process of projecting sand in a stream
of air or steam at high velocity to engrave, cut, obscure,
or clean glass, metals, or other surfaces.
sandblast, peppered. See peppered sandblast.
sandblast, shaded. See shaded sandblast.
sand, blending. See blending sand.
sand control. The testing and evaluation of the proper-
ties of a sand mixture to be used in a foundry.
sand creased. A type of texture produced on the surface
offacing brick by sprinkling or rolling the brick in sand
before molding or by texturing the face of the brick
during molding.
sand cutting. Preparing a sand mixture for molding in
any way other than using a muller.
sand finish. Structural clay products having surface
faces covered with sand which is applied to the clay
column in the stiff-mud process or as a lubricant to the
molds in the soft-mud process.
sand, foundry. See foundry sand.
sand, furnace. See furnace sand.
sand, glass. See glass sand.
sand holes. Small fractures in the surface of glass pro-
duced during the rough grinding operation and which
were not removed during the subsequent fine-grinding
or polishing operation.
sanding. (I) A surface texture produced on brick during
manufacture. (2) A bedding material for brick, saggers,
earthenware, etc., in a kiln.
sand-lime brick. A brick made from a mixture of silica
sand and lime, and cured under the influence of high-
pressure steam.
sand, Lynn. See Lynn sand.
sand, molding. See molding sand.
sandpaper. An abrasive product in which the abrasive,
usually emery, is bonded to paper on one side; used for
sanding and polishing.
sand, placing. See placing sand.
sand reclamation. Thermal, hydraulic, or pneumatic
processing of used foundry sands to produce an alterna-
tive to new sand.
SATIN WEAVE
sand seal. A seal consisting of metal plates attached
along the sides and bottom of a kiln car, and immersed
in a trough of sand extending through the length of the
kiln and along the car rails, to prevent hot gases from
entering under the car.
sand, silica. See silica sand.
sand slab. A slab of concrete placed in the bottom of a
wet excavation to seal the bottom and facilitate sub-
sequent work.
sand, slag. See slag sand.
sandstone. A sedimentary rock consisting essentially of
quartz, sometimes in combination with feldspar, mica,
and other minerals, which have been united by pressure
or cemented by a clay, silica, iron oxide, calcium car-
bonate, or other material.
sand streak. A blemish on a formed concrete surface
caused by the loss of grout or mortar through cracks in
the form, or by failure of the concrete to consolidate.
sand-struck brick. A wet-clay brick, containing 20 to
30% moisture, formed in a mold in which the inside of
the mold is coated with sand to prevent the damp clay
from sticking to the mold.
sandwich kiln. A kiln in which heat is applied to ware
from both top and bottom simultaneously.
sang de boeuf. A red copper-bearing glaze fired under
reducing conditions.
sanidine. KAISi30 g; disordered potassium feldspar;
formed when microcline is heated above 900°C and
cooled quickly.
sanitary ware, sanitary plumbing fixtures. Glazed,
vitrified whiteware or porcelain-enameled fixtures hav-
ing sanitary service functions, such as sinks, lavatories,
bathtubs, etc.
sanitary ware, vitreous. See sanitary ware.
SANS. Acronym for small-angle neutron scattering; a
technique used to investigate amorphous structures.
sapphire. A blue form of corundum, A120 3 ; employed as
a bearing material fabricated to high precision, and as
an abrasive and polishing material. A gemstone of
extreme hardness.
sassolite. The mineralogical name for naturally occur-
ring boric acid, HB03, found in the volcanic fumaroles
of Tuscany.
satin finish. A very smooth surface finish with low or
dull reflective properties.
satin gold. An elegant and durable decoration made by
applying bright gold over satin-finish color or over a
very fine etch.
satin weave. A weave pattern commonly used to make
reinforcing cloths in forms more flexible than the plane
weave in order to make them conform more easily to
SATURATED AIR
complex shapes; one warp runs over several faces and
under one fill yarn.
saturated air. Air containing the maximum amount of
water vapor possible at a given temperature and baro-
metric pressure.
saturation. The point at which no more of a material can
be dissolved, absorbed, or retained by another material.
saturation coefficient. The ratio of the weight of water
absorbed by a masonry unit during immersion in cold
water to the weight absorbed in boiling water; used as
an indication of the resistance of brick to freezing and
thawing.
saturation current. In an electronic device it is that cur-
rent beyond which an increase in voltage does not lead
to an increase in current until breakdown is reached.
saturation, magnetic. See magnetic saturation.
saucer wheel. A shallow abrasive wheel of saucerlike
shape.
SAW. Acronym for surface acoustic wave. These are
generated on surfaces normal to the c-axis of single-
crystal lithium niobate.
SAW-delay line. A device based on the use of two pie-
zoelectric ceramics, such as zinc oxide, ZnO, in which
an electrical signal on one generates a surface acoustic
wave on the second piece of ceramic. The acoustic wave
is transmitted to a detector where it is reconverted into
current but, since the velocity of acoustic waves are lOS
times slower than the electromagnetic wave in a wire,
a delay between the two identical signals can be pro-
duced.
sawdust concrete. A concrete of relatively low strength
in which sawdust is incorporated as aggregate; used as
a lightweight nailing concrete in construction applica-
tions.
sawdust firing. The placement of sawdust in a closed pot
containing ware to produce a reducing atmosphere dur-
ing firing.
saw gummer. A straight or saucer-shaped abrasive
wheel; used to grind away punch marks formed between
the teeth of saws during manufacture and as a saw
sharpener.
sawing. Machining employing toothed blades.
sawtooth crusher. A machine in which material is
crushed during passage between sawtooth shafts rotat-
ing at different speeds.
s-basis. The minimum mechanical property allowed by
specification.
scab. (1) A defect in metal sheets and castings for porce-
lain-enameling consisting of a partially detached metal
fin joined to the metal surface. (2) A defect consisting
of an undissolved inclusion of sodium sulfate or other
similar material in glass.
278
scalding. The peeling or popping of unfused coatings
from the surfaces of ware during the early stages of
firing.
scale. (1) The oxide formed on the surface of metal
during heating, usually before or during porcelain-
enameling. (2) A small fragment of foreign material
embedded in the surface of molded glass articles. (3) A
weighing or measuring device.
scale, rlSh. See fish scale.
scale, shiner. See shiner.
scaling. (I) The process of forming scale on metals, with
or without acid fumes, as a means of cleaning and
preparing the surface for subsequent pickling and por-
celain-enameling. (2) The removal of rust and other
unwanted contaminants from the surfaces of metals. (3)
The peeling or flaking of concrete, usually pavements,
under the influence of deicing agents. (4) Deposition of
soluble salts onto surfaces of pipes and tanks, etc.,
during solution or slurry processing.
scaling, acid. See acid scaling.
scallop. A decorative motif consisting of a continuous
series of curves forming an edge or design on a product.
scalp. (1) To remove surface layers of undesired materi-
als from another bulk material. (2) To remove portions
of fine or coarse pit-run aggregate in a preliminary
screening operation prior to use of the parent aggregate
in concrete.
scalping screen. A screening device used to remove un-
desirable fine and coarse particles from a material.
scan. To make an examination of an area, product, space,
or property as a monitoring activity.
scandium carbide. (I) ScC; sp. gr. 3.59; potentially use-
ful as a high-temperature semiconductor. (2) SCI4CI9;
a reactive carbide containing (c;)2- units.
scandium nitride. ScN; mp 2700°C; sp. gr. 3.6; useful
in space applications and as crucible material for prepa-
rations of high-purity single crystals of gallium arsenide
and other compounds.
scandium oxide. SCP3; mp > 2300°C; sp. gr. 3.864; spe-
cific heat 0.153 J kg- 1K- 1 (0-100°C); a network former
in glass; also used in high-temperature systems and
electronic applications.
scandium silicate. (I) SC20Si04; mp 1950°C; sp. gr.
3.59. (2) SC2Si207; a pyroxene; mp I 860°C; sp. gr. 3.39.
scanistor. An integrated semiconductor optical-scan-
ning device which converts images into electrical sig-
nals.
scanning electron microscope. An electron microscope
in which a beam of electrons sweeps over a specimen,
measuring the intensity of the secondary electrons gen-
erated at the point of impact of the beam on the speci-
men, and relaying the signal into a cathode-ray display
 279
which is scanned in synchronism with the scanning of
the specimen.
scanning transmission electron microscope. A method
of observing and analyzing replicas of very thin cross
sections.
scanning tunneling microscopy. STM; a surface analy-
sis technique providing an image of the physical struc-
ture of a surface with resolution less than 0.01 nm and
also giving electronic information. A surface probe,
usually tungsten sharpened to a O.I-J.1m radius tip, is
moved through a piezoelectric controller toward the
surface as a bias voltage of 2-2000 mV is applied
between the tip and the surface. This causes a current
to flow across the tip-sample gap, due to quantum
mechanical tunneling, just before the tip touches the
surface. The value of this current is extremely sensitive
to the gap distance, such that variations in height of I
atomic radius are easily detected over a lateral area of
0.2 nm. Hence, from a fixed tip, surface topography can
be scanned.
scapolite. A group of minerals with composition be-
tween Na4AI3Si9024CI and Ca4AI6Si6024(C03); oc-
curs as glassy-gray grains in limestones. Also called
wernerite.
scar. A mark in a porcelain-enameled surface produced
by firing a coating which previously had been scarred
or similarly damaged after drying. The term also may
be applied to the defect as it appears in the dry state
before firing.
scarf joint. Joining two pieces by cutting each at an
angle and joining the cut areas together.
scatter coefficient. The rate of the increase in the reflec-
tance of porcelain enamels with thickness at infinitesi-
mal thickness over a black background. See reflectance.
scattering. Simultaneously dispersing into different di-
rections.
scheelite. CaW04; sp. gr. 5.9-6.1; hardness (Mohs) 4.5-
5; used as a source of tungsten and in phosphors.
schist. A variety of metamorphic rocks, such as mica,
feldspar, hornblende, and quartz, which may readily be
split into thin plates or slabs.
Schmid's law. Dislocation-initiated slip in crystals takes
place along a given slip plane and direction when the
shear stress acting along them reaches a critical value.
See critical shear stress.
Schmidt hammer. A test of the compressive strength of
set concrete by measuring the height of rebound of a
steel hammer.
Schottky defect. An anion or cation vacancy, V0 or Vm
in Kroger-Vink notation, plus a vacancy of the opposite
type. The pair forming this crystal defect can be asso-
ciated or disassociated in the structure. More commonly
encountered than Frenkel defects.
Schottky diode. Formed when a semiconductor layer
with a metal coating is made; hot carriers, electrons or
SCOURING BLOCK
holes, are emitted from the Schottky barrier of the
semiconductor and move into the metal coating.
scintillation. The multiple discharges or small arcs
which originate in the more conductive areas of insulat-
ing surfaces, and span less conductive areas; that is, the
spark of light produced in some substance by the ab-
sorption of an ionizing particle or photon.
scintillation spectroscope. A scintillation counter
adapted to measure the energy and intensity of gamma
rays from radioactive elements.
scintillator. A material that emits optical photons in
response to ionizing radiation used in optical instru-
ments such as spectrometers, scintillation detectors,
cameras, counters, etc.
sclerometer. A scratch hardness tester.
scleroscope. An instrument for determining the relative
hardness of materials by measuring the height to which
a standard steel ball rebounds from its surface when the
ball is dropped from a standard height.
scleroscope hardness number. A hardness value re-
lated to the height of rebound of a diamond-tipped steel
ball dropped onto the specimen from a fixed height.
scoop. A shovellike instrument designed for the move-
ment or transport of loose materials.
scored finish. The grooved appearance of the face sur-
face of a strnctural clay body as it comes from the die.
scored finish tile. Structural tile having a scored face
surface designed to receive and to give increased bond
with mortar, plaster, or stucco.
scoring. (1) The process of forming a groove, scratch,
notch, or similar indentation on the surface of a mate-
rial, usually before firing. (2) Grooves and scratches
made in the direction of sliding during wear tests.
scotch block. A rammed refractory gas port in an open-
hearth steel furnace.
scotch method of roofing application. A method of ap-
plying rectangular asbestos-cement roofing shingles
which overlap at the top and one side to form a rectan-
gular or square pattern.
scotch tape test. A way of evaluating the adhesion of a
coating by pressing the tape onto the surface and then
peeling it off. If the coating is not pulled off with the
tape the adhesion is considered adequate.
scouring. (1) The process of cleaning and smoothing the
surface of a bisque-fired ceramic ware with a coarse
abrasive in a revolving drum. (2) The mechanical clean-
ing or finishing of a hard surface by using an abrasive
and low or light pressure.
scouring block. A chemically bonded abrasive block
composed of AI 20 3, SiC, or similar material; used in
the grinding and polishing of metals and ceramic sur-
faces.
SCOVEBRICK
scove brick. An unfired refractory brick used in the con-
struction of scove kilns.
scove kiln. An updraft kiln constructed of unfired brick
having no permanent parts, and which may be fired with
gas, oil, coal, or wood.
scoving. The outer layer, usually wet clay, applied to a
scove kiln to make the kiln gastight.
S-crack. An S-shaped laminar defect occurring in a clay
body during extrusion from a pug mill.
scrap. A reject from a manufacturing operation which is
unsuitable for reclaiming or salvage.
scraper. A tool for cleaning off surface protrusions and
excess matter.
scrapings. The overspray of porcelain-enamel collected
and recovered from a spray booth.
scrapping. The removal of excess body from slip-cast
ware before removal of the ware from the mold.
scraps. The excess body removed from slip-cast ware
during forming.
scratch. Any marking or tearing of a surface produced
during manufacture or handling having the appearance
of being caused by a sharp instrument.
scratch coat. A layer of plaster having a scratched sur-
face to improve its bond with a subsequent layer.
scratch hardness, scratch resistance. The resistance of
a surface to scratching. See scratch test.
scratch test. A hardness test in which a loaded diamond
point or other cutting instrument is drawn across a
surface and the width of the resulting scratch is com-
pared with a related standard. See Bierbaum scratch
hardness.
SCR brick. A brick 6.8 x 15.2 x 30.5 cm in size.
screed. A straight-edged tool or guide of wood or metal
for making the first strike-off of a surface of concrete
or plaster while removing any excess of the material and
for smoothing the concrete or plaster surface.
screen. (1) A wire mesh or perforated plate mounted on
a suitable frame employed to separate coarser part of a
loose, flowing conglomerate material from the finer
parts by allowing the passage of the smaller parts while
retaining those of the larger. (2) A silk, wire, or similar
material, in mesh or gauze form, through which pig-
mented inks are forced on to the surface of ware to
produce a design.
screen analysis. A technique to determine the particle
size or particle-size distribution of powders and the
solid constituents of porcelain-enamels, glazes, and
other slips or slurries by calculating the percentage of
solids retained in each of a graduated series of sieves of
various sizes. Also called screening.
screening. See screen analysis.
280
screening ink. An oil suspension of ceramic pigment
used in the silk-screen process to imprint designs on
glass, porcelain-enamel, and other ceramic surfaces,
and which develops its color on firing. Also known as
ceramic ink, screening paste, or squeeze paste.
screening paste. See screening ink.
screening plate. A metal plate containing openings of
specified size used to control the fineness of grinding in
dry pans and hammer mills.
screen marks. A pattern left by the screen on the surface
of an enamel.
screen mesh. The number of openings per linear unit
length on a sieve or screen.
screen printing. See silk-screen printing.
screen, scalping. See scalping screen.
screen seepage. A seepage through open parts of the
stencil of colorant; usually caused by a delay in the
printing action while the stencil has excess ink on the
top surface.
screen, shaker. See shaker screen.
screen test. See sieve analysis.
screen, vibrating. See vibrating screen.
screw contact. An electrical contact fabricated with an
external thread for attachment to a support member.
screw conveyor. A conveyor consisting of a helical
screw which rotates on a single shaft in a stationary
trough or casing such that granular material may be
moved along a horizontal, inclined, or vertical plane.
screw dislocation. A type of line defect in a crystal in-
volving many atoms; formed by continued crystal
growth about an edge dislocation.
screw feeder. A device consisting of an auger or rotating
helicoid screw employed to transfer pulverized or
granular material from one piece of equipment to an-
other.
screw press. A press in which the slide of the press is
actuated by a screw mechanism.
scribing. The scoring of a bisque porcelain-enamel coat-
ing with a sharp tool, often combined with a brushing
operation, as a form of decoration.
scrim. A continuous filament, nonwoven, reinforcing
fabric.
scroller brush. An extremely fine-hair, sharp-pointed
china decorating brush for applying fine lines.
scrubber. A machine for cleaning coarse aggregate con-
sisting of a horizontal rotating cylinder containing
blades that lift and tumble the aggregate, usually in the
presence of water, to remove clay and other soft parti-
cles and coatings.
 281
scrub marks. A surface blemish on glass, usually ap-
pearing as a series of vertical markings, caused by
friction during processing or handling.
SCS-2 fiber. Alumina fiber made by the AVCO Com-
pany.
scuff, scuffing. Physical damage to the surface of glass
or other ceramic ware caused by scratching, gouging,
abrasion, or wear.
scum, scumming. (I) A layer of unmelted material float-
ing on the surface of molten glass. (2) An area of poor
gloss on an otherwise bright, glossy surface of porce-
lain-enamel, glass, and glazes. (3) Clouds appearing
around decalcomania which are caused by varnish resi-
dues. (4) A layer of soluble salts or fuel residues which
are oxidized on the surface of building brick during the
firing operation.
scurf. (I) A hard carbonaceous deposit on the surfaces of
retorts, coke ovens, and the like caused by the cracking
of gases during use. (2) To remove scurf by scraping,
rubbing, or wiping.
scutch. A steel bricklayer's hammer; used for cutting,
trimming, and dressing brick.
seacoal. A finely powdered coal used to face molds for
iron casting.
seal. Any device or system that creates a nonleaking
union between two mechanical or process-system ele-
ments; a tight closure or joint.
seal, air. See air seal.
seal, airborne. See airborne seal.
seal, butt. See butt seal.
sealed pores. Pc; pores or small bubbles trapped in a
ceramic body which have no outlet to the exterior of the
body, calculated by the formula Pc = (WiD.)- (Wd/Dt ),
where Wd is the dry weight of the specimen, D. is the
apparent density, and Dt is the true density of the
specimen.
sealed porosity. The ratio of the volume of sealed pores
to the bulk volume of a ceramic, expressed as percent.
seal, external. See external seal.
seal, foundation. See foundation seal.
sealing. The process of joining two items of glass, or
glass and a metal, by heating an interface to reduce the
viscosity of the glass to permit it to flow and bond with
the other glass or metal.
sealing compound. (I) A bituminous material for filling
and sealing joints and cracks in concrete. (2) A curing
compound for concrete.
sealing glass. A glass with special thermal-expansion
and flow characteristics to enable it to bond with an-
other glass or solid.
SECONDARY REFERENCE STANDARD
sealing surface. That portion of the finish of a glass
container or other ceramic which makes contact with
the sealing gasket or liner.
seal, internal. See internal seal.
seal, pin. See pin seal.
seal, ram. See ram seal.
seal, sand. See sand seal.
seals, glass-to-metal. See glass-to-metal seals.
seal, tapered. See tapered seal.
seam. A mark on the surface of glass or a ceramic result-
ing from the joint of the matching mold parts.
seaming. To join together two edges of sheet material.
seat. (1) A prepared position on the siege where a pot is
placed. (2) To fit an item to conform with the configu-
ration of another item at the point of contact.
seat earth. A natural deposit or bed of clay situated
beneath a seam or layer of another mineral.
seating block. A fireclay refractory shaped to support a
boiler.
seawater magnesia. Magnesia, MgO, recovered from
seawater by treatment with slaked lime.
secant modulus. The ratio of change in stress to change
in strain between two points on a stress-strain curve.
second. A marketable product of inferior grade or one
which does not conform to the quality of a standard
product.
secondary air. Combustion air injected over the flame
or fuel bed of a kiln to enhance completeness of com-
bustion.
secondary clay. A clay which has been moved geologi-
cally from the site of its formation to another and as a
result has become mixed with alkalies, limestone, mag-
nesia, and iron oxides. Usually a kaolin base but is more
plastic than primary clay.
secondary crusher. A crushing device used after the
initial crushing operation to reduce further the particle
size of a material.
secondary expansion. The permanent expansion of fire-
clay brick during service.
secondary modulus. Young's modulus of a fiber-rein-
forced composite at strain values beyond that at which
the brittle matrix has fractured but the fibers are still
intact.
secondary recrystallization. The process by which
large grains are nucleated and grow at the expense of a
fine-grained but essentially strain-free matrix.
secondary reference standard. A standard calibrated
relative to a primary standard. Usually prepared from
typical production material.
SECOND ORDER TRANSITION
second order transition. See glass transition.
second side. The final or exposed face side of a plate
glass to be ground and polished.
sectile. Able to be cut smoothly.
sedigraph. An instrument designed to indicate the parti-
cle size distribution of a powder by suspending it in a
fluid and noting the sedimentation rate.
sediment analyzer, Woods Hole. See Woods Hole
sediment analyzer.
sedimentary clay. A clay which, geologically, has been
moved from its point of origin to another but not neces-
sarily become mixed like secondary clay.
sedimentation. (1) The process of the deposition or set-
tling of matter suspended in a liquid. (2) The appearance
of free water on the surface of fresh concrete resulting
from the settlement of solid particles and the consequent
relative movement of water upward.
sedimentation rate. The rate at which particles settle
from a liquid suspension.
sedimentation volume. The volume of particles settled
from a liquid suspension.
Seebeck effect. A thermoelectric phenomenon observed
when two dissimilar electrical conductors are main-
tained at different temperatures; an electromotive force
is developed known as the Seebeck emf. Finds use in
thermocouples.
seed. (1) A small, fraction of a millimeter diameter,
gaseous inclusion in glass. (2) A small single crystal of
a material used to start the growth of a large crystal.
seed-free time. The total melting time needed to produce
glass, sufficiently free from gas bubbles, to be used.
Seger cone. Any of a series of pyramidal thermometric
devices made of materials or mixtures of materials
which deform at known temperatures and which are
used to indicate the thermal history of ceramic bodies
and glazes during the firing operation.
Seger formula. A molecular formula applied to glazes
and porcelain-enamels in which the oxide constituents
are classified in three groups whose sum equals I, RO
(the alkaline oxides), R 20 3 (the intermediate oxides),
and R0 2 (the so-called acidic oxides).
segmental arch. A circular or rounded arch having a
curved surface less than a semicircle.
segmented belt. A coated abrasive belt made of sections
of belt spliced together. The segments are necessary to
obtain belts wider than 1.25 m, the widest coating width
generally available.
segmentedwheel. An abrasive wheel composed of seg-
ments of bonded abrasives assembled to form a com-
plete wheel.
282
segments. Bonded abrasive sections of various shapes to
be assembled to form a continuous or intermittent cir-
cular grinding surface.
segregation. (1) The separation of the ingredients of a
mixture, such as fine portions from coarser portions. (2)
The separation of coarse aggregates in concrete from
the mortar or main mass of the concrete. (3) The con-
centration of crystal impurity at free surfaces. (4) Com-
positional differences occurring during the cooling of
some types of solid solution.
seignette-electric. A ferroelectric crystal which is used
in ceramic capacitors, transducers, and dielectric ampli-
fiers.
selective absorption. The absorption of certain wave-
lengths of light in preference to others; almost all col-
ored materials owe their color to this process.
selective oxidation. A situation where oxygen attacks
only one phase in a mixture or composite material.
selectivity. The characteristic of a testing system that is
a measure of the extent to which an instrument is
capable of differentiating between a desired signal and
disturbances of other frequencies or phases in electro-
magnetic testing.
selenium. Se; mp 217°C; volatilizes at 688°C; sp. gr.
4.2-4.8; used in glass as a decolorizer, both in elemen-
tal and compound forms; also employed to produce rose
and ruby colors in glass, glazes, and porcelain-enamels.
selenium ruby. A ruby-red glass containing selenium
oxide, cadmium sulfide, arsenic oxide, and carbon;
produced in a reducing atmosphere.
self-cleaning enamel. Porcelain-enamel coatings con-
taining additions of selected materials which, when
applied to culinary ovens, will promote oxidation of
grease and oven spills continuously during oven use.
self-consistent field. An approximation method used to
calculate the energy levels of electrons in many-elec-
tron atoms. It involves the assumption that the energy
states are similar to those in the hydrogen atom and
following a guess at the electrostatic field a first calcu-
lation of the energy levels is made. This process yields
a new potential and the process is repeated until the
calculated potential agrees with the one used to derive
it.
self-diffusion. The interchange of atomic or ionic posi-
tions in a pure crystal. Often measured as the diffusion
of a tracer atom in a solid of the same element.
self-emulsifier. A penetrating material which emulsifies
spontaneously in water, and which may be rinsed from
a specimen more readily than if it were removed by
dissolving in the rinse water.
self-propagating high-temperature synthesis. See SHS.
self-similarity. A fractal property whereby a structure
generated by the forming process, for example the
addition of equal sized particles around a central parti-
 283
cle to form aggregates, is scale invariant: if a portion is
enlarged the new object is identical to the initial object.
self-slip. An archaeological term describing the fine
layer resulting from the wet-surface smoothing of clay
vessels.
self-sustaining discharge. An electrical discharge in
which all carriers necessary for the transport of current
in the discharge are produced by the discharge itself.
seller. The supplier of a material defined by a purchase
order.
selsyn. A device for sensing motion of a distant point and
producing an electric signal.
selvage, selvedge. (I) The formed edge of a ribbon of
rolled glass. (2) The woven ends of the filling yarns
forming a fabric edge. (3) The plasma formed on or just
above a surface being sputtered.
semiconducting crystal. A crystal, such as silicon or
germanium, which exhibits an electrical conductivity
between that of a metallic material and an insulator and
in which the electrical resistance decreases as the tem-
perature rises. Charge is carried by electrons, n-type, or
by positive holes in the conduction band, p-type.
semiconducting glaze. A ceramic glaze containing met-
al oxides in sufficient quantities to promote a degree of
electrical conductivity to prevent surface discharge or
flashover.
semiconductor. See semiconducting crystal.
semiconductor device. An electronic instrument in
which electronic conduction occurs within a semicon-
ductor.
semiconductor diode. A two-electrode semiconductor
or two-terminal device which employs the properties of
semiconductors to exhibit rectifying properties at the
point of contact.
semiconductor laser. A diode laser in which stimulated
emission of coherent light occurs at a p-n junction when
electrons and holes are driven into the junction by
carrier injection, electron-beam excitation, impact ioni-
zation, optical excitation, or other means.
semiconductor, metal oxide. See metal oxide semicon-
ductor.
semifriable alumina. A hard abrasive grade ofrecrystal-
lized alumina in which the Al z0 3 content ranges be-
tween 96 and 98%.
semi-matte glaze. A ceramic glaze exhibiting only a
moderate degree of gloss that is considered to be be-
tween high gloss and matte in appearance.
semi-mume furnace. A gas- or oil-fired furnace con-
structed with a partial muffle to prevent the flame from
impinging directly on the ware being fired, but in which
the products of combustion gases can come in contact
with the ware.
SEPARATOR
semipermanent mold. A reusable mold.
semi-porcelain. Stone china; a trade term designating
dinnerware having a moderate water absorption of 0.3
to 3.0%; only partly vitreous from lowish temperature
firing.
semisilica fireclay brick. A fireclay brick containing
not less than 72% silica.
semi-vitreous. The degree of vitrification indicated by a
moderate water absorption of 0.3 to 3.0%, except for
wall and floor tile, in which the water absorption may
range from 3.0 to 7.0%.
semi-vitreous china. A dinnerware or other ceramic
product exhibiting a moderate degree of water absorp-
tion.
sensible heat. The heat which raises the temperature of
a body in which it comes in contact; the sum of the
internal energy of a body or system plus the product of
the system's volume multiplied by the pressure exerted
on the system by its surroundings.
sensitivity. (I) The least amount of concentration that
can be determined by a method. (2) The smallest unit
load change that can be measured on a tensile testing
machine.
sensitizer. Ions added to a luminescent material to in-
crease the efficiency of activation.
sensitizing compounds. Metal salts in aqueous or or-
ganic solutions which form an invisible film on glass
and ceramic surfaces, and which initiate or hasten sub-
sequent surface treatments such as silvering and plat-
ing; examples are the chlorides of tin, gold, and
palladium, and some salts of aluminum, barium, cad-
mium, iridium, and silver.
sensor. A generic term for an instrument which measures
a value or detects a change in a value such as physical
quantity. Commonly ceramic semiconductors.
sentinel pyrometers. Small cylinders of standardized
compositions which melt at predetermined tempera-
tures; used to measure and control thermal treatments
of materials in kilns and furnaces.
separated aggregate. Concrete aggregate which has
been classified into fine and coarse components.
separating powder. A powder applied to a surface, as in
a mold, to facilitate the removal of ware after forming.
separation, chemical. See chemical separation.
separation, gravity. See gravity separation.
separation, magnetic. See magnetic separator.
separation, mechanical. See mechanical separation.
separation, physical. See physical separation.
separator. A device employed to separate different kinds
and sizes of materials from others.
SEPARATOR, AIR
separator, air. See air separator.
separator, magnetic. See magnetic separator.
sepiolite. Mg9Si12030(OH)6·IOH20; sp. gr 2.0; hardness
(Mohs) 2-2.5; a soft, lightweight, absorbent clay. Not
strictly a sheet silicate but has a similar structure to talc.
Channels in the crystal structure are filled with water
molecules which when driven out leave a very reactive
material. Meerschaum is mainly sepiolite.
sequence. An orderly progression of operations to assure
optimum utilization of production facilities.
sericite. KAI 3(Si3Al)OlQ(OH)z; a fine-grained, potas-
sium mica; a pyrophyllite refractory. See muscovite.
serpentine. Mg3Si20s(OH)4; sp. gr. 2.5-2.65; hardness
(Mohs) 2.5-4; sometimes used in forsterite refractories.
A two-layer silicate of green mottled appearance.
serrated saddle. A grooved or notched item of kiln fur-
niture to support ceramic whiteware on edge during
firing.
SERS. Acronym for surface enhanced Raman spectros-
copy; a technique where a thin silver layer is deposited
on carbon-based materials to enhance the scattering and
so enable examination of the subsurface chemical struc-
ture to be made.
service life. (1) The period of time an item may be used
economically before breakdown. (2) The elapsed time
until the end-point is reached in an adsorption or other
process.
service life, accelerated. See accelerated-service life.
service test. A test conducted on a product under simu-
lated or actual conditions of use to determine if the
product will perform satisfactorily under such condi-
tions.
servitor. A workman who shapes the stem and base of
goblets and footed stemware.
servomechanism. A device for turning electrical signals
into mechanical movements.
sesquioxide. Oxides in which the unit cell contains three
atoms of oxygen to every two of metal, for example,
Cr203·
sessile. Cannot glide but climbs; a property of a Frank
partial dislocation.
sessile dislocation. A partial dislocation that can exist in
a face-centered cubic structure. It cannot glide in the
usual manner but only by the diffusion of atoms to or
from the perimeter of the fault. They can interact with
other dislocations and since they cannot glide freely
they become strong obstacles to the passage of slip
dislocations.
sessile drop. A liquid drop sited on top of a flat horizon-
tal surface.
sessile drop method. A method of measuring the sur-
face energy of a material, such as a metal or ceramic
284
body, in which the contact angle between the liquid
drop and the flat surface is measured.
set. (I) The consistency and flow properties of a porce-
lain-enamel slip which affect its suspension charac-
teristics, rate of drain, residual thickness, and
uniformity of coating. (2) To place ware in a kiln. (3)
Strain remaining after complete removal of stress.
set at break. The elongation of a tensile test specimen
measured 10 minutes after rupture on the reassembled
specimen.
set, false. See false set.
set, final. See final set.
set, flash. See flash set.
set, initial. See initial set.
setter. (1) An item of kiln furniture shaped to conform
with the undersurface of ware and which serves to
support the ware in the kiln during firing. (2) A type of
sagger designed to conserve kiln space, the contour of
its upper side conforming with the contour of the lower
surface of the ware to be fired so that saggers may be
stacked or arranged compactly in the kiln. (3) The
operator placing ware in a kiln.
setting. (1) The arrangement or placement of ware in a
kiln. (2) The hardening of plaster or cement.
setting block. Blocks of lead or other nonabsorbent ma-
terial bedded in a glazing compound on which glass is
positioned in a window or other opening.
setting pocket. A technique for hand-placing refractory
shapes in a kiln to minimize deformation and the devel-
opment of stresses in the ware during firing.
setting rate. (I) A comparative term referring to the time
required for a glass surface to cool within the limits of
the working range. (2) The elapsed time in which lime,
mortar, plaster, or concrete hardens.
setting time. The period of time elapsed between the
mixing of water with plaster or cement and certain
arbitrary points in the hydration or setting process as
determined by the penetration of a standard Vicat nee-
dle into a sample of the plaster, cement paste, or con-
crete in a specified period of time. See Vicat needle.
setting-up (setup) agent. An electrolyte, such as
MgC03, K2C03, Na2C03, or MgS04, added to porce-
lain-enamels, glazes, and other slurries to flocculate and
increase the suspension properties of clays.
settle mark. A wrinkled surface appearing on glassware
as a result of uneven cooling during the forming proc-
ess.
settlement crack. A crack in the soffit of a concrete
beam, or at the top of a concrete wall or column where
it joins a slab, the crack resulting from stresses devel-
oping in the joint during the continuous placement of
the concrete.
 285
settling. The sedimentary process which causes particles
of clay, glaze, porcelain-enamel, or other materials
suspended in water or other liquids to sink to the bottom
of a container.
settling tank. A tank or reservoir into which slurries of
various components are placed to permit settling of
solid materials to be accomplished by gravity.
setup wheel. An abrasive wheel fabricated by compress-
ing a series of sheets of abrasive-coated fabrics into
wheel form.
sewage (wastewater). The spent water of a community
which is a mixture of liquid and water-carried waste.
sewer. A pipeline constructed to convey sewage to a
disposal area.
sewer brick. A low-absorption, abrasion-resistant brick
intended for use in the construction of drainage systems.
Made from clay or shale.
sewer pipe. An impervious pipe, sometimes glazed, in-
tended for use in the transport of water and sewage to a
disposal area.
sewer, storm. See storm sewer.
sewer tile. An impervious tile of circular cross-section
intended for use in drainage systems.
S-glass. A high-strength, hence S, magnesia-alumina--
silicate glass; used to make glass fibers.
sgraffito. A decoration used on pottery and other ware
with an enameled surface on which a linear drawing is
scratched through an unfired engobe or glaze to expose
a differently colored body or contrasting fired surface
beneath; the item then is refired.
shaded sandblast. The obscuration of a surface by sand-
blasting, the texture ranging from clear to full obscura-
tion.
shadow wall. A more or less solid structure built on the
top of the bridge wall of a glass tank, or suspended from
the crown, to limit the flow of heat from the glass-melt-
ing zone to the refining zone of the tank.
shaft. (1) The vertical conduit or flue for venting com-
bustion and other gaseous wastes. (2) The refractory-
lined cone-shaped section of a blast furnace or cupola
above the hearth and melting zone and extending to the
throat.
shaft, feed. See feed shaft.
shaft kiln. An essentially vertical, refractory-lined fur-
nace for heating lump material; the raw material nor-
mally is fed into the top of the kiln, passing through hot
gases from burners stationed near the bottom, and
emerges as a calcined product at the bottom of the kiln.
shaft mixer. A continuous blender consisting of a bladed
rotating shaft which mixes and forces materials through
an open trough such as in a pug mill.
SHEAR
shaker screen. A mechanically vibrating screening de-
vice employed to separate materials into desired parti-
cle sizes or to separate larger sizes from the smaller.
shaker table. A slightly tilted vibrating table having a
flat, rectangular, and sometimes riffled surface used to
separate solid materials according to density and parti-
cle size, the larger and heavier particles moving to the
bottom edge of the table first.
shaking gold. A liquid burnishing suspension that re-
quires vigorous shaking to redisperse any settled gold
particles.
shale. A thinly stratified or laminated, sedimentary, and
consolidated rock with well-marked cleavage, com-
posed of clay, quartz, mica, and other minerals.
shale clay. Finely ground shale, sometimes used as a
clay.
shamotte. A refractory clay or grog which has been
calcined for use as a nonplastic material in ceramic body
compositions.
shape. (1) The geometrical configuration or visual ap-
pearance of a solid body. (2) The process or act of
forming a body to a desired configuration.
shape factor. The ratio of the major dimension of a
particle to the minor dimension. Useful when compar-
ing particles that otherwise have similar physical prop-
erties.
shape, standard. See standard shapes.
shaping block. A wood paddle or block used in the shap-
ing of glass on a blowpipe.
shard. Fired pottery milled to a powder form suitable for
use as a replacement for grog or silica to reduce shrink-
age without altering the composition of a ceramic body.
sharp fire. Combustion with an excess of air and a short
flame.
sharp notch strength. The maximum nominal stress a
sharply notched specimen can stand.
sharp sand. A sand free of bond; the term has no con-
nection with grain shape.
shatterproof glass. Two sheets of glass with a sheet of
transparent plastic molded between the sheets under
heat and pressure. See safety glass.
shaving. (1) The shaving, scraping, and paring ofleather-
hard clay from the wall and foot of a pot on a lathe or
potter's wheel. (2) The shaping or removal of excess
material from a grinding wheel before firing the wheel.
Shaw kiln. A gas-fired chamber kiln in which a portion
of the heat is introduced beneath the floor of the kiln to
minimize temperature differences in the firing zone.
shear. (1) The deformation or fracture of a solid under a
load which causes one face of the fractured solid to slide
against an adjoining face along a parallel plane. (2) A
manual tool or a mechanical device consisting of two
SHEAR CAKE
opposing sliding blades between which a material is cut.
(3) Scissors.
shear cake. A counterweighted refractory slab used as a
gate or door on a small furnace or oven.
shear coupling. A shear strain in anisotropic materials
induced by normal stress.
shear diagram. A graphical representation of the inter-
nal shear load variation along a bent beam.
Shearer plastometer. An instrument to measure the
flow properties of slurries calculated as the time for a
specified volume of the slurry to flow through a tube of
specified diameter.
shear fire. A thin flame employed to sever the moil from
a shaped glass article.
shear force. A force that is directed parallel to the sur-
face across which it acts.
shear fracture. Failure in crystalline materials due to
movement on slip planes oriented in the direction of the
shear stress.
shearing stress. The tangential shearing force acting on
a material to produce motion or flow.
shear mark. A scar appearing in glassware as a result of
the cooling action of the cool cutting shear on the hot,
but rigid, glass.
shear modulus. The ratio of shear stress, 't, to shear
strain, y. G = 't/'y; units are N m-2.
shear span. On a symmetrically loaded beam it is twice
the distance between a reaction and the nearest load
point.
shear span to depth ratio. The numerical ratio of the
shear span divided by the beam depth.
shear strain. The ratio of the relative lateral displace-
ment between two points lying in parallel planes in a
solid to the vertical distance between the points shear-
ing.
shear strength. The maximum shear stress a material
can withstand without rupture.
shear stress. The force exerted by the material on one
side of a plane surface pushing on the material on the
other side of the surface, the force being parallel to the
surface, divided by the area of the plane on which it is
acting.
shear thinning. A fluid in which the viscosity decreases
as the shear rate increases.
shear wave. Where particle motion is parallel to the di-
rection of propagation of the wave front.
sheen matte. A low-firing temperature glaze formed
from zinc borate (30 wt. %), talc (30 wt. %), and
nepheline syenite (40 wt. %).
286
sheet. A thick film made by casting or extrusion; the
thickness must exceed 0.25 mm to be classed as a sheet.
sheet glass. A generic term including sheet, plate, rolled,
float, and other forms of glass that are of a flat nature.
sheet molding compound. SMC; a thermosetting com-
pound mixed with fiberglass and rolled into sheets
which can be cut and shaped.
sheet silicates. Formed when three oxygens in each
(Si04)4-- tetrahedron are shared to form giant negative
ions extending in two-dimensions. The sheet consists of
(Si 20s)2- units held together in a stacking sequence by
metal cations.
sheet-steel enamel. A porcelain-enamel designed for ap-
plication to ware fabricated from sheet steel.
sheet, tangle. See tangle sheet.
shelf life. The maximum time a material can be stored
under specified conditions and still meet all specifica-
tion standards and fulfill its intended function.
shell. Energy levels or groups of orbitals occupied by
electrons in atoms and molecules.
shellac bond. A bonding material in which shellac is the
major constituent, and which is used in the manufacture
of shellac-bonded abrasives.
shellac wheel. A grinding wheel in which the abrasive
grains are bonded together with a shellac-type bonding
medium.
shelling. (1) The breaking away of a layer of refractory
from the roof of an all-basic, open-hearth furnace. (2)
The flaking of glaze from ware due to failure to develop
sufficient bond during firing.
shell molding. Forming a rigid, porous, self-supporting
refractory mold by sprinkling a mixture of molding sand
and thermoplastic material over a preheated metal pat-
tern and then curing in an oven.
shell roof. A thin, curved, platelike roof, usually con-
structed of concrete.
shells. (1) The outer walls of hollow structural clay tiles
and building blocks. (2) The outer walls of a structure
or vessel.
shell wall. A fireclay, refractory wall protecting the met-
al casing of air preheaters.
shelving. The erosion of the horizontal joints of fireclay
refractories in a glass tank.
sherd. Fired pottery in small fragments or ground to
powder form for use as a replacement for grog or silica
in pottery bodies to reduce shrinkage without altering
the composition of the body. Also known as pitchers,
and shard.
shield. The material placed around a nuclear reactor, or
other source of radiation, to reduce or prevent the es-
cape of radiation or radioactive particles from the reac-
tor.
 287
shield, heat. See heat shield.
shielding glass. A transparent glass containing quanti-
ties of the oxides of the heavy elements, such as lead,
which absorb high-energy electromagnetic radiation,
and which are employed to shield one region of space
from ionizing radiation emanating from another, such
as in nuclear applications.
shift, phase. See phase shift.
shiner, shiner scale. A defect characterized by minute,
shiny fishscaling occurring on a thin or overfired por-
celain-enamel ground coat.
shingle. A thin sheet of building material, such as asphalt
shingles or porcelain-enameled steel panels, placed in
overlapping rows as a roof covering or siding of a
building.
ship-and-galley tile. A quarry tile with an indented pat-
tern on its face to produce an anti-slip surface when
walked on, particularly when wet.
shipment. All of the material of a given type obtained
from one manufacturer in a delivery.
shipper-receiver difference. The difference between
the quantity stated by a shipper as having been shipped
and the quantity stated by the receiver as having been
received.
shivering. The splintering of fired glazes, porcelain-
enamels, or other ceramic coatings from a base material
due to critical compressive stresses.
shock. The initial, short-duration part of an impact which
subjects the target to the highest force.
shock load. Sudden application of an external force.
shock, resistance to thermal. See thermal-shock resis-
tance.
shock, thermal. See thermal shock.
shock wave. A wave traveling at a speed greater than
sound in a material along the front of which pressure,
density, and internal energy rise rapidly.
shoe. An open-ended crucible placed in the opening of a
glass-melting pot for heating blowpipes.
shop. (1) A group of workmen engaged in an assigned
activity or producing a particular item or end product.
(2) A room, area, or other enclosure in which a particu-
lar work is done. (3) A factory.
Shore hardness. See pendulum hardness.
shorelines. A defect in the surface of porcelain-enamels
characterized by a series of lines in a pattern similar in
appearance to the lines produced on a shore by receding
water.
Shore sclerometer. See pendulum hardness.
short. A fast-setting glass.
SHREND
short beam test. A mechanical test designed to measure
the interlaminar shear strength of a parallel fiber-rein-
forced material in three-point flexural loading.
short circuit. A connection of low resistance between
two points of different potential in a circuit.
short clay. A nonplastic clay having low green strength.
shortest arc. The limiting state of an electric arc in
which the total arc voltage approaches the sum of the
cathode and anode falls.
short fibers. Fibers falling in the 1 to 25 mm range.
short finish. An imperfection in plate glass resulting
from incomplete polishing.
short fire. An air-deficient reducing flame.
short glass. (1) A fast-setting glass. (2) A body oflow or
poor workability.
short glaze. An area on the surface of ware in which
insufficient glaze was applied to obtain a desired finish
or appearance.
short-range order. Identical coordination of only the
first near-neighbor atoms around each type of atom;
typical of glassy structures.
shot. Small spherical particles appearing in fibrous prod-
ucts such as glass or mineral wool which has been
attenuated in a fast-moving stream of air or steam.
shotblasting. Blast cleaning or treatment of the surface
of ware in which small steel balls are impelled by a blast
of compressed air.
shotcrete. A mixture of cement, sand, and water applied
through a hose with high-velocity compressed air, and
which will adhere tenaciously to a prepared concrete or
other surface.
shot, flint. See flint shot.
shot noise. A form of background interference in pho-
todetectors arising from statistical phonon fluctuations
in a laser beam.
shoulder-angle tile. Small wall-tile shapes; used to fin-
ish the top and bottom of comer installations.
shovel. (1) A hand tool equipped with a flattened scoop
at the end of a handle for moving bulk solid materials.
(2) A mechanical device equipped with a flattened,
broad blade or scoop for moving bulk solid materials.
showering. A type of corona discharge of luminous
streamers or plasma occurring in an electrical field of a
value just below that required for a complete break-
down.
shredder. A mechanical device employed to cut or tear
clays and other plastic materials into sizes more ame-
nable to subsequent handling and processing.
shrend. The process of making cullet by directing molten
glass into a stream of water.
SHRINKAGE
shrinkage. (I) The reduction in the dimensions of a body
or substance during drying or firing. (2) Contraction of
concrete in the plastic state or after it has become rigid,
but before it has developed appreciable strength.
shrinkage, burning. See firing shrinkage.
shrinkage crack. A fissure resulting from uneven
shrinkage of a body.
shrinkage, drying. See drying shrinkage.
shrinkage factor. The ratio of green state dimensions to
fired dimensions.
shrinkage, firing. See firing shrinkage.
shrinkage, linear. See linear shrinkage.
shrinkage, plastic. See plastic shrinkage.
shrinkage rate. The amount of shrinkage of a substance
per unit of time.
shrinkage volume. The contraction of a moist body dur-
ing drying or firing, or both, expressed as the volume
percent of the original volume.
shrinkage water. That portion of the water of plasticity
of a body which, when removed, contributes to the
drying shrinkage of the body.
shrink film. Prestretched or oriented film.
shrink fit. An annular bond formed by heating the out-
side member until it slides over the cooled inside mem-
ber; contraction then produces the bond.
shrink-mixed concrete. Concrete in which the ingredi-
ents are partially mixed and then placed in a truck mixer
where mixing is completed while in transit to the site of
its use.
shrink wrapping. The process of encasing a product in
plastic, and then heating the plastic so that it will shrink
to fit tightly.
SHS. Abbreviation for self-propagating high-tempera-
ture synthesis; a combined method of ceramic synthesis
and forming which utilizes the heat of exothermic reac-
tions between precursor components. Temperatures in
excess of 2500°C can be achieved without the use of a
furnace and processing times are on the order of minutes
rather than days as in conventional processing. The
thermite reaction is an example: 2Al + Fe203 = Al 20 3
+2Fe.
shunt. In electronics it is a low-resistance conductor
connected in parallel across a device, circuit, or part of
a circuit to provide an alternative path for a known
fraction of current.
shunt wound. In a generator or electric motor it refers to
having the field and armature circuits connected in
parallel.
shuttle kiln. A kiln in which loaded cars are introduced
at one end, ejecting cars of fired ware at the opposite
end; the process is then reversed in which the ejected
288
cars are unloaded, reloaded, and charged into the kiln
at the end of ejection, and the process continued in
shuttle-like fashion.
SI. Abbreviation for Systeme Internationale (d'Unites).
See SI units.
sial. (I) A silica- and alumina-rich rock. (2) A borosili-
cate glass of high thermal and chemical resistance.
sialons. Acronym for discrete phases existing in the sys-
tem Si02-5i3N4-AI20rAlN, known as silicon alumi-
num oxynitrides. They arise because the structural unit
of silicates, Si04 tetrahedra, aluminates, Al04 tetrahe-
dra, and silicon nitride, SiN4 tetrahedra, are very similar
in size and can substitute for each other in various parent
structures. When Al04 tetrahedra are involved, charge-
compensating cations must be included in the structure.
There are sialons based on the ~-Si3N4 structure called
W-sialons and a'-sialons are based on the a-Si3N4 struc-
ture. Many of the silicate structures have their sialon
equivalent. All are extremely hard, many are tough and
have sintering advantages.
sicalons. Acronym for phases found in the SiC-AI 20C-
AlN system that are analogous to the sialons. Mixtures
of the parent materials heated above 18()()OC produce
these covalent phases containing SiC 4, Al04, AlN4,
SiN4, and Si04 tetrahecha in their structures. Typical
hardness values are around 20.5 GN m-2 (Vickers) and
k1c around 4.5 MN m-¥2; very resistant to chemical at-
tack.
siccative. A material able to absorb moisture and act as
a drying agent. Often part of a paint formulation.
side arch brick. A type of brick having face surfaces
inclined toward each other in the shape of a wedge.
side-blown converter. A steel converter in which the air
or oxygen blast strikes the molten iron through tuyeres
arranged along the refractory wall.
side-construction tile. Tile designed to receive its prin-
cipal stress at right angles to the axis fo the cells.
side-cut brick. An extruded brick which is wire-cut
along the side instead of the end.
side-feather brick. A featheredge brick cut along the
22.9 by 7.62-cm plane.
side-fired furnace. A furnace in which fuel is supplied
through ports in the side.
side-grinding. The practice of grinding on the ~ide of an
abrasive wheel mounted between flanges.
side lap. The shortest horizontal distance between the
exposed side edge of a course of roofing or siding
material and the most proximate underlying area of roof
deck or side wall not covered by the preceding adjacent
course.
side pocket. A refractory-lined chamber at the bottom of
a glass tank to catch slag and dust from waste gases
before they enter the regenerator.
 289
side-port furnace. A furnace with ports located along
the sides through which fuel may be introduced or gases
may escape.
siderite. (I) FeC0 3 ; sp. gr. 3.83-3.88; hardness (Mohs)
3.5-4; a mineral used as a colorant in ceramic bodies
and glazes, producing yellow-brown effect. Also called
chalybite (2) A meteorite consisting mainly of metallic
iron.
siderolite. A meteorite consisting of a mixture of iron,
nickel, and ferromagnesian minerals, such as olivine
and pyroxene.
side skew. A brick having one side inclined at an angle
other than 90° to the two largest faces; used in the
production of circular or curved structures.
siege. The refractory floor of a pot furnace or glass tank.
siemens. s; the derived SI unit of electrical conductance
equal to I reciprocal ohm. Formerly called mho.
sienna. A yellowish-brown earth containing hydrated
iron oxide; useful as a colorant in slips, bodies, and
glazes, particularly celadons.
sieve. A perforated or meshed device through which par-
ticles of a material or mixture are passed to separate
them from coarser ones; through which soft materials
are forced for reduction to particles of finer sizes; or
through which liquid is strained.
sieve analysis. The determination of the size distribution
of a material on a series of sieves of decreasing size,
usually expressed in terms of weight percent of the
sample retained on each sieve.
sieve classification. Separation of solids into particle
size ranges using a graded series of sieves.
sieve fraction. The part of a powder passing through a
standard sieve of stated number but retained by a finer
specified sieve.
sieve mesh. Any standardized opening, square in shape,
bounded by four meshed wires in a sieve.
sieve number. A number, arising from the number of
sieve cross-wires per linear 2.54 cm; used to denote the
sieve size.
Sieverts's law. Hydrogen solubility in materials is pro-
portional to the square root of the molecular hydrogen
pressure.
sieve shaker. A mechanical device in which a stack of
sieves, arranged in progressively reducing mesh or
opening sizes, is shaken vigorously so that size fractions
of a sample may be collected for analysis or use.
SIFCON. Acronym for slurry-infiltrated fiber concrete.
sift. (I) To sieve in order to remove coarser particles. (2)
To scatter something over a surface through a sieve.
sighting tube. A ceramic tube, inserted in a kiln, through
which an optical pyrometer is sighted to obtain a meas-
urement of the temperature of the kiln.
SILICA BRICK, DROP-MACHINE
sigma function. A property of a mixture of air and water
vapor equal to the difference between the enthalpy and
the product of the specific humidity and the enthalpy of
water at the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature.
signal, differentiated. See differentiated signal.
signal glass. Glasses of various colors used in signal
devices.
signal intensity. The electric-field strength of an electro-
magnetic wave transmitting a signal.
signal-to-noise ratio. An important parameter for ce-
ramic sensors; it is the comparison of the signal the
sensor is intended to measure to the background.
silane coupling agents. Polymeric materials based on
SinH2n+2 units which contain Si(OR3) units and vinyl or
amino groups. The Si(OR 3 ) groups react with inorganic
reinforcement, such as glass fiber, alumina fiber, etc.,
while the vinyl group reacts with the resin. Hence, they
bring about strong bonding between reinforcement and
matrix in composites. They are usually added to the
fibers in a pretreatment.
Silar SC-9. Commercially available SiC fiber; sp. gr.
3.2; high strength 6.9 GN m-2 and high stiffness
690GNm-2 .
silcrete. A silica-bonded conglomerate of sand and
gravel.
silex. (I) A finely ground, pure form of quartz. (2) A
thermal- and physical-shock-resistant glass containing
approximately 98% quartz.
silica. Si02 ; mp 171O°C; bp 2230°C; sp. gr. 2.2-2.6;
hardness (Mohs) 7; the overall inclusive name given to
silicon dioxide, the most common mineral in the major-
ity of sands; occurs in five crystalline polymorphs-
quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, coesite, and stishovite; in
cryptocrystalline form as chalcedony, and in amor-
phous and hydrated forms as opal; used in the manufac-
ture of glass, abrasives, numerous whiteware bodies and
glazes, porcelain-enamels, refractories, foundry molds,
electric and electronic products, carborundum, fer-
rosilicon concrete and mortars, and other products. The
name silica is often taken to mean the glassy, noncrys-
talline form of silicon dioxide.
silica based fibers. Quartz (> 99.5% Si0 2), high-silica
(> 95% Si0 2), and silicate glass (> 50% Si0 2); formed
through platinum bushes from melts into single-strand
fiber.
silica brick. A refractory brick usually made from gan-
ister, and containing at least 90% silica, bonded with
hydrated lime and fired at a high temperature; charac-
terized by high strength at elevated temperatures, high
thermal conductivity, high abrasion resistance and poor
resistance to molten basic slags. Used in furnace and
kiln arches, such as the roofs of open-hearth furnaces,
caps of glass tanks, the crowns of copper reverberation
furnaces, etc. See ganister.
silica brick, drop-machine. See drop-machine silica
brick.
SILICA BRICK, SUPERDUTY
silica brick, superduty. See superduty silica brick.
silica cement, silica fireclay. A refractory mortar con-
sisting of a finely ground mixture of quartzite, silica
brick, and fireclay in various proportions.
silica flour. Finely ground quartz sand employed as an
additive in casting slips.
silica, free. See free silica.
silica fume. A by-product of silicon manufacture in the
form of Si02 with a mean particle size of 0.15!1m.
Typically the fume contains > 96% Si02 and < 0.2%
Fe203; used as a refractory filler in low-cement cas-
tables.
silica, fused. See fused f;lica.
silica gel. An amorphous, highly absorbent form of silica
made by the action of hydrochloric acid on sodium
silicate; hard, glossy, and quartzlike in appearance; a
regenerative drier.
silica glass. A transparent or translucent glass composed
almost entirely of high-purity quartz or sand, or by
hydrolysis of silicon tetrachloride. Also known as fused
silica, vitreous silica.
silica modulus. The ratio of Si02 to AI20 3 + Fe203 in
hydraulic cement.
silica refractory, fused. See fused silica refractory.
silica sand. Sand containing a very high percentage of
free silica.
silicate. A compound composed of silicon, oxygen, and
one or more metals. The structures are based on
(Si04)4- tetrahedra linked from zero to four comer
oxygens.
silicate bond. A type of bond consisting essentially of
sodium silicate matured by baking at a temperature of
approximately 260°C.
silicate classification. A structural classification based
on the number of shared oxygen ions per (Si04)4-
tetrahedron. Anyone tetrahedron may share from zero
to four oxygens with adjacent tetrahedra; this leads to
seven groups of silicates.
silicate grinding wheel. A grinding wheel in which the
abrasive grain is bonded with sodium silicate plus filler
materials.
silicate of soda. Na20·Si02; with ratios of Na20 and
Si02 varying widely, and with varying proportions of
water; used as a deflocculant in ceramic bodies, and as
a major component in air- and heat-curing cements.
silica, vitreous. See vitreous silica.
silica wash. A mold or core wash in which Si02 is the
main refractory component.
siliceous. Containing a high percentage of silica.
290
siliceous fireclay brick. Fireclay brick containing ap-
preciable quantities of uncombined silica, and which
usually is low in fluxing constituents.
silicic acid. Si(OH)4 or H 2Si0 3·nH 20; the monomeric
species that exists in aqueous solutions of silicon at pH
< 9. In the solid state it consists of a disordered 3-D
network of Si(OH)4 tetrahedra and H20 molecules;
occurs naturally in weathered sediments and it can be
made by heating sodium silicate solution with hydro-
chloric acid.
silicide resistor. A binary compound of silicon, usually
with a more electropositive element such as chromium
or molybdenum, which is used under conditions where
hardness and high resistance values are required.
silicides. Binary compounds of silicon, usually with a
more electropositive element or radical such as chro-
mium, molybdenum, titanium, etc.; used as abrasives,
refractories, semiconductors, etc.
silicon. Si; sp. gr. 2.0-2.49; mp 141Oo C; bp 2480°C; used
to make silicon-containing alloys as an intermediate for
silicon-containing compounds, and in transistors and
rectifiers.
silicon carbide. SiC; sublimes with decomposition at
about 2210°C; sp. gr. 3.'7; hardness depends on which
polymorph is being measured: a.-SiC has a hexagonal
structure in which the packing sequence of SiC4 and
CSi4 tetrahedra into covalently bonded layers is ABAB.
. .; ~-SiC has a cubic structure arising from an AB-
CABC ... layer sequence. Many intergrowth structures
of these two basic types are found, for example,
polytypes 6H, 15R, 4H, 21R, etc., in the Ramsdell
notation; hence, hardness v'lries from 25.9 to 36.5
GM m-2 depending on the polymorph and the method
of testing; average value of thermal expansion coeffi-
cient is 4.4 x 1O-{i up to 1400°C. It has very good thermal
conductivity and is a useful semiconductor. Made by
the Acheson process or by chemical vapor deposition;
used as heating elements, as a refractory because of its
excellent thermal-shock properties, as kiln furniture,
weld nozzles, combustion chambers, etc., also used in
light-emitting diodes to produce green or yellow light.
silicon carbide composites. Engineering materials in
which the SiC forms a matrix which is reinforced by
fibers or whiskers of materials, such as boron carbide,
B4C, silicon nitride, Si3N4, etc., or more commonly,
composites in which another matrix material is rein-
forced by SiC whiskers or fibers, such as AI20 r SiC,
etc. See silicon carbide fiber.
silicon carbide fiber. A good reinforcement for metallic
or ceramic matrices; made by either pyrolysis of poly-
carbosilane polymers or chemical vapor deposition
from hydrogen and methyichlorosilanes.
silicon carbide, green. See green silicon carbide.
silicon carbide refractories. Refractory products in
which silicon carbide is the predominant constituent;
characterized by high thermal-shock resistance, wear
resistance, and chemical resistance.
 291
silicon carbide-silicon carbide composites. S hap e s
formed by chemical vapor infiltration of silicon carbide
fiber mats by methylchlorosilane and hydrogen. Main-
tain high strength above 1000°C, where values of 750
MN m-2 have been reported.
silicon carbonitride fiber. Si2N2CO.8300.2S; an amor-
phous fiber prepared by pyrolysis of a spun hydri-
dopolysilazane polymer; stable to 1400°C; diameter
10-12 11m; Young's modulus between 180 and 240
GNm-2.
silicon diode. A crystalline diode in which silicon is the
semiconductor.
silicon dioxide. See silica.
silicone. Any of a number of polymers containing alter-
nate silicon and oxygen atoms whose properties are
determined by the organic groups attached to the silicon
atoms; the silicones are fluid, resinous, rubbery, water
repellant, and stable at high temperatures; employed as
mold-release compounds, as a sealant for porous ceram-
ics, and as a coating for glass and other ceramics to
improve scratch resistance, chemical durability, and
strength. Now used in mold block forming shops to
great effect. They are also good matrices for inorganic
fiber reinforcement because of high strength at elevated
temperature along with good electrical properties.
silicone elastomer. Polysiloxanes with cross-link
groups bestowing rubberlike properties.
silicon ester. An organic silicate sometimes used as a
ceramic binder.
silicon monoxide. SiO; stable only at high temperatures
in the vapor phase. On condensing it dis proportionates
to give an amorphous mixture of Si0 2 + Si which is a
hard, abrasive, amorphous solid employed as a thin
surface film to protect optical parts, mirrors, and the
like.
silicon nitride. Si 3N4; sublimes at > 1871°C; sp. gr.
3.18; two polymorphs exist: the a-form which is hex-
agonal and has a structure formed from SiN4 tetrahedra
and Si3N planar groups bonded covalently in three
dimensions; a-Si3N4 transforms irreversibly on heating
to the more common ~-Si3N4 polymorph which is also
hexagonal; hardness (Vickers) 19.6 to 34.4 GNm-2;
exhibits high resistance to thermal shock and chemi-
cals; used as a catalyst support and for stator blades in
high-temperature gas turbines.
silicon oxynitride. Si 20N2; a stable refractory; used as
plates, crucibles, and tubes for the fusing of salts and
nonferrous metals.
silicon tetrachloride. SiCI4; a liquid boiling around
100°C which when hydrolyzed is a source of pure silica
for use in the production of silica glass.
silicosis. A lung disease caused by inhalation of siliceous
particles.
silk-screen printing. A decorating process in which de-
sign is printed on glass, glazes, porcelain-enamels, and
other surfaces through a tightly stretched silk mesh,
SILVER NITRATE
woven wire, or similar screen by means of a rubber
squeegee, the areas not to be coated being blocked by a
suitable resist medium.
silky luster. A surface appearance of a ceramic or min-
erai that gleams like silk.
sill. The horizontal member of a structure forming the
bottom of a furnace door.
sillimanite. A120Si04; a glossy brown or green to white
mineral of needle habit; decomposes at 1545°C to form
mullite and silica; on further heating to 1810°C it forms
corundum and glass; sp. gr. 3.23; hardness (Mohs) 6-7;
used in special porcelains, refractories, pyrometric
tubes, chemical laboratory ware, and patching com-
pounds for furnaces.
sillimanite refractory. A refractory shape in which sil-
limanite is the predominant ingredient.
silo. A tall, cylindrical structure in which large quantities
of powder or granulate raw materials are stored and
dispensed.
silt. (1) Particle size classification of minerals denoting
particles in the size range 53 down to 211m. (2) Sedi-
mentary rock particles in the above size range.
Siltemp. A commercially available continuous silica,
Si02, fiber; sp. gr. 2.2.
silt test. A test used to determine the amount of very fine
particles, < 0.05 mm diameter, in sand because too
much silt produces cement-mortar tiles of low strength.
A sand-l % sodium chloride solution, suspension is left
to settle for 3 h; the silt is the volume between the settled
sand and the clear solution when viewed in a glass
measuring cylinder.
silver. Ag; mp 961°C; bp 2212°C; sp. gr. 10.53; em-
ployed in precipitated, powdered, fluxed, or paste form
as a decoration for pottery, glass, and porcelain-enam-
eled ware, as a soft solder, and as an electrical contact
material.
silver carbonate. Ag2C0 3; mp 230°C; decomposes at
270°C; used to produce iridescent stains or sheens on
glazes.
silver chloride. AgCI; mp 455°C; bp 1550°C; sp. gr.
6.077; employed in yellow glazes, purple of Cassius,
and silver lusters.
silver deposit work. The use of electrolysis to apply a
relatively thick deposit of silver as part of a design on
glass.
silvering. A chemical application of a film of silver,
either directly or by the reduction of a silver compound,
onto a glass surface for electrical and light-reflection
applications.
silver marking. Gray marks on glazes made by the abra-
sion of cutlery.
silver nitrate. AgN0 3; mp 212°C; decomposes at
444°C; sp. gr. 4.328; used in glass manufacture, as a
SILVER OXIDE
yellow colorant in glazes, and as a silvering compound
for mirrors.
silver oxide. Ag20; decomposes above 300°C; sp. gr.
7.14; used as a yellow colorant in glass and glazes, and
as a glass polishing material.
silver sand. Colloquial name for quartz sand. See quartz
sand.
silver solder. An alloy of silver, copper, and zinc having
a melting point lower than that of silver but above that
of lead-tin solders; used in making ceramic-metal seals.
silver telluride. See hessite.
similarity exponent. See fractal dimension.
similarity ratio. See fractal dimension.
SIMS. Acronym for secondary ion mass spectrometry;
an image-depth-profiling technique where ion images
are sequentially recorded as a sample is sputtered. In-
sulating ceramics have to be metal coated to prevent
sample charging. Depth resolution as good as 10 nm can
be achieved over a 1 11m cross section. The method can
be used to assess composition variability.
simulated annealing algorithm. Computational proce-
dures for generating crystal structures by simulating the
cooling of a system from high temperatures.
Singer test of glaze fit. A glaze is placed in an unfired
dish, fired to normal maturing temperature, and exam-
ined for defects.
single-chain silicates. Each (Si04)4- tetrahedron in the
structure shares two oxygens to create a giant negatively
charged ion of linear shape. The chain molecular ions
are aligned and held together by metal cations on sites
adjacent to the chains. This structure has considerable
anisotropy.
single-circuit winding. A winding of reinforcing fiber
in which the filament goes completely around the cham-
ber and then the following traverse goes immediately
adjacent to that one.
single-crystal alumina. Crystals of high-purity alumina,
each grain being essentially a single complete crystal,
produced by recrystallization from a molten bath. See
corundum.
single embossing. A process in which a design is worked
on a glass surface by a white acid treatment followed
by one further treatment so that two visible shades are
produced.
single fire. The process of maturing an unfired body and
glaze or a multiple coating of porcelain-enamel in a
single firing operation.
single load. Stress applied to a body in only one direc-
tion.
single-roll crusher. A crushing apparatus consisting of
a corrugated or toothed rotating cylinder which pinches
material against stationary bars or plates.
292
single-screened ground refractory material. A refrac-
tory material that contains its original gradation of
particle sizes resulting from crushing, grinding, or both,
minus particles coarser than a specified size.
single-shell tile. A tile with only one outer surface.
single-strength glass. Sheet glass of a thickness between
2.16 and 2.55 mm; used in windows, picture frames, and
other applications where great strength is not a major
requirement.
single-table machine. In glassmaking it is a machine
where all the molds are attached to one table which is
circular and rotates.
single-toggle jaw crusher. A mechanical apparatus in
which solid materials are crushed by passing between
two jaws, one oscillating and the other stationary.
sinkhead. A reservoir of ceramic slip or molten metal
placed above a ceramic or metal casting, respectively,
to supply additional material as the casting solidifies
and shrinks.
sinter, sintering. (I) The bonding of powder compacts
by the application of heat to enable one or more of
several mechanisms of atom movement into the particle
contact interfaces to occur; the mechanisms are: viscous
flow, liquid phase solution-precipitation, surface diffu-
sion, bulk diffusion, and evaporation-condensation.
The overall process can occur with or without densifi-
cation of the compact, but conditions are usually chosen
to encourage the mechanism that results in densification
as well as in bonding across interfaces. (2) The product
of a sintering process. (3) A synonym for cinder. (4) A
gray-white porous incrustation of silica that is deposited
from hot springs.
sinterable powder. A powder or compact of powder in
which the bonding of adjacent surfaces of the particles
may be accomplished by heating; the driving force is
the large surface area decrease that can be achieved.
sintered alumina. A commonly coarse crystalline, but
sometimes microcrystalline, abrasive formed by sinter-
ing mixtures relatively high in alumina but usually
containing associated minerals such as diaspore and
various silicates. It is produced by heating 99.5% AI 20 3
material beyond 1980°C for a time sufficient to achieve
100% conversion to the a-form. The powder consists
of crystals with a tabletlike habit. Used, because of its
high density, abrasion resistance, high mechanical and
dielectric strength, in high-quality refractories, abra-
sives, spark plugs, machine tools, ceramic-metal seals,
and protective refractory coatings. Can be made trans-
lucent by sintering with zirconia, zr0 2 , to restrict grain
growth. See Lucalox.
sintered filter. A porous article of sintered material such
as glass, silica, or other ceramic employed as a filter
medium to separate particulate matter from liquids.
sintered glass. A porous article in which particles of
glass of selected or random sizes are compacted and
sintered to produce a bonded, but unsealed, item of
 293
desired shape and strength sufficient for an intended
use, such as aeration, filtration, etc.
sintered pellet. A briquet or compact, usually cylindri-
cal, formed by pressing a powder in a die and then
sintering.
sinter-HIP. A process whereby the sample is sintered in
situ in the HIP equipment under vacuum until a closed
pore structure is achieved and then HIPed without prior
removal to apply a surface coating.
sintering furnace. Any furnace in which materials are
sintered. See sinter.
sintering, pressure. See pressure sintering.
sin tern. The process or product obtained by heating a
ceramic or a mixture of ceramics to a coherent mass
without melting.
sinter point. The temperature at which a clay ceases to
be porous.
siporex. A slurry of sand, aluminum powder, and lime or
cement cast into molds to produce roofing slabs, wall
blocks, and other building materials of high sound and
heat insulation capacity.
SI units. The internationally accepted coherent system
of units for all scientific purposes; based on kilogram,
meter, second dimensions.
size. (1) Any of various glutinous materials, varnishes,
resins, etc., employed as a surface treatment to render
desired properties to the surfaces of glass, ceramics, and
molds; usually resistance to abrasion is the desired
effect. (2) The representative dimension that best de-
scribes the extent in space of a particle or agglomerate.
size analysis. The determination of the proportion of par-
ticles of a particular size range in a granular or pow-
dered sample.
skewback. The course of brick having a beveled or in-
clined face from which an arch is sprung. See sprung
arch.
skew brick. A brick having one surface beveled or in-
clined, at an angle other than 90°, to at least two other
faces.
skew edge. A brick having one side inclined at an angle
other than 90° to the ends.
skid. A movable platform on which materials or ware are
placed for handling and moving.
skim coat. A thin finish coating of plaster consisting of
a putty of lime and fine white sand.
skim gate. A barrier in a glass-melting tank which traps
and prevents slag, scum, and unmelted materials from
entering the firing chamber of the tank.
skimmer block, skimmer gate. A refractory gate or
wall designed in a glass tank, porcelain-enamel,
smelter, or similar furnace to prevent slag and impuri-
SLAG
ties from passing into the feeder channel or smelting
chamber.
skimming pocket. An area in a glass-melting tank from
which slags and other impurities may be removed from
the surface of the molten mass.
skin blister. A defect in a glass container consisting of
an oval surface blister anywhere on the surface and
capable of being broken.
skin depth. Radio-frequency currents flow in the surface
layers of conductors penetrating only to a depth known
as the skin depth; it is defined as that depth where the
magnetic field strength is lie of its surface value.
skin tIe. (I) The placement of brick in an irregular pattern
so that they are out of alignment with the face. (2) The
placement of brick in a kiln in an oblique position to the
courses above and below.
skip hoist. An apparatus employed to raise materials to
an elevated level for storage or use.
skittle pot. A small, refractory glass-melting pot.
skiving. The shaving, grinding, or machining of thin
layers of excess material in the finishing of spark plugs,
insulators, and other ceramic products prior to firing.
skull. (I) The sintered shell of oxide adhering to a water-
cooled container within which molten oxide of the same
composition is contained and from which crystals are
grown inwards from the skull in the skull melting proc-
ess. (2) The solidified material or dross remaining in a
vessel after its contents have been poured.
skull melting process. See skull.
sky firing. Completing the firing of an updraft bisque
kiln by inserting and burning wood slivers in the top of
the kiln to increase the draft.
skylight. (I) Flat or appropriately contoured glass in-
stalled at an angle greater than 15° from the vertical in
a building. (2) A glazed opening in a roof to admit light.
skylight glass. Plate glass of very poor quality.
slab. A section of concrete laid as a single unjointed unit.
slabbing. (1) The breaking away of a layer of refractory
from the roof of a furnace or kiln. (2) The forming of
ware, usually square or rectangular, from sheets of
damp, plastic clay, the joints being sealed by a clay
slurry.
slab glass. Optical glass obtained by forming or cutting
chunk glass into plates or slabs of suitable size for future
processing.
slag. (I) The partially fused mixture of spilled batch,
overflowed glass, breeze coal, and clay from the floor
of a pot furnace or glass tank. (2) Material formed by
the fusion of oxides in a metallurgical process or the
fused reaction product between a refractory and a flux.
(3) A nonmetallic by-product of steel blast furnaces
which is crushed and sized for use as concrete aggre-
SLAG, AIR-COOLED BLAST-FURNACE
gate. Known as slag sand in this application. (4) An
electric furnace by-product in the manufacture of phos-
phate which may be used as a source of alumina in the
manufacture of glass. (5) A pozzolanic material some-
times used in the production of portland cement.
slag, air-cooled blast-furnace. See air-cooled blast-fur-
nace slag.
slag. blast-furnace. See blast-furnace slag.
slag cement. A hydraulic cement consisting essentially
of an intimate and uniform blend of granulated blast-
furnace slag and hydrated lime in which the slag con-
stituent is more than a specified minimum percentage.
slagging of refractories. A destructive chemical reac-
tion between refractories and external agencies at high
temperatures resulting in the formation of a liquid.
slag line. A horizontal line formed along the refractory
wall of a glass, metal, or similar melting tank which is
caused by the erosion and corrosion of the refractories
at the air-refractory-batch interface.
slag notch. An opening in the hearth to permit the flow
of slag from a blast furnace.
slag, phosphate. See phosphate slag.
slag pocket. A refractory-lined area constructed at the
bottom of a melting tank to prevent entry of slag and
impurities into a regenerator.
slag sand. Finely crushed slag used in cement and mor-
tars. See slag (3).
slaking. The disintegration or crumbling of materials
when exposed to or saturated with water and air.
slate. A dense fine-grained metamorphic mineral which
breaks into thin sheets or slabs; used as a flooring
material, roofing material, abrasive, blackboards, etc.
slater's cement. A water-resistant caulking compound,
usually gray in color, used to cover exposed bolt heads,
the side and end laps of corrugated roofing, and other
areas to prevent penetration of water.
sleek. A fine, scratch like, smooth-boundaried imperfec-
tion in glass usually caused by a foreign particle in the
polishing medium during the polishing operation.
sleeper block. The refractory blocks forming the sides of
the throat of the submerged passage between the melt-
ing and working ends of a glass tank.
sleeper wall. The refractory walls of the submerged pas-
sage between the melting and working ends of a glass
tank.
sleeve brick. Tube-shaped firebrick; used for lining slag
vents.
sleeves. Tubular fireclay shapes that encase an immersed
metal rod in the valve assembly of a bottom-pouring
ladle.
sleeve, wheel. See wheel sleeve.
294
sleeving. Cylindrically formed reinforcement, either
braided, knitted, or woven, having a width less than 10.2
cm.
slide conveyor. A trough or chute for the downward
movement of materials under gravitational pull.
slide-off transfer. A printed decoration which, when
wet, may be slipped from its backing to the surface of
ware being decorated, and which subsequently mayor
may not be fired. See decal.
slide potentiometer. A potentiometer which employs a
sliding contact along a length of resistance wire to
regulate the voltage in the wire in temperature measur-
ing and control instruments. See potentiometer.
sliding. A porcelain-enamel defect similar to sagging in
which patches of the coating slip or slide during drain-
age to produce a coating of uneven thickness.
sliding-bat kiln. A type of tunnel kiln in which ware is
placed on tile or slabs and pushed mechanically or
manually through the firing zone.
sliding contact. An electrical or other contact which ac-
complishes its function while sliding against its mating
contact.
slinger process. A forming process in which a wet batch
is thrown on a pallet, formed into a column, cut to shape,
dried, and fired.
slip. (I) A suspension or slurry of finely divided ceramic
materials in a liquid. (2) Movement of crystallographic
planes over each other to cause deformation under
stress.
slip casting. A forming process in the manufacture of
shaped articles in which the material to be cast is ground
and mixed to a creamy slurry with water and then
poured into plaster molds which rapidly absorb the
added water, producing a solid body shaped to the inside
of the mold; when the wall thickness of the cast item is
attained, the excess slurry is poured from the mold and
the cast item is dried to sufficient strength for safe
handling before removing it from the mold for further
processing.
slip clay. A clay having a high percentage of fluxing
impurities which fuse at a relatively low temperature to
produce a natural glaze; characterized by a fine-grained
structure and low firing shrinkage.
slip coating. A ceramic or mixture, other than a glaze,
which is applied and fired on a ceramic body, to develop
specific characteristics or properties.
slip form. A sliding form that produces a continuous
placement of concrete as the form is moved along either
vertically, as in a silo, or horizontally, as for a canal
lining.
slip glaze. A glaze consisting primarily of readily fusible
clay or silt and other ingredients blended to a creamy
consistency in water.
 295
sliphouse. The room or area in a factory where ceramic
slips are prepared and stored for subsequent use.
slip kiln. A structure, consisting of suitable containers,
which employs waste heat to dry or reduce the water
content of slurries.
slip, mechanical. See mechanical slip.
slippage. (I) The movement of parts being bonded to-
gether with respect to each other during bonding. (2)
The power lost in a mechanical device as a result of
slipping.
slip plane. A crystal plane where atoms move past each
other by sliding distances of many atomic diameters
along a simple crystallographic direction [uvwJ.
slip process. A method of preparing a ceramic body in
which water is added to dry-blended bodies in a quantity
sufficient to produce a fluid suspension for use as such
or for subsequent processing.
slip ring. A metal ring mounted on a rotating shaft of a
motor, while being insulated from it by a ceramic ring,
through which current can be passed.
slip stain. A stain incorporated in a glaze or slip instead
of in the body as a means of reducing the amount of
colorant needed to get the desired effect.
slipstone. A small slender abrasi ve stone used to remove
blemishes from the surface of ceramic ware and to
sharpen metal tools.
slip trailer. A device used to squeeze out or flow lines of
slip onto a clay surface.
slip trailing. A process of forming a pattern on a clay
surface by flowing or squeezing viscous slip through a
fine orifice onto the surface of the ware.
slip, vitreous. See vitreous slip.
slipware. Pottery decorated by the application and firing
of slips.
sliver. (I) Bundles of noncontinuous or short-length
glass fibers that have reached the stage of fabrication
into yarn wherein they are parallel, overlapping, and
have no twist. (2) A long, slender piece or splinter.
slop. A homogeneous slurry of glaze ingredients and
water applied to ware by dipping, spraying, or brushing.
slope. The incline of a roof expressed as a ratio of the
number of inches or millimeters of vertical rise per
horizontal foot or meter.
slop weight. The weight of a unit volume of a slop.
slotting wheel. A thin grinding wheel, usually organic
bonded, used for cutting grooves or slots in a workpiece.
slow wheel. The practice of perfecting the surface of a
handmade article by turning it on a rotating base such
as a plate, wood block, or sherd.
SMART COMPOSITES
SLS. Abbreviation for selecti ve laser sintering; a process
involving selective sintering of successive layers of
powder stacked on top of each other by a laser beam.
sludge. A semi-solid waste or collection of settlings from
a process.
sludge pan, sludge pit. A container or area in which
sludge is collected for subsequent recycling or disposal.
slug. (I) Any non-fibrous glass inclusion in a glass-fiber
product. (2) A geometric shape made by pressing and
which is fed to the granulation step of processing. (3) A
small roughly shaped article for subsequent processing.
(4) A length of clay extruded from a pug mill.
slugged bottom. An imperfection in the bottom of a
bottle or container in which the glass is heavy, or thick
on one side and very light or thin on the opposite side.
slug press. The process of initial compaction of fine
powders prior to granulation or subsequent processing.
slum. Fireclay containing a substantial amount of fine
coal particles as an impurity.
slump. (I) To drop, sag, or slide down suddenly. (2) A
measure of the fluidity, softness, or wetness of fresh
concrete determined by measuring the number of cen-
timeters a sample slumps or settles when a conical form
is removed from the sample.
slumping. Deformation of an extruded shape under its
own weight after extrusion and before burn out.
slump test. A measure of the consistency of a porcelain-
enamel, glaze, or other slip or slurry, made by spreading
a specified volume of slip over a flat plate.
slurry. A mixture or suspension of ground frits, clays, or
other ceramic materials in water or other liquid.
slush. A grout made of portland cement, sand, and water
mixed to a relatively think slurry which may be poured,
slushed, or spread over a surface area.
slushing. The coating of ware by dipping, shaking, or
spinning to obtain a uniform distribution of slip and to
remove excess material from the surface of the ware.
small-angle grain boundary. A grain boundary formed
when neighboring crystals rotate by less than 5° relative
to each other about the z-axis. This operation generates
a sheet of parallel edge dislocations of the same sign
along the x-axis and spaced at h along the y-axis; h is
obtained from: e =2tan- 1(b/2h ), where e is the boundary
angle and b is the B urgers vector.
smalt. A blue pigment for glass and other ceramics con-
sisting of fused cobalt oxide, sand, and potash.
smart composites. A colloquial expression for compos-
ite structures containing optical fibers dispersed among
the reinforcing fibers. The optical fibers allow changes
in strain, temperature, and crack propagation to be
automatically monitored; used in association with a
computer in aircraft wing structures.
SMART STRUCTURES
smart structures. Mechanical structures in which light-
weight fiber-type sensors are embedded in order to
detect stress and other changes during operation of the
system. Optical fibers and piezoelectric sheets are most
commonly used.
smear. (I) A material spread over a surface or the process
of spreading a material over a surface. (2) A surface
crack on the neck of glass bottles.
smectic. (I) A mesomorphic state, such as a liquid crys-
tal, in which the molecules are oriented in layers. (2) A
major class of liquid crystal which possess both longi-
tudinal and positional order.
smectite. Montmorillonitic clays characterized by swel-
ling and high cation-exchange properties. See mont-
morillonite.
smelt. (I) A specific batch or lot of frit. (2) The process
of melting a batch of frit.
smelter. A refractory-lined furnace or tank in which the
ingredients of a frit are melted.
smelter, batch. See batch smelter.
smelter, continuous. See continuous smelter.
smelter drippings. Drippings of molten glassy material
from an accumulation of the material on the crown of a
smelter.
smelter, rotary. See rotary smelter.
SMES. Acronym for superconducting magnetic energy
storage system.
smithsonite. See zinc carbonate.
smoke. (I) Streaked areas in flat glass appearing as slight
discolorations. (2) Glass covered with a smoky film
from open-fired lehrs.
smoked glass. Commercial glassware produced in gray
or smoky-brown colors, sometimes by chemical addi-
tions to the glass and sometimes by exposure to a
reducing atmosphere during melting and cooling.
smoking. (I) The slow preheating of a kiln. (2) A reduc-
ing kiln atmosphere.
smoking, water. See water smoking.
smoky inclusions. Dispersed metal oxide inclusions in
mica which appear in various pastel colors when ob-
served in transmitted light.
Smoluchowski equation. Used to interpret the kinetics
of colloidal particle aggregation as an equation of irre-
versible reaction: [i] + [j] « [i + j]. It has the form
L.
dc,jdt = 1;'2 L.
kijCjCj - kjljCk'
i+j=k
smooth. Finely ground.
smooth-finish tile. Tile and other surfaces which are not
altered or marked during manufacture, and which retain
the plane surface as formed by the die.
296
smooth glass. A finely ground glass surface ready for
polishing.
smoothing mill. A machine equipped with a fine-
grained polishing wheel for the beveling of glass.
smooth roll. A crusher in which material is passed be-
tween a rotating set of smooth rolls.
smother kiln. A kiln into which smoke can be intro-
duced for the blackening of pottery.
SMP. Abbreviation for the secondary maximum of per-
meability; the orbital magnetic moment in a solid ferrite
is sometimes not totally quenched and so it interacts
with the spin moment to create anisotropy of magneti-
zation. The interaction is temperature dependent and the
temperature at which k J becomes zero corresponds to a
maximum in the temperature dependence of permeabil-
ity which is the SMP.
snag. A composite-cloth reinforcement defect caused by
pulling yarns or filaments from a fabric surface.
snagging. The removal of defects and excess materials
from ware, such as gates, sprues, fins, parting lines, and
the like by the use of a grinding wheel.
snagging, automatic. See automatic snagging.
snagging resistance. The resistance a weave type gives
to a fabric to the formation of a snag.
snake, snaking. (I) The progressive longitudinal crack-
ing in continuous flat-glass operation. (2) The variation
in the width of a sheet during the drawing of sheet glass.
snakeskin glaze. A decorati ve effect on pottery obtained
by using glazes of high surface tension or very low
expansion, causing the glaze to crawl during firing to
produce an appearance of snakeskin.
snap. A device for gripping a piece of formed glass for
fire polishing and finishing.
snap header. A building brick of half the standard
length, roughly 6 x 10.2 x 10.2 cm.
Snell's law. A definition of the refractive index of a
material given as: n = si!l(j>/sin$', where n is the refrac-
tive index, $ is the angle of incidence of the light and
$' is the angle of refraction.
soak, soaking. (I) Holding a kiln at a constant tempera-
ture for a long period of time. (2) Maintaining a kiln at
maximum firing temperature to obtain a desired degree
of chemical or physical reaction in a body being fired.
(3) To immerse a material or body in a liquid to obtain
thorough wetting.
soaking heat. A conditioning stage where a specimen is
completely immersed in an atmosphere at a controlled
temperature.
soaking pit. A conditioning furnace in which molten
glass is brought to a uniform temperature for casting.
soak period. The time ceramic ware remains at peak
temperature during its firing.
 297
soap brick. A brick modified so that the width is one-
half the standard dimension. See standard brick.
soapstone. Mg3Si 40lQ(OHh; impure talc; sp. gr. 2.7-
2.8; hardness (Mohs) 1-1.5; generally known in the
industry as steatite or massive talc. See talc.
socket. An opening or hollow that forms a holder into
which an item is inserted.
soda. Any of the forms of sodium carbonate, sodium
bicarbonate, or sodium hydroxide. Expressed as Na20
equivalent.
soda ash. Commercial grade of Na2C03; decomposes at
852°C; sp. gr. 2.53; used as a fluxing component in
glass, porcelain-enamels, and glazes, and as a neutral-
izer in the treatment of metals for porcelain enameling.
soda-lime glass. Glass containing approximately 72%
Si0 2 (sand), 15% NazO (soda ash, sodium nitrate, so-
dium sulfate), and 9% CaO (limestone, dolomite); used
for window and plate glass, containers, art objects, light
bulbs, and industrial products.
sodalite. Nas[(Al,Si)0416(X m)2-. xH20; a zeolite cage-
structure aluminosilicate where Si04 and AI04 tetrahe-
dra share all comers with the X 2- anions being found in
the cage centers. A rapid cation exchanger and a good
fast ionic conductor.
soda niter. NaN0 3; sodium nitrate; mp 308°C; sp. gr.
2.27; hardness (Mohs) 1.5-2.0; employed in glass, por-
celain-enamels, and glazes as an oxidizing agent and
flux.
sodium aluminate. NaAl0 2; mp 1650°C; employed in
porcelain-enamel and glaze slips to improve suspension
and working properties, and in the production of milk
glass because of its opacifying or obscuration proper-
ties.
sodium aluminum borosilicate. See tourmaline.
sodium antimonate. NaSbO z; stable to 1427"C; used as
an opacifier and high-temperature oxidizing agent in
porcelain-enamels, as a fining and decolorizing agent
in glass, and as yellow colorant in glazes.
sodium bicarbonate. NaHC0 3; used as a deflocculating
agent, as a body wash to improve body-glaze reactions,
and as a metal cleaning agent in solutions.
sodium bifluoride. NaHFz; an etchant for glass.
sodium bisulfate. NaHS04; used in the manufacture of
brick and magnesia cements, and as a flux to decompose
minerals.
sodium borate. Na zB40?,IOH zO. See borax.
sodium carbonate. NaZC0 3; decomposes at 852°C; sp.
gr. 2.53; used as a flux in glass, glazes, and enamels,
and as an acid neutralizer in the treatment of metals for
porcelain-enamels.
sodium carboxymethylcellulose. Employed as a thick-
ener and binder in bodies and glazes.
SODIUM NITRITE
sodium chloride (common salt). NaCl; mp 804°C; sp.
gr. 2.161; used in the production of salt glazes on some
types of ceramic ware. See salt glaze.
sodium cyanide. NaCN; mp 563°C; employed as an ad-
dition to improve the performance of neutralizer baths
in preparing steels for porcelain-enameling.
sodium dichromate. Na2CrZ0?,2H20; mp 320°C; de-
composes at 400°C; sp. gr. 2.52; an orange-yellow
colorant for glazes and porcelain-enamels.
sodium diuranate. Na ZU20 T 6H 20; a yellow-orange
pigment used in bodies, glazes, and porcelain-enamels;
also used in the manufacture of fluorescent uranium
glass.
sodium fluoride. NaF; mp 993°C; sp. gr. 2.76; used as a
flux and as a gas or bubble-type opacifier in porcelain-
enamels.
sodium fluosilicate. Na2SiF6; decomposes at red heat;
sp. gr. 2.7; employed as a flux and opacifier in porce-
lain-enamels, and as an opalizer in glass.
sodium gold chloride. NaAuCI 4·2H 20; used in the
decoration of glass and ceramics.
sodium hexametaphosphate. Na6P601S; used as a
bonding agent in refractory mortars.
sodium metagermanate. NaZGe03; mp 1078°C; used in
special glasses and in electronic devices such as diode
rectifiers and transistors.
sodium metasilicate. NazSi0 3; mp 1089°C; employed
to clean drawing compounds from the surface of metals
prior to porcelain-enameling and also employed in ce-
ments, concrete hardeners, mortars, and abrasive
wheels primarily as a binder and deflocculating ingre-
dient.
sodium metatantalate. NaTa03; mp 630°C; a ferroelec-
tric material crystallizing in a perovskite ilmenite struc-
ture having a Curie point of 475°C.
sodium-4-mica. Na4Mg6Al4Si40zoF4; a fluorophlo-
gopite made by the sol-gel process which has a great
preference for strontium ions so that it extracts them
from solution and traps them as the structure collapses;
proposed as a way of safely disposing of radioactive
strontium.
sodium molybdate. Na2Mo04; mp 687°C; sp. gr. 3.28;
employed as a deflocculant, adherence promoter, and
rust inhibitor in porcelain-enameling.
sodium niobate. NaNb0 3; a ferroelectric material hav-
ing a Curie point of 360°C.
sodium nitrate. See soda niter.
sodium nitrite. NaN0 2 ; mp 271°C; decomposes above
320°C; sp. gr. 2.15-2.17; employed as a metal cleaner,
acid neutralizer, rust inhibitor, and tear-resistant addi-
tive in porcelain-enamel slips.
SODIUM PENTABORATE
sodium pentaborate. Na2BIOOI6·lOH20; sp. gr. 1.72;
used as a flux in glass manufacture.
sodium perborate. NaB0 2·H20 2·3H20; sodium
metaborate with both hydrogen peroxide and water of
crystallization; a white crystalline material; used as a
deodorant.
sodium peroxide. Na202; a yellowish-white solid
formed when sodium burns in oxygen; used as a deo-
dorant, a bleaching agent, and for removing carbon
dioxide from gas streams.
sodium phosphate. (1) A general term for many com-
pounds of sodium and phosphorus. (2)
Na2HP04·12H20; mp 35°C; loses 5 H20 on exposure
to air at ordinary temperatures and lOH 20 at 100°C;
employed in the production of opalescent glass, in the
purification of clays, as a water conditioner, and as a
deflocculant in porcelain-enamels and glazes.
sodium polyacrylate. A low-molecular-weight, short-
chain, deflocculant used in sanitary ware slip casting.
sodium pyrophosphate. Na4P207; mp 988°C; sp. gr.
1.82; employed in aqueous solutions as a metal cleaner
for porcelain-enamels, as an electrolyte to adjust and
control the viscosity and flow characteristics of porce-
lain-enamels and other slips and slurries.
sodium rhenanite. CaNaP04; an intergranular bonding
phase formed when magnesite and chrome-magnesite
refractories are bonded with compositions containing
sodium hexametaphosphate, Na6P601S.
sodium selenite. Na2Se03; sp. gr. 3; used in small
amounts as a decolorizer in glass, and in larger concen-
trations to produce rose and ruby colors in glass, porce-
lain-enamels, and glazes.
sodium silicate. See sodium metasilicate and water
glass.
sodium silicofluoride. Na2SiF6; decomposes at red
heat; sp. gr. 2.7; employed as a flux and opacifier in
porcelain-enamels and to produce opalescence in glass.
sodium stannate. Na2Sn03·3H20; used as a source of
tin oxide as an opacifier in glass, porcelain-enamels,
and glazes.
sodium sulfate. Na2S04; mp 888°C; sp. gr. 2.67; used in
glazes and glass as a source of sodium oxide and as an
anti-scumming agent. Occurs naturally as the mineral
thenardite and as the decahydrate when it is known as
Glauber's salt.
sodium tannate. A sodium salt of tannic acid; used as a
deflocculating agent.
sodium tantalate. See sodium metatantalate.
sodium thiosulfate. Na2S203; a white soluble salt used
as a fixer to dissolve silver salts in photography.
sodium uranate. Na2U04; mp 1646°C; used as a yel-
low-orange colorant for glass, porcelain-enamels, and
298
glazes, and in the production of fluorescence in uranium
glasses.
sodium uranyl carbonate. Na4U02(C03h; used in the
production of fluorescent greenish-yellow glass.
sodium vanadate. Na3V04; mp 866°C; a ferroelectric
material having a Curie point of 330°C.
sodium vapor lamp. A glass tube containing neon and a
low pressure of sodium vapor through which an electric
current is passed to give an orange-colored light.
sodium zirconium phosphate. A general description of
several phases formed by fusing Na2C03' zr02, and
Na4P04; all the phases have ultralow thermal expan-
sivities. One in particular has been developed for use in
advanced heat engines: NaZr2(P04h. See NZP.
soffit. (1) The underside of a structural component.
(2) The upper, inner surface of a drain.
soft. A term applied to a clay, glaze, porcelain-enamel,
or glass that is fusible at a relatively low temperature.
soft-burned. Clay-based products fired at low tempera-
tures.
softener. A substance added to another to increase its
pliability or plasticity.
softening point. The temperature at which a glass fiber
elongates at a specific rate under the stress of its own
mass, when tested according to ASTM method C-338.
The viscosity of glass at its softening point depends on
the density and surface tension, but it is the tempera-
ture where the glass has a viscosity of 106.6 N s m-2.
softening temperature. The temperature, under speci-
fied conditions, at which porcelain-enamel or frit begins
to flow.
soft fire. A flame with a deficiency of air.
soft-fired ware. Clay products fired at a relatively low
temperature, resulting in ware of relatively high absorp-
tions and low compressive strengths.
soft glass. (I) A glass having a relatively low softening
point or which easily melted. (2) A glass which is easily
scratched or abraded.
soft mica. Mica which tends to delaminate when bent.
soft-mud brick, soft-mud process. Molded brick
formed by machine, or frequently by hand, from wet
soft clay bodies containing 20 to 30% water.
softness. A porcelain-enamel surface of relatively low
resistance to abrasion or scratching, or a surface pro-
duced by firing at a relatively low temperature.
soft paste. A relatively low-fired china produced from a
body containing a glassy frit and a considerable quantity
of fluxes. Also known as pate tendre.
soft soap. Potash soap used as a parting compound in the
making of plaster molds.
 299
software. The program that can be used with a particular
computer system.
soilability. The relative ease with which dirt and other
extraneous matter becomes attached to or builds up on
the surface of a material.
soil cement. A compacted mixture of soil, cement, and
water used to adjust the engineering properties of the
soil.
soil pipe. A pipe used to convey sewage; often of a
ceramic composition.
sol. (l) A colloid dispersion of solid particles called the
disperse phase in a liquid, called the dispersion me-
dium; at least one dimension of the particle of solid is
between I nm and I 11m and typically they contain
103_109 atoms. Sols are the precursors of ultrapure,
ultrafine powders made by the sol-gel process. (2)
Abbreviation for soluble. (3) Abbreviation for solution.
solar cell. A voltaic cell, often based on silicon, which
produces electricity from the sun's rays.
solar furnace. An image-type furnace in which high
temperatures are produced by using concave mirrors to
focus rays from the sun into a relatively small space.
solarization. A change in the transmission or color of
glass when the glass is exposed to sunlight or other
strong radiation.
solar screen. A structure which blocks or diminishes the
influence of the rays of the sun.
solder-sealing glass. A sealing glass having a relatively
low softening temperature; used as an intermediate
bonding material.
solder, silver. See silver solder.
soldier block. A refractory block installed on its end so
as to extend below the depth of molten glass in a glass
tank or ladle.
soldier course. A course of refractory brick set on end in
the bottoms of some types of ladles, furnaces, and glass
tanks.
sole. The refractory brickwork forming the bed of a coke
oven.
solenoid. An assembly consisting of a coil of metal wire
wound around a metal, usually iron, core, which slides
along the coil axis under the influence of a magnetic
field; used to convert electrical to mechanical energy.
sol-gel process. A method for making ultrafine powders,
fibers, thin films, or monoliths, in which sols are desta-
bilized so that they turn into a gel phase by either the
rapid or slow addition of water to a sol suspended in an
organic dispersion medium. The water brings about
hydrolysis and simultaneous condensation polymeriza-
tion. Removal of the liquid phase by warming produces
a xerogel and heating this leads to an oxide. Submicron,
spherical particles of great uniformity can be produced.
SOLONCHAK
solid. Substance in a physical state where the forces
between the atoms are sufficient to hold them in fixed
positions.
solid angle. A surface composed oflines emanating from
a common point, called the vertex, and passing through
a closed curve.
solid casting. The forming of ceramic ware by introduc-
ing a body slip into a porous mold usually consisting of
two major sections, one section forming the contour of
the outside and the other forming the contour of the
inside of the ware, and allowing a solid cast to form
between the two mold faces.
solid contact. A monolithic electrical contact member.
solid flame technology. Another name for SHS.
solidification. The transition from liquid to the solid
phase. Also known as crystallization. It is not an instan-
taneous process simply involving a change of tempera-
ture but depends on the formation of nuclei from
embryos and then the growth of the nuclei until they
impinge to form grain boundaries.
solidify. To make or become hard or solid.
solid insulator. Any solid material such as glass, porce-
lain, or other ceramic used as an electrical insulator.
solid masonry unit. A masonry unit whose net cross-
sectional area in every plane parallel to the bearing
surface is 75% or more of its gross cross-sectional area
measured in the same plane.
solid solution. (l) A homogeneous crystalline phase
composed of different mineral groups dissolved in one
another either in all proportions or over a limited range
of compositions. (2) A crystal structure in which an
atom, molecule, or ion is substituted for another atom,
molecule, or ion that is chemically different, but of
similar size and shape. (3) A phase formed when small
atoms like carbon occupy interstitial sites in a close
packed structure.
solid-state devices. Pertaining to electronic devices that
can control electric current without the use of moving
parts, heated filaments, or vacuum gaps.
solid-state sintering. Densification of a green powder
compact by the action of heat at a temperature and solid
composition such that no liquid phase ever exists.
solidus. The portion of a temperature-composition dia-
gram which consists of the curve connecting the tem-
perature at which a solid solution is in equilibrium with
its vapor and with the liquid solution, and therefore
connecting melting temperatures of solid solutions.
soliton. A specially shaped optical pulse in an optical
fiber with the profile adjusted so that as it travels
through a fiber each is alternately spread out in duration
and then wavelength, but each pulse is returned to its
original shape at regular distances.
solonchak. An intrazonal soil with a gray surface crust
containing large quantities of soluble salts.
SOLUBILITY
solubility. The amount of a substance that can be dis-
solved in another substance or solution. Expressed as
mass or volume percent of solvent.
soluble boron in boron carbide. The boron that dis-
solves from boron carbide by separate reflux digestions
with two different acids, 0.1 M hydrochloric acid (hy-
drochloric acid-soluble boron; assumed to be boric
acid) and 1.6 M nitric acid (nitric acid-soluble boron;
assumed to be boric acid plus free boron).
soluble developer. A developer employed in liquid
penetrant inspection which is completely soluble in its
carrier, but not a suspension of powder in a liquid which
dries to an absorptive coating.
soluble salts. In ceramic technology, the term usually
refers to sulfates, chlorides, and some silicates of lime,
soda, potash, and magnesia contained in solution in a
body which, before, during, or after firing, may cause
efflorescence on the ware surface.
solute. That part of a solution which is considered to be
dissolved in the solvent.
solute hardening. If a solid solution is formed by dis-
solving larger sized atoms or ions into a matrix solute
the resultant strained areas inhibit the movement of
dislocations making the alloy harder and stronger.
solution. A homogeneous mixture of two or more com-
ponents, solute plus solvent. The solute will not settle
and has no fixed proportions in the solution below the
saturation point.
solution ceramics. A metal-salt solution applied to a
surface which is converted to a ceramic or glassy coat-
ing when a flame i~Sprayed over the coated surface or
the solution is spra ed on a hot surface, or both; exhibits
high resistance to ermal shock.
solution color. A colored glass or ceramic in which the
color is produced by the same mechanism as that
whereby ions, such as Mn2+, C~+, etc., produce color
in aqueous solution which involves electron transitions
in the higher energy levels.
solution-diffusion. The mechanism where gases diffuse
through nonporous ceramic membranes; first the gas
condenses and then diffuses through. This leads to a
very selective method of gas separation based on ce-
ramic membrane technology.
solution hardening. See solute hardening.
solvation force stabilization. A voidance of specific
electrolytes and suspension concentrations that lead to
coagulation when powders are prepared from solution
solvent. The constituent of a solution which dissolves
the solute.
solvent action. The ability of a liquid to dissolve a ma-
terial.
solvent developer. Any finely divided solid substance
suspended in a volatile solvent which, when the solvent
dissolves a penetrant to bring it to the surface of a
300
discontinuity, will absorb the penetrant and dry to fix
an indication.
solvent remover. A liquid which will remove excess
surface penetrant from test specimens or parts by hand-
wiping.
solvolysis. A chemical reaction occurring between a dis-
solved substance and the solvent.
solvus. On a phase diagram it is the boundary marking
the limits of composition and temperature over which a
phase can exist in the solid state.
somatoid. Body-shaped; often used to describe the mi-
crostructure of bayerite crystallites.
soot. Finely divided carbon deposited from flames during
the incomplete combustion of organic materials.
sorb, sorption. To take up and hold by either of the
processes of absorption or adsorption.
sorel cement. A strong, hard cement formed by the in-
teraction of magnesium chloride and calcined magnesia
to produce MgOCI in the presence of H20. May include
fillers, e.g., sand, talc, wood flour.
sort, sorting. To classify a product or substance on the
basis of some characteristic or property.
soundness. (1) The degree of freedom of a product or
substance from defects or flaws. (2) The volume stabil-
ity of portland cement after it has set.
sour. To age a ceramic slurry or clay by storing in a damp
environment to improve the plasticity and workability
of the material.
source aperture. The solid angle of the light source
measured from the center of the incident beam lens.
spacer. A device serving to hold two members at a speci-
fied or predetermined distance from each other.
spall. A fragment or chip broken from a masonry or
ceramic unit by a blow, by the sudden reaction to heat,
by prolonged exposure to heat or atmospheres which
result in dimensional changes in the unit, or some other
severe condition. As a verb it is to cause to splinter.
spalling, mechanical. See mechanical spalling.
spalling of refractories. The chipping, cracking, or
breaking of a refractory brick or unit in service which
usually results in the detachment of a portion of the
brick or unit to expose new surfaces.
spalling of refractories, mechanical. See mechanical
spalling.
spalling of refractories, thermal. See thermal spalling.
spalling, spontaneous. See spontaneous spalling.
spalling test, panel. See panel spalling test.
spalling, thermal shock. See thermal shock spalling.
 301
span. (1) The horizontal distance between the supports
of an arch. (2) The numerical difference between the
upper and lower range values.
spandrel. The surface area between two adjacent arches
and the horizontal cornice above them.
spandrel glass. Architectural glass which is used as a
curtain wall in a nonvision area or in the cladding of a
building.
spangles. Magnetic iron fired in a glaze for decorative
effects.
spar. Various minerals that are light-colored, microcrys-
talline, easily cleavable and transluscent to transparent;
feldspar and calcite are examples.
sparge. To sprinkle or scatter a material.
spar, heavy. See heavy spar.
spark. A small piece of diamond used to cut glass.
spark erosion. A technique for producing powders, in
the 0.01 to 100 11m size range, of ceramics having some
electrical conductivity. Two electrodes of the material
are connected to a high-voltage source and advanced
toward each other until a spark is formed which vapor-
izes the material.
spark-gap inspection. A technique for the detection of.
pinholes and cracks in glass-coated iron or steel prod-
ucts in which a high-frequency discharge from a spark
generator fanned across the surface of the coating col-
lects to form a spark at the site of a pinhole or fracture.
sparking out. The practice of allowing the work piece
and grinding wheel to traverse in relation to each other
without additional infeed until all contact between the
two ceases.
spark test. See spark-gap inspection.
sparry. Relating to, containing, or resembling spar.
spathic. The ability to be easily cleaved.
spathic iron ore. FeC03; ferrous carbonate; sp. gr.
3.83-3.88; hardness (Mohs) 3.5-4; employed as a col-
orant in ceramic bodies and glazes.
spatter. To scatter or splash a material, particularly liq-
uids, in droplets over a surface.
spatter dash. Another name for rough cast.
spatula. A tool with a broad, flat, often flexible blade.
SPC. Abbreviation for statistical process control; a proc-
ess is seen as a set of sequential operations with each
step controlled and analyzed by plant operators using
simple, formalized statistical procedures. An important
component of TQM which is an overall management
scheme to improve product quality and reliability.
special design, concrete. See concrete special design.
SPECIFIC SURFACE WORK
special nuclear material. 239pu, 233U, uranium contain-
ing more than the natural abundance of 235U, or any
material artificially enriched in any of these substances.
special-purpose tile. A glazed or unglazed floor or wall
tile designed to meet specific appearance or physical
requirements not covered by standard tiles, such as size,
shape, thickness, decoration, keys or lugs on the backs
or sides, electrical properties, high coefficient of fric-
tion, or special resistance to staining, frost, alkalies,
acids, thermal shock, or impact.
special requirements. The requirements provided to
meet a particular need not covered or included under
established procedures or specifications.
speciation. Physicochemical form of an element in a
solvent.
specific activity. The activity per unit mass of a pure
radionuclide.
specification. A precise statement of a set of require-
ments to be satisfied by a material, product, or service
indicating, whenever appropriate, the procedure by
means of which it may be determined if the require-
ments are satisfied. As far as is practical, it is desirable
that the requirements be expressed numerically, prefer-
ably in SI units, together with their limits.
specific Dexural rigidity. Rc; the flexural rigidity of a
filament of unit tex.
specific gravity. sp. gr.; the ratio of the weight of a unit
volume of a substance to that of a standard material
under standard condition of pressure and temperature;
the specific gravity of solids and liquids is based on
water as the standard.
specific gravity, apparent. See apparent specific grav-
ity.
specific gravity, bulk. See bulk specific gravity.
specific gravity, true. See true specific gravity.
specific gravity, volume. See volume specific gravity.
specific heat. The quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of a mass of material one degree unit with-
out a chemical or phase change at constant volume or
pressure. Expressed as J kg-' K-'.
specific humidity. The ratio of the mass of water vapor
in a system of moist air to the total mass of the system.
specific stiffness. The ratio of Young's modulus to den-
sity for a material.
specific strength. The ratio of tensile strength to density.
specific surface. The surface area per unit weight or
volume of a solid substance.
specific surface Helmholtz energy. a,,; Helmholtz en-
ergy per unit area of the surface phase.
specific surface work. 1,,; reversible work required to
form unit area of the surface phase.
SPECIFIC VOLUME
specific volume. The volume of a substance per unit of
weight; the reciprocal of the density.
specific weight. The weight of a substance per unit vol-
ume.
specified dimensions. The dimensions to which a prod-
uct or unit must conform.
specimen. An individual unit of a material or product
selected for examination, testing, display, or reference.
specimen, job-cured. See job-cured specimen.
specking. A defect in porcelain-enameled surfaces con-
sisting of small visible specks or spots, frequently dirt,
fired on the ware.
speckled ware. A decorative surface finish in which
spots of one color appear in a relatively uniform pattern
over a surface of another color or shade.
spectral dimension. d; a dimensional term in fractal
analysis used to describe elastic wave propagation in
fractal bodies as opposed to propagation through fully
dense homogeneous bodies. For a fractal solid the pho-
non spectrum varies as wd- 1 at low frequencies, where
d is the dimensionality of the matter and w is the
frequency.
spectrochemical carrier distillation. An emission
spectrographic technique in which a carrier material is
added to a sample to facilitate the vaporization of the
sample or the fractional distillation of the sample.
spectrometer. An instrument equipped with an optical
system capable of resolving spectral lines and allowing
their wavelength to be determined as well as their
intensity.
spectrometry, atomic absorption. See atomic absorp-
tion spectrometry.
spectrophotometer. An instrument which measures the
apparent reflection or transmission of visible light as a
function of wavelength, particularly in terms of inten-
sity or color.
spectroscope. Any of a number of instruments which are
used to resolve, observe, and record the intensity, par-
ticularly peak intensity, of spectral lines.
spectroscope, scintillation. See scintillation spectro-
scope.
specular. (1) Mirror like (2) The degree to which a
surface has the capacity to reflect incident light.
specular gloss. The ratio of specularly reflected light to
incident light. It is the combination of surface reflected
and body reflected components when incident light is
reflected from a surface compared with the incident
light; this ratio being multiplied by 1000. The reflected
light must be collected along the mirror image axis of
the incident light.
302
specular gloss-45 degree. The fraction of visible light
incident on a specimen at an angle of 45° that is re-
flected through 90°.
speed, peripheral. See peripheral speed.
speed, working. See work speed.
spelk. A morphology of asbestos in which a rod-like
appearance arises from parallel close-packed fibers of
uniform diameter.
spent fuel. Nuclear reactor fuel which is no longer effec-
tive.
sperrylite. PtAs 2 ; an ore from which platinum is ex-
tracted.
sp. gr. Abbreviation for specific gravity.
sphalerite. ZnS; zinc sulfide; an abundant ore of zinc
crystallizing in the cubic system as tetrahedral and
dodecahedral crystals; sp. gr. 4.08; hardness (Mohs)
3.5-4. It is the family name of a structure related to
diamond and as a result has perfect cleavage leading to
a resinous luster.
sphene. CaTiOSi04 ; mp I386°C; sp. gr. 3.4-5.5; hard-
ness (Mohs) 5-5.5; employed in colorants such as
chrome-tin pink.
spherical aberration. The effect which occurs when all
rays from one object point do not come to a common
focus after reflection at a curved mirror or refraction
through a lens.
spherulite. A spherical aggregate of radiating crystals
with a fibrous appearance originating from a common
nucleus.
spicule. Acicular particles of nonfibrous minerals.
spider. (1) A defect appearing as a star-shaped fracture
in porcelain-enameled ware. (2) A wheellike casting
consisting of a rim and radial spokes on which felt
polishing pads are mounted. (3) An assembly of radiat-
ing tie-rods on the top of a furnace. (4) A metal unit of
two or more radial arms employed to hold a core and
disintegrate laminations of clays and bodies in a pug
mill. (5) The part of a molding press mechanism that
operates the ejector pins.
spiegeleisen. A manganese- and carbon-rich pig iron.
spigot. (1) The end of a pipe which is overlapped by a
portion of the end of an adjoining pipe. (2) A faucet or
device for drawing a liquid from a pipe or container; for
example, a water tap.
spike. A projection of glass, usually very sharp, on the
inside of a glass container.
spindle. (I) A slender rod which turns oron which some-
thing else turns. (2) A rod with a notch in the top used
to draw out fibers for spinning into thread, and a long,
narrow body around which the spun thread is wound.
spinel. The mineral MgAl 20 4 is spinel but a group of
minerals of the general formula AB 20 4 in which A is a
 303
divalent metal or mixture of divalent metals, such as
magnesium, ferrous iron, zinc, manganese, cobalt, cal-
cium, copper, barium, nickel, and strontium, and B is a
trivalent metal, such as aluminum, ferric iron, and chro-
mium, are loosely called spinel; used in the manufacture
of ceramic colors and refractories but more important
as magnetic and electrical ceramics.
spinneret. (I) A small platinum thimble containing one
or more holes through which molten glass is pulled in
the making of glass threads or filaments. (2) A finely
perforated dispenser through which viscous liquids are
extruded to form synthetic fibers.
spinning. The process of forming fibers by extrusion
through a spinneret.
spinodal. The locus of points within the binodal ehase
separation zone in a phase diagram where d'oldi'-, the
free energy change as a function of composition, is
negative and so spontaneous, nonnucleated phase sepa-
ration will occur. The spinodal forms the inner dome in
the immiscibility gap in a liquid-liquid phase separa-
tion system.
spin-off. Any product or progress made incidentally
from the application of existing knowledge or activity.
spiral conveyor. A conveyor consisting of a screw-type
shaft employed to transfer materials on a horizontal,
inclined, or vertical plane, and which is based on the
principle of the Archimedes screw.
spirit. Commercial ethyl alcohol.
spirits of hartshorn. Another name for aqueous ammo-
nia.
spitout. A glaze defect consisting of aggravated pinholes
or craters which are developed during glost firing due
to the evolution of gas bubbles from the body or glaze
constituents or to vapors in the decorating fire.
splash back. A sheet of glass, ceramic, or plastic at-
tached to a wall above a basin to protect the wall against
splashing.
splatter. To splash with small liquid or colloidal blobs.
splice. A joint between two or more separate lengths of
cable involving both the conductor and the protecting
sheaths.
spline. (I) A flat-edged tool used to shape surfaces. (2)
Anyone of a series of narrow keys formed longtitudi-
nally around the circumference of a shaft that fit into
corresponding grooves in a mating part; used to prevent
movement between the parts.
splining. To prepare a surface to desired contours while
it is in a plastic state.
splinter. A very sharp, long, thin piece of glass, etc.,
broken from a piece.
split. (1) A brick modified to a thickness of one-half of
the usual dimensions. (2) A glass defect consisting of a
SPONTANEOUS POLARIZATION
crack or check extending from one surface to the other.
(3) To divide a sample into smaller parts.
split feed. A liquid-phase adsorption process in which a
powder is added to a solution to be treated in two or
more steps.
split mold. A casting mold made in two or more parts to
permit the easy removal of ware after casting.
splittings. Trimmed or untrimmed mica produced by
splitting blocks to a thickness less than 0.03 mm.
splittings, bookform. See bookform splittings.
splittings, loose. See loose splittings.
splittings, powdered loose. See powdered loose split-
tings.
splittings, thick. See thick splittings.
splittings, thin. See thin splittings.
splitting tensile strength. A test procedure which em-
ploys disks of material broken in tension along a vertical
diameter by applying a compressive load. Also known
as the Brazil test or diametral compression test.
spluttering. The popping of glaze fragments from ware
which fuse to the setters or shelves during firing.
Spode. China or porcelain manufactured by Josiah
Spode, 1754-1827, or by the Spode Company.
spodumene. LiAI(Si0 3)z; sp. gr. 3.13-3.20; hardness
(Mohs) 6.5-7; an ore of lithium having very low ther-
mal expansion employed as a flux, and to improve
resistance to thermal shock in glass, porcelain-enamels,
glazes, and ceramic bodies. A chain pyroxene occurring
in glass-ceramics.
spoil. Bricks which may be placed and removed at the
base of a kiln flue to control the draw of the flue, the
pressure in the firing chamber, and to maintain the
oxidation or reduction characteristics of the kiln atmos-
phere.
sponging. The removal of surface blemishes from un-
fired ceramic ware by the use of a damp sponge.
spongy. Resembling a sponge in texture, porosity, elas-
ticity, and compressibility.
spongy enamel. A defect in fired porcelain-enamel char-
acterized by masses of large bubbles occurring in local-
ized areas and having a spongelike appearance.
spontaneous combustion. The ignition of a substance
without the application of external sources of heat;
usually caused by oxidation of fine powders.
spontaneous emission. The return of an excited atomic
species to a lower energy level by emitting a photon in
the absence of external influences.
spontaneous polarization. The value of polarization of
a ferroelectric obtained by extrapolating the linear part
of the hysteresis curve to zero applied electric field.
SPONTANEOUSSPALLING
spontaneous spalling. Spontaneous fracture, chipping,
or flaking of porcelain-enamel from ware without ap-
parent external cause. Also known as spontaneous chip-
ping.
spoon proof. A specimen of molten glass taken for
analysis and observation from a ladle during various
stages of melting and fining.
spot check. A random sampling of a material or obser-
vation of a process.
spout. (1) A device through which a material is charged
into or discharged from an area. (2) The part of a glass
feeder which carries the orifice, revolving tube, and
needle. (3) The refractory block through which molten
glass flows to a forming machine.
spray booth. A chamber, open on one side, in which
coatings are applied to ware by means of an atomizing
gun; booths are usually equipped with exhaust fans and
collectors to collect overspray materials and to prevent
dust from entering work areas.
spray dryer. A device in which an atomized suspension
of solids in a liquid is dried by direct contact with hot
gases or by impingement on a hot surface.
spray frost. An inorganic salt sprayed onto a glass sur-
face and then fired to simulate acid etching.
spray gun. A device of gunlike shape designed to deliver
an atomized liquid or suspension.
spraying, electrostatic. See electrostatic spraying.
spraying, flame. See flame spraying.
spraying, plasma. See plasma spraying.
spraying, thermal. See thermal spraying.
spray nozzle. The discharge opening of a spray gun in
which a suspension is atomized.
spray quenching. The rapid cooling of a molten material
in a spray of water or other liquid.
spray sagging. A defect characterized by wavy lines in
glazes and porcelain-enamel on the vertical surfaces of
the ware during and after spraying, but before the coat-
ing has dried.
spray thermal decomposition. A technique for the
preparation of ceramic powders whereby appropriate
salt solutions are sprayed into a vertical tube furnace at
temperatures above 800 D e when solvent evaporation
and salt decomposition rapidly occur leading to hollow,
dry particles of aggregated powder of about 5 j.lm di-
ameter.
spray-up. A forming method for fiber-reinforced com-
posites in which resin-matrix and ceramic or glass fibers
are blown simultaneously into a mold from a spray gun.
Large-sized products, such as boat hulls, water tanks,
etc., are made this way.
spreader. (1) A machine which deposits, distributes, and
spreads concrete on a pavement prior to the finishing
304
operation. (2) A steel or wood spacer put temporarily in
a form to keep the walls apart and hold them in align-
ment until concrete is poured.
spreader block. A refractory block of triangular cross-
section employed to divide and distribute coal being
charged into a coke oven.
spreading dimension. d; sometimes called chemical di-
mension; a term used in fractal analysis of solids. De-
fined as: starting from a point on the object, cover a
distance L entirely contained within it; this can be done
several ways, hence count all the mass covered by the
several paths and if the mass varies as m(L) =Ld, then d
is the spreading dimension. It only depends on the exact
way the individual masses or particles in the fractal are
connected and is therefore a measure of connectivity.
sprigged ware. Pottery that is decorated by the applica-
tion of a bas-relief ornamentation by hand pressing or
by casting in molds.
sprigging. The adding of more wet clay to a body during
forming to fill out thin sections or to be shaped into a
form of decoration.
spring constant. An old textile test applied to composite
reinforcement cloths; it is the pounds weight needed to
compress a specimen one inch in a prescribed test
procedure.
spring contact. A contact between surfaces effected by
means of a spring device or by means of a springlike
property of one or both materials.
spring crack. A circumferential crack in a pot or vase
caused by faulty firing. This crack is a through thickness
defect.
springer. A course of brickwork having an inclined face
from which an arch or furnace roof may be sprung.
springing. The breaking of handles from cups, mugs,
pots, etc., due to inherent stresses at one or both joints.
spring line. (1) The line of contact between the inside
surface of a skewback and an arch in a furnace. (2) The
points on an internal surface of the transverse section of
a pipe intersected by the line of maximum horizontal
dimension. (3) The midheight of the internal wall in box
sections of furnaces.
sprue. (1) A sluglike material that forms in the discharge
channel of a porcelain-enamel frit smelter or glass tank.
(2) The discharge channel of a melting tank or furnace.
sprung arch, sprung roof. A curved structure spanning
the working zone in a furnace, and which is supported
by abutments at the sides or at the ends of the furnace.
spud. A type of orifice found on high-pressure gas mix-
tures used to control the fuel usage in a mixer-burner
torch.
spun glass. An individual filament or a mass of fine
threads of attenuated glass, often having a delicate
spiral threading or filagree.
 305
spun roving. A low-cost glass-fiber strand in which the
continuous filaments are doubled back on each other.
spur. A triangular item of kiln furniture; used to support
glazed ware to prevent it from sticking to the shelves of
the kiln during firing.
sputtering. (I) The application of porcelain-enamel or
glaze to ware in droplets to produce a mottled or speck-
led appearance instead of the usual smooth, uniform
surface. (2) A physical process by which atoms or
molecules can be deposited onto a substrate to form a
thin film, or conversely, removed from a surface to etch
it, by application of intense heat or electrical pulses of
short duration.
square-cut glass. Optical glass cut into squares which
are separated and desiguated by weight; used in the
production of ground and polished optical units.
squareness ratio. The ratio of magnetization at -H/2 to
the magnetization at H, where H is the field strength of
the completed hysteresis loop.
squeegee. A rubberlike blade for distributing and rub-
bing oil suspensions of ceramic pigments over and
through silk screens in the decoration of ware.
squeegee oil. A mixture of liquid organic materials em-
ployed as the suspension vehicle in screening inks and
pastes.
squeegee paste. See screening ink.
squeegee silver. Silver in suspensions formulated for
screen printing.
squeeze casting. A process developed initially to fabri-
cate metal matrix--ceramic-reinforced composites in
which a porous ceramic preform is subjected to a molten
metal at high pressure. Connected porosity is filled with
supercooled liquid which then crystallizes under pres-
sure to form a fine-grained equiaxed matrix. The result-
ing composite has near net shape after sintering.
SQUID. Acronym for superconducting quantum inter-
ference device; made from two Josephson junctions
connected in parallel into which a small magnetic flux
is introduced to make the current oscillate; used to
detect magnetic signals.
ssF. Abbreviation for stainless steel fibers which are used
as additions to low-cement castables in order to achieve
better thermal-shock or spalling resistance of castable
installations.
stability. (I) The resistance of a glass to devitrification.
(2) The chemical and weather resistance of a glass.
stability, physical. See physical stability.
stabilization. (I) To make a precursor fiber infusible in
the manufacture of carbon fiber. It usually involves a
surface oxidation process. (2) To lower the internal
stresses and control grain size by a heat treatment stage
and so improve mechanical, aging resistance, and
chemical resistance properties.
STAIN,SLIP
stabilize. See stabilization.
stabilizer. An oxide, such as CaO, A1 20 3, and Ti02 ,
added to a frit, glaze, or color oxide to stabilize the color
during firing.
stack. Any structure or part of a structure that contains a
flue or flues for the discharge of gases, particularly
combustion gases from smelters, kilns, and furnaces.
stacker. A device for placing and spacing glass articles
properly on a continuous lehr belt for thermal treatment.
stack gas. Furnace and kiln gases that have been ex-
hausted into a stack or a flue.
stacking fault. A break in the sequence in which planes
occur along a stated direction in a crystal; for example,
in a face-centered cubic structure the stacking sequence
is ABCABCABC ... and a stacking fault could be
... ABCACABC ... which introduces a thin layer of
close-packed hexagonal structure into the crystal. AB-
CABCCBACBA ... is a stacking fault which introduces
a twin boundary.
stacking sequence. (I) The order in which perceived
layers in a crystal structure are stacked perpendicularly
to the c-axis of the unit cell. For example, if the pattern
repeats every fourth layer-ABCABC ... -the struc-
ture of the ceramic is cubic. See stacking fault. (2) In
laminated ceramic composites it is the ply ordering
perpendicular to the plane of the reinforcing cloth or
tape.
stain. (I) Color applied to glass by dipping the item in a
solution of a color-forming metal salt and then heating
the dipped item to a temperature at which the color is
formed and absorbed by the glass surface. (2) Color
applied to glassware by subjecting items to the vapors
of a color-forming salt at elevated temperatures in a
closed furnace. (3) A ceramic color, usually one of the
transition metals in combination with other elements,
applied to a body, glaze, or porcelain-enamel as an
addition to the body, glaze, or porcelain-enamel com-
position. (4) An imperfection such as chemical corro-
sion of the glass or ceramic coating surface. (5) An
unwanted discoloration of the surface of a body or
coating.
stainability. The relative ease by which a material is
penetrated and discolored by a foreign material.
stain brush. A ware decorating brush in which the hairs
have a sharp chisel edge with flat aspect; used for
obtaining color shading effects.
stained glass. Glass colored by various means, such as
by incorporating colorants in the glass batch or by
applying and firing a clear-colored enamel on the sur-
face of the glass; used in the production of mosaics,
church windows, etc.
stains, glaze. See glaze stains.
stain, slip. See slip stain.
STAMPING
stamping. A means of decoration or marking of ware by
the use of a rubber stamp to apply a stamping ink to the
surface of the ware.
stamping ink. A suspension of finely milled ceramic
pigment in a suitable medium, usually an oil, which may
be applied by means of a stamp, and which develops its
color and permanence on firing.
standard. (I) A reference used as the basis for compari-
son or calibration. (2) A concept that has been estab-
lished to serve as a model or rule in the measurement of
quantity or quality, or the establishment of a procedure
or practice.
standard, acceptance. See acceptance standard.
standard brick. A brick 6.8 x 10.2 x 20.3 cm in size.
standard, calibration. See calibration standard.
standard design. A proven or published design for a
product.
standard deviation. A measure of the variability of data
about the popUlation mean. The standard or allowable
deviation of a single determination (sigma) divided by
the square root of the group (nu).
standard laboratory atmosphere. Defined relative to
the moisture content of the airit is an atmosphere having
a relative humidity of 50 ± 2% at 23 ± 1°C.
standard, primary. See primary standard.
standard, reference. See reference standard.
standard shapes. A series of refractory units in various
sizes and shapes which, because of their extensive or
essential use, are stocked by the manufacturer or can be
made from stock molds.
standard test and evaluation bottle. See STEB.
standard, working. See working standard.
stannic chloride. SnCI 4; mp -33°C; bp 114°C; sp. gr.
2.28; used to produce an abrasion-resistant coating on
glass and as an electrically conducting film on glass and
ceramics.
stannic oxide. See tin oxide.
stannous chloride. SnCI 2 ; mp 246.8°C; used as a con-
ductor and resistor coating on glass, porcelain-enamels,
and ceramics for surface heating.
stannous chromate. SnCr04; used as a colorant in the
decoration of porcelain and pottery.
stannous oxide. See tin oxide.
Stanton fibers. Any fiber with length greater than a criti-
cal threshold, between 5 and 20 11m, and whose diame-
ter is substantially below 111m; fibers of such
morphology are capable of causing cancer.
306
staple fiber. An individual filament made by attenuating
molten glass; the fibers are of relatively short length,
generally less than 42.5 cm.
starch. A group of carbohydrates or polysaccharides of
the general composition (C 6H IO OS)n; used as a compo-
nent in sizes for glass textile yarns.
star dresser. A tool using star-shaped metal cutters
which may be rotated for trueing and dressing grinding
wheels.
star marks. A porcelain-enamel defect characterized by
a star-shaped fracture in which lines radiate from a point
opposite a firing pin or from impact with a sharp object
prior to firing.
starred glaze. A partially devitrified glaze in which star-
shaped crystals develop at the surface during firing.
starved glaze. A glaze applied on ware to an insufficient
thickness to obtain good coverage.
starved gold. A weak deposit of very low gold content.
statcoulomb. A unit of electrical charge defined in terms
of the SI unit, the coulomb, as 3.3356 x 10-10 c.
static balance. The condition which permits a grinding
wheel, or other rotating part on a frictionless horizontal
arbor to remain at rest in any position.
static fatigue. Mechanical failure of a material under
continuous static load at values below the measured
ultimate tensile strength of the material. In glass in
particular it is associated with stress-accelerated corro-
sion.
static modulus. The ratio of stress to strain under static
conditions.
statistical analysis. The evaluation of data by statistical
methods.
statistical bias. A constant or systematic error in test
results as may exist between the true value and a test
result obtained from one method, between test results
obtained from two methods, or between test results
from a single method between, for example, different
operators or laboratories.
statistical process control. See SPC.
statistical quality control. A means of controlling the
quality of a product or process by the use of statistical
techniques.
statistics. The drawing of inferences from data on sam-
ples obtained under specified conditions by use of the
probability theory.
stator blade. A structural member of the stationary part
of a motor, dynamo, turbine, or other machine about
which a rotor turns.
steady rest. A supplementary support for pieces being
ground on a cylindrical grinder.
 307
steady-state current. The current in a circuit after it has
reached equilibrium.
steam. Water in a gaseous state at a minimum tempera-
ture of 100°C.
steam curing. The rapid curing of concrete in an atmos-
phere of steam, either at atmospheric or elevated pres-
sures, as achieved in an autoclave.
steam-rack dryer. A room equipped with steam pipes as
the source of heat arranged so as to permit the stacking
of pallets of wet greenware for drying.
stearates. Salts or esters of stearic acid used as internal
lubricants in the dry pressing of technical ceramics.
stearic acid. CH3(CH2)16COOH; a colorless waxlike
solid used as a lubricant in ceramic products and to
promote abrasion resistance in heavy clay items.
steatite. Mg3Si40\O(OHh; a three-layer sheet structure
silicate, i.e., talc, but massively impure; mp above
1300°C; sp. gr. 2.7-2.8; hardness (Mohs) 1-1.5; used
in the production of low-loss electrical insulators, din-
nerware, wall tile, and as a component in forsterite and
cordierite bodies.
steatite porcelain. A vitreous ceramic whiteware for
technical application in which the steatite decomposi-
tion product serpentine, magnesium metasilicate,
MgSi0 3, is the essential crystalline phase.
steatite talc. Massive talc containing gross impurities or
its pulverized product having the general formula
Mg 3Si40\O(OH)2. Although the compound term ap-
pears in the literature, the use of the terms steatite and
talc together actually is a redundancy.
steatite whiteware. Any ceramic whiteware in which
magnesium metasilicate, MgSi03, is the essential crys-
talline phase.
STEB. Acronym for standard test and evaluation bottle;
a test vehicle used to compare composite materials and
designs.
steel, cold-rolled. See cold-rolled steel.
steel, decarburized. See decarburized steel.
steel, glass-lined. See glass-lined steel.
steel, high-carbon. See high-carbon steel.
steel lines. Lines visible in a porcelain-enamel coating
which follow the roIling pattern of the steel.
steel, pretensioned. See pre tensioned steel.
steel, zero-carbon. See zero-carbon steel.
Stefan's law. The total emissive power, e, of a perfect
blackbody radiator is proportional to the fourth. power
of the thermodynamic temperature, T, of the body: e =
(Jr, where (J is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.670
x 10-8 W m-2 K-4.
Steinbuhl yellow. See barium chromate.
STIFF GLAZES
stellate aggregate. Groups of crystals radiating from a
common center so as to resemble a star.
steIlite. A family of hard, temperature- and wear-resis-
tant alloys of cobalt, chromium, and tungsten; used as
firing racks and tools in porcelain-enameling.
stem, pulled. See pulled stem.
stem ware. Glass tableware, such as goblets, compotes,
etc., consrructed with a slender stem between the bowl
and the base.
stencil. A sheet of heavy paper, plastic, or metal in which
lettering or designs are cut and through which designs
are applied to ware by spraying or brushing; in some
instances, a dried but unfired coating is brushed from a
previously fired undercoating to produce the design.
steradian. sr; a unit solid angle.
sterlc stabilization. Prevention of powder coagulation
or agglomeration by attaching to the individual particles
large molecules which prevent any two particles
achieving a distance of approach equal to or less than
the critical value, la, which causes the interaction en-
ergy to be at the minimum in an interaction energy
versus distance curve.
Stern layer. A compact, tightly held layer of solvent
molecules and counter-ions at the surface of a solid
suspended in a liquid, such as a slip. The surface poten-
tial of the solid decays linearly through the thickness of
the Stem layer which cannot be moved under the influ-
ence of shear stress, hence electric fields induce a
tangential movement of the liquid phase just beyond the
Stem layer.
stibnite. Sb 2S3; a principal ore of antimony; formed at
relatively low temperatures and pressures; sp. gr. 4.63;
hardness (Mohs) 2; metallic-gray color producing a
gray streak; orthorhombic crystal system. Because of its
low melting point it is beneficiated by liquation with
liquid stibnite being allowed to drain away from the
gangue.
stick. (I) A bonded abrasive, sticklike form used for
hone-sharpening, for precision honing, and for the
dressing of abrasive wheels. (2) A type of defect in
nonwoven fabric consisting of bundles of fibers with
aligned cut ends. Usually caused by poor agitation when
the dispersion was made.
sticking up. The process of joining two ceramic articles,
such as a handle to a cup or a knob on a tureen.
sticky. A fat, rich-appearing, plastic concrete mix.
stiff. A concrete mix that is too dry, lacks plasticity, and
exhibits low slump characteristics.
stiffening, premature. See premature stiffening.
stiff glazes. Glazes which exhibit little or no run, either
after application or during firing.
STIFF-MUD BRICK
stiff-mud brick. Brick produced by extruding a stiff but
plastic clay, containing approximately 12 to 15% mois-
ture, through a die.
stiff-mud process. The process of extruding a stiff but
plastic clay through a die.
stiffness. The extent of deformation produced by a load.
Used mostly in a comparative sense but in a strict sense
it is the ratio of applied stress and resultant strain.
stilbite. (Ca,Na2,K2)AI2Si701S·7H20; an aluminosili-
cate zeolite occurring as a geode showing perfect cleav-
age in one direction.
still. An apparatus consisting of a vessel in which a liquid
is heated and vaporized, and then cooled in a tower or
chamber in which the vapor is condensed and collected.
stilliards. Racks used for storage or for transporting clay-
ware from one point to another prior to firing.
stilt. A tripodlike setter with sharp points at the end of
each arm on which glazed ware is placed and fired.
stilt marks. Marks left on the bottom of a glazed item
caused by its sticking to the stilt following the firing
operation; these marks are stoned or ground off before
shipment of the item.
stimulated emission. Causing the return to the energy
ground state of an excited atomic species by irradiating
it with a photon of the same energy as that which will
be emitted by the return; hence, this is a process of
energy, frequently visible light, amplification.
sting-out. Hot air and flame exhausted through openings
in furnaces, kilns, and glass tanks due to the existence
of positive pressures in the firing zones.
stinkers. Soured storage barrels used for the aging of
clays and slips to obtain improved qualities of the ware.
stipple. To engrave in dots or separate touches.
stippled finish. (1) Spattered or pebbly textured porce-
lain-enameled or glazed finishes produced by distribut-
ing and firing droplets of different colored enamels or
colored glazes over the surface of the ware. (2) A
stippled or mottled effect produced on the surface of
glass by treatment with a mixture of acid and an inert
substance, resulting in a variable penetration of acid
over the surface of the glass.
stishovite. A silica, Si0 2, polymorph formed at high
pressures.
STM. See scanning tunneling microscopy.
stochastic. Conjectural; random.
stockpile. A reserve of materials or products accumu-
lated for future use or shipment.
stoichiometric. Having the precise weight relationship
of elements as demanded by the chemical formula, and
by which the quantities of reactants and products of a
chemical reaction are determined.
308
stoke or stokes. A cgs unit of kinematic viscosity equal
to the kinematic viscosity of a fluid having a dynamic
viscosity of I poise and a density of I gram per cubic
centimeter. To convert I stoke to the SI unit of m2 s-2
multiply by 10---4.
stoker. A mechanical device for feeding coal or other
solid fuel to a furnace.
Stokes bands. See Raman effect.
Stokes law. (1) The frictional force on a sphere moving
through a fluid at constant velocity is equal to 6 times
the product of the velocity, the fluid viscosity, and the
radius of the sphere; large particles suspended in a
liquid settle more rapidly than smaller particles. (2)
Concerning fluorescence: fluorescent light has a wave-
length longer than that of the absorbed light causing the
fluorescence.
stone. (1) A defect consisting of a crystalline inclusion
in glass. (2) To rub a concrete surface with a carborun-
dum stone. (3) To remove blemishes from fired ware by
means of a fine-grained rubbing stone.
stone china. An opaque, nonporous dinnerware, made
from a clay that will vitrify; the ware may be glazed or
unglazed.
stone, Cornish. See Cornish stone.
stone, crushed. See crushed stone.
stone, rubbing. See rubbing stone.
stoneware. A vitreous or semivitreous ceramic ware of
fine texture and high chemical resistance made primar-
ily from nonrefractory fireclay, for laboratory, indus-
trial, and some domestic uses, such as tanks, sinks, and
chemical containers.
stoneware, chemical. See chemical stoneware.
stoneware clay. A semi-refractory plastic clay which
will fire to a dense, vitrified body of high strength which
mayor may not be glazed.
stoning. The removal of imperfections and nndesired
portions of porcelain-enameled ware and glazed ceram-
ics by means of an abrasive rubbing stone.
stopper, stopper head. (1) A refractory shape, usually
made of clay and graphite, which is employed as a
movable valve-head seating in a nozzle brick, the as-
sembly forming a valve for molten metal in a bottom-
pouring ladle. (2) A movable refractory controlling the
flow of molten glass from a tank. (3) A refractory or
clay plug at the discharge channel of a porcelain-enamel
smelter or glass tank.
stopping. The filling of holes and cracks in bisque ware
with clay mixtures prior to glazing.
storm anchor. A corrosion-resistant metal fastener with
a flat base and a shank which fastens the concealed
lower comer of each asbestos-cement shingle to the
exposed edge of an adjacent shingle.
 309
storm sewer. A pipeline designed to carry storm or sur-
face water from an area.
storm water. The collection of run-off water during or
following rainfall.
stotite. FeGe(OH)6; a tetragonal mineral source of ger-
manium; it has the perovskite structure.
stove clay. A seldom used synonym for fireclay.
stoving. To bake ware.
straight brick. A rectangular brick, 34.3 cm or less in
length, in which the thickness is less than the width.
straight throat. The passage between the melting and
refining zones of a glass melter which is located at the
same level as the bottom of the melter.
straight wheel. A grinding wheel having sides or faces
that are straight and parallel, with each side at right
angles to the arbor hole.
strain. Elastic deformation due to stress.
strain disk. A disk of strained glass having a calibrated
amount of birefringence at a specified location; used as
a comparative measure of the degree of stress or the
degree of annealing of glassware.
strain energy. The mechanical energy stored in the
atomic bonds of stressed materials.
strainer core. A porous refractory employed to remove
slag and sand inclusions during the pouring of cast iron.
strain gauge. A small device, either a metallic grid or
small piezoelectric crystal, bonded to the surface of an
article, which measures the deformation occurring be-
neath it. The deformation either causes a change in
electrical resistance of the grid or generates an electric
current in the crystal proportional to its magnitude.
strain harden. To increase the hardness and strength of
a specimen by plastic deformation at temperatures be-
low the recrystallization temperature whereby inter-
locking dislocations are formed.
straining. (1) Changing the dimensions of a sample by
the application of stress. (2) Mechanically separating
coarse particles from a liquid without the use of a porous
filter.
strain lines. A defect in finished porcelain-enameled
ware appearing as a line or series of lines in a strain
pattern, and having the appearance of cracks healed by
fusion.
strain point. The temperature which corresponds to a
specific rate of elongation (when measured by ASTM
Method C336) or a specific rate of midpoint deflection
of a glass beam (when measured by ASTM Method
C598); at the strain point of glass, internal stresses are
substantially relieved in a matter of hours. Temperature
at which the viscosity of glass is 1013.5 N s m-2.
strain rate. The time rate of loading a test sample.
STRENGTH, DRY
strain ratio. In a tensile test it is the ratio of the width to
thickness strain.
strain viewer. A polarizer and analyzer set with the
planes of polarization at right angles so that any stressed
gla~s placed b~tween them rotates the plane of polari-
zation of the light from the polarizer and allows some
light to pass through the analyzer; hence, darker areas
define larger stress in the sample.
strand. (I) Glass fibers twisted or laid together in thread
or yarn form. (2) In composites it is the primary bundles
of continuous filaments combined without twist. The
number of filaments in a strand is usually 52, 102, or
204. Also known as single fiber, filament, or monofila-
ment.
strand count. (I) The thickness of a strand of glass fila-
ments reported as the number of specified lengths per
unit of weight. (2) A measure of strand density ex-
pressed in denier or tex. (3) The number of strands in a
plied yarn.
strand traverse. A mechanism which moves fiber
strands backwards and forwards across the collet to
make a correctly shaped collet or a cheese.
stratification. The formation of layers in a body during
pugging or other process.
stratlingite. A stable gehlenite hydrate cement paste
with the cement notation formula C2ASHg• Discovered
as a natural mineral with a trigonal lattice and a lamellar
structure closely related to calcium aluminate hydrate.
stray field electrode system. A radio-frequency heating
system where all the electrodes are on one side of the
work and the penetration depth is very small. The field
produced is horizontal but nonuniform.
streak. A simple test used in the identification of miner-
als. Samples with a hardness less than that of an un-
glazed porcelain plate (Mohs 5.5) will leave a streak of
finely powdered mineral when rubbed across the plate,
the color of which can be characteristic of the mineral.
strength. (I) The ability of a material or product to resist
force. There are many forms of strength measurement
but the method most closely satisfying the performance-
related requirements is usually adopted; for example,
pavers do not fail in compression and so this form of
strength test is not considered to be performance re-
lated. (2) A term indicating the relative thickness of
sheet glass.
strength, bond. See bond strength.
strength, busting. See busting strength.
strength, compressive. See compressive strength.
strength, crushing. See crushing strength.
strength, dielectric. See dielectric strength.
strength, double. See double-strength glass.
strength, dry. See dry strength.
STRENGTH, FATIGUE
strength, fatigue. See fatigue strength.
strength, film. See film strength.
strength, flexural. See flexural strength.
strength, green. See green strength.
strength, hydrostatic. See hydrostatic strength.
strength, impact. See impact strength.
strength, magnetic field. See magnetic field strength.
strength, shear. See shear strength.
strength, single. See single-strength glass.
strength, tearing. See tearing strength.
strength, tensile. See tensile strength.
strength, transverse. See transverse strength.
strength, ultimate. See ultimate strength.
strength, wet. See wet strength.
strength, yield. See yield strength.
stress. (1) Any condition of tension or compression ex-
isting within a glass, particularly due to incomplete
annealing, temperature gradient, or inhomogeneity. (2)
A mutual force of action between bodies in contact with
each other caused by external forces, such as tension or
shear, the intensity of the force usually being reported
in terms of newtons per square meter. (3) An applied
force or system of forces which tend to strain or deform
a body.
stress amplitude. The maximum ratio of the applied
force to the cross-sectional area of the unstressed speci-
men.
stress circle. See Mohr's circle.
stress concentration. Localized amplification of a stress
as the isostatic lines become more dense around mi-
crocracks, fiber-matrix interfaces, notches, voids, or
inclusions. A useful equation relating the concentration
is O"t = 0.(1 + 2[I/rj'h), where 0t is the stress at the
defect, 0". is the applied stress, I is the length of the
defect, and r is the radius of the defect at its extremity.
stress concentration factor. ~; the maximum stress in
the region of a stress concentrator to the stress in an
equally strained area free of stress concentrators; ~ =
°t/o•.
stress corrosion. Preferential chemical attack at areas of
high stress as the stress helps to overcome the chemical
activation energy.
stress crack. An internal or external crack in a solid body
resulting from tensile, compressive, or shear forces. The
appearance of such a crack in ware is frequently accel-
erated by the environment to which the solid is exposed.
stress deviator. The difference between the major and
minor principal stress in a triaxial strength test.
310
stress, grinding. See grinding stress.
stress, impact. See impact stress.
stress intensity factor. k1c ; a measure of the stress field
intensity near the tip of an ideal crack in a linear elastic
solid as the crack is wedged open; units are MN m-:>2.
Used as an indication of brittleness since almost all
ceramics and glasses have values less than 5 MN m-:>2
and materials having values above 30 MN m-:>2 are
considered to be tough; some ceramics containing me-
tastable tetragonal zirconia, and many composites con-
taining ceramic phases, have k1c values in the tough
region.
stress, interna(. See internal stress.
stress raiser. Any scratch, groove defect, or discontinu-
ity leading to stress concentrations.
stress relaxation. (1) The time-dependent decrease in
stress under sustained strain. (2) Stress release due to
creep.
stress relief. Usually a heat treatment sufficient to allow
dislocation movement and hence a reduction in residual
stress.
stress-strain diagram. The curve that can be drawn
through the points of tensile stress and their correspond-
ing strains when each pair of points are established
experimentally at a constant strain rate.
stress, thermal. See thermal stress.
stress, unit. See unit stress.
stress wrinkles. A defect on the surface of a composite
laminate caused by uneven web tension or faulty matrix
bonding.
stress, yield. See yield stress.
stretcher. A brick laid flat in a wall with its length
parallel to the face of the wall. Also known as stretcher
bond.
stria. (I) A cord of low intensity, generally of major
interest in optical glass, but also of concern in other
glasses in which uniformity of the glass is important.
(2) Occurring or produced in layers.
striations. Steps in fracture surfaces which appear to
radiate from the curvature of rib marks. They are caused
when adjacent sections of a crack front follow different
levels within a body.
striking. The development of opacity or color in porce-
lain-enamels and glasses during cooling, reheating, or
special thermal treatment.
string. (I) An imperfection in glass consisting of a
straight or curled line, usually resulting from the slow
solution of a large grain of sand or other substance. (2)
A thread of porcelain-enamel drawn from a molten
smelter batch for observation as a means of estimating
the degree or completeness of the smelting operation.
 311
string dryer. An intermittent tunnel-type dryer of high
humidity used in the treatment of building brick.
stringer. A lightweight structural member which shapes
and reinforces an aerodynamic surface.
strip mining. See open-pit mining.
stripping time. The time when a mold core box may be
satisfactorily removed from the sand.
stripping yard. The area in which plate glass is removed
from the polishing table following the grinding and
polishing operation.
stroke. Terminal point separation in a reciprocating
press.
stromatolite. A sedimentary rock consisting of layers of
fossilized blue-green algae.
strontianite. A natural ore of strontium carbonate,
sreo3·
strontium aluminum silicate. SrAI 2(Si0 4h; mp
1660°C; sp. gr. 3.12; hardness (Mohs) 5-7; a discrete
ionic orthosilicate mineral.
strontium boride. SrB 6; mp 2235°C; sp. gr. 3.42; a po-
tential material for use in energy sources when using the
radioisotope, for high-temperature insulation, for nu-
clear absorption control rods, and as control additives.
Contains B6 octahedra linked at comers with S~+ ions
occuf-ying octahedral interstices in the close-packed
(B6) - structure.
strontium carbonate. sreo 3; decomposes at llOO to
1340°C; sp. gr. 3.62; used in television tubes and irides-
cent glasses, ceramic ferrites, and ceramic bodies and
glazes.
strontium rerrate. SrFe03; a perovskite in which iron is
in the unusual Fe4+ state; readily loses oxygen to be-
come SrFe02.5' Le., Sr2Fe205 which is a grossly defec-
tive perovskite material.
strontium fluoride. SrF2 ; mp ll90°C; sp. gr. 2.4; used
as single-crystal components in lasers.
strontium oxide. SrO; mp 2430°C; sp. gr. 4.7; converts
to the hydroxide in water; used as a colorant in glass.
strontium silicate. (I) SrSi0 3; pyroxene structure; mp
1580°C; sp. gr. 3.65. (2) Sr2Si04; mp > 1705°C; sp. gr.
3.84; hardness (Mohs) 5-7; a discrete tetrahedral ionic
silicate.
strontium stannate. SrSn03; a perovskite; mp
> 1400°C; used in titanate bodies to reduce the Curie
temperature.
strontium sulfate. SrS04; mp 1605°C; sp. gr. 3.71-
3.94; hardness (Mohs) 3-3.5; used to impart irides-
cence on the surfaces of glass and pottery glazes, and
as a fining agent in the production of crystal glasses.
strontium titanate. SrTi03; mp 2080°C; theoretical sp.
gr. 5.ll; a dielectric perovskite material used in elec-
STUCK
tronics and as an electrical insulator, and in low-melting
glazes.
strontium zirconate. SrZr0 3; mp 2700°C; sp. gr. 5.48;
used in dielectric compositions to reduce the Curie
temperature.
structural bond. A bond joining essential load-bearing
components of an assembly.
structural clay facing tile. Tile designed for use in inte-
rior and exterior unplastered walls, partitions, and col-
umns.
structural clay tile. Hollow burned clay masonry build-
ing units with parallel cells or cores, or both; used as
facing tile, partition tile, load-bearing tile, fireproofing
tile, header tile, and furring tile.
structural facing unit. A structural or building unit de-
signed for use in areas where one or more faces will be
exposed in the finished wall and for which specifica-
tions include color, finish, and other properties influ-
encing appearance.
structural foam. A material with a smooth integral skin
contiguous with a rigid cellular core.
structural glass. (1) Opaque or colored glass, frequently
ground and polished; used for structural purposes, par-
ticularly in windows. (2) Glass block, usually hollow
and often with patterned faces, used for structural pur-
poses such as in walls, partitions, and windows.
structural products. Building-material units which,
when assembled into structures, may be load-bearing
(loads in addition to their own weight) or non-Ioad-
bearing (only their own weight).
structural sandwich. A laminar construction composite
material.
structural spalling of refractories. Spalling of a refrac-
tory unit resulting from stresses caused by differential
changes in the structure of the unit.
structure. (1) The proportion and arrangement or spac-
ing of abrasives in a grinding wheel. Usually given as a
number from 0 to 15. (2) The arrangement and interre-
lation of the parts of an object. (3) The state of agglom-
eration of particles in carbon black. (4) The spatial
relationship of atoms and molecules in the x-ray unit
cell of a material.
structure number. The number, generally from 0 to IS,
designating the spacing of abrasive grains relative to
their grit size in a grinding wheel.
stub. The portion of a grinding wheel remaining after it
has been worn down to the discarding diameter.
stucco. A mixture of portland cement, sand, and a small
percentage of lime blended into a smooth, plasterlike
consistency which is applied to exterior walls and other
surfaces of a building or structure.
stuck. A defect in glassware in which a sharp piece of
glass gets stuck on the outside.
STYLOBATE
stylobate. A continuous horizontal course of masonry
that supports a colonnade.
subbase. A compacted layer of material placed on the
subgrade to support the base on which a concrete pave-
ment is constructed.
subgrade. The foundation on which a concrete pavement
is constructed.
sublimation. The direct conversion of solid to vapor
without first going through the liquid phase.
sublots. Subdivisions of a lot or shipment of a material.
submarine throat, submerged throat. A throat with
the level below the bottom of a glass melter.
submerged wall. A refractory wall submerged below the
level of molten glass in a glass-melting tank forming the
throat between the melting and refining chambers of the
tank.
submicron reinforcements. Fibers or whiskers in the
size range 0.2 to 5 /lm in diameter capable of being
dispersed more easily and uniformly in injection
molded composite parts.
sub potassic phlogopite. K1-xMg3AIl-.Jli3+xOHf2; a
fluor mica phase formed in fluorine-containinginter-
nally nucleated glass-ceramics. Its presence bestows
machinability to the final ceramic material.
subsaturate silicates. Minerals containing discrete
(Si04)4- tetrahedra along with 0 2- ions distinct from
the oxygens of the (SiQ)4- tetrahedra; kyanite,
A1 20Si04 , is an example.
subsidence. The failure of concrete foundations.
subsieve size. Parts of a powder which pass through a
325 or 400 mesh sieve and so have diameters less than
44 or 37 /lm. Such small particle sizes are analyzed by
sedimentation methods in suspension.
substance. (1) A chemical entity defined by a fixed for-
mula which gives the composition so that mixtures and
solutions, etc., are excluded. (2) The thickness of sheet
or rolled glass expressed as weight per unit of area.
substitutional solid solution. A compound formed by
one component dissolving into the crystal structure of
another by replacing atoms in the unit cell in either a
random or an ordered way. For example, a solid solution
is readily formed between TiC and TaC to give
Til_xTaxC.
substrate. A surface on which a coating or film has been
applied. It is usually a board or a layer of material, as
for example an electronic circuit laid on alumina,
A1 20 3 ·
subsurface discontinuity. A defect which does not ex-
tend through the surface of the item in which it exists.
Blisters and bubbles are examples.
successive ply failure. Sequential failure of reinforcing
plies due to increasing loads.
312
sucking. The sucking or drawing of vaporized lead and
other glaze constituents into a porous refractory.
suction. (l) The absorption of liquids into the pores of a
concrete surface. (2) A force generated by lowering the
pressure to below atmosphere.
suction blowing. A glass container manufacturing
method where the parison fills the blow mold by suck-
ing the air out from between parison and blow mold wall
instead of blowing compressed air down the neck of the
container.
suction process. Any process in which molten glass is
gathered into a mold by vacuum.
suction rate. The weight of water absorbed by a partially
immersed brick in one minute, usually expressed as a
unit of weight per minute.
sugar cube. A colloquial name for tritium trapped in an
inorganic solid phosphor which glows to produce light.
Zinc sulfide, ZnS, is the most commonly used phosphor
when it is dispersed in an aerogel to which tritium is
chemically bound.
sugar of lead. See lead acetate.
sulfation. A powder, stain, or scum forming on the sur-
face of a glaze, during or after firing, caused by sulfur
compounds emanating from the body or present in the
furnace atmosphere.
sulfide. A compound in which one or more sulfur atoms
are attached to atoms other than oxygen, such as carbon
or a metal. Refractory sulfides have received scant
consideration for technical applications, but now are of
interest in nuclear fuels and direct-energy conversion,
particularly the sulfides of plutonium, thorium, and
uranium. The sulfides, in general, are prone to chemical
and physical instabilities. Melting points range from
llOO°C to approximately 2428°C, although some de-
compose above 593°C.
sulfide stain. Discoloration of a glass enamel caused by
sulfide compounds. Commonly occurs if the ware is
stored in cardboard in moist atmospheres.
sulfoaluminate cement. A hydraulic cement consisting
of a mixture of gypsum and high-alumina cement.
sulfonated oils. Sulfuric acid-treated animal and mineral
oils used as wetting agents and defoaming agents in
glazes, porcelain-enamels, and other slips and slurries.
sulfosalts. Sulfide ores in which sulfur is combined with
one or more metals and metalloids which occupy metal
positions in the crystal structure.
sulfur. S; mp 119.3°C; bp 444.6°C; changes to the ~­
form at 94.5°C; sp. gr. 2.06; index of refraction 1.957;
used as a colorant in glass to produce yellows and
ambers, and with cadmium sulfide is used in selenium
ruby glass.
sulfuric acid. H 2S04 ; boils from 210 to 338°C; sp. gr.
1.8; used in the pickling of steel for porcelain-enamel-
ing, and occasionally as a mill addition for acid-resist-
 313
ing porcelain-enamels to counteract the alkaline nature
of the coating.
sulfur-impregnated abrasive. A bonded abrasive prod-
uct in which all connected pores are filled with sulfur.
sulfuring. The scumming or staining of a glaze caused
by sulfur compounds in the atmosphere during and after
firing. Usually long. needle-shaped crystals forming
spherulites occur in the glaze after the exposure to sulfur
dioxide gas. Avoided by maintaining good air supply to
the kiln and using purer fuels.
sump throat. The submerged passage between the mel-
ter and refiner of a glass tank situated at a level below
the bottom of the melter.
sun-dried brick. Large, roughly molded clay brick of
varying sizes, frequently made with additions of damp
straw, which are dried in the sun. See adobe.
sun-pumped laser. A continuous-wave laser in which
the energy of the sun is focused on the laser crystal.
sunstone. See aventurine (3).
superconducting cable. Power transmission cables
cooled to temperatures near absolute zero sufficiently
well protected to be buried underground.
superconducting energy gap. The small amount of en-
ergy below the energy levels of normal electron states
that characterize Cooper electron pairs at low tempera-
tures.
superconducting flux flow transistor. SFFT; a super-
conducting analogue to the field effect transistor. con-
sisting of parallel, weak superconducting links,
approximately 10 ~m long, separating two pieces of
YBCO superconductor and a control line to vary the
local magnetic field. Output voltage is controlled by
varying the input current in the control line and so
changes the magnetic field in the active region.
superconducting glass-ceramic. Glasses formed in the
Bi-Ca-Sr-Cu-O system by quenching melts from
I 150°C can be recrystallized at 700°C to ceramic phases
of general composition Bi2(CaSr)l+xCuxOg which have
an oriented platelike morphology some 600 ~m long;
the principal phase is Bi2(CaSr)3Cu20g which is super-
conducting with a Te =85 K.
superconducting magnet. An electromagnet wound
with superconducting wire capable of generating mag-
netic fields of 10 T with almost zero power loss.
superconducting magnetic energy storage system. A
coil of superconducting wire in which an electric cur-
rent circulates until needed to perform an operation.
superconducting memory. A computer memory made
up of superconducting storage devices operated under
cryogenic conditions. Power dissipation only occurs
during the read or write operations which allows very
dense memory banks to be built.
superconducting quantum interference device. See
SQUID.
SUPERHEATING
superconductor. A material which shows the complete
loss of all electrical resistance at a temperature below
the critical temperature, Te' The superconductivity is
destroyed by a magnetic induction greater than the
critical value, Be' Until recently attaining the supercon-
ducting state meant cooling the conductor to tempera-
tures below 20 K but now several ceramic oxides are
known to possess this property; see yttrium barium
copper oxide, YBa2Cu307_x'
1-2-3 superconductor. High-temperature, ceramic su-
perconductors based on yttrium barium copper oxide in
the ratio Y, or other lanthanide, I, barium, 2, and
copper, 3; typical transition temperatures to the super-
conducting state are above 90 K. Also known as 1-2-7
superconductor. It is actually a semiconductor until
some oxygen is removed from the crystal to produce a
7 - x oxygen content when it then becomes a supercon-
ductor. The superconductivity is associated with Cu-O
chains in the structure some of the copper being in the
oxidation state III.
1-2-4 superconductor. YBa2Cu40g; the structure of
this ceramic contains double Cu-O chains and has a
more stable oxygen stoichiometry than 1-2-7 mate-
rial; Te is 80 K but doping with calcium to
YO.9Cao.1Ba2Cu40g raises Te to 90 K.
1-2-7 superconductor. See 1-2-3 superconductor.
2-2-1-2 superconductor. See 2212-bismuth oxide.
2-4-7 superconductor. Y2Ba4Cu7015; a derivative of
the original 1-2-7 material containing both single and
double Cu-O chains in the structure.
superconductor, type I. See type I superconductor.
superconductor, type II. See type II superconductor.
supercooled liquid. A liquid cooled below its freezing
point without solidification or crystallization. The liq-
uid enters a metastable state.
supercritical drying. A gel drying process using tem-
peratures and pressures greater than those values which
denote the critical point of the liquid phase so that no
menisci are present in the pores of the gel, thus elimi-
nating Laplace capillary forces which are often suffi-
cient to crack the emerging solid phase.
superduty fireclay brick. A fireclay refractory having a
pyrometric cone equivalent not less than cone 33,
1598°C, not more than 1% linear shrinkage in the reheat
test, and not more than 4% weight loss in the panel
spalling test. See panel spalling test.
superduty silica brick. Silica brick having a total alu-
mina, titania, and alkali content significantly lower than
normal.
superfines. A powder fraction whose mean size is less
than 10 ~m.
superheating. The phenomenon of heating a liquid
above its boiling point without boiling occurring. In a
more general sense it is raising the temperature of a
SUPERHETERODYNE
sample above that at which a phase change should occur
without the change occurring.
superheterodyne. A radio receiver that combines two
radio-frequency signals by heterodyne action to pro-
duce a signal above the audio-frequency limit. After
amplification the signal is demodulated to give the
audio signal.
superlattice. A feature of some types of crystal structure
where ordered arrangements of one type of atom into
distinct layers in a solid solution of two or more com-
ponents, or a regular arrangement of lattice vacancies,
make it necessary to redefine the x-ray unit cell, usually
in terms of multiples of the original cell parameters. It
is characterized by faint diffraction spots in an x-ray or
electron diffraction investigation of the material.
supernatant. The liquid lying above a sediment or set-
tled precipitate.
superoxide. Metal oxides whose structures contain the
(Oz)- ion, for example, KO z.
superplasticity. An exceptionally high strain value
shown by some ceramics and metal alloys. The phe-
nomenon is associated with the production of a care-
fully controlled microstructure consisting of very small,
equiaxed grains capable of sliding past each other above
a critical temperature at a controlled, defined strain rate.
Extensions of several hundred percent have been re-
ported.
superplasticizers. Admixtures to ope mortars and con-
cretes which reduce the amount of water needed to
obtain a plastic mix. They act by being adsorbed onto
cement particles where they electrostatically repel and
so break up agglomerates to decrease the viscosity of
the system. They may also decrease the surface tension
of the water. They are low-molecular-weight polymers,
from 100 to 105 amu, in the systems: sulfonated mela-
mine-formaldehyde, sulfonated naphthalene-formal-
dehyde, sulfonic esters, or modified lignosulfates.
superposition principle. Boltzmann formulated the
principle that since strain is a linear function of stress
the total effect of applying several stresses is the sum
of applying each separately.
supersonic. Velocities greater than sound waves pos-
sess.
superstabilizer. A large coil of wire wrapped around the
coils of a magnet to give the very stable magnetic fields
required in NMR spectrometers.
superstructure. The parts of a glass tank above the side-
wall tank blocks.
supply voltage. The potential voltage available from a
power source of electric current.
surface. The outer layer of a substance.
surface acoustic wave. A mechanical wave propagated
on the surface of a solid; similar to a wave on the surface
of water but the disturbace is concentrated to a depth of
only approximately one wavelength of the wave. Such
314
a wave has a velocity slightly slower than the velocity
of an acoustic wave through the bulk of the solid, a fact
which is the basis of SAW-delay devices. Also known
as Rayleigh wave.
surface area. (I) The measured extent of an area covered
by a surface, excluding thickness. (2) The total exposed
area of the surface of a pulverized solid usually ex-
pressed as some unit of area per gram.
surface-area distribution. The distribution of surface
area in accordance with some parameter such as pores
of different size or diameter.
surface clay. An unconsolidated, unstratified clay oc-
curring on the surface of the earth.
surface coefficient. The ratio of the steady-state heat
exchange rate between a surface and its external sur-
roundings to the temperature difference between the
surface and its surroundings.
surface color. A color caused by light reflection at the
surface of a solid without light penetrating below the
surface, and since some surfaces, such as gold, have a
higher reflecting power for some wavelengths than
others they appear to be colored.
surface combustion. The combustion of fuel gases or
mixtures of gases and air by impingement on or through
a heated refractory.
surface conductance. The direct current conductance
between two electrodes in contact with a specimen of
solid insulating material when only a thin film at the
surface passes the current.
surface cord. Very fine striations on the surface of a
glass container; considered to be a defect.
surface density. The quantitative distribution of a sub-
stance on a surface expressed as kg m-z.
surface diffusion. Movement of atoms or ions on the
surface of a solid particle leading to interparticle neck
growth without the particle centers approaching each
other and hence no densification of the compact occur-
ring in solid-state sintering.
surface enthalpy. h; an energy function for a surface of
a solid defined by the equation h = 111 - T(d:y1lIdT),
where 111 is the specific surface work and T is the
absolute temperature.
surface finish. The character of a solid surface in terms
of roughness and irregularities after final treatment.
surface, gassy. See gassy surface.
surface grinding. The abrading or grinding of a plane
surface.
surface mark. A relatively long, narrow, shallow
groove, cut, or other abrasion in the surface of a solid.
surface oxides. Oxygen-containing compounds and
complexes formed on the surface of a substance or
object.
 315
surface polishing. The polishing of plate glass and other
surfaces to remove imperfections.
surface potential. The electrical field generated at the
surface of a ceramic by the imbalance of chemical
bonds compared with the bulk. It is related to, and
measured as the zeta potential.
surface preparation. Physical and/or, chemical treat-
ment of a surface prior to adding adhesive for bonding
purposes.
surface reaction. A chemical or physical reaction taking
place only on the surface of an item.
surface resistance. The electrical resistance of an insu-
lating product, usually measured between the opposite
sides of a square on the surface of the insulator.
surface roughness. See roughness height rating.
surface sealing. That portion of the finish of a glass
container which makes contact with the sealing gasket
or liner.
surface sheen. A bright surface.
surface, specific. See specific surface.
surface stress. "fs; reversible work required to form a unit
area of new surface by stretching; it is related to specific
surface work, "f", by "fs = 0ir" + (dy"llk), where &. is the
deviatoric strain and € is the tensile strain.
surface tensiometer. An instrument used to measure
surface tension of a liquid.
surface tension. Cohesive forces that attract molecules
of a liquid to each other, tending to minimize the surface
area and cause the surface to act somewhat like a plastic
film.
surface texture. The feel of a surface caused by irregu-
larities.
surface treatment. Any treatment of the surface of a
material to render it receptive to subsequent coating or
to develop a desired property such as resistance to
abrasion, weathering, or increasing the hardness.
surfactant. Usually an organic compound or organic
acid salt that alters the surface tension of a liquid in
which it dissolves. The overall effect is then to improve
wetting, suppress foaming, or assist emulsification.
surge. Transient increase in current or potential at a point
in a circuit.
surge suppressor. A semiconducting ceramic with
varistor properties, such as zinc oxide and silicon car-
bide, made into units that are used to protect electrical
systems from transient large currents.
sursulfatec cement. A type of cement composed of slag
(70%) and calcium sulfate (30%); a cement developed
and used in France.
susceptibility, magnetic. k; see magnetic susceptibility.
SYENITE
suspended arch. An arch in a furnace in which the brick
shapes are suspended from overhead supports.
suspender. See suspension agent.
suspension. A system in which denser particles, usually
solid, are distributed throughout a less dense liquid or
gas.
suspension agent. A chemical compound such as inor-
ganic salt which is added to a porcelain-enamel or glaze
slip to promote suspension of the solid particles in the
liquid medium.
suspensoid. A suspension of solid particles in a liquid.
swab test. A low-voltage test in which an electrical dis-
charge is fanned across a porcelain-enameled surface to
detect a discontinuity in the coating by means of a spark
concentrating in the discontinuity.
swarf. A mixture of grinding chips, fine particles of an
abrasive, and bond resulting from a grinding operation.
sweat, sweating. The process of placing a heated and
expanded metal ring or collar around a ceramic part and
allowing it to shrink around the ceramic to produce a
tight, adherent seal or joint.
sweet. An easily workable glass.
swelling. A volume increase in a material caused by
absorption of moisture.
swelling clay. A clay which will absorb large quantities
of water.
swing-field magnetization. A magnetic field induced in
two different directions to detect defects in a part which
are oriented in different directions in the part.
swing-frame grinder. A grinding machine suspended
above the workpiece by a chain at its center of gravity
so that it may be turned and swung in any direction for
the in-place grinding of work too heavy for manual
handling.
swing press. A screw press, often hand operated, used to
form special shapes in small quantities.
switch. A mechanical device for opening and closing an
electric circuit.
switching voltage. See Qvonic threshold switch.
sworl. Marks formed on the bottom of a pot by a cutting
or grinding wheel.
SXA. A trade identification name for aluminum alloy
reinforced with chopped strand silicon carbide, SiC,
fiber.
syalon ceramics. See sialons.
syenite. An igneous rock composed chiefly of an alkali
feldspar containing quartz, feldspathoids, mica, or
hornblende in minor quantities.
SYLVIN
sylvin. Alternative name for potassium chloride, KCI,
used to make infrared spectrometer cells.
sylvite. See potassium chloride.
symmetric. Possessing a plane or axis of symmetry
across which or around which the structure is identical.
symmetric laminate. A composite with a ply stacking
sequence containing a mirror plane ply-layer above and
below which the stacking sequence is a mirror image.
symmetric matrix. A mathematical matrix with equal
off-diagonal components. The matrix representation of
the mechanical moduli are always symmetrical.
symmetry. (1) The independence of a property with re-
spect to direction. (2) Correspondence or balance
among systems or parts of a system. (3) The number of
orientations that a structure can attain by the use of
symmetry operators, such as reflection across a mirror
plane, rotation around an axis, translation plus reflec-
tion, etc., that are indistinguishable.
symmetry operator. An instruction that leaves a struc-
ture apparently unchanged after it has been carried out,
for example, rotation of a cube through 90°.
synchrotron. A particle accelerator capable of produc-
ing high energies, in the Ge V range, by using an electric
field of fixed frequency and a changing magnetic field.
synchrotron radiation. A narrow beam of electromag-
netic radiation emitted tangentially to the orbit of very-
high-energy charged particles. Now used in structural
and spectroscopic studies of solids.
syneresis. The contraction in volume of a gel when no
evaporation of liquid occurs but rather the liquid phase
is expelled directly as the solid phase.
synergism. A phenomenon where the observed effect of
two or more influences is greater than the sum of the
influences acting alone.
316
Synroc. A synthetic rock in which zirconolite is a major
phase; currently undergoing trials as an immobilizing
matrix for highly active nuclear waste.
syntatic foams. Composites consisting of micron sized
hollow spheres in a polymeric matrix; commonly glass
spheres are used.
synthetic diamond. A manufactured form of carbon
with the cubic diamond structure made by two different
processes: the thermodynamic method whereby graph-
ite or carbon-containing gases are subjected to ex-
tremely high temperatures and pressures, in excess of
2500 K and 105 kbar; or the metastable route controlled
by kinetic factors where diamond-type films are pre-
pared for semiconductor substrate use, or as protective
hard films, by heating hydrocarbon gases in the pres-
ence of radio-frequency discharges or laser beams.
synthetic fluorine mica. BaMg3AI2Si20IOF2; a mica
product produced by the glass-ceramic process; used to
toughen alumina and other ceramics.
synthetic graphite. A crystalline graphitic material
made by processing carbon at high temperature and
pressure.
synthetic magnesite. Magnesite made by chemically
processing seawater.
synthetic quartz. A quartz crystal grown at high tem-
perature and pressure around a seed of quartz which is
suspended in a solution containing natural quartz crys-
tals.
synthetic test solution. A solution of two or more com-
ponents prepared under specified conditions for use in
the evaluation of adsorbents.
systematic sampling. The taking of samples from a
batch or manufacturing operation at fixed time intervals
or in fixed quantities, or both.
 T
tab gate. A small removable tab of approximately the
same thickness as a molded item which is used as a site
for edge gate location.
table. The platform of a grinding machine supporting
work being ground.
table, round. See round table.
table, shaker. See shaker table.
tablet. (1) A pill made from compressed powder. (2) A
slab of stone.
table, traverse. See traverse table.
tableware. Plates, cups, saucers, and related items em-
ployed on the dining table in the serving of food.
Tabor abrader. An instrument for measuring the resis-
tance of surfaces to abrasion consisting of loaded abra-
sive wheels rotating on the surface being tested.
tabular alumina. a-AI 2 0 3 ; mp 2040°C; sp. gr. 3.4-4.0;
hardness (Mohs) 9; used in refractories, electro-
ceramics, high-quality porcelains and other ceramics,
and abrasive products; produced by heating high purity
alumina, > 99.5%, to 19800C until all is converted to
the a-form; the crystal habit is tabular.
tabular crystal. A flat crystal with parallel faces; a type
of lamellar habit.
taccimeter. A device employing a lightly weighted piece
of paper at the surface of a dried coating or film on a
surface to measure the coating stickiness.
tack. (I) Stickiness of a filament reinforced prepreg ma-
terial. (2) The force required to separate a bonding
material without either face separating being com-
pletely free of bonding agent. (3) The self-bonding
behavior of a material.
tack, dry. See dry tack.
tack range. The working time of a spread adhesive; the
period of time it remains in the tacky-dry condition. It
will vary depending on the humidity and temperature.
317
tacky-dry. The condition of a surface adhesive when
volatile constituents have been absorbed or have evapo-
rated.
taconite. A low-grade iron ore containing hematite, mag-
netite, and fine-grained silica.
tactoid. A type of colloid particle distribution in a liquid
where the particles inside a small domain of sol are
ordered in a crystallike fashion; these small domains are
tactoids.
tailings. (1) Screened particles of a material that are too
coarse or too fine for an intended use. (2) The undesir-
able residue from a magnetic separation. (3) Worthless
residue from a mining, milling, or similar process.
tails. A fingerlike spray pattern on a surface.
takeout. A mechanical device for removing a finished
glass article from a glass-forming machine.
take-up twist. The decrease in length of a reinforcing
filament caused by twisting; expressed as a percentage
of the original untwisted length.
Takwhisker. Discontinuous SiC fiber sold commercially;
sp. gr. 3.19; modulus values in the range 400-700
GNm-2
talc. Mg 3Si 40 lO (OH)2; a three layer sheet structure sili-
cate; mp above 1400°C; sp. gr. 2.6-2.8; hardness
(Mohs) 1-1.5, Knoop 8 GN m-2; employed in wall tile,
refractories, electroceramics, dinnerware, and other ce-
ramic bodies; particularly valuable in improving ther-
mal-shock resistance.
talcum powder. A powder made from purified talc, usu-
ally scented and used for perfuming the body.
Talwalker-Parmellee plasticity index. The ratio of to-
tal deformation of a clay at fracture to the average stress
beyond the proportional limit.
tambour. A wall that is circular in plan.
tamped pipe. Concrete pipe formed by tamping dry, no-
slump concrete into rotating, vertical molds.
TAMPING
tamping. The fonning of articles by the repeated pound-
ing of dampened bodies into molds.
tan lieff• See loss tangent.
tangent line. In a filament-wound composite structure of
bottle shape it is any diameter at the equator.
tangent modulus. Et ; the ratio of change in stress to
change in strain obtained by drawing a tangent to any
point on a stress-strain curve.
tangle sheet. Pieces of mica which split well in some
sections, but tear in others.
tank. (1) A refractory-lined, glass-melting unit. (2) A
container in which ceramic slips and slurries are stored
for subsequent use.
tank block. A refractory block used to line the melting
zone of a glass tank.
tank, continuous glass. See continuous glass tank.
tank, day. See day tank.
tank furnace. A furnace containing a refractory recepta-
cle or tank in which glass is melted and which is
continuously charged at a rate equal to that at which the
glass is continuously withdrawn.
tank glass. Glass melted in a large tank as distinct from
a pot.
tank, glass. See tank furnace.
tank, pressure. See pressure tank.
tank, settling. See settling tank.
tannic acid, tannin. A water-soluble, organic powder
obtained from nutgalls, tree bark, and other plants; used
as a deflocculant and binder in slips and slurries.
tantalite. (Fe,Mn)Ta206; the main mineral from which
tantalum metal is extracted; usually associated with
granitic rocks.
tantalum boride. (1) TaB 2; mp 3200°C; sp. gr. 12.5. (2)
TaB; mp 2400°C; sp. gr. 14.3. (3) Ta3B4; mp 2650°C;
sp. gr. 13.6. (4) Ta2B; mp 1899°C. (5) Ta3B2; mp
2038°C. All are used in some cemented hard metals.
tantalum carbide. (1) TaC; mp 3875°C; sp. gr. 14.5;
hardness (Mohs) 9. (2) Ta2C; mp 3400°C; used in
cutting tools and dies.
tantalum nitride. (1) TaN; mp 3360°C; (2) Ta2N; loses
nitrogen at 1900°C. Both used as special crucible ma-
terials.
tantalum nitride resistor. A thin-film resistor with a
deposit of tantalum nitride on a substrate such as sap-
phire.
tantalum oxide. Ta205; mp 1800°C; sp. gr. 7.6; used in
optical glass and ferroelectric components.
318
tap. (1) To drain molten vitreous compositions from a
smelter through an opening in the smelter floor. (2) To
remove excess slag from the bottom of a pot furnace.
(3) To center an inverted pot on a wheel for trimming
and decoration.
tap density. The apparent density of a powder or granu-
lated material resulting when the receptacle containing
the material is vibrated or tapped manually under stand-
ard or specified conditions.
tape. A prepreg of finite width made from unidirectional
fibers in resin.
taped rove. Separately wound fiber strands are made to
stick together into a ribbon-like shape; made for weav-
ing or pipe wrapping.
tape placement. A machine method for laying tape in a
nonoverlapped fashion onto a flat or curved mold.
tapered seal. A thin metal sleeve fitted over a thick,
tapered ceramic cylinder so as to form a tight seal.
tapered wheel. A flat-faced grinding wheel tapered with
the greater thickness at the hub.
tapestry brick. A brick having a rough, unscored, tex-
tured surface.
tap hole. A hole in the bottom of a smelter or ladle
through which a molten batch is drained.
tap-hole clay. A damp, plastic, refractory clay formed
into a wad and used to seal the tap hole of a smelter or
melting furnace.
tapping. The removal of the tap-hole plug to drain a
smelter or furnace of its molten charge.
tappit hen. A ceramic or glass bottle of 3-liter capacity.
tar. A black, bituminous, semisolid material consisting
of a mixture of condensates from the inert, destructive
distillation of coal, oil, wood, or organic materials.
tar-bearing basic ramming mix. A tar-bearing basic-
refractory mixture which is rammed into place to form
a monolithic structure in the heat zone of a furnace. See
pitch.
tar-bearing basic refractory. A refractory shape com-
posed of basic refractory grains to which tar has been
added during manufacture. See pitch.
tare weight. The combined weight of an empty container
and its accessories.
tarnish. The dulling discoloration, or staining of a sur-
face by exposure to air or reactive atmospheres.
tarras cement. A volcanic tuff having pozzolanic prop-
erties; used as a hydraulic cement. Also known as trass.
tartaric acid. Dihydroxy dicarboxylic acid; used to pre-
pare salts which are often platicizers.
Tateho. A commercially available discontinuous form of
Si3N4 fiber; sp. gr. 3.18.
 319
tazza. A glass or ceramic wine vessel with a shallow
bowl and a circular foot.
TBeo. Abbreviation for thallium barium calcium oxide
superconductor.
T -bend flexibility test. A test designed to compare the
flexibility of a surface coating whereby the coated metal
strip is bent over on to itself.
TBP. (C4H9)3PO; abbreviation for tributylphosphate, a
complexing agent used to extract uranium species from
solutions of burned-up nuclear fuel elements.
Te. Abbreviation for texture coefficient.
TeE. Abbreviation for thermal coefficient of expansion.
tea dust glaze. An opaque, iron oxide-bearing stoneware
glaze of greenish color.
teapot. A lidded container with a spout and handle in
which tea is made and from which it is served.
teapot ladle. A type of ladle containing a refractory dam
under which molten metal flows; designed to prevent
slag from reaching the ladle spout.
tear. A crack or a torn section in glass caused by sticking
to hot metal.
tear failure. A mode of failure in a tensile test where a
crack initiated at one edge propagates across only
slowly to give an anomalous load-extension curve.
tearing. A pattern of healed cracks in porcelain-enamel
in which the undercoat or metal may be observed.
tearing energy. The work done in a tensile test to propa-
gate tear failure to completion.
tearing strength. The stress required to start or propa-
gate a tear in a fabric under specified conditions teaser.
A workman supervising the charging, temperature con-
trol, and operations of a glass-melting tank or furnace.
tea service. China or pottery articles, including a teapot,
cups and saucers, etc., used in serving tea.
teeming. The pouring of a molten batch from a pot or
ladle into molds.
teeming, bottom. See bottom teeming.
teeming, uphill. See uphill teeming.
teeth. (I) The crenulations on the rim of a gear. (2) Sur-
face irregularities formed when adhesive-bonded sur-
faces are separated.
tektite. A naturally occurring silica glass of meteoritic
origin.
telegraphing. In reinforced composite laminates this is
the transmitting to the surface of any pattern of internal
imperfections as subsequent layers are laid over the
fault.
TEMPERED GLASS
tellurium. Te; mp 452°C; bp 1390°C; sp. gr. 6.24; used
as a yellow, green, and blue colorant in glass and glazes;
silvery nonmetallic element with semiconductor prop-
erties.
temper. (1) To moisten and mix clay, plaster, mortar,
etc., to proper consistency for use. (2) The deg....ee of
residual stress in annealed glass. (3) To strengthen,
harden, or toughen glass by rapid cooling above the
annealing point. (4) The moisture content of a sand
mixture.
tempera. A decorating technique in which the pigment
is suspended in gluelike material such as casein or wax.
temperature. The thermal state of a body in terms of its
ability to transfer heat to other bodies.
temperature, absolute. See absolute temperature.
temperature, annealing. See annealing temperature.
temperature, deformation. See deformation tempera-
ture.
temperature, fictive. See fictive temperature.
temperature, firing. See firing temperature.
temperature gradient. The rate of temperature change
between two points of reference in a substance or in an
area.
temperature-gradient furnace. A slender laboratory
furnace of relatively small cross section in which a
controlled temperature gradient is maintained along its
length.
temperature, ignition. See ignition temperature.
temperature, liquidus. See liquidus temperature.
temperature, maturing. See maturing temperature.
temperature, melting. See melting temperature.
temperature, oxidizing. See oxidizing temperature.
temperature, recrystallization. See recrystallization
temperature.
temperature, refining. See refining temperature.
temperature, softening. See softening temperature.
temperature, transformation. See transformation tem-
perature.
temperature, yield. See yield temperature.
tempered glass. Glass that has been cooled from near its
softening point to room temperature under rigorous
control to increase its mechanical strength and thermal
endurance by the formation of a compressive layer at
its surface. Rapid surface cooling is induced by jets of
cold nitrogen gas and the slower cooling of the inner
parts induces the compression in the surface layer.
TEMPERED PITCH-BONDED ...
tempered pitch-bonded basic refractories. Pitch-bonded
basic refractory which is heat-treated to minimize sof-
tening of the bond on reheating.
tempered safety glass. A glass that has been tempered,
so that it will break into granular instead of jagged
fragments as a result of particular stress patterns created
in the glass, by a rigidly controlled heat treatment. See
tempered glass.
tempering. (I) The treatment of clays, ceramic bodies,
plaster, mortar, and similar materials with water or
steam to obtain desired working and forming charac-
teristics. (2) The rapid surface cooling of glass to de-
velop improved resistance to mechanical and thermal
damage through a compressive surface layer. (3) The
slow, low-temperature annealing of metals to reduce
strain -energy.
tempering pan. A mechanical, pan-type mixer in which
clays and bodies are blended with water to working
consistencies.
tempering tub. A vertical pan-type mixer in which ma-
terials are blended with water and then fed directly into
a vertical pug mill, the same shaft serving the mixer and
pug mill.
tempering water. The water or moisture added to a body
of clay mix to develop desired working properties.
template. (I) A guide pattern used in the shaping of ware
during manufacture. (2) A pattern through which por-
celain-enamel may be sprayed on ware or through
which previously applied and dried porcelain-enamel
may be removed by brushing to produce a desired
design.
temporary wicket. Temporary closure of refractory or
insulating block in a furnace or kiln, such as at the ends
of checker-chambers.
tenacity. This denotes the strength of a yarn or reinforc-
ing filament; it is the breaking force in grams per denier
unit of filament size, gpd, when the filament or yarn is
pulled at 30.5 cm per minute.
tendon. A tensioned steel bar or strand of wires anchored
in concrete to induce compressive stress in the concrete
when set.
tenmoku. A lustrous, iron-bearing, black, stoneware
glaze which blends to a red-dust color on thinner parts,
on firing.
tenorite. A black mineral form of copper oxide, CuO.
tensile specimen. A bar of a material of specified dimen-
sions used to measure the resistance of the material to
fracture in tension.
tensile strength. The maximum stress a material sub-
jected to a pulling or stretching load can withstand
without breaking, calculated as the load in kilograms
per square meter, reported for the cross-sectional area
of the specimen at the point of fracture.
320
tensile stress. The stress developed in a specimen under
a pulling load; the applied force divided by the original
cross-sectional area of the specimen; units N m-2 .
tensiometer. (I) An instrument designed to deliver
measurable tensile forces to specimens to be tested. (2)
An instrument for measuring the moisture content of
soils. (3) An instrument, usually consisting of two bulbs
connected to a manometer, used to compare the vapor
pressure of two liquids. (4) An instrument, consisting
of a sensitive balance and a lightweight ring, which is
used to measure the surface tension of a liquid by
finding the mass needed to just pull the ring from the
liquid surface.
tension. A force which tends to lengthen a solid, such as
by pulling.
tension member. Components carrying horizontal
loads.
tension set. The strain that remains after a tensile load
has been removed.
tension, surface. See surface tension.
tephra. Solid matter ejected by a volcano.
tephrite. Basalt containing augite, nepheline, or leucite.
terbium oxide. (I) Tb 20 3 ; mp 2380°C; used in elec-
tronic ceramics. Also called terbia. (2) Tb 40 7 .
terminal fracture velocity. TFV; the maximum speed
of propagation that a crack can achieve in a brittle solid;
given by the equation TFV =O.S( cryld) 112, where cry is
the yield stress and d is the density of the material.
ternary. An alloy having three different components.
ternary diagram. A phase diagram of a 3-component
system.
terotechnology. Technology of the installation and effi-
cient use of equipment and machinery.
terra alba. CaS04·2H20; pure-white, uncalcined gyp-
sum.
terra-cotta. (I) An unglazed, low-fired, ornamental
earthenware, such as tile, roofing, vases, statuettes,
building block. primitive pottery. (2) A hard-fired,
glazed or unglazed, clay building unit, generally larger
than facing tile or brick; used for ornamental purposes
in architectural applications.
terra di siena. A ferric oxide pigment used in ~lazes.
terra rosa. A variety of hematite; sometimes used as a
red pigment in glazes.
terra sigillata. A fine-textured, glossy, embossed, red
pottery.
terrazzo. A mosaic-type floor obtained by embedding
special aggregate, such as marble or granite chips, in
concrete, followed by grinding and polishing to a
smooth surface after the concrete has hardened.
 321
terre verte. Grayish-green pigment consisting of pow-
dered glauconite, K2(Mg,Fe2)AI6(Si40IOh(OH)12.
terrigenous. Of or produced by the earth deposited by
erosion.
terrine. An oval earthenware cooking dish with a tightly
fitting lid.
tertiary air. Preheated air added to the waste-gas flue of
a furnace or kiln being fired under reducing conditions
to reduce smoke emission.
tesla. T; measure of magnetic field strength in the SI
system of units equivalent to 104 gauss in the cgs
system.
tesla coil. A step-up transformer with an air core; used to
produce high frequency, high voltages.
tessellate. To pave or inlay with a mosaic of small tiles.
tessera. A small rectangular ceramic tile or glass used in
a mosaic design.
tessha. A more metallic and broken version of tenmoku.
test, acceptance. See acceptance test.
test batch. A sample of concrete taken from a production
mix for testing.
test bed. A sound, strong base for securing equipment to
and equipped with instruments, etc. ; used for testing
machinery, engines, etc., under working conditions.
test certificate. A document certifying the validity of a
performed test.
test coil. A section of a coil assembly that excites or
detects the magnetic field in a material in a comparative
system.
test, compression. See compression test.
test cones. See pyrometric cone.
test cylinder. A cylinder of concrete used as a test speci-
men.
test, eddy-current. See eddy-current testing.
test, electromagnetic. See electromagnetic test.
test method. A definitive standard procedure with which
to ascertain properties of materials or products.
test, nondestructive. See nondestructive test.
test of significance. A procedure used in statistical
analysis to see if a particular result arose by mere
chance.
test, performance. See performance test.
test specimen. A sample prepared to prescribed size and
shape from which mechanical, physical, and chemical
properties are determined.
THEORETICAL DENSITY
tetragonal. The crystal system characterized by three
mutually perpendicular axes two of which are equal in
length.
tetrahedrite. (Cu,Feh2Sb4S13; sp. gr. 4.6-5.1; hardness
(Mohs) 3-3.5; a common sulfide ore and important
source of copper; crystallizes in the cubic system as
twinned tetrahedral crystals.
tetrahedron. A solid figure having four plane faces; a
regular tetrahedron, such as the Si04 unit, has faces that
are equilateral triangles.
tetrasodium pyrophosphate. Na4P207; employed as a
suspension and dispersing agent in porcelain-enamels
and ceramic glazes.
tetrode. A transistor having two terminals on the base or
gate to improve its high-frequency performance.
tex. g km- I ; a unit derived from the textile industry to
show linear density; the weight in grams of a fiber that
is I kilometer long.
textile size. A starch-water-oil emulsion used to coat
individiual ceramic or glass fibers before stranding
them in order to protect their surfaces from abrasion and
to help strand formation.
texture. (I) The visual and tactile characteristics of a
surface. (2) The relationship between shapes and sizes
of pores and grains in a refractory product.
texture coefficient. TC; a measure of the preferred ori-
entation of crystals in a polycrystalline vapor deposited
film; if TC = 10, the preferred orientation is said to be
perfect.
textured brick. A brick treated to alter its surface ap-
pearance from that produced by the die, such as by
scratching or scoring.
TFV. See terminal fracture velocity.
Tg• Used to denote the transformation temperature of a
glass, where the second order change from supercooled
liquid to glassy state occurs on cooling.
TGA. Abbreviation for thermogravimetric analysis.
thallium calcium barium copper oxide.
T12Ca2Ba2- CU30x; a high-temperature superconduc-
tor which can be made into thin films on substrates for
use in microwave circuits.
thallium oxide. TI20; mp 300°C; bp 1865°C; used to
increase the index of refraction of optical glass.
thenardite. Na2S04; anhydrous sodium sulfate found as
a white, vitreous mineral.
Thenard's blue. Another name for cobalt blue.
theoretical air. The amount of air theoretically required
for complete combustion.
theoretical density. The density of a material calculated
from the number of atoms per unit cell and the lengths
of the x-ray unit cell parameters.
THEORETICAL STRENGTH
theoretical strength. The strength a material would
have if it were free from Griffith flaws, dislocations,
grain boundaries, or any other form of defect. Various
ways of estimating it have been developed.
theoretical stress concentration factor. Arises in a
solid from the presence of notches and other flaws
which cause stress concentrations. It is the ratio of the
greatest stress to the average stress in the body.
theoretical weight. The mass of a body calculated from
the dimensions of the body and its density.
thermo A unit of heat equal to 105 British thermal units
or 1.055056 x 108 joules.
thermal analysis. The analysis of the properties of a
material which are hea" -related.
thermal analysis, differential. DT A; see differential
thermal analysis.
thermal barrier. An insulating material which will pre-
vent or deter the transfer of heat or cold from one body
or area to another.
thermal black. A relatively coarse carbon black made
by the pyrolytic process for use as a pigment.
thermal capacity. (1) The amount of heat a body will
absorb, expressed as joules per degree of temperature
per unit of mass, J kg- I K- I. (2) The quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of a body or substance
one degree. See British thermal unit.
thermal conductance. C; the rate of heat flow through a
unit area of a body induced by unit temperature differ-
ence between the body surfaces; C is expressed in
Wm-2 K- I .
thermal conductivity. k; the rate of heat flow through a
body per unit of area per unit of time per unit of
temperature and length in a direction perpendicular to
the surface; k is measured as W m- I K- I.
thermal convection. See heat transfer.
thermal diffusion. The phenomenon in which the pres-
ence of a temperature gradient in a mixture of fluids
causes the heavier molecules to diffuse into the cooler
regions. The effect has been used to separate isotopes.
thermal diffusivity. Heat flux per unit of area of a solid
per unit of time, h, divided by the product of specific
heat, c p, density, d, and temperature gradient, T - Ts,
where Ts is the sink temperature: D t =hlcpd(T - Ts).
thermal efficiency. The ratio of heat radiated by a body
to that of a perfect blackbody at the same temperature.
thermal endurance. The ability of glass or other body
to resist thermal shock or to withstand deterioration
duri'lg exposure to high temperatures.
thermal etching. Heating polished ceramic surfaces to
high temperature to reveal the grain boundary structure
by intergranular corrosion or by vapor transport.
322
thermal excitations. The process in which atoms or
molecules attain excess energy via collisions.
thermal expansion. The reversible or permanent change
in the dimensions of a body when heated.
thermal expansion coefficient. The fractional change
in the length or volume of a material per degree of
temperature change.
thermal fatigue. A failure mode that can occur in non-
cubic materials; such materials are thermally anisot-
ropic and so intergranular stresses occur when grains
expand anisotropically against each other; a cause of
weathering in rocks and powdering in some materials.
thermal glass. A low-expansion glass in which boron
oxide is substituted for calcium oxide in ordinary soda-
lime glass, and which may be heated and cooled rapidly
without breaking.
thermal gradient furnace. A tubular furnace of small
cross section in which a controlled temperature gradient
is maintained along its length.
thermal growth. See thermal ratcheting.
thermal incompatibility. A condition in which part of
an aggregate in concrete ~xhibits a different coefficient
of expansion or other thermal property from the other
constituents, resulting in damage or distress to the con-
crete when hardened, particularly crumbling.
thermal-insulating cement. A dry cementitious compo-
sition containing additions of substances of low thermal
conductivity which, when blended with water, form a
mixture which may be placecl or applied as a covering
to provide a thermal barrier.
thermal insulation. Ceramic materials used to give re-
sistance to heat flow.
thermal integrity factor. TIF; a performance indicator
for square cell, cellular-ceramic catalyst supports, that
relates to thermal shock resistance; TIF =Ut, where t
is the cell wall thickness and L is the cell repeat distance.
thermal ionization. The evaporation from a heated sur-
face of both positive and negative ions as well as neutral
particles; extremely high temperatures are usually re-
quired.
thermally activated. A process in which the activation
energy is provided by thermal energy.
thermal neutron. A neutron with a mean velocity of
about 2200 m s-I.
thermal radiation. Electromagnetic waves emitted by a
body as a consequence of the thermal excitation of the
atoms. The wavelength spans from infrared to ultravio-
let with the intensity distribution depending on the
temperature of the body.
thermal ratcheting. The irreversible volume expansion
found in some systems which are thermally cycled.
 323
thermal reactor. A nuclear reactor where most fission is
caused by slow thermal neutrons.
thermal resistance. The resistance of a body to the flow
of heat; calculated as the temperature difference be-
tween the opposite faces of the body divided by the rate
of heat flow; reciprocal of thermal conductance.
thermal resistivity. The temperature difference be-
tween the parallel surfaces of an infinite slab of a
homogeneous material of unit thickness when a unit
thermal transmission in unit time by conduction only
through a unit area is maintained in a direction perpen-
dicular to the surface.
thermal runaway. In radio-frequency heating this is
caused when an increase in temperature of the dielectric
causes a loss factor increase which then leads to a
greater temperature increase and so on.
thermal shock. Exposure of a body or coating to sudden
and severe changes in temperature.
thermal-shock failure. The fracture or crazing of a por-
celain-enamel, glass, or glaze when subjected to sudden
cooling from an elevated temperature, as by the appli-
cation of cold liquids.
thermal-shock resistance. The ability to withstand sud-
den changes in temperature without fracture.
thermal shock spalling. Fracture and chipping of porce-
lain-enamel produced by the sudden cooling or quench-
ing of the hot enamel surface by inadvertent exposure
to water or other liquid.
thermal shock strength. The maximum sudden change
in temperature that a body can withstand without frac-
ture occurring; usually determined by quench cooling.
thermal-shock test. A test in which a body, glass, glaze,
or porcelain-enamel is subjected to selected conditions
of sudden temperature change to determine its thermal
endurance properties.
thermal spalling. The breaking or cracking of refracto-
ries sufficient to expose new surfaces caused by sudden
or nonuniform temperature changes which create irre-
sis table stresses in the unit.
thermal spraying. The spraying of droplets of molten
powders on a substrate by means of a heated applicator.
thermal strength. The physical strength of a solid at an
elevated temperature.
thermal stress. Stress induced by temperature changes
in a body unable to expand or contract freely.
thermal stress cracking. Crazing that occurs in some
matrix thermoplastic resins resulting from overexpo-
sure to raised temperatures.
thermal toughening. The process of heating a glass to a
temperature near the top of the annealing range and then
air-jet quenching it.
THERMODYNAN.OCPARAMETER
thermal transmittance. The heat flow per second per
square meter under eqUilibrium conditions through a
body.
thermal vibration. The motion of atoms in a solid about
equilibrium positions. Such motion is quantized and the
specific heat of a solid is largely associated with thermal
vibration. The quantum of thermal vibration is the pho-
non; hence, as the temperature of a solid rises, phonons
are created.
thermion. An electron or ion emitted by a high-tempera-
ture body.
thermionic. The flow of an electrically charged particle
or ion emitted by a conducting material at high tempera-
tures.
thermistor. A ceramic semiconductor whose resistance
decreases sharply with increases in temperature, for
example, nickel oxide, NiO.
Thermit. Trade mark of the thermite process.
thermite process. An exothermic reaction in which a
metal oxide is reduced when heated with finely divided
aluminum to yield a molten metal plus aluminum oxide.
thermobalance. An analytical balance fitted with tem-
perature controllable furnaces around weighing pans
extended well below the balance arm or other weighing
mechanism.
thermochemistry. A branch of chemistry concerned
with the measurement of heat evolved or absorbed
during chemical reactions.
thermochromism. The changes in color in a solid that
occur with changes in temperature.
thermocouple. A temperature-measuring device con-
sisting of two dissimilar conductors joined together at
their ends which generate thermoelectric voltage when
heated; the voltage, being proportional to the tempera-
ture difference between the junctions, is calibrated to
indicate temperature.
thermodynamic equilibrium. The final steady state of
a thermodynamic system the characteristic of which is
the absence of any tendency for spontaneous change.
Thermodynamics as a study area is largely concerned
with systems in thermodynamic eqUilibrium.
thermodynamic functions. The five quantities-inter-
nal energy, enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs function, and
Helmholtz function-which are used to describe ther-
modynamic systems. They dep~nd only on the state of
the system and not on the method used to reach that
state.
thermodynamic parameter. (lI2 - 0); 0 is an interac-
tion parameter and the lI2 - 0 determines the sign of
tlGs' the free energy change occurring when spherical
particles suspended in a liquid interact. If 0 is less than
lI2, tlGs is positive and coagulation is prevented; when
o> lI2 powder aggregates are formed.
THERMODYNAMICS
thermodynamics. The study of the relationships be-
tween the properties of matter influenced by changes in
temperature, and the conversion of energy from one
form to another, the conversion of heat into work and
vice versa.
thermodynamic temperature. The basic physical
quantity used to measure the average thermal energy of
particles in motion. Also known as the absolute tem-
perature and is measured in kelvins defined so that the
triple point of water is 273.16 K.
thermoelectric figure of merit. Z; a measure of the im-
provement affected in thermoelectric devices by
changes in processing: Z = S2/dJ.,., where S is the See-
beck coefficient, d the density, and A the thermal con-
ductivity; Zhas units ofm K- 1•
thermoelectricity. Electricity produced in a circuit con-
sisting of two different metals or semiconductors whose
junctions are at different temperatures; used in thermo-
couples for the measurement and control of tempera-
tures.
thermoelectric power. S; the potential drop per degree
temperature difference across a semiconductor or con-
ductor caused by the electrons or holes moving toward
the cold end.
thermoelectron. An electron emitted at high tempera-
ture.
thermogram. (I) A curve showing weight change of a
specimen as a function of temperature. (2) The record
produced by a thermograph.
thermograph. A thermometer producing a continuous
record of a fluctuating temperature.
thermography. (I) A writing, printing, or recording
process involving the use of heat. (2) A flaw detection
method for solids whereby isothermal contour lines are
mapped and discontinuities in the solid then cause gra-
dients in the detected contours.
thermogravimetric analysis differential. See differen-
tial thermogravimetric analysis.
thermoluminescence. Phosphorescence in some solids
caused by heating. It results from the removal of irra-
diation defects in the solid, the strain energy of which
appears as light.
thermolysis. The dissociation of a material by heat.
thermomechanical effect. The tendency of liquid he-
lium to flow from a low-temperature region to one of
higher temperature if such regions are connected.
thermometer. An instrument that measures temperature.
thermometer, maximum. See maximum thermometer.
thermometer, minimum. See minimum thermometer.
thermometry. A branch of science concerned with the
design of thermometers and the measurement of tem-
perature.
324
thermonuclear reactions. Nuclear transformations in-
volving nuclear fusion of light atoms, as in the hydrogen
bomb.
thermopile. A series-linked number of thermocouple
junctions; used to detect heat radiation or conversely to
generate thermoelectric current from a heat source.
thermoplastic. The property of softening when heated
and hardening when cooled without change in proper-
ties.
thermoplastic decoration. A process of applying colors
dispersed in a thermoplastic medium through a hot
screen, the design freezing in place on contact with the
cold surface of ware being decorated.
thermoscope. A device for estimating temperature
changes of a body based on corresponding changes in
the volume of the body.
thermoset. A cross-linked epoxy or polyester resin
which decomposes but does not melt on heating; rela-
tively insoluble, inert material; used as matrices in
composite manufacture.
thermosetting. The property of a body or material to
solidify when heated, and then cannot be remelted
without destroying its original characteristics.
thermosonometry. The science of studying sound
waves emitted by phase changes in heated bodies.
thermostat. A device used to keep a system at a constant
temperature, often by controlling the electrical current
delivered to a heater.
thermotensile. Relating to tensile strength as it is af-
fected by temperature.
thick edge. A cleaved mica sample with one edge 1.5
times thicker than at any other point, or greater than the
maximum average thickness for its grade.
thickener. Additive used to increase viscosity of coating
materials; silica, Si0 2, and calcium carbonate, CaC0 3,
are commonly used in this respect.
thickening. Increasing the viscosity of a slip.
thick film. A resistor or other circuit component with a
resist film over 0.025 mm thick.
thickness. (I) The verticle depth of a coating. (2) The
dimension of a product, such as tile, measured at right
angles to the wall, floor, or other surface to which it is
applied.
thickness gauge. Any device designed to measure the
thickness of a coating, sheet, or object.
thickness gauge, magnetic. See magnetic thickness
gauge.
thick splittings. Loose splittings of mica of thicknesses
greater than 0.03 mm, powdered loose splittings of
thickness greater than 0.025 mm, or bookform splittings
greater in thickness than the average permitted for the
grade.
 325
thief, sample. See sample thief.
thimble. (1) An L-shaped refractory device used to stir
pot-made optical glass. (2) A conical refractory item of
kiln furniture with a projection at its bottom on which
ware is supported during the decorative fire.
thin body. A defect in a glass container where the glass
in the main part of the container is too thin to make it
usable.
thin film. A film a few molecules thick deposited on a
glass, ceramic, or other semiconductor substrate to form
a capacitor, resistor, or other circuit component.
thin section. A material which is ground and polished to
a thickness of about 0.03 mm for examination of its
optical properties by a polarizing microscope.
thin splittings. Splittings of mica having thicknesses
less than the average for the grade.
Thiokol. A series of polysulfide rubbers highly resistant
to oils and solvents; used as tank linings, tubing, gas-
kets, and in other applications where chemical and
weather resistance is required.
third party. A person or organization other than the
principals involved in a dispute.
thixotropy. The property of a suspension to go to lower
viscosity when agitated and to thicken or solidify on
standing.
Thomson effect. If a conductor has a temperature gradi-
ent and an electrical current is passed along it, then a
heating or cooling of the conductor occurs given by
dQldt= J.1l dTldl, where I.l is the Thomson coefficient, I
is the current flowing, dTldl is the temperature gradient,
and dQldt is the rate of heat evolution or absorption per
unit length of conductor.
Thomson scattering. The scattering of electromagnetic
waves by free charged particles such as electrons; to see
the effect intense laser light is required.
thoria. See thorium oxide.
thorianite. Radioactive ThO z; mp 3300°C; sp. gr. 9.7-
9.8; hardness (Mohs) 7; a mineral sometimes containing
uranium and rare earth metals.
thorite. Thorium silicate, ThSi04, an ionic orthosilicate
which is the thorium analogue of zircon; brown or
orange ore; sp. gr. 4.5-5.4 depending on hydration;
hardness (Mohs) 4.5; its radioactivity often destroys the
crystal structure.
thorium beryllide. ThBel3; sp. gr. 4.10; hardness (Knoop)
11.6-13.2 ON m-z.
thorium carbide. (1) ThC; mp 2625°C; sp. gr. 10.65. (2)
ThC z; mp 2655°C; sp. gr. 9.6. Both forms are used in
nuclear fuels.
thorium dioxide. See thorium oxide.
THROAT, STRAIGHT
thorium fluoride. ThF4; mp Illl°C; used in ceramics
for high-temperature applications.
thorium nitrate. Th(N0 3k6H zO; a salt which when
heated to 11 O°C first undergoes a melting-solution
process in its own water of crystallization and then loses
nitric acid fumes as it hydrolyzes, then above 180°C a
polymerization reaction occurs to produce a sol of
thoria, ThO z, particles in the 10-15 nm size range.
thorium oxalate. Th(CHz04h·2HzO; decomposes to
ThO z above 300-400°C; used as a source of Th0 2 in
ceramics.
thorium oxide. ThO z; mp 3300°C; sp. gr. 9.7; hardness
(Mohs) 7; used in high-temperature crucibles, cermets,
incandescent gas mantles, nonsilica optical glass, cath-
odes and coatings in electron tubes, and in nuclear fuels.
Commonly called thoria.
thorium silicate. ThSi04; found as the ore thorite; mp
1979°C; sp. gr. 5.3; hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
thread count. The number of yams per cm in either
lengthwise or crosswise direction of a woven reinforce-
ment.
thread grinding. The cutting of threads on a part by the
use of a bonded abrasive tool.
three-cavity mold. A mold containing three cavities for
the simultaneous forming of three glass articles.
three-edge bearing test. A technique for applying load
to a concrete pipe in testing its external load-crushing
strength, the load being applied at the center of a speci-
men resting on two outside points. See load-crushing
strength test.
three-terminal device. One which, like a transistor, can
amplify by large amounts.
threshold concentration. The minimum concentration
at which a substance can be detected by odor or taste.
threshold level. A value of a specified property above or
below which a specimen is rejected.
threshold limit value. Concentration of gas or vapor in
a million parts of air by volume, ppm, or milligrams of
solid material per cubic meter of air, mg m-3 , to which
workers may be exposed.
threshold odor test. Estimation of the odor level in a
fluid by dilution with an odor-free fluid until no odor is
detected.
threshold temperature. The first detectable movement
from the baseline in differential thermal analysis indi-
cating when a reaction involving heat in the sample
begins.
throat. (1) The submerged passage between the melting
and refining chambers of a glass-melting tank. (2) The
constricted area between the port and firing chamber of
an open-hearth furnace.
throat, straight. See straight throat.
THROAT, SUBMARINE
throat, submarine. See submarine throat.
throat, submerged. See submarine throat.
throat, sump. See submarine throat.
throttling process. The slow expansion of a gas through
a porous ceramic plug such that the pressure on each
side remains almost constant.
through field electrode. A single plate electrode for mi-
crowave heating of thick specimens. The simplest con-
figuration consists of two flat metal plates between
which the sample is placed.
through-transmission method. The use of ultrasound
to locate flaws by passing the pulse through the test
piece and detecting the amplitude of the pulse on the
reverse side.
throwing. (I) The throwing of a prepared pottery body
on a revolving potter's wheel and shaping by hand. (2)
The act of imparting twist to a reinforcement yarn.
throwing marks. Grooves and ridges on the surface of a
shape formed by hand-throwing.
thucholite. A naturally radioactive mineral hydrocarbon
produced by the irradiation of oil by uranium-bearing
rocks.
thulium oxide. Tm203; sp. gr. 8.7; used as a radiation
source in x-ray equipment after irradiation in a nuclear
reactor.
thwacking. The final shaping of clay roofing tile by
pounding it on a wooden form of a desired shape with
a wooden paddle.
TiAION. Aoronym for a ceramic composite containing
spinel-type titanium aluminum oxynitride; made from
AlN, TiN, and A120 3; has high strength, 292 MN m-2,
and moderate fracture toughness, 1.79 MN m-~.
tied concrete column. A column of concrete reinforced
by internal longitudinal bars bound by horizontal ties
for stability.
tie line. The line drawn on a phase diagram at constant
temperature to join the liquidus and solidus.
tiering. The pointing of roofing tile with mortar or ce-
ment.
tiger eye. (I) A decorative glasslike formation in an
aventurine glaze. (2) A quartz pseudomorph where
quartz has replaced an asbestos mineral but retains the
fibrous structure.
tiger skin. A type of salt glaze characterized by crawling
and beading of the glaze to produce the appearance of
tiger or leopard skin.
tile. (I) A relatively thin piece of fired clay, concrete,
stone, or other material used in functional and ornamen-
tal applications on walls, floors, roofs, etc. (2) A hollow
or concave earthenware or concrete product used for
drainage and other purposes.
326
tile, antistatic. See antistatic tile.
tile, combed finish. See combed finish.
tile, cove. See cove tile.
tile, double-shelled. See double-shelled tile.
tile, drain. See drain tile.
tile, encaustic. See encaustic tile.
tile, end-construction. See end-construction tile.
tile, exposed finish. See exposed finish tile.
tile, extra-duty glazed. See extra-duty glazed tile.
tile, facing. See facing tile.
tile, faience. See faience.
tile, finish. See finish tile.
tile, fireproofing. See fireproofing tile.
tile, floor. See floor tile.
tile, furring. See furring tile.
tile, gable. See gable tile.
tile, garden. See garden tile.
tile, glazed. See glazed tile.
tile, glazed interior. See glazed interior tile.
tile, header. See header tile.
tile, hip. See hip tile.
tile, horizontal-cell. See horizontal-cell tile.
tile, interlocking. See interlocking tile.
tile, load-bearing. See load-bearing tile.
tile, mosaic. See mosaic tile.
tile, natural clay. See natural clay tile.
tile, natural finish. See natural finish.
tile, non-load-bearing. See non-load-bearing tiles.
tile, nonlustrous. See nonlustrous glaze.
tile, ornamental. See ornamental tile.
tile, pan. See pan tile.
tile, partition. See partition tile.
tile, porcelain. See porcelain tile.
tile, quarry. See quarry tile.
tile, roofing. See roofing tile.
tile, rough-finish. See roughened finish tile.
tile, salt-glazed. See salt-glazed tile.
 327
tile, scored-finish. See scored-finish tile.
tile, sewer. see sewer tile.
tile, ship-and-galley. See ship-and-galley tile.
tile, shoulder-angle. See shoulder-angle tile.
tile, side-construction. See side-construction tile.
tile, smooth-finish. See smooth-finish tile.
tile, solar screen. See solar screen.
tile, special-purpose. See special-purpose tile.
tile, structural clay. See structural clay tile.
tile, underridge. See underridge tile.
tile, unglazed. See unglazed tile.
tile, valley. See valley tile.
tile, wall. See wall tile.
tile, wind-ridge. See wind-ridge tile.
tilt boundary. A grain boundary described as having an
axis of rotation, about which one grain can be brought
into coincidence with the other, that is parallel to the
boundary plane. It is viewed as consisting of an array
of edge dislocations.
tilt up. A method of building construction in which wall
panels are precast in a horizontal position, usually on
the building floor, and then tilted into vertical position
when the concrete has hardened.
time of final setting. Concerning concrete and other hy-
draulic cements it is the elapsed time after the initial
mixing with water to reach a penetration resistance of
27.6MNm-2.
time of set. The time required for freshly mixed concrete
to attain initial set or a specified degree of hardness.
time-weighted average. Concentration expressed in
ppm of a chemical entity multiplied by the time of each
individual sampling period, summed for all samples and
divided by the total sampling time.
tin ash. A mixture of tin oxide and lead oxide used as an
opacifier in glazes.
tin-doped indium oxide. See ITO.
tin enamel. A white porcelain-enamel or glaze opacified
by tin oxide added to the slip at the mill.
tin-glazed ware. Pottery coated with a tin-enamel type
of coating, such as that on majolica or delftware.
tin luster. An irridescent luster produced by the reduc-
tion of tin oxide in a glaze.
tin oxide. (I) Sn02; mp 1127°C; sp. gr. 6.6-6.9; hard-
ness (Mohs) 6-7; used as an opacifier in porcelain-
enamels, glazes, and glass, and as a constituent of pink,
maroon, purple, yellow, ruby, and gold colors for glass
TITANIUM CARBIDE
and glazes. (2) SnO; tin II or stannous oxide; a black
oxide containing lattice defects bestowing electrical
conductivity; decomposes by oxidation to Sn02; used
as a vapor-deposited thin-film electrode in the manu-
facture of stack-type capacitors usually with Ti0 2 films
as the dielectric and to prepare stannous salts for surface
tempering in the glass industry.
tinsel. Thin platelets of glass used to produce a glittering
effect in glazes and glass.
tinter brush. A squirrel hair decorating brush, 12-20
mm wide with short evenly cut bristles of square aspect.
tinting. The application of shading to artwork.
tint plate. A device producing a uniform retardation over
the field of a strain viewer which makes strains in glass
appear as bright colors instead of gray shades.
tin-vanadium yellow. A ceramic colorant composed of
80 to 90% tin oxide, Sn02' and 10 to 20% vanadium
oxide, V205.
tired clay. Clay that has lost its strength by being over-
worked.
tit. An imperfection consisting of a protrusion on a glass
article.
titanate ceramics. Electroceramic compositions with
general formulas ATi0 3 and ATi 20 4 , where A is an
atom such as barium, boron, beryllium, niobium, tin,
zirconium, etc.; because of their high dielectric con-
stant, used in capacitors, transducers, etc.
titanate coupling agent. An alkoxy compound of tita-
nium, X-TiOR, where X is an organic group; used to
form strong bonds between fibers and epoxy resin or
thermoplastic matrices; they are useful plasticizers for
thermoplastics.
titania. See titanium dioxide, Ti02.
titania porcelain. A vitreous, white, technical porcelain
in which titanium dioxide is the essential crystalline
phase.
titania whiteware. Ceramic whiteware in which tita-
nium dioxide is the essential crystalline phase.
titaniferous. Of or containing titanium.
titanite. A calcium silicon titanate, CaTiOSi04 ; used to
produce a crystalline effect or appearance in glazes; sp.
gr. 3.4-3.55; hardness (Mohs) 5-5.5.
titanium boride. (I) TiB; mp 2060°C; sp. gr. 5.26; hard-
ness (Mohs) 9; used as a refractory, high-temperature
electrical conductor, and as the reinforcing phase in
some cermets. (2) Ti 2B5; mp 2093°C. (3) TiB 2; see
titanium diboride.
titanium carbide. TiC; mp 3140°C; sp. gr. 4.93; hard-
ness (Mohs) 9; used in wear-resistant cutting tools,
bearings, cermets, arc-melting electrodes, refractories,
and high-temperature conductors; characterized by
high thermal-shock resistance. Nonstoichiometric,
TITANIUM CARBIDE COMPOSITE
TiC0.52-TiCO.97; TiC is therefore a mixture containing
free carbon.
titanium carbide composite. Most commonly particu-
late TiCo.97 in a transition metal matrix, such as cobalt.
However, since TiC whiskers and vapor-formed fibers
are now available, these composites are also formed
with thermoplastic resin matrices and aluminum alloy
matrices.
titanium carbide, nickel-bonded. See nickel-bonded
titanium carbide.
titanium diboride. TiB 2; mp 2930°C; sp. gr. 4.52; used
in refractory, wear-resistant products, bearings and
bearing liners, cutting tools, jet nozzles and venturi,
crucibles, arc and electrolytic electrodes, resistance ele-
ments, high-temperature electrical conductors, contact
points, hard-faced welding-rod coatings, metallurgical
addition agents, and similar high-temperature applica-
tions.
titanium dioxide. Ti02; mp 1560°C; sp. gr. 3.8; avail-
able as rutile, anatase, and brookite; used as an opacifier
in porcelain-enamels, glazes, and glass, as a component
in various dielectrics, and as a constituent in welding-
rod coatings. Often called titania.
titanium fluoride. TiF3; mp 284°C; sp. gr. 2.8; used as
a flux in the production of rubies and sapphire abrasives.
titanium hydride. TiH2; used as a solder in bonding
glass to metals.
titanium niobate. TiNb20 7; mp 1483°C; dielectric ce-
ramic used in various electrical applications.
titanium nitride. TiN; mp 2930°C; sp. gr. 5.29; used in
refractories, cermets, and semiconductors and as a gold
decoration on some dinnerware.
titanium oxide. (1) TiO; widely nonstoichiometric;
1749°C; sp. gr. 4.93; gold-colored semiconductor. (2)
Ti 20 3; mp 2077°C; sp. gr. 4.6. (3) Ti30 5 ; sp. gr. 4.24.
(4) Ti0 2; see titanium dioxide. (5) Ti03; see titanium
trioxide.
titanium silicide. (I) Ti5Si 3; hexagonal D8 g structure;
201O o C; sp. gr. 4.2; used in high-temperature applica-
tions where thermal shock is not a factor. (2) TiSi; mp
1760°C; sp. gr. 4.34. (3) TiSi2; mp 1499°C; sp. gr. 4.15;
used in n-p transistor connections.
titanium tetrachloride. TiCI 4; volatile liquid; used to
produce irridescence in glass and as a vapor-phase
reagent to produce ultrafine powders of Ti02 when
reacted with steam.
titanium trioxide. Ti0 3; used in ivory-colored ceram-
ics, dental porcelain, and dental cements.
titanizing. A commercial hot end glass coating process
for improving the strength of glass containers. Tin, not
titanium, is more commonly used; both are applied as
an organotin or organotitanium compound.
titanomagnetite. Fe3_xTix04; a ferromagnetic spinel with
Fe 3+ and Ti4+ ions occupying the tetrahedral sites.
328
titrant. The solution in a titration that is added from a
burette.
TLV. See threshold limit value.
toadstone. A green mottled basalt rock occurring in
limestone regions as almond-shaped inclusions.
toby jug. A ceramic beer mug shaped like a man wearing
a three cornered hat.
TOF. Acronym for time of flight, which is the difference
between the time taken for two signals to reach a
detector and then the difference used to probe the speci-
men. For example, an ultrasound wave reflected from
the top plane surface has a TOF difference to the same
sound reflected from a lower plane or internal defect.
Resolution of the TOF signals in terms of their ampli-
tude allows internal imaging to be made.
toggle mechanism. A knee-shaped joint consisting of
two bars fastened together at one end; when pressure is
placed on the joint to straighten it, opposite pressures
are transmitted to the open ends.
toggle press. A mechanical press in which the slide is
actuated by a toggle mechanism.
tohdite. An aluminum oxide hydroxide with hexagonal
symmetry. Probably a hydrogen-type spinel contain-
ing 0 2- ions; contains no water although the composi-
tion is quoted as 5AI 20 3·H20.
tokamak. A device designed around an evacuated torus
to confine a plasma by the use of three types of applied
magnetic field.
tolerance. Permissible variations in specified dimen-
sions or other values.
tolerance factor. A term used in discussing the deviation
of perovskite oxide structures from the cubic modifica-
tion. For AB0 3 the tolerance factor, t, is given by t =
°
(rA + ro)/1.414(rB + ro), where ris the radius of the A,
B, and ions in the structure respectively; a perovskite
arises when 0.75 < t < 1.0 and when t = I the cubic
structure is achieved.
tolerance interval. An interval computed to include a
stated number of items from a sample which is com-
pared with a stated probability in a statistical analysis.
tolerance limit. The statistics defining a tolerance inter-
val. See tolerance interval.
tolerance, water. See water tolerance.
tomographic. Spatial analysis; three-dimensional ex-
amination beneath the surface of a specimen.
tone. A shade of color made darker by adding black or
its complementary color.
toner. Highly concentrated pigment used to modify the
color strength or hue of a screen printing ink.
tongue. The male end of a pipe which is overlapped by
the end of an adjoining pipe.
 329
tongue tile. The projecting partition between the streams
of gas and the port of a glass-melting tank.
tonne. See metric ton.
tool, machine. See machine tool.
tool tips. Ceramic tips bonded to cutting and machining
tools.
tools, ceramic. See ceramic tools.
tooth. A coarse-grain structure, causing roughness in
clay.
too thing. A projection of bricks in a building wall to
permit future extensions of the wall.
topaz. AI 2(F,OH)zSi04 ; sp. gr. 3.4-3.6; hardness
(Mohs) 8; used as a substitute for, or in conjunction
with, kyanite in the production of mullite-type, high-
alumina refractories.
topazolite. A form of andradite garnet with a yellowish-
green color.
top brick. Fireclay brick lining the top section of a blast
furnace.
top-fired kiln. A kiln in which the fuel is introduced into
the firing zone through apertures in the kiln roof.
top-hat kiln. A kiln in which the firing zone, placed
immediately above the ware on a refractory base, is
lowered to surround the ware to be fired. Also known
as an envelope kiln.
top lap. The shortest distance between the lower edge of
an overlapping roofing shingle and the upper edge of
the lapped unit below.
top, manhole. See manhole top.
topography. (1) A description or delineation of surface
features. (2) Diffraction imaging in order to produce a
detailed configuration of a surface.
topping. (1) A thin layer of high-qualiity, high-strength
concrete applied as a finish to a concrete slab. (2) A dry
mixture of cement and fine aggregate scattered over a
concrete slab before final finishing to produce a wear-
resistant surface.
top pouring. The direct transfer of molten steel from a
ladle into ingot molds, usually by means of refractory
nozzles.
torbernite. A green-colored copper-uranium phosphate
ore, CuU02(P04)2·12H20.
torpedo ladle. A large half-torpedo refractory-lined la-
dle used to transport molten steel and pour it via a
top-rim lip. Made from steel lined with a safety lining
of insulating fireclay brick under a thick wear-lining of
fired or unfired bricks containing> 60% A1 20 3 .
torque. The moment of forces trying to produce rotation.
TOUGHENED GLASS
torr. A unit of pressure equal to 11760 of an atmosphere,
that is, 1.33322 x 102 N m-2.
torsion. Stress caused by twisting a sample.
torsional modulus. The ratio of torsional rigidity of a
bar to its length.
torsional viscometer. An instrument designed to esti-
mate the viscosity and thixotropy of a slurry which
consists of an outer cylinder containing the slurry to be
tested and an inner cylinder supported in the slurry by
a wire twisted one complete tum; when released, the
overs wing of the inner cy linder is taken as an indication
of the viscosity of the slurry; the thixotropy of the slip
is a comparison of the degree of overs wing within a
specified time interval.
tortoise-shell finish. A type of decorative finish for pot-
tery and other earthenware resembling the shell of a
tortoise, produced by sprinkling and firing colored met-
al oxides over a dampish unfired glaze surface.
tortuosity. A; the exponent in fractal analysis of aggre-
gates that relates the twists in direction necessary to go
from point to point in a fractal body while remaining
totally in the body. Total length traveled by the shortest
path, Imin , is related to the direct distance in space
between the two points by: Imin ~ lA. Tortuosity depends
upon connectivity and mass of the fractal body.
tortuosity factor. The distance a molecule must travel to
diffuse through a solid divided by the thickness of the
specimen.
total air. The total quantity of air supplied in the com-
bustion of a fuel.
total equivalent boron content. The sum of the individ-
ual equivalent boron values in a neutron cross section.
See boron equivalent.
total mass loss. Decrease in the mass of a solid due to
outgassing on heating and applying reduced pressure;
expressed as a percentage of the initial sample mass.
total porosity. The ratio of total void spaces in a body to
its bulk volume.
total pressure. The gross load applied to a surface.
total solids. The sum of the suspended and dissolved
solids in a slip.
touf (pisee). An adobe-type wall construction of
rammed, straw-tempered, sun-dried clay without form-
ing bricks first.
tough alumina. A relatively impure, regular alumina
with a blocklike equiaxed structure in which the AI 20 3
content ranges from 90 to 96%, the balance being
impurities.
toughened glass. A glass highly resistant to mechanical
and thermal shock produced by rapid and rigid control
of its cooling rate from near its softening point to room
temperature to produce residual internal tension and
external compression which remain after the glass has
TOUGHNESS
cooled; used in windows, doors, and other installations
where breakage may be dangerous.
toughness. (1) Defined as a material's resistance to crack
propagation and can be expressed in terms of crack
velocity. Brittle materials are those in which crack
velocities reach the speed of sound very rapidly. (2) A
definition more used in composite science is the energy
required to break a material which is the area under a
stress-strain curve for the material. (3) Usually associ-
ated with a yield point in a stress-strain curve.
tourmaline. Na(Mg,AlhAI6(Si601S)(B03h(OH,F)4; a
sodium aluminum borosilicate containing six-mem-
bered silicate rings and three-membered borate rings;
these ionic units are bonded to positive ions such as
sodium and aluminum. Has pyroelectric properties as it
becomes polarized by heat and is also a dichroic crystal
capable of plane polarizing light in transmission.
tow. An untwisted bundle of untwisted fibers.
tower packing. Variously shaped ceramic pieces, such
as rings, spheres, etc., used to fill columns so as to
provide inert surfaces for chemical reactions to take
place.
towing. The smoothing of the outer edges of dried ware
with sandpaper, scrapers, cloth wheels, or similar items.
towpreg. A prepreg fabricated from tow.
toxicity. A quantitative statement of the adverse effects
to health by a material.
toxic material. A material which is harmful to the hu-
man body.
TP. Abbreviation for thermoplastic.
TQM. Abbreviation for total quality management; the
application of management techniques to ensure that
the most up-to-date technology is used to monitor raw
materials, process variables, and product specifications
throughout a company.
trabeated. Constructed with horizontal beams and no
arches.
trace. (1) An extremely small, but detectable, quantity of
a constituent or impurity in a substance. (2) A constitu-
ent present in amounts less than 10-3 kg per kg.
trace element. An extremely small quantity of an ele-
ment, frequently nonessential, in a substance.
tracery. A fine pattern composed of interlacing ribs ap-
plied to masonry, pottery, or glass.
trachyte. Volcanic rock, light in color with a rough tex-
ture containing feldspars and pyroxene.
track. A path of localized deterioration on the surface of
an insulator along which some conduction can occur.
tracking. (1) The act of producing conducting tracks on
an insulator surface by electric discharges on or near the
surface. (2) The lateral play in a lehr belt as it moves
through a lehr tunnel. Little or no tracking is desirable.
330
tracking resistance. The product of voltage and time
required to develop a conducting track on the surface of
an insulator.
tractable. Adjective meaning readily worked or malle-
able.
tragacanth. A mucilaginous gum from Asian shrubs;
used as a binder in glazes and porcelain-enamels. Also
known as gum tragacanth.
trailing. A method of decorating leather-hard pottery in
which a pattern of thick, adherent slip is squeezed
through a small orifice onto the pottery surface.
training effect. An effect observed in superconducting
magnets caused by wire windings moving slightly due
to polarization forces which causes frictional heating so
that the conductor loses superconductivity at a field
lower than expected. Several cycles of energizing
"trains" the magnet toward higher fields.
tramp glass. Loose glass in a manufactured container
that has dropped inside and stuck to an inside surface.
tramp iron. Unwanted metal, such as a nail, bolt, filing,
or screw which finds its way into bulk material or a
batch of ceramic raw materials.
transducer. A device which converts electrical energy
to mechanical energy and vice versa. PZT is a ceramic
example.
transfer car. A car equipped with a set of rails on which
loaded cars from a dryer or kiln may be moved for
transfer from one set of tracks to another set.
transfer decoration. See slide-off transfer.
transfer glass. Optical glass cooled to room temperature
in the pot in which it was melted.
transfer, heat. See heat transfer.
transfer ladle. A refractory -lined ladle used to transfer
molten pig iron from the blast furnace to the next
processing operation.
transfer printing. A type of decoration in which pat-
terns embossed on paper in color from engravings or
lithographs are transferred to bisque, glazed, porcelain-
enameled, or other ware.
transfer ring. A raised ring around the outside circum-
ference of a parison used as a gripping aid in the transfer
of the parison to the blow mold.
transfer, slide-off. See slide-off transfer.
transfer track. A set of rotating rail tracks by which kiln
or furnace cars may be transferred from one set of tracks
to another set.
transfer zone, mass. See mass transfer zone.
transformation. (1) Change of phase. (2) Strength,
strain, etc., variations due to coordinate transformations
according to a set of mathematical equations. Mohr's
circles geometrically represent such transformations.
 331
transformation, displasive. See displacive transforma-
tion.
transformation, glass. See glass tranformation.
transformation point. An experimentally determined
temperature at which the viscosity of a glass melt is
10\3 N s m-2 .
transformation range. A temperature range over which
a glass goes from the thermodynamic glassy state, low
temperature, to supercooled liquid state, high tempera-
ture. Many commercial glasses have ranges around 400
to 500°C.
transformation, reconstructive. See reconstructive
transformation.
transformation strain. See Mohr's circle.
transformation stress. See Mohr's circle.
transformation temperature. The temperature at
which a change occurs in a phase of a material during
heating or cooling.
transformation toughening. A process designed to in-
crease the crack resistance of ceramics whereby metas-
table tetragonal zirconia, which is produced by control
of particle size and composition, is included in a matrix
of the ceramic. The stress field associated with the tip
of an advancing crack nucleates the transformation back
to monoclinic Zr02 which, because of an increased
volume, hinders crack advancement via the stress field
this generates.
transformer. An electrical component which transfers
electric energy from one or more alternating-current
circuits to one or more other circuits by magnetic induc-
tion.
transgranular. Confined to an effect across a grain and
not along grain boundaries.
transistor. An electronic device consisting of a small
block of a semiconducting material to which three or
more electrical contacts are made, usually with two
rectifying contacts being spaced in close proximity, and
one nonrectifying contact; for use as an amplifier, de-
tector, switch, or similar application.
transition. A phase change.
transition aluminas. Nonequilibrium reordered struc-
tures arising from the amorphous products ofthe initial
thermal decomposition of gibbsite, bayerite, nor-
strandite, boehmite; each precursor gives a different
metastable alumina.
transition curve. A line on a pressure-temperature dia-
gram indicating values at which two solid phases are in
congruent equilibrium.
transition metals. Elements with partially occupied d-
and f-orbitals.
transition point. (1) A temperature at which a substance
undergoes a phase change. (2) The temperature at a
TRANSPARENT
given pressure at which two solid phases are in congru-
ent eqUilibrium.
transition state. A higher energy state than either the
reactants or products in a chemical reaction through
which any transformation has to pass to obtain the
products.
transition structure. A metastable phase according to
the thermodynamic predictions which exists due to
coherency with a matrix phase as it is precipitated from
solid solution.
transition temperature. (I) The temperature below
which a substance becomes superconducting. (2) The
temperature at which one polymorph changes into the
next thermodynamically stable state.
transit-mixed concrete. Concrete mixed in a truck
mixer en route from the proportioning plant to the job
site.
translucency. The property of a material to admit and
diffuse light so that objects beyond cannot be clearly
distinguished. An almost transparent material is trans-
lucent.
translucent. Description of a material which transmits
some light but not enough to see through clearly.
translucent glass. A glass transmitting light with vary-
ing degrees of diffusion and which impedes or obscures
vision to the degree that objects seen through it cannot
be seen distinctly.
transmission density. 't; a quantitative value of the ex-
tent to which a substance transmits electromagnetic
radiation; numerically it is expressed as the logarithm
to base ten of the reciprocal of the transmittance. For-
merly known as optical density and is also called absor-
bance.
transmutation. The transformation of a nuclide into a
nuclide of a different element.
transmutation color. A color, such as in a porcelain-
enamel, glaze, or glass, which may be changed by the
intentional or accidental introduction of another color-
ant or impurity into the batch, or by melting a compo-
sition in a crucible in which a composition of a different
color previously had been melted.
transmutation glaze. A flambe or flow glaze containing
copper to produce a variegated appearance. Also known
as rouge flambe.
transom. a horizontal member across a window.
transparency. (1) A piece printed on a clear sheet with
transparent or translucent inks whose full brilliance is
brought out by backlighting. (2) A positive image on a
photographic film.
transparent. Adjective describing transmission of light
without scattering.
TRANSPARENT COATING
transparent coating. A clear colorless or tinted porce-
lain-enamel, glaze, or other coating through which the
base material or intermediate coating may be seen.
transudate. Any fluid that passes through a porous solid.
transude. To pass through pores in a solid in a slow
manner.
transuranium elements. Radioactive elements having
atomic numbers greater than that of uranium, 92.
transverse-arch kiln. A chamber kiln in which the arch
of the roof is set at right angles to the length of the kiln.
transverse compression. A test for strength in compos-
ites where the load is applied perpendicularly to the
oriented fibers so that buckling becomes less of a prob-
lem.
transverse crack. In unidirectional ceramic-matrix
composites this is caused by tensile stress applied trans-
versely to the fibers.
transverse rupture strength. Breaking stress calcu-
lated from the flexure formula; typically found for
beams supported near the ends and center loaded.
transverse strain. The linear strain in a plane perpen-
dicular to a specimen axis.
transverse strength. The maximum bending stress per
unit of area which a specimen can withstand without
breaking. See modulus of rupture.
transverse wave. A wave motion in which particle dis-
placement is perpendicular to the propagation direction
of the wave.
trap. A device to prevent the passage of selected sub-
stances, such as dust, sulfur, water, gas, etc. while
permitting the passage of other substances.
traprock. Any fine grained, dark, columnar, igneous
rock such as basalt.
trass. A light-colored, powdered volcanic ash resem-
bling pozzolana in composition, and which is used in
hydraulic cements. Also known as tarras.
traveling microscope. A magnifying system, able to
traverse in both x and y directions, the eyepiece of which
contains a graticule and the traverse directions contain
two Vernier scales; used to measure distance between
points on surfaces with great accuracy.
traveling thermocouple. A long thermocouple made to
run the length of a lehr in order to plot the temperature
profile.
traveling wave applicator. A microwave applicator
where all the input power is absorbed by the work or by
a water load having negligible reflected power and
hence no standing waves.
traverse. To travel or move across, over, or through.
Crossing from side to side.
332
traverse length. The distance between points of reversal
in the traverse direction in a reciprocating mechanism.
traverse table. A reciprocating platform on a grinding
machine supporting the ware being ground.
traverse, wheel. See wheel traverse.
treading clay. A primitive process whereby a suitable
clay is kneaded by the heal of the potter's foot ..
treadle bar. The foot pedal operating a potter's wheel.
treater. A grouping of machinery able to prepare dry,
resin-impregnated fiber reinforcement consisting of
winders, resin tanks, and drying or curing ovens.
treatment. A material incorporated in a grinding wheel
during manufacture to improve its grinding action and
to minimize its tendency to fill with grinding residues.
tremie. A large metal tube with a hopper at the top and
a valve arrangement at the bottom; used in the place-
ment of concrete under water.
tremie seal. A foundation seal placed under water by a
tremie, usually in an area enclosed by sheet piling.
tremolite. Ca2Mgs[Si4011h<0H,F}z; an amphibole dou-
ble-chain silicate mineral; sp. gr. 3.0-3.4; hardness
(Mohs) 5-6; a fibrous talc; used as a substitute for
asbestos in acid-resisting applications and in reinforced
cements, etc.; also used in lagging and wall insulation;
transparent to opaque. A compact form is called neph-
rite. Also known as Italian asbestos.
trial mix. A preliminary batch of concrete mixed to de-
termine the optimum proportions of ingredients to pro-
duce concrete having specified properties.
trials. Small samples which are withdrawn from a kiln
during firing for use as a guide to temperature and
atmospheric conditions therein.
triangle bar. Alloy bars of triangular cross section upon
which porcelain-enameled ware is placed for firing.
triaxial cable. A multipart electrical conductor consist-
ing of an inner braided coaxial cable which is sur-
rounded by an exterior conductive shield to provide
extra protection from external fields.
triaxial stress. A state of stress in which none of the
three principal stresses is zero.
triaxial weaving. Three yarn systems that are inter-
woven typically at 60° to one another in a plane.
triaxial weaving machine. A loom using three yarn di-
rections to weave yarns at 60°.
tribasic calcium phosphate. Ca3(P04}z; mp 1670°C;
sp. gr. 3.14; used in porcelains, pottery, porcelain-
enamels, and milk glass both as an opacifier and as a
glass former; also used in castable compositions.
tribology. The science of wear and friction at surfaces.
 333
trickle. To drip slowly or to flow in a gentle intermittent
stream.
tridymite. A high-temperature polymorph of silica,
Si0 2; sp. gr. 2.28-2.3; hardness (Mohs) 7; used in
ceramic bodies to improve thermal-shock resistance
and to minimize crazing.
Trier process. A process for making concrete in which a
slurry of wet-ground slag is mixed with portland cement
and aggregate.
trim. To remove edges and excess material and shape
leather-hard bodies by means of a wheel.
trimmed block. Dressed or crude mica which has been
split into prescribed thicknesses and has been side
trimmed to remove irregularities, imperfections, and
contaminants.
trimmer. (I) Tile of various sizes and shapes, such as
bases, caps, comers, moldings, etc., employed to com-
plete tile installations. (2) A workman employed to
remove fins, edges, and other irregularities from ware.
trimorphous. The property of crystallizing in three dif-
ferent forms.
trioctahedral. Atoms in all the six-fold, octahedral sites
in a close-packed array of anions.
triode. A thermionic valve; used as the main amplifier
oscillator for radio-frequency heating.
triphylite. LiFeP04; a bluish-gray phosphate mineral
with an orthorhombic structure.
triple brick. A brick 13.5 x 10.2 x 30.5 cm in size.
triple-cavity mold. A mold containing three cavities for
the simultaneous forming of three glass articles.
triple-cavity process. A process in which three gobs of
glass are accepted and formed in a mold simultane-
ously.
triple-gob process. The triple-cavity process of glass
forming.
triple point. The unique temperature and pressure at
which all three phases of a pure stable substance can
coexist in eqUilibrium.
tripoli. Rottenstone; porous, siliceous, sedimentary
rock; used as an abrasive and polishing powder. See
rottenstone.
trisodium phosphate. Na3P04; a cleaning compound
and water softener.
tristimulus colorimeter. An instrument that measures
color by determining the intensities of three different
colors, white, blue, and yellow, although other colors
maybe used.
triturate. To grind a material to a fine powder.
TRUE VOLUME
triuranium octoxide. U 30 S; decomposes at 1450°C; sp.
gr. 8.39; a natural uranium oxide occurring in uraninite;
used in nuclear applications.
trivet. A stainless steel or heat-resistant alloy formed
into a shape suitable to support porcelain-enameled
ware during firing.
trommel. A tilted, revolving, cylindrical screen; used to
separate coarsely crushed materials.
trona. Na3H(C03h·2H20; hydrous sodium acid carbon-
ate; occurs as a mineral from evaporated soda lakes.
Tropenas converter. A refractory-lined converter in
which the air blast strikes the molten batch through
tuyeres.
trough. A channel through which materials flow from
one point to another.
trowel. A flat, rectangular- or triangular-shaped hand
tool; used to apply, spread, and shape concrete, mortar,
and plaster.
troy ounce. A unit of weight of precious-metal decorat-
ing materials equal to 31.1 grams.
truck chamber kiln. A chamber-type kiln through
which ware is pushed on refractory platforms or bats.
truck-mixed concrete. Concrete mixed in a truck-
mounted mixer.
truck mixer. A rotating mixer mounted on a motor truck
in which concrete is mixed en route from the propor-
tioning plant to the job site.
true, truing. Trimming the outside surface of a grinding
wheel so that its rotation will be concentric with the
axis.
true density. The weight of a unit volume of a substance
excluding its pore volume and interparticle voids when
measured under standard or specified conditions.
trueing. To remove the outside layer on a grinding wheel
so as to restore its grinding face to even, true running.
true porosity. The ratio of the total volume of open and
closed pores and interparticle voids to the bulk volume
of a material.
true specific gravity. The ratio of the density of a mate-
rial to the density of water at 4°C that has a volume
equal to the true solid volume at standard conditions of
pressure and temperature.
true strain. e,-; defined relative to the distance between
two marks made on the gauge length, La; it is the natural
logarithm of liLa, where L is the distance between the
gauge marks at any time.
true stress. The stress calculated from the actual meas-
ured cross-sectional area at the moment of observation
ignoring the original cross-sectional area.
true volume. The volume of a solid material, neglecting
pore volume.
TRUMEAU
trumeau. A section of wall between two openings.
truncated. Description of a crystal having edges or cor-
ners cut off.
truss. (I) A bundle or pack. (2) Another name for a
corbel. (3) To support or stiffen a structure, such as a
roof or bridge, etc., with structural members.
T-stake. A T-shaped steel form; used to shape metal
bowls and the like to be processed into porcelain-enam-
eled artware.
tube furnace. A furnace in which the fuel combustion
takes place in a design of heat-resisting alloy tubes to
prevent combustion gases coming into contact with
ware being fired.
tube mill. A revolving cylinder containing grinding me-
dia in which the material to be ground is introduced as
a slurry at one end and removed, after grinding, at the
opposite end. It is often compartmented with smaller
grinding media in successive compartments. The prod-
uct is a fine mud.
tube, revolving. See revolving tube.
tubing, lens-fronted. See lens-fronted tubing.
tub, tempering. See tempering tub.
tuckstone. Shaped refractory blocks placed on top of
flux blocks in a glass tank to protect the flux blocks
against combustion gases, and to serve as a seal between
the flux blocks and the side and end walls of the glass
tank.
tuck wall. A course of tucks tone or a wall in a glass tank.
tufa. A soft porous rock consisting of calcium carbonate
deposited from lime-rich springs.
tuff. A hard volcanic ash.
tuille. A vertically operated damper or counterweighted
door in a glass tank to control the flow of molten glass
or to protect a newly set pot.
tumbler. (I) A drinking glass without a foot, stem, or
handle. (2) A part that moves a gear in a train of gears
into or out of engagement.
tumbler gear. A train of gears in which selection is made
by a tumbler.
tumbling. A surface-finishing operation in which small
articles are loosely rotated in a barrel with abrasives or
polishing compounds to remove burrs, protrusions, and
surface imperfections, and to produce polished sur-
faces.
tuned circuit. Used in radio-frequency heating, it is a
circuit where a capacitor and inductance in series or
parallel offer a low or high impedance respectively at
the resonant frequency.
tungstates. Compounds of tungsten and oxygen and
other metals in which linked polyhedra of wax are
present, W04 tetrahedra and W0 6 octahedra being
334
common; melting points usually in the range of 1480-
1705°C.
tungsten boride. (1) WB; mp 2860°C; sp. gr. 16.0. (2)
WB 2; mp 2900°C. (3) W2B; dissociates at I900°C; sp.
gr. 16.7 (4) W2B5 ; mp 2200°C; sp. gr. 17.2; used as a
refractory for furnaces and chemical equipment.
tungsten carbide. (I) W2C; mp 2855°C; sp. gr. 17.2. (2)
WC; mp 2780°C; sp. gr. 15.5; hardness 21-23
GN m-2 with Knoop or Vickers; used in tools, dies,
cermets, and wear-resistant parts, and as an abrasive.
Highly nonstoichiometric composition within a hex-
agonal close-packed tungsten structure.
tungsten carbide, cemented. See cemented carbide.
tungsten carbide composite. Originally this referred to
the cemented carbide WC-Co containing about 96%
WC but now this covers any matrix material strength-
ened by the addition of WC whiskers and particles.
tungsten oxide. W0 3 ; mp I473°C; sp. gr. 7.2; used as a
yellow colorant in ceramics.
tungstic acid. Oxyacids of tungsten obtained by neutral-
izing alkaline tungstate solutions; polymeric solids;
examples are orthotungstic acid, H2W04, metatungstic
acid, H2W4°13, and paratungstic acid, H lOW 12014'
tungstite. W03 ; a yellow secondary mineral found in
some tungsten ores.
tunnel. The passageway through which ware passes in a
lehr.
tunnel dryer. A tunnel-shaped, continuous dryer
through which loaded cars are moved.
tunnel kiln. A tunnel-shaped, continuous kiln or furnace
consisting of preheating, firing, and cooling zones
through which ware is transported on cars.
tunnel updraft kiln. A tunnel kiln in which air and com-
bustion gases are caused to move upward through a kiln
setting to the exhaust flues.
turbidimeter. A device which measures the loss in in-
tensity of a light beam passing through a slip or suspen-
sion of particles as a means of determining the
concentration of solids in the suspension. See Klein
turbidimeter, Wagner turbidimeter.
turbine. A type of engine in which a central drive shaft
equipped with curved vanes is spun at high speed by
water, steam, or gas pressure to convert kinetic energy
to mechanical power.
turbine blade. A bucket, paddle, or blade composed of
a strong, high-temperature- and thermal-shock-resis-
tant ceramic, cermet, or alloy; used as a vane on the
dri ve shaft of a turbine.
turbine, gas. See gas turbine.
turbostratic. A type of crystal structure found in mate-
rials where planes of rings such as those in BN or
graphite are stacked perpendicular to the c-axis but
 335
instead of atoms being superimposed the rings in suc-
cessive layers are rotated relative to those below.
turbulence. Flow occurring in a nonstreamline way due
to relatively high shear rates.
turn. A complete 360 0 revolution around the strain axis
by a filament; expressed as turns per meter.
turn-back. An effect seen when graphite is subjected to
neutron bombardment in a reactor which occurs when
irradiation-induced shrinkage in volume stops and it
expands toward its original dimensions.
turndown. The ratio of maximum to minimum input
rates in a firing cycle.
turnery. Objects made on a lathe.
turning. (1) To shape an article on a lathe or potter's
wheel. (2) An object made on a lathe. (3) The waste
produced from turning an article on a lathe.
turning, rough. See rough turning.
turn-on voltage. The applied voltage in a varistor where
the transition from a linear to a nonlinear current rela-
tionship occurs.
turquoise. CuAI 6(P04MOH)g-4H 20; hydrous basic
copper aluminum phosphate; a popular gemstone be-
cause of its blue color; sp. gr. 2.6-2.8; hardness (Mohs)
5-6.
turret. A lathe part that has a number of tools projecting
radially from it.
Tuscan red. An iron oxide pigment used in glazes.
tuyere. An opening through the walls of a blast furnace
or forge through which air is forced to facilitate com-
bustion.
tuyere brick. A refractory shape containing one or more
holes or passages through which air is introduced into
a furnace.
tveitite. An ordered yttrofluorite mineral, Ca14YSF43 .
Twaddell hydrometer. An instrument used to measure
the specific gravity of liquids. The reading is in degrees
Twaddell, TO and then TO = 200 (sp. gr. - 1).
tweel. A refractory door or damper in a glass tank to
control the flow of molten glass or to protect a newly
set pot.
tweel block, tuille block. A refractory block used in the
production of a counterweighted door of a glass furnace
TZP
to protect a newly set pot or control the flow of molten
glass. See tweel.
twill weave. A more pliable weave where one or more
warp yarns runs over and under two or more fill yarns.
twinned crystal. A single crystal that appears to consist
of two or more crystals grown together along a plane
known as the composition plane. Microstructurally they
appear as parallel-sided regions.
twin-plate polishing. A process in which both faces of
sheet glass are ground and polished simultaneously.
twist. (1) The number of turns per unit length about the
axis in a yarn. (2) Longitudinal progressive rotation
occurring during pultrusion.
twist boundary. The second type of grain boundary, dif-
ferent from the tilt boundary in that the rotation axis for
grain coincidence is perpendicular to the boundary
plane.
two-table machine. A glassmaking machine with pari-
son molds mounted on one table and blow molds on
another.
two-way slab. A slab of concrete supported by beams
along the four edges or sides with steel-bar reinforce-
ment parallel to the two faces of the slab.
type F flat sheet. Flexible fire-resistant flat asbestos-ce-
ment sheets of low moisture absorption for interior or
exterior building work.
type I superconductor. A material capable of showing
zero electrical resistance that is also a perfect diamag-
net, i.e., magnetic flux totally excluded from the mate-
rial, so that an external magnetic field effects the
transition from superconductor to normal state very
sharply. Not found for ceramic superconductors.
type II superconductor. A material capable of showing
zero electrical resistance that is not a perfect diamagnet
and therefore experiences magnetic flux penetration.
An external magnetic field effects the superconducting
transition via a broad mixed-state region. Oxide super-
conductors are in this class.
type U flat sheet. Strong grades of flat asbestos-cement
sheets for fire-resistant building construction.
Tyranno. Commercially available continuous strand Si-
Ti-{;arbide fiber produced from polytitanocarbosilane
polymer; sp. gr. 2.3; strength 2.0 ON m-2 .
TZP. Abbreviation for tetragonal zirconia polycrystals.
 u
V-bolt. A bar bent into the shape of a V and threaded at
both ends to receive nuts.
VDC. Abbreviation for unidirectional composite which
is one where the long reinforcing fibers are all aligned
parallel. When in use the tensile stresses are applied
along the fiber direction and compressive stresses at 90°
to the fiber direction.
VHM. Abbreviation for ultrahigh modulus; used to de-
scribe the newer engineering ceramics, such as carbon
fiber, boron carbide, B4 C, etc.
ulexite. NaCaB 5 0 9 ·8H 20; sp. gr. 1.96; hardness (Mohs)
1-2.5; a mineral used in glazes as a flux and glass
former. In nature it occurs with an unusual, cotton ball,
structure of white, silky masses.
ullage. The percentage of a closed volume occupied by
vapor.
ultimate analysis. The chemical composition of a mate-
rial reported on the basis of its constituent oxides.
ultimate elongation. The increase in length of a body in
tension at the point of rupture.
ultimate strength. (1) The maximum stress that a mate-
rial or product can withstand when subjected to an
applied load; usually reported as newtons per square
meter at the instant of failure. (2) The maximum load
supported by a concrete pipe as determined by three-
edge testing methods and reported as newtons per linear
meter per millimeter of inside diameter or horizontal
span.
ultracentrifuge. An apparatus designed to make very
fine particles settle out by generating centrifugal forces
up to 106 times the force of gravity.
ultrahigh frequency. UHF; a radio-frequency band
from 3000 to 300 MHz.
ultrahigh purity. A grade of a reagent material of ex-
treme purity, that is, containing only ultratrace levels of
impurities less than one microgram per gram.
336
ultramicroscope. Also known as a dark-field micro-
scope in which a sample, such as a colloid, is illumi-
nated from the side and the colloid particles are seen as
bright spots on a dark background.
ultrasonic cleaning. The use of ultrasonic vibrations as
an auxiliary force in the cleaning bath to remove soil
from sheet metal being prepared for porcelain-enamel-
ing.
ultrasonic devices. Instruments employed to generate
ultrasonic conditions or to evaluate materials or prod-
ucts under such conditions.
ultrasonic extrusion. Extruder and die are mounted on
an ultrasonically vibrated plate. Dilatant mixes can be
used; lower extrusion pressures; faster extrusion rates
and better surface finishes are achieved.
ultrasonic machining. A form of abrasive machining
which uses a tool vibrating at ultrasonic frequencies to
aid a grit-loaded slurry, via cavitation in the liquid
phase, to break off surface material.
ultrasonics. The science dealing with phenomena occur-
ring in ultrasonic ranges; that is, frequencies above the
range of human hearing.
ultrasonic testing. A nondestructive test applied to elas-
tic sound-conductive materials to locate inhomogenei-
ties or structural flaws.
ultrasound. An effect caused by liquid particles oscillat-
ing about an equilibrium position with an induced con-
stant displacement called acoustic streaming. The
streaming causes liquid to move away from a vibrating
transducer surface which then gives rise to ultrasound.
It is defined by frequency and intensity of oscillation
where the intensity is defined as the acoustic energy per
second passing through a unit area of medium perpen-
dicular to the direction of sound propagation. Intensity
is related to the oscillating pressure amplitude and the
square of the displacement amplitude. For ultrasound
the frequency must exceed 16 kHz. It consists of cycles
of compression and expansion.
 337
ultratrace. An indication that an element in a material is
present in extremely low amounts, usually as an impu-
rity, and at levels below one microgram per gram.
ultraviolet-absorbing glass. Glass, usually containing
small amounts of cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
iron, lead, manganese, neodymium, nickel, sulfur, tita-
nium, uranium, or vanadium, which absorb ultraviolet
rays without appreciable effects on the transmission of
visible wavelengths.
ultraviolet radiation. The continuous range of frequen-
cies and wavelengths between the visible range and x
rays, i.e., from about 400 nm to about 20 nm; produced
by excitation of high-energy-Ievel electrons in atoms.
ultraviolet transmitting glass. Glass whose composi-
tion contains only traces of ultraviolet-absorbing ele-
ments; pure silica, Si0 2, glass is the most efficient in
this respect.
umber. (1) A powdered mineral consisting mainly of
hydrated iron oxide, and sometimes of oxides of man-
ganese, used as a brown or red-brown colorant in bodies
and glazes. (2) A characteristic brown or reddish-brown
color.
umpire. A person or laboratory of recognized capability
selected to resolve or arbitrate a difference of fact
between a supplier and receiver.
unary system. Single-component systems, such as sili-
con, carbon, etc.
unbalanced capacitance. The difference in capacitance
of the two insulated conductors to the shield, expressed
as the percentage of the capacitance between the con-
ductors, or % unbalance.
unburned brick. Brick manufactured by processes
which do not require kiln firing to develop the strength
of the finished product; for example, adobe brick,
chemically bonded refractories; mixtures of dolomite,
magnesite, olivine, or andalusite with resin, pitch, tar,
bitumen, phosphate, water glass, or cement are dry
pressed into shape.
unburned refractory. Refractory shapes which are in-
stalled for use without prior firing.
uncertainty principle. The statement that simultaneous
measurements of pairs of related variables, such as
momentum and position, energy and time, etc., are
subject to a specific indeterminacy.
uncombined water. Water added to a body or slip to
produce plasticity, or workability, and which is re-
moved by evaporation or during the early stages of
firing. Also known as mechanical water.
unctuous. Rich in organic matter and easily workable as
a clay; having an oily appearance and soapy feel.
under-car temperature. The temperature in the area or
segment of a kiln beneath a kiln car as it transports ware
through.
UNH
underclay. A layer of argillite or clay stone immediately
underlying a bed of coal; sometimes used as a compo-
nent in oven ware bodies. When used as a refractory it
is known as fireclay.
undercloak. The section of a tile roof consisting of an
intermediate layer of a material between the tile and the
supporting laths.
undercut. A protruding section that impedes the with-
drawal of an article from a two-piece rigid mold.
undercutting. (1) To cut away a material so as to leave
an overhanging portion. (2) Faulty cutting of flat glass
resulting in an edge that is oblique to the surface.
underdrain. A type of asbestos-cement pipe having a
multiplicity of perforations along its length; used in
surface or subsurface draining of fields, streets, etc.
underfire, underfired. Incomplete fusion of porcelain-
enamels or glazes resulting in a failure to form a smooth,
glassy surface.
underglaze, underglaze decoration. A finely milled
ceramic color, decoration, or other coating applied di-
rectly to the unfired or bisque-fired surface of ceramic
ware and subsequently covered with a transparent glaze
to be fired concurrently with the glaze.
underglaze inks. Screen printing formulations contain-
ing fluxes used to decorate ceramics and glass.
underloading. (1) Insufficient charging of a ball mill for
the proper grinding of materials. (2) Reducing the
charge of a ball mill to obtain faster grinding. (3)
Insufficient loading of a furnace or kiln to obtain faster
furnace comeback and as a result, faster firing.
underload refractoriness. A measure of the resistance
of a refractory to the combined effect of heat and
loading, often expressed as the temperature of shear or
10% deformation when heated under a stress of 173 or
345 kNm-2
underridge tile. Roofing tile used under the tile forming
the ridge in the construction of the top of tile roofs.
undersanded. The condition of concrete in which it ap-
pears to contain insufficient additions of fine aggregate.
undersize. Aggregate materials smaller than the speci-
fied minimum screen size.
undulator. See wiggler.
unfired brick. See unburned brick.
unglazed tile. A hard, dense tile, employed on floors and
walls, composed of a whiteware body of homogeneous
composition throughout, and which derives its color
and texture from the materials of which the body is
made. The color and characteristics of the body are
determined by the raw materials, the forming method,
and the thermal treatment.
UNH. Abbreviation for uranyl nitrate hexahydrate,
U0 2(N0 3}z·6H20; mp 60.2°C; bp 118°C; sp. gr. 2.807;
UNIAXIAL ORIENT A TION
used in ceramic glazes and porcelain-enamels as a red,
yellow, or orange colorant.
uniaxial orientation. A method of microstructure con-
trol in composites in which an orienting stress is applied
only in one direction.
uniaxial stress. The state in which two of the three prin-
cipal stresses are zero.
unidirectional composite. See UDC.
unidirectional fabric. A strengthening fabric used in
composite manufacture in which the bulk of the rein-
forcing fibers run lengthwise to give longitudinal
strength and only enough warp fibers are present to
ensure a weaving pattern and ease of handling.
uniform flow. A flow of constant velocity or volume of
a gas, liquid, powder, or granulated solid.
unipolar structure. Electronic devices for which only a
single sign of charge carrier is important and for which
junctions are formed between a semiconductor, n- or
p-type, and a metal; an example is a Schottky diode.
unit cell. The smallest group of atoms, ions, or molecules
that is characteristic of the particular crystal lattice.
unit cost. The total cost of producing one unit of a prod-
uct; decreases as the production volume is increased.
unit magnetic pole. The strength of a magnetic pole that
will repel a similar pole I cm from it in a vacuum with
a force of I dyne.
unit melter. A narrow tank furnace with burners along
both sides and no heat recovery system; hence, it is
compact and saves on space and construction costs.
unit mold. A one-piece mold in which ware is cast.
unit stress. The load per unit area on a material or arti-
fact.
universal grinding machine. A machine on which cy-
lindrical, internal, or face grinding may be done as
required.
universal motor. An electric motor able to utilize either
direct current or single-phase alternating current with
approximately the same efficiency.
universal testing machine. An instrument capable of
measuring loads and test specimen deflections encoun-
tered in tensile, compressive, or flexural tests.
unscrambler. A device on a conveyor belt which feeds
ware single file from a mass of randomly placed pieces.
unsound. Lacking strength, solidity, or firmness.
unsoundness. An indication of the expansion after set-
ting of portland cement, a feature which frequently
causes cracking or crumbling of the mortar or concrete.
unsymmetrical laminate. A composite laminate with
no midplane symmetry.
338
updraft kiln. A kiln in which the movement of combus-
tion gases proceeds upwards from the firebox through
the kiln setting to the exhaust flues.
updraw. The process of continuous drawing of glass of
various cross sections in a vertical plane from an orifice
to make glass rod or tubing.
u-phase. A grain boundary phase in the Y-Si-Al-O-N
system with a decomposition temperature around
l450°C.
uphill teeming. The process of discharging molten ma-
terial from a ladle through refractory tubes into molds
such that the liquid is introduced at the bottom of the
mold instead of at the top.
upper critical point. The locus of composition, tem-
perature, or pressure, at the maximum in temperature or
pressure where two or more conjugate phases can coex-
ist and also where the conjugate phases become identi-
cal.
upper range value. The highest value of a property that
an instrument is designed to measure.
upright. An item of kiln furniture used to support ware
during firing.
upstroke press. A hydraulic press where pressure is ap-
plied by an upward movement of the ram.
uptake. (I) A refractory-lined passage in an open-hearth
furnace to conduct hot air and gaseous fuels into the
combustion area. (2) A pipe or shaft connecting a fur-
nace to a chimney for the removal of exhaust gases.
urania. UO z; uranium dioxide; mp 3000OC; sp. gr. 10.9;
used as a nuclear fuel element and as a red, yellow, and
orange colorant in ceramic glazes; highly non-
stoichiometric, both hyper and hypo within the fluorite
structure type, so that UO z is only an ideal composition.
uraninite. A black, radioactive mineral, containing cu-
bic urania, UO z, radium, lead, helium, and radon; oc-
curs in coarse granites and is the major ore of uranium
when it occurs as botryoidal masses called pitchblende;
hardness (Mohs) 5.5-6; sp. gr. 8-10.9 depending on
uranium oxidation state between UO z and U30 S.
uranium. (I) A white lustrous, radioactive, metal. (2) In
a ceramic context it is a term referring to urania or other
compounds of uranium.
uranium barium oxide. See barium diuranate.
uranium borocarbide. UBzC; a polymorphic ternary
carbide, the a-form is orthorhombic and paramagnetic;
the p-form is hexagonal and also paramagnetic, Tc = 85
K; the p-form is easily formed but the a-form requires
a long anneal at l670°C.
uranium carbide. See uranium monocarbide or uranium
dicarbide.
uranium content equivalent. A concentration of Z36U
that will provide a fast-neutron cross-section equivalent
to that of a specific impurity element.
 339
uranium, depleted. See depleted uranium.
uranium dicarbide. UC 2; a tetragonal phase containing
(Cz)2- units; transforms to the cubic form at about
1900°C and melts around 2370°C; sp. gr. 11.28; pyro-
phoric, ignites in air at 400°C; decomposes in hot water,
acids, and alkalies with the evolution of hydrocarbon
gases; used as a nuclear fuel.
uranium dioxide. See urania.
uranium, enriched. See enriched uranium.
uranium monocarbide. UC; mp 2550°C; sp. gr. 13.63;
cubic crystal structure and highly nonstoichiometric;
used as a nuclear fuel.
uranium monoxide. UOI-x; a highly nonstoichiometric
cubic structure oxide.
uranium, natural. See natural uranium.
uranium nitrate. See UNH.
uranium, normal. See normal uranium.
uranium oxide. One of the several oxides of uranium,
including UO, U20 3, U0 2, U30 8, and U04·xH20; used
in nuclear applications and as a green and yellow ce-
ramic colorant.
uranium peroxide. U0 4·xH 20; decomposes at 115°C;
sp. gr. 2.5 at 15°C; used as a red, orange, or yellow
colorant. Also called uranium tetroxide.
uranium ruthenium carbide. U2RuC2, a tetragonal
phase, and URuCO.7, a perovskite phase; both occur as
precipitates in irradiated UC I+x nuclear fuel pins.
uranium tetroxide. See uranium peroxide.
VVIOLGLASS
uranium trioxide. U0 3; sp. gr. 8.34; decomposes when
heated; a radioactive red or yellow powder; used as an
orange coloring agent in ceramics.
uranium yellow. Na2U207·6H20; sodium diuranate, a
yellow to orange solid; used as a yellow pigment in
glazes and enamels, and in the manufacture of fluores-
cent uranium glass.
uranous oxide. U20 3; a bixbyite structure oxide with no
obvious ceramic uses.
uranous-uranic oxide. U30 8; decomposes at 1450°C;
sp. gr. 8.39; naturally occurring uranium oxide; used in
nuclear applications.
uranyl nitrate. See UNH.
urea. CO(NH2h; mp 132.7°C; sp. gr. 1.335; used as a
binder in porcelain-enamels to minimize tearing.
urn. A large vaselike vessel usually bulbous with a foot.
UTS. Abbreviation for ultimate tensile strength.
V-type furnace. A continuous furnace shaped like a
hairpin in which porcelain-enamels during firing, enter
and leave the furnace at adjacent stations; the firing
zone is usually located in the bend of the hairpin shape.
u-value. Thermal transmittance value.
uvarovite. Ca3Cr2(Si04h; sp. gr. 3.5-4.3; hardness
(Mohs) 6.5-7.5; a variety of green garnet; used as a
coloring agent and as an abrasive.
uviol glass. A glass which is highly transparent to ultra-
violet radiation.
 v
vacancy. A defect in a crystal consisting of an unoccu-
pied lattice position in the crystal structure.
vacuum. (I) A space devoid of matter. (2) A space in
which air or gas is contained at a reduced pressure,
usually below normal atmospheric pressure.
vacuum and blow process. The process employed in
the manufacture of bottles in which glass is gathered by
vacuum and subsequently blown.
vacuum bag. A flexible membrane used to maintain a
vacuum during some molding and curing processes.
vacuum bottle. A bottle or other container made as a
double-walled vessel with the cavity evacuated to pre-
vent the influx of heat or cold into the contents of the
container from the surrounding environment.
vacuum casting. The forming of ceramic ware by intro-
ducing a slip into a permeable mold and hastening the
removal of water from the slip by the application of a
vacuum to the outer walls of the mold to produce a rigid
or semirigid article.
vacuum chamber. The section of an auger extrusion
machine through which plastic clay is kneaded under a
vacuum to remove air and gases from the mass.
vacuum coating. Deposition of a volatile material onto
a substrate in a vacuum. Also known as vapor deposi-
tion.
vacuum concrete. A fast-curing concrete of improved
durability, high strength, increased surface hardness,
and improved resistance to crushing obtained by sub-
jecting freshly poured concrete to a vacuum to remove
entrapped air and the excess water not required for
setting of the concrete.
vacuum degassing. The removal of gases from materials
and bodies by subjection to a vacuum at elevated tem-
peratures.
vacuum deposition. The deposition or condensation of
a vaporized coating of a material on the cold surface of
another in a partial vacuum.
340
vacuum diffusion. The diffusion of selected impurities
into a semiconducting material in a vacuum to induce
desired properties.
vacuum drying. The technique of speeding the removal
of moisture from a material or body by means of a
vacuum applied in conjunction with a conventional
drying system.
vacuumed clay. Clay which has been subjected to vac-
uum treatment to remove air bubbles to increase its
density and improve its green strength in ceramic bod-
ies.
vacuum firing. Firing of ware in an evacuated furnace
to reduce the porosity and to prevent oxidation of the
body.
vacuum flask. See vacuum bottle. Also called Thermos,
Dewar flask.
vacuum forming. A method forming thermoplastic
polymer matrix composites into 3-D shapes starting
from sheets. The sheet is clamped above an evacuated
mold and heated to the softening point whence it is
drawn down into the mold and shaped.
vacuum furnace. A furnace or heating device con-
structed so as to permit the firing chamber to operate
under a vacuum.
vacuum gauge. Any of a number of instruments capable
of measuring pressures below an atmosphere.
vacuum infiltration. A type of pressure infiltration
whereby molten metal is brought into contact with a
porous ceramic body or woven preform in a vacuum
container.
vacuum mat. A combination screen and textile filter
placed over freshly poured concrete and through which
by application of a vacuum, air and water are sucked
out to produce a dense concrete.
vacuum metalizing. A vacuum method of evaporating
metal onto a surface.
 341
vacuum mixer. A machine in which the clay or body is
moistened and deaired concurrently as it enters the
mixing chamber to be blended to forming consistency.
vacuum pug mixer. A pug mill consisting of a trough
with a longitudinal shaft on which blades are mounted
for the pugging of clay mixtures, the trough being
situated in a vacuum chamber to permit concurrent
deairing of the mixture.
vacuum pump. A device for exhausting air or other
gases from an enclosed space.
vacuum tube. An electronic valve.
valence. The property of an atom or group of atoms
which determines the number of other atoms or groups
with which it will unite chemically.
valence electron. A high energy level electron which
takes part in bonding.
valley. In fatigue testing it is the point where the slope of
the load versus time curve becomes positive.
valley tile. A V-shaped or appropriately curved roofing
tile used in the valley or junction at the bottom of two
sloping roof segments.
value. The degree of lightness or darkness of a color.
valve, air-relief. See air-relief valve.
vanadinite. Pbs(V04hCl; a red to yellowish mineral
with a hexagonal crystal structure; results from the
weathering of lead ores in desert regions; a source of
vanadium.
vanadium. In the ceramic context, a term for an oxide of
vanadium; V20 S' V20 4 , and V20 3.
vanadium carbide. (1) VC; cubic, nonstoichiometric
phase; mp 2830°C; sp. gr. 5.77; used as a component in
ceramic cutting tool compositions. (2) V2C; mp
2166°C; sp. gr. 5.75.
vanadium dioxide. V02; mp 1541-1637°C; sp. gr.
4.65; fluorite crytal structure.
vanadium monoxide. va; highly nonstoichiometric,
cubic oxide of gold metallic hue; mp 2049°C.
vanadium pentoxide. V20S; mp 690°C; sp. gr. 3.36;
used as a red, green, pink, or yellow colorant and flux
in glasses, porcelain-enamels, and glazes; inhibits ultra-
violet transmission in glass; also a glass former; catalyst
in sulfuric acid production.
vanadium sulfate. VOS04 ·2H20; used as a green and
blue pigment in glass, porcelain-enamels, and glazes.
vanadium tetroxide. V20 4 ; mp 1967°C; sp. gr. 4.339;
used in refractory compositions fusing at temperatures
above 1540°C; forms low-porosity body with beryllia,
BeO; refractories tend to be unstable in air.
vanadium trioxide. V203; mp 1970°C; sp. gr. 4.84; used
in glazes as a flux, as a yellow pigment in combination
VAR
with tin or zirconium oxides, and as a blue pigment in
combination with zirconium silicate.
van der Waals adsorption. The binding of an adsorbate
to the surface of a solid by forces having energy levels
approximating those of condensation.
van der Waals bond. A weak dipole-dipole interaction
arising from small fluctuations in the electronic distri-
butions in atoms and molecules. Its existence accounts
for why gases do not follow the simple gas laws.
van der Waals equation. A thermodynamic equation
relating the pressure, volume, and absolute temperature
of a gas with reference to the finite size of the molecules
and the attractive force between them; calculated by the
formula P = [RTI(v - b)] - (alv 2 ), where P is the
pressure, v is the volume per mole, T is the absolute
temperature, R is the gas constant, and a and bare
constants.
van der Waals forces. (1) Compared with bonding
forces involving electron pairing or electron transfer,
these are extremely weak forces caused by the momen-
tary fluctuation in the electronic structure of an atom
producing a dipole in the atom, this then induces a
dipole in the neighboring atom which stabilizes the first
dipole and allows attractive interaction. (2) Induced
polarization effects in molecules which are very weak
and so only evident at low temperatures.
Vandyke brown. A brown pigment consisting of ferric
oxide and lampblack.
vane feeder. A device consisting of a rotating horizontal
shaft equipped with blades to feed ground clay from the
bottom of a hopper or bin to a mixer or other receptacle.
vapor. A gas which is at a temperature below its critical
temperature and which can be liquefied by the applica-
tion of appropriate pressure without reduction in tem-
perature.
vapor barrier. A layer of plastic or other impervious
sheeting placed under concrete floors and on walls to
prevent the passage of air and moisture through the
concrete.
vapor deposition. See vacuum deposition.
vapor glaze. A glaze composed of lead, sodium, and
boric oxides which volatilize from a melt during firing,
but will condense and reliquefy on ceramic surfaces on
cooling.
vaporization. The conversion of a liquid or solid to its
vapor state, particularly by heating.
vaporization, heat of. See latent heat of vaporization.
vapor pressure. The pressure exerted by the vapor of a
solid or liquid when in equilibrium with its solid or
liquid form.
var. A measure of reactive power of an alternating cur-
rent equal to the product of current (amperes) and
voltage (volts).
VARACTOR
varactor. A semiconductor diode used as a voltage-de-
pendent capacitor operated with a reverse bias.
variable. Having a range of possible values.
variance. (1) A measure of the dispersion of a series of
results around their average; it is the sum of the squares
of the individual deviations from the average of the
results divided by the number of results minus one. (2)
The sum of squared deviations or errors of observations
compared with their arithmetic mean divided by the
number of observations. (3) The square of the standard
deviation. (4) Used in the phase rule to denote the
number of degrees of freedom of a system.
variegated. Having different colored spots, streaks, etc.
variform. Varying in shape
varindor. An inductor in which the inductance varies
markedly with the current in the winding.
variolite. A basic igneous rock consisting of radiating,
fibrous crystals which give it a pock-marked appear-
ance.
variometer. A variable inductor.
variscite. A mineral containing hydrated alumina.
varistor. A ceramic semiconductor device with a highly
nonlinear current voltage characteristic that can be en-
gineered by composition and sintering control to be
insulating up to a certain breakdown field, Fs' Above Fs
it becomes highly conducting. Such characteristics
make it good at protecting other solid-state devices in a
circuit from transient voltage surges. ZnO is the com-
mon base material doped with other oxides; for exam-
ple: ZnO (97 mole%), Sb 20 3 (1 %), plus 0.5% each of
Bi 20 3, CoO, MnO, and Cr203'
varistor power law equation. An empirical relation-
ship between breakdown field, F and the current, I,
flowing in a ceramic varistor: In Il/ln 12 = (In F/ln
F 2 )ex; if ex = 1 the device is ohmic and as ex tends to
infinity the material is a perfect varistor, i.e., the current
varies infinitely for small changes in applied field; ex is
in the range 25-50 for typical ZnO devices.
varnish. A solution or suspension of resins in a liquid
which evaporates and leaves a decorative or protective
coating on a surface painted with it.
varnish mounts. Decals applied on varnished ware from
a facedown position.
varsol. An aliphatic petroleum solvent used to clean silk
screens.
varved clay. A natural clay deposited in layers or in a
sequence oflayers, one coarse and the other fine or silty.
vat. A large container for holding liquids.
vaterite. An unstable polymorph of CaC0 3 in which the
ab plane, perpendicular to the c-axis, contains the Ca2+
ions while the (C0 3)2- ions are parallel to the ac plane.
342
vault. An arched structure that forms a roof or ceiling.
vault effect. The sudden decrease in pressure observed
during a pressure-density determination as powders are
dry pressed. It is due to the sudden collapse of intercon-
nected powder particles into the voids formed by the
interconnections.
v-cuts. V-shaped edge cuts with an included angle of
1200 or less in mica sheets which are used as electrical
insulators in special applications.
v-drain. A defect evidenced by a second flowing of a
porcelain-enamel slip on ware which occurs after it
appears that draining has been completed; a double-
draining type of phenomenon.
vector. A variable that has magnitude and direction and
can be resolved into components, such as force.
vector field. A region of space controlled by some vector
quantity, such as magnetic field strength, in which each
point can be described by a vector.
Veegum T. A highly refined magnesium aluminum sili-
cate suspending and plasticizing agent that fires to a
bright white color.
Vegard's law. The linear relationship between the lat-
tice parameters and the composition of solid solutions.
vegetable ash. A source of alkali made by burning bar-
illa and kelp; originally used in glass manufacture.
vegetable inclusions. A misnomer which describes in-
clusions of dispersed metal oxides in electrical insula-
tion; these appear as areas of pastel colors in transmitted
light.
vegetable oils. Hydrogenated oils of peanuts, soybeans,
coconut, and the like which are employed in the sizings
for glass-textile yarns as lubricants to improve the re-
sistance of the fibers to abrasion.
vehicle. A fluid in which a material is dissolved or held
in suspension to facilitate a subsequent operation, such
as an oil or varnish in graining pastes or printing inks.
veil. A very thin mat of fine long fibers used in the
outermost layers of a composite to improve its surface
properties.
veiling. Gold and organic colors sprayed onto ware in
such a way as to give a threadlike texture.
vein. (1) A well-defined mass of ore or mineral occurring
as layers between rock strata. (2) An irregular steak of
color or impurity substance in a material.
vein graphite. Highly crystalline, naturally occurring
graphite with a metallic luster; found in massive form,
from 2-mm to 2-m seams; believed to arise from oil
deposits under pressure and heat.
veining. A network of streaks or veins over a surface.
vein quartz. Quartz occurring as gangue in a vein of
valuable ore.
 343
Vello process. A continuous drawing process for the
production of glass tubing or cane in which the molten
glass is fed downward to the draw through an annular
orifice.
vellum glaze. A semimatte glaze having a satinlike ap-
pearance due to the presence of minute crystals of zinc
silicate, zinc titanate, or lead titanate in the fired glaze
surface.
velocity. The rate of change in the position or displace-
ment of a body in a particular direction with time;
expressed as a unit of length per unit of time.
velocity gradient. The change in relative velocity of two
parallel plates, separated by a distance r, as a function
of fraction of r.
velvet finish. A surface finish on glass produced by two
white-acid treatments; a tinge of color is embossed on
the surface during the process to obtain complete ob-
scuration.
veneer. (I) A single wythe of masonry not structurally
bonded but applied for facing purposes. (2) The deco-
rative surface of an asbestos-shingle or sheet which
usually is pigmented or granular to provide color to the
areas in which the shingle or sheet is installed.
veneer, adhesion-type. See adhesion-type ceramic ve-
neer.
Venetian red. A pure red ceramic pigment composed of
15 to 40% of a high-grade ferric oxide and 60 to 80%
of calcium sulfate.
vent. (1) An opening to permit the discharge or release
of pressure from enclosed areas such as a pressure tank,
steam boiler, etc. (2) An opening to permit passage or
escape of liquids, gases, vapor, fumes, heat, etc. from
an area such as a pickling room, furnace room, the
interior of a furnace, etc.
ventilating fan. An electrically or mechanically oper-
ated device to remove contaminated spent air and to
introduce fresh or cooling air into a desired area.
ventilation. The process of replacing air in an area with
fresh air.
ventilator. A device that exhausts and replaces stale,
contaminated, or other air from an area with circulating
fresh air.
Verdet constant. The rotation per unit path, per unit
field strength; see Faraday effect. For flint glass at 18°C
it has a value of 0.0317.
verdigris. CU2(OHh(C2H302h; basic copper acetate; an
important green pigment made by reacting copper
sheets with grape skins from wine making.
verditer. See copper carbonate.
verge. The edge of a sloping roof projecting over a gable,
the point where roofing tile are edge bedded for im-
proved appearance and to deflect rain water onto the
roof for drainage.
VmRATING PARTS FEEDER
verification tests, quality. See quality verification tests.
vermiculite. A group of micaceous minerals of the gen-
eral formula (MgFeh(SiAIFe)401O·4H20; when
heated, they exfoliate from 16 to 20 times their original
size and are used as ingredients in lightweight concrete,
acoustic and fireproof plaster, asbestos tile, acoustic
tile, and refractory insulators for their insulating values
and low density.
vermilion. HgS; mercuric sulfide; used by the Chinese
for 1000 years and considered to be the best red pig-
ment.
Verneuil method of crystal growth. A process in
which a powder, such as corundum, is dropped through
an oxyhydrogen flame so that it falls in a molten state
onto a crystal seed of the same material, the mass then
growing to form jewels and bearings for watches and
other delicate instruments.
vertical retort. A vertical refractory chamber lined with
silicon carbide brick in which zinc is smelted.
Verwey transition. An electrical transition observed in
magnetite, Fe304, at T= 123 K; above and below 123
K the material behaves as a semiconductor but with
different temperature characteristics.
vesicular. Having a cellular structure; a term applied to
fireclays which have become bloated by overfiring.
vesicular structure. A body containing a conglomera-
tion of small, spherical cavities, usually filled with air
or a gas.
vesuvianite. CaIOA4(Mg,FehSi9034(OH)4;occurs as
brown, green, or yellow tetragonal crystals in lime-
stone. First found in Vesuvius lava.
vestibule. The area at the entrance of a dryer tunnel
where cars of greenware may be stored. Designed to
reduce end heat losses.
veve apparatus. A vibrating slump-testing device em-
ployed to evaluate the consistency of concrete.
VHN. Abbreviation for Vickers hardness number, which
is the hardness as determined using a Vickers diamond,
expressed as kg mm-2 or GN m-2.
via. Vertical connections linking successive layers in
integrated circuits deposited onto semiconductor chips
and ceramic substrates.
vibrating ball mill. A ball mill in which conventional
milling is combined with a vibratory or bouncing action
of the mill to obtain more efficient and rapid grinding.
vibrating feeder. An electrical or mechanical device
employed to impart a vibrating or jarring action on a
hopper or bin to prevent packing of its contents, and to
increase and control the rate of flow of the material from
the hopper or bin.
vibrating parts feeder. A device on a feed-line which
supplies small components to a machine in single file
VIBRATING PEBBLE MILL
and all facing the same way by imparting a vibratory
motion.
vibrating pebble mill. See vibrating ball mill.
vibrating screen. Wire-mesh screens which are vibrated
by any of a variety of means to increase efficiency and
minimize clogging; sometimes the screens may be
heated to obviate the influence of moisture on the
material being screened.
vibration. (I) Rapid periodic motion in alternately oppo-
site directions. (2) The act of rendering fresh concrete
into a quasi-liquid state by subjecting the mass, in
forms, to high-frequency vibratory impulses to consoli-
date the concrete in the forms.
vibration limit. The setting or hardening point of con-
crete, as determined by a penetration needle test, be-
yond which the concrete no longer can be made plastic
by vibration. See Vicat needle.
vibratory crusher. A ball mill attached to a vibrating
mechanism in order to increase the shattering effects by
causing the grinding balls to bounce.
vibratory mill. See vibratory crusher.
vibratory pressing. A process for forming refractory
and other ceramic shapes in which the ground particles
of the material being formed are packed closely together
by rapid impact-type vibrations of the top and bottom
dies.
vibrocast pipe. Concrete pipe made by placing fresh
concrete in a stationary vertical mold or form and then
subjecting the unit to internal or external vibratory
forces.
vibroenergy mill. A ball mill designed to vibrate on both
horizontal and vertical planes.
Vicat hardness. A penetration hardness test using a flat
ended needle with an area of I mm2 loaded with a
kilogram. When penetration is I mm the time of set for
a concrete is recorded or the temperature needed to
achieve this in polymeric materials.
Vicat needle. An instrument to evaluate the consistency
and setting time of cement by measuring the depth to
which a special or standardized needle under a standard
load will penetrate into the cement.
vice, vise. A clamping device consisting of two jaws
which may be operated by a screw or lever and which
is designed to hold a workpiece in position.
vicinal prominence. A form of surface imperfection on
a crystal consisting of a small elevation with its own set
of faces.
vicinal water. Interfacial water between two solids;
plays an important part in colloidal stability and sedi-
mentation.
Vickers hardness. A measure of the hardness of glasses,
glazes, and other surfaces in which a diamond pyramid
indenter with a 136° angle between opposite faces is
344
forced into the surface of a test specimen under variable
loads; the hardness is reported as the Vickers number,
kg mm-2 or ON m-2, by measuring the diagonal dis-
tance of the diamond-shaped indent left on the surface.
Vienna lime. A mixture of dead burned dolomite with
extra added magnesia; used to polish nickel metal to
produce the deep undersurface blue color.
villiaumite. NaF; naturally occurring sodium fluoride;
deep red in color arising from lattice defects; sp. gr.
2.81; hardness (Mohs) 2-2.5.
Vingerling clay. Highly pure clays manufactured in
Holland mainly from British raw materials.
viridian. A green pigment containing hydrated chromic
oxide.
viscid. Having thick, syrupy, and adhesive qualities.
viscoelastic. The strain behavior of materials, such as
plastics and glass, near the transformation range. There
are three stages in the strain-time behavior: instantane-
ous recoverable elastic part, slow elastic part, also re-
coverable over the same time period, and a viscous,
nonrecoverable, strain occurring at a constant rate as
long as the load is applied.
viscoelasticity. A way of responding to applied stress as
ifthe solid was both an elastic solid and a viscous liquid;
most plastics exhibit this behavior. See viscoelastic.
viscometer. An instrument designed to measure the flow
resistance of fluids.
viscometer, Brookfield. See Brookfield viscometer.
viscometer, torsion. See torsional viscometer.
viscosity. The resistance of a fluid to free flow expressed
in old units as poises or dyne-seconds per centimeter,
the resistance resulting from internal friction in the
liquid due to molecular attraction or the combined
effects of cohesion and adhesion. SI. units are N s m-2.
viscous suspension spinning. See VSSP.
visible penetrant. A liquid of low surface tension con-
taining a fluorescent chemical or a dye of intense color,
usually red, which is employed as a visual indication of
the porosity, the existence of cracks and other disconti-
nuities, and other surface and subsurface charac-
teristics.
vitreous, vitrified. The state of being glassy in bril-
liance, brittleness, and composition, the degree of vitri-
fication being evidenced by low water absorption,
generally 0.3% or less; in floor and wall tile, low-volt-
age electrical porcelains, and products of similar com-
positions and usage, however, bodies up to 3.0% water
absorption are considered to be vitreous.
vitreous china. Any glazed or unglazed vitreous ceramic
product, such as dinnerware, sanitary ware, and art-
ware, which is completely matured; hence, water ab-
sorption is less than 0.3%.
 345
vitreous clay pipe. A clay pipe fired in a kiln to induce
vitrification and which then is glazed to assure water-
tightness for use in drainage applications.
vitreous enamel. A substantially vitreous or glassy inor-
ganic coating bonded to a metal base by fusion at a
temperature above 425°C for protective purposes. More
widely known as porcelain-enamel.
vitreous luster. A glassy appearance.
vitreous sanitary ware. See sanitary ware.
vitreous silica. A transparent or translucent glass con-
sisting almost entirely of silica, and which exhibits low
thermal expansion, high resistance to thermal shock,
high resistance to chemical attack, and transparent to
uv. Also known as silica glass, fused silica.
vitreous slip. A ceramic material or mixture of materials
which will produce a vitrified surface when applied and
fired on a ceramic body.
vitrification. The progressive reduction in the porosity
of a body as a result of heat treatment and fusion during
which a glassy or noncrystalline material is formed.
vitrification clay. A clay which will tend to vitrify on
heating to elevated temperatures, but usually without
deformation until its vitrification temperature is
reached.
vitrification range. The temperature interval between
the temperature at which a body or substance first
begins to fuse and the temperature at which the body
begins to deform due to melting.
vitrified bond. The bond created by the fusion of ce-
ramic materials.
vitrified wheel. A grinding wheel the abrasive ingredi-
ents of which are strongly bonded or held together by
means of an intergranular glassy phase.
vitriol. A sulfate of any of various metals such as copper,
iron, zinc, etc.
vitroceramic. A glass containing nucleating agents
which may be formed in the conventional glass-forming
manner and then devitrified by heat treatment to pro-
duce a body of crystalline rather than amorphous struc-
ture.
V-K curve. A plot of crack velocity against fracture
toughness; usually determined on double torsion speci-
mens but also by the indentation method of late; such a
plot indicates the effects of the environment on fracture
toughness and on long-term strength.
void. An unfilled space enclosed within an apparently
solid body.
void ratio. The ratio of the volume of void space to the
volume of the solid.
void space. The ratio of the volume of voids in a packed
powder to the overall volume of the powder bed.
volatiles. Materials which vaporize during firing.
VOLUME DIFFUSION
volatility. The tendency of a material to vaporize at a
given temperature and pressure.
volborthite. CU3 V z07(OH)z· 2H zO; a mineral found in
some volcanic fumaroles in which layers of Cu06-oc-
tahedra are connected by V207 pyrovanadate groups
analogous to Si z0 7 units.
volcanic glass. Several types of glassy volcanic igneous
rocks, such as obsidian and pitchstone.
volt. A unit of electric force equal to the difference in
electric potential between two points on a conducting
wire carrying a constant current of one ampere when the
power dissipated between the two points is one watt.
voltage. The value of an electromotive force or differ-
ence in potential expressed in volts.
voltage coefficient. The ratio of the fractional change in
resistance to the change in voltage for any resistor
whose resistance depends on the voltage.
voltage, dielectric breakdown (breakdown voltage).
See dielectric breakdown voltage.
voltage, fritting. See fritting voltage.
voltage gradient. (1) Difference in potential per unit
thickness of a dielectric. (2) Difference in potential per
unit length of a conductor.
voltage, supply. See supply voltage.
voltaic current. The electric current produced by chemi-
cal action as in a battery composed of a primary cell or
cells.
voltameter. An instrument for measuring a current or
potential.
volt-ampere. The unit of power equal to the product of
one volt and one ampere, the equivalent of one watt.
Volterra dislocation. A line defect in which the dis-
placement vector (Burgers vector), as given by the
integral J(duldl)dl, satisfies the condition of rigid dis-
placements on the surfaces of the cuts made in a closed
ring within the material; u is the displacement vector
and dl is an element of any large closed path around the
line of the singularity caused by introducing the defect.
voltmeter. An instrument, such as a galvanometer, cali-
brated in volts, for the direct measurement of differ-
ences in electric potential.
volume. The space occupied by a substance.
volume, apparent. See apparent volume.
volume, bulk. See bulk volume.
volume change. The change in the volume of hardened
concrete resulting from expansion and contraction due
to wetting and drying or to variations in temperature.
volume diffusion. A mechanism responsible for densifi-
cation in solid-state sintering where atoms or ions move
through the bulk of the material counter to vacancies
VOLUME DRYING SHRINKAGE
that move away from sharply curved surfaces such as
pores.
volume drying shrinkage. Percentage volume change
of a moist body on drying; given by IOO(Vw - Vd)/Vw '
where Vw is the volume of the plastic or wet body and
Vd is the volume of the dry body.
volume fraction. f, the part of the whole volume occu-
pied by a particular constituent.
volume, sedimentation. See sedimentation volume.
volume shrinkage. The contraction of a moist body dur-
ing the drying or the firing process, or both, expressed
as the volume percent of the original volume. See
drying shrinkage, firing shrinkage, volume drying
shrinkage.
volume specific gravity. The specific gravity of a body
based on the volume of solid material plus all included
pores.
volumeter. A graduated cylinder type of apparatus used
for the measurement of the volume of a measured mass
of powder so that its density can be found.
volumetric analysis. Quantitative analysis in which ac-
curately titrated volumes of standard chemical solutions
346
are employed to estimate the amount of a particular
constituent present in solution.
volumetric glassware. Glassware that is marked with
gradations for volumetric measuring.
volume, true. See true volume.
vortices. Eddies of magnetic flux which create resistance
to the flow of current in superconductors unless they are
pinned by defects.
VSSP. Abbreviation for viscous suspension spinning
process which was developed in 1987 to make long
ceramic fibers using the well-established rayon fiber
technology. Ceramic powder is loaded into caustic
soda-cellulose solution and the suspension extruded
into H2S04 , This results in a rayon fiber loaded with
ceramic from which the organic base is burned out prior
to sintering the residual ceramic fiber.
v-value. The reciprocal of the light-dispersive power of
a material. See nu value.
Vycor. A nearly pure silica glass containing 4% 8 2°3
made from a phase-separated sodium borosilicate glass
in which the acid-soluble phases have been removed by
an appropriate acid treatment.
 w
W. Symbol for: (I) watt, (2) work in physics, (3) tungsten wallboard. Panels of gypsum plasterboard, asbestos-ce-
metal. ment sheet, and similar products used in the surfacing
of walls and ceilings.
wacke. Various soft earthy rocks derived from basaltic
rocks. wall, bridge. See bridge wall.

wad. (I) A hand-shaped rope of stiff clay mud placed wall, farren. See farren wall.
around a pottery body or plaster-of-paris mold to hold
the body in place on a potter's wheel during the shaving wall, flash. See flash wall.
and trimming process. (2) A strip of low-grade fireclay
wall, gable. See gable wall.
separating saggers and for leveling the supports and
shelves in a kiln. (3) An impure ore of manganese
wall, jamb. See jamb wall.
containing braunite.
wall, monkey. See monkey wall.
wadding. Loose coherent mass of fiber in sheet form.
Wallner lines. Riblike features formed from the interac-
wadeite. K2ZrSi30 9 ; a ring silicate containing tion of a propagating crack front with a stress wave
(Si30 9)6-- rings formed from three linked Si04 tetrahe- reflected back toward the crack. They are observed in a
dra with Zr4+ ions in octahedral sites connecting the low-power microscope which is slightly out of focus.
rings. They provide a method for determining the terminal
fracture velocity of a crack in a brittle solid.
wafer. A small slice of a semiconductor, such as barium
titanate, on which matrices of microcircuits can be wall, panel. See panel wall.
fabricated, or which can be cut into dice to make capaci-
tors, transistors, diodes, resistors, and other devices. wall, pipe. See pipe wall.

Wagner turbidimeter. An apparatus for the determina- wall, ring. See ring wall.
tion of the particle size of powders based on the turbid-
ity of a suspension of the powder in a suitable medium wall, shadow. See shadow wall.
at specified levels and settling times.
wall, shell. See shell wall.
wagon, pot. See pot wagon.
wall, sleeper. See submerged wall.
wake. The volume behind the front zone of an advancing
wall stress. In filament-wound composites it is the stress
crack tip where the tensile loading experienced in the
calculated using the applied load divided by the entire
frontal zone is unloaded as the crack advances. It is the
laminate cross-sectional area.
volume where important contributions to transforma-
tion toughening in zirconia containing systems occurs. wall, submerged. See submerged wall.
waler. A horizontal reinforcement to prevent the forms wall tile. (I) A thin, flat, glazed tile used primarily as the
for newly poured concrete from bulging. Sometimes exposed surface in interior wall construction.
spelled whaler.
ware. A manufactured article or product.
wall anchor. A steel strap attached to a joist and built
into brickwork as a reinforcement. ware clay. A synonym for ball clay.

347
WARMING IN
warming in. The reheating of glass for further working
or to develop opacity.
warm superconductor. Semiconductors that carry cur-
rent with no loss of power at temperatures in excess of
17K.
warp. (I) Changes in dimensions of a cured laminate
compared to the mold dimensions. (2) Fibers in a fabric
which run lengthwise or are placed lengthwise in the
loom.
warpage. Distortion arising from nonuniform changes in
internal stresses.
warp beam. A large spool holding all the warp yarns in
a parallel way for weaving composites.
warp direction. The long length of a woven material.
warping. To turn, bend, twist, or bow out of shape.
warping joint. A joint in a pavement which permits
movement of concrete slabs so as to minimize uncon-
trolled cracking.
wash. (1) A thin slurry of powdered clay, talc, alumina,
or other substance applied as a coating on the face of a
mold before casting to prevent the cast item from stick-
ing to the mold. (2) An area in a composite where
reinforcement is less dense, resulting in a resin-rich
area.
washability. The relative ease with which a porcelain-
enamel, glaze, or other surface can be cleaned by wash-
ing with ordinary soap and water.
washbanding. The application of a thin, brush coating of
color over a glaze as a decoration.
washboard. An unintended and undesirable wavy or rip-
pled glass, glaze, or porcelain-enameled surface.
Washburn relation. Used in mercury porosimetry in ce-
ment and concrete specimens: p =-4ycos SId, where y
is the surface tension of mercury, 484 MN m- I , S is the
contact angle, usually in excess of 110°, d is the diame-
ter of the intruded pore, and p is the external pressure
applied to the mercury above the sample.
washed clay. Purified clay of low silica and grit content
obtained by making a thin slurry with water and remov-
ing the impurities by settling.
washing off. The process of removing decal papers from
glaze and porcelain-enamel surfaces before firing.
wash, kiln. See kiln wash.
wash, mill. See mill wash.
wash, mold. See mold wash.
wash water. Water carried on a truck mixer or agitator
for use in washing the mixer drum after a batch of
concrete has been discharged.
348
waste. Any material remaining, after the completion of
an operation or process, which is no longer useful or of
value.
waste heat. Sensible heat emanating from a combustion
or other heating system which may be exhausted into
the atmosphere or may be put to some subsequent use,
such as in a dryer or in heating a working area.
waste-heat dryer. A dryer heated by energy retrieved
from a kiln, furnace, flue gases, etc.
waste mold. A mold, such as a plaster mold, into which
concrete is poured and allowed to harden, and is then
destroyed to retrieve the cast.
waster. A defective refractory product which is broken
up or crushed for use as grog.
watch glass. A curved glass disk used in laboratories for
evaporating small samples of solution.
water absorption. A measure of the amount of water a
body will infiltrate under standardized conditions, ex-
pressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the body.
water, adsorbed. See adsorbed water.
water break. A discontinuous film of water on a surface
indicating nonuniform wetting because of surface con-
tamination.
water break test. A test involving the covering ability of
a water film on a surface; used in quality control to test
for surface contamination.
water-cement ratio. (1) The ratio of the weight of water
added to the weight of dry cement in a concrete or
mortar batch. (2) The number of gallons of water per
sack of cement in a batch of concrete.
watercolor. Water-soluble pigment applied in transpar-
ent washes or as gouache and tempera.
water, combined. See combined water.
water content. The quantity of liquid water present in a
substance or mixture of substances.
water, deionized. See deionized water.
water expansion. The increase in the dimensions of a
body resulting from the absorption of, or reaction with,
water.
water-extractable material. Substances which may be
removed from a body or material by solution in water
when washed.
waterfall process. The process of applying a porcelain-
enamel, glaze, or other coating by pouring or flowing
the coating over an object and allowing it to drain to the
desired thickness which is controlled by the viscosity
and flow properties of the slip and angle of drain.
water finishing. The process of producing a smooth sur-
face on ceramic greenware by washing and wiping the
ware carefully with a soft damp sponge, chamois, or
cloth.
 349
water-floc test. A test in which the tendency of a hydrau-
lic cement to resist flocculating when aged in a substan-
tial volume of water is taken as a measure of the
durability of the cement.
water, free. See mechanical water.
water gain. The appearance o{ a free water film on the
surface of concrete due to the migration of water from
the interior to the surface as solid particles settle.
water gas. A mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
used as a fuel; made by passing steam over hot carbon.
water glass. Na2Si03; a water-soluble glass used in vis-
cous aqueous solutions as a binder and deflocculant in
ceramic bodies and glazes; sometimes used as a fluxing
agent in porcelain-enamels and glazes; also used as a
concrete hardener.
water, heavy. See heavy water.
water, hygroscopic. See hygroscopic water.
water, interlayer. See interlayer water.
water, lattice. See lattice water.
water lines. (1) Visible lines where water condensed on
the surface of an unfired porcelain-enamel and washed
the coating in streaks or lines from the surface of the
coated article before drying was completed. (2) The
separation of water from a freshly applied porcelain-
enamel during draining, resulting in a streaked appear-
ance. (3) Lines where the movement of water in an
unfired porcelain-enamel has produced a concentration
of salts and color, blisters, or depressions.
water load. A load for absorbing radio-frequency and
microwave power in which water is both the dissipative
and cooling element.
water marks. (I) Shallow depressions in a porcelain-
enamel or glaze caused by the presence of an accidental
drop of water on the unfired coating. (2) A discoloration
in pottery glazes caused by the leaching of soluble salts
from the glaze by a drop of water accidentally splashed
on the unfired glaze surface.
water, mechanical. See mechanical water.
water migration. The flow of water through the intersti-
ces of a body, such as the flow from the interior to the
surface of a body during drying.
water of constitution. See combined water.
water of crystallization. See combined water.
water of hydration. Water included as part of the crystal
structure of a material which can be removed by heating
without changing the fundamental molecular or atomic
composition of the material.
water of plasticity. Water contained in a body which
contributes to its working and forming properties; re-
ported as a percentage by weight of the dry body.
water, pore. See pore water.
WATER VAPOR DIFFUSION
waterproof concrete. A concrete in which a water-
proofing admixture has been incorporated or to which
an impervious coating, such as water glass, has been
applied to its surface to decrease its permeability.
waterproofer, integral. See integral waterproofer.
waterproofing agent. A substance incorporated as an
integral component, or a coating applied to the surface
of concrete, brick, or other structure to make it imper-
vious to water penetration.
waterproofing, membrane. See membrane waterproof-
ing.
waterproofness. The resistance of a material to water
penetration.
water reducer. An admixture that reduces the amount of
water required per batch of concrete without deleterious
influence on the workability and slump characteristics
of the concrete.
water repellent. Any hydrophobic materials, such as
waxes, silicones, soaps, and the like; used to render a
surface resistant to wetting by water, but not completely
waterproof. See hydrophobic.
water resistance. The ability to hinder but not necessar-
ily prevent penetration by water.
water retentivity. The property of concrete, mortars,
and plasters, which prevents loss of water to adjoining
masonry units of high capillarity, or which prevents
bleeding when in contact with impervious units.
water, shrinkage. See shrinkage water.
water smoking. The removal of mechanically held
water in a body during the early stages of firing.
water spot. A shallow depression in a porcelain-enamel
or glaze caused by an accidental drop of water onto the
surface before firing.
water, storm. See storm water.
water streak. A striped or washed-out pattern occurring
in an unfired porcelain-enamel or glaze; this may be due
to a thin and uneven coating thickness as a result of poor
draining of the coating during the dipping and some-
times the spraying operations, the slip usually being too
thin.
water-struck brick. Brick formed in wetted molds to
minimize sticking during removal.
water, tempering. See tempering water.
water tolerance. The amount of water a body can as-
similate before its workability is impaired.
water, uncombined. See uncombined water.
water vapor diffusion. The way that water vapor moves
through permeable materials as a result of water vapor
pressure differences.
WATER VAPOR PERMEABILITY
water vapor permeability. The rate of transport of
water vapor per unit area per unit of vapor pressure
difference at a stated temperature; expressed as perm-
cm: g(24 hr)-I m-2 (mm Hg)-I cm- I.
water vapor permeance. See water vapor permeability.
water vapor pressure. (1) That component of atmos-
pheric pressure contributed by water vapor. (2) The
pressure of water vapor at any specified temperature.
water vapor resistance. The reciprocal of water vapor
permeance and numerically is the product of water
vapor resistivity and thickness.
water vapor resistivity. The vapor pressure difference
producing unit time rate of flow of vapor through a unit
volume of a flat material at a defined temperature and
relative humidity at each surface.
water vapor transmission. WVT; the rate of water va-
por flow under specified conditions, through a unit area
of material bounded by two parallel surfaces and proceed-
ing normal to the surface; measured as g(24 hrrl m-2 •
water, wash. See wash water.
watt. The SI unit of power; defined as the power resulting
in the dissipation of one joule in one second. In electri-
cal circuits it is one ampere times one volt.
wauk. A plastic clay body which has been beaten and
rolled into the approximate shape of the mold into
which it is to be formed.
wave. An imperfection of sinuous or wavy appearance
on glass or other surface, usually due to uneven thick-
ness or striations.
wave function. '1'; a solution of the Schrodinger equation
which describes the state of a system. The square of the
modulus of the wave function is a component of the
electron wave probability density.
waveguide. A solid rod of dielectric material used as a
device for channeling radio and microwave energy from
place to place with little loss and no radiation hazard.
wavelength. The distance between two corresponding
points on the oscillating curve obtained by plotting the
physical quantity oscillating in space against distance
in the direction of the wave.
wave mechanics. A branch of science concerned with
statements and solutions of differential equations de-
scribing wave behavior.
wave number. ItA.; the reciprocal of wavelength, where
A. is the wavelength of the radiation in cm; used to
quantify spectroscopic transitions.
wave shape (8 x 20 118). An impulse current used to test
varistors with a wave shape of 8 Ils rise time to peak
value and a 20 Ils decay time to half peak value.
wave train. A succession of identical waves arising from
the same source moving in the same direction.
350
waviness. A departure from flatness of a surface which
has a long-range order in terms of the surface finish and
no sharp discontinuities.
wax. Several types of substance composed of hydrocar-
bons, fatty acids. esters, and alcohols, that are solids at
room temperature; used in vacuum impregnations of
insulations and coatings for ceramic capacitors and
other electronic components, as a binder to hold ce-
ramic parts to steel plates for attachment to magnetic
chucks for mechanical grinding. and as a binder for
dry-pressed bodies and glaze suspensions.
wax emulsion. A colloidal suspension of wax in a sol-
vent; used as a binder, lubricant, and suspension agent
in ceramic bodies and glazes.
wax resist. A coating of wax applied to the surface of
ware to prevent or inhibit glazes, slips, colors. or etch-
ing agents from adhering to specific areas in a decora-
tion process.
WAXS. Acronym for wide-angle x-ray scattering which
is a test used to investigate crystallinity.
weakened-plane joint. A groove formed in freshly
poured concrete, or sawed in hardened concrete, to form
a line of weakness along which the concrete will crack
during drying or use rather than forming random cracks.
wear. To impair or reduce a surface under the physical
conditions of use.
wear cycles. The number of abrasion cycles in a Tabor
abrader test required to wear a film of specified thick-
ness through to the test plate.
wear factor. k; used to quantify wear in a three-pin-on-
disk machine: k = VIPD, where V is the volume of
material removed by wear (mm3), P is the normal load
(N), and D is the sliding distance (m)
wear index. In the Tabor abrader test it is the loss of
weight in mg per 1000 cycles.
wearing course. The top component of a flexible pave-
ment system consisting of brick pavers and bedding
sand.
wear, mechanical. See mechanical wear.
wear number. l/Vv where VL is the total volume loss of
the specimen in cm3.
weatherability. The inherent resistance of a product to
weather influences when subjected to exterior exposure
conditions.
weathering. (l) Deterioration of a surface during expo-
sure to atmospheric conditions such as wetting, drying,
sunlight, freezing, thawing, and changes in tempera-
ture. (2) The aging of clay by exposure to the weather
to disintegrate the clay and improve its plasticity.
weatherometer. An instrument designed to simulate the
conditions encountered in weathering; used in acceler-
ated evaluation tests of the resistance of materials and
finishes to weathering.
 351
weaving. Formation of fabric by interlacing threads,
yarns, or strips to form fabric.
web. The partitions dividing hollow structural tile into
cells.
Webb effect. The increase in the volume of a pottery slip
during deflocculation.
weber. SI derived unit of magnetic flux.
weberite. Na2MgAlF7; a mineral fluoride sometimes
employed as a flux.
wedge brick. A brick with its two main faces meeting at
an acute angle.
wedged bottom. An imperfection in the bottom of a
glass bottle characterized by thick glass on one side and
thin glass on the other side.
wedge stilt. A tripodlike item of kiln furniture with cone-
shaped points at the end of each of the arms; used as a
setter in the glost firing of ware.
Wedgwood. Pottery produced at the Wedgwood factory
near Stoke-on-Trent; characterized by pale-colored
bodies, blue or green usually, with applied classical
decoration in white.
Wedgwood blue. A pale blue or bluish-gray color.
wedging. The process of homogenizing moist clay by
kneeding and handworking.
weep hole. An opening in mortar joints and concrete
structures positioned to allow accumulated moisture to
pass through the structure to a point where it may drain
or be evaporated away.
Weibull cumulative failure probability distribution.
A way to describe the dependence of ceramic strength
on sample size. The failure probability at an applied
stress is given by F = I - exp[-(cr/cro)m dA/Aol, where
m is the theWeibull slope or modulus, A is the surface
area under stress cr, Ao is the surface area corresponding
to the characteristic strength 0"0'
Weibull distribution. A statistical parameter reflecting
the distribution of for example, flaw sizes on a ceramic
surface: In lnlll - F = m In s - m In cr, where F is the
failure probability, s is the initial or short-term strength,
and m and cr are the Weibull modulus and scaling
parameters, respectively.
Weibull modulus. See Weibull distribution.
weight, application. See application weight.
weight, atomic. See atomic weight.
weight, dipping. See dipping weight.
weight, equivalent. See equivalent weight.
weight, gross. See gross weight.
weight, molecular. See molecular weight.
weight, net. See net weight.
WET-LAY NONWOVEN FABRIC
weight, slop. See slop weight.
weight, tare. See tare weight.
weld. A fused joint formed between two components, or
the process of forming such joints.
weld aspect ratio. The depth to width of a weld.
weld blister. An imperfection in porcelain-enamels con-
sisting of broken or unbroken bubbles caused by the
evolution of gases along the line of a weld in the base
metal during the firing operation.
welding glass. A special colored and tempered glass de-
signed to protect the eyes of a welder from ultraviolet
radiation and flying sparks during the welding opera-
tion.
weld marks. A groove formed at the junction of two or
more parts when the intended fusion of the parts is
incomplete.
well. A reservoir constructed in a melting furnace to
collect glass, slag, etc.
well-hole pipe. A refractory pipe or tube directing the
flame upwards from the well in a melting furnace.
wemerite. See scapolite.
Westlake process. An automatic glass-forming process
simulating the procedures in a hand shop where molten
glass is gathered by vacuum and formed by blowing into
molds.
Westphal balance. A direct weighing balance enabling
the specific gravity. of solids to be determined directly.
wet. A term describing the consistency of fresh concrete.
wet-bag isostatic pressing. Powder to be processed is
sealed in a deformable skin and submerged in a liquid
to allow pressure to be applied.
wet blasting. A surface finishing process whereby a
slurry of fine particles is propelled by compressed air.
wet chemical powder preparation. The manufacture
of synthetic ceramic powders from solution. Variations
in the method center on how the water or other solvent
is removed, for example, freezing to give salt plus ice
is called freeze-drying.
wet film thickness. The thickness of a coating film im-
mediately after application.
wet flexural strength. The strength of a material meas-
ured after boiling the test specimen for 2 hours in water.
wet-grinding. (I) The milling of ceramic bodies, glazes,
and porcelain-enamels in a liquid medium, usually
water. (2) The application of a liquid coolant to a
workpiece and also the grinding wheel during abrasive
grinding.
wet-lay nonwoven fabric. A reinforcing cloth made by
dispersing chopped strand fiber in water containing
dispersing agents and then allowing the fibers to settle
WET MILLING
out as a mat while the water is evaporated or filtered
through the fabric as it forms.
wet milling. The grinding of porcelain-enamel frits with
selected mill additions and water in a ball mill to form
a slip suitable for application to metal by dipping,
spraying, or other technique.
wet pan. A machine containing heavy muliers revolving
on the bottom of a slotted revolving pan in which wet
or damp materials are mixed and ground.
wet pressing. The process of forming plastic ceramic
bodies in dies by the mechanical or manual application
of pressure.
wet process. (1) The preparation of ceramic bodies by
blending the ingredients with sufficient liquid, usually
water, to form a casta ole slurry. (2) The process in
which the batch for portland cement is charged into the
cement kiln as a slurry.
wet-process porcelain-enameling. The technique of
applying porcelain-enamel to metal in slip form, usually
by dipping or spraying, followed by drying and firing
to a smooth, impervious, glassy finish.
wet-rubbing test. A test of the resistance of porcelain-
enamel, glaze, and tile, to abrasion by rubbing with
damp abrasives.
wet strength. (1) The strength of an adhesive joint deter-
mined immediately after removal from an immersant
liquid. (2) See wet flexural strength.
wetting, wettability. The ability of a liquid film to
spread over, and adhere to, the surface of a solid.
wetting agent. A substance, such as soap, detergent, or
other surface-active material, which will lower the sur-
face tension of water or other liquid and cause them to
spread over or to penetrate the surface of another mate-
rial more easily.
wetting off. The use of a fine jet of water to sever a
handblown glass article from a blowpipe.
wet ware. Ware placed into the glost kiln without prior
drying.
WFS. Abbreviation for wet flexural strength.
whaler. See waler.
wheel, abrasive. See abrasive wheel.
wheel, composite. See composite wheel.
wheel, concentric. See concentric wheel.
wheel, cone. See cone wheel.
wheel, cup. See cup wheel.
wheel, cut-off. See cut-off wheel.
wheel, cylinder. See cylinder wheel.
wheel, diamond. See diamond wheel.
352
wheel, dish. See dish wheel.
wheel, disk. See disk wheel.
wheel, feed. See feed wheel.
wheel, grinding. See grinding wheel.
wheel head. The outer or upper surface of a grinding
wheel.
wheel, kick. See kick wheel.
wheel, magnesite. See magnesite wheel.
wheel, mounted. See mounted wheel.
wheel, parting. See parting wheel.
wheel, polishing. See polishing wheel.
wheel, recessed. See recessed abrasive wheel.
wheel, regulating. See regulating wheel.
wheel, resinoid grinding. See resinoid wheel.
wheel, rubber. See rubber wheel.
wheel, saucer. See saucer wheel.
wheel, segmented. See segmented wheel.
wheel, setup. See setup wheel.
wheel, shellac. See shellac wheel.
wheel sleeve. A flange used as an adaptor for grinding
wheels when the hole in the wheel is larger than the
arbor.
wheel, slotting. See slotting wheel.
wheel, slow. See slow wheel.
wheel, straight. See straight wheel.
wheel, tapered. See tapered wheel.
wheel traverse. The rate at which a grinding wheel
moves across a workpiece.
wheel, vitrified. See vitrified wheel.
whelp. A refractory of standard cross-sectional dimen-
sions, but substantially longer; for example, a brick
approximately 8 cm thick, 10 cm wide, but more than
20.5 cm long.
whirler. (1) Flat ceramic ware in which the bottom
sagged during firing. (2) A rotating plaster mold in
which bone china is sometimes cast to obtain a uniform
thickness. (3) A faulty plate, platter, saucer, or dish
which will not rest firmly on its foot.
whiskers. Short discontinuous fibers with diameters less
than 0.1 ~m so small as to be nearly perfect and so
possess very high strengths; usually man-made by va-
por methods.
 353
white acid. A mixture of hydrofluoric acid and ammo-
nium bifluoride used to etch glass.
white-acid embossed. A fully obscured glass surface
obtained by a single treatment with white acid.
white alumina. A recrystallized alumina abrasive.
white asbestos. The serpentine mineral, chrysotile, with
fibrous habit.
white cement. A very white portland cement made from
raw materials containing very low concentrations of
iron or by sintering in a reducing atmosphere.
white clay. A high-quality kaolin which fires to a white
color.
white, dryer. See dryer white.
white feldspar. A milky-white or colorless variety of
sodium feldspar.
white flint glass. A colorless glass with good light-dis-
persing qualities; used in optical instruments.
white graniteware. A term used to describe white earth-
enware bodies of exceptionally high strength.
white graphite. See boron nitride.
white-hard clay. A clay from which the water of plastic-
ity has evaporated at its surface.
white, kiln. See kiln white.
white lead. Pb 3C0 3(OHh; basic lead carbonate of vari-
able composition; decomposes at 400°C; sp. gr. 6.14;
used as a flux in glazes, porcelain-enamels, and glass.
white mica. Common name for muscovite.
white portland cement. Finely milled white cement
made from pure calcite limestone and a white burning
clay.
white spot. An imperfection in a colored glaze caused by
separation of pigment as the glaze flows and heals when
fired over an already existing defect.
White's test. A method for finding free lime, CaO, in
dolomite refractories and portland cement by wetting
the powder with a mixture of nitrobenzene, phenol, and
water and noting the presence of elongated needles in
the microstructure.
white ware. A general term for a ceramic body which
fires to a white or ivory color.
whiteware, alumina. See alumina whiteware.
whiteware, cordierite. See cordierite whiteware.
whiteware, forsterite. See forsterite whiteware.
whiteware, mullite. See mullite whiteware.
whiteware, steatite. See steatite whiteware.
whiteware, titania. See titania whiteware.
WIND
whiteware, zircon. See zircon whiteware.
whiteware, zirconia. See zirconia whiteware.
whiting. Natural limestone, CaC0 3 ; sp. gr. 2.7; used in
earthenware and vitreous sanitary ware bodies, glazes,
glasses, and porcelain-enamels as a refractory or neutral
component.
whitlockite. Ca9(Mg,Fe)H(P04h; an orthophosphate
with biological activity used to make artificial teeth
because of its excellent durability.
wicket. A temporary refractory closure or door in a fur-
nace or kiln, such as may be placed near the ends of the
checker chamber for charging and removing ware from
the kiln.
wicking. The absorption of liquid into a material by
capillary action.
wide-angle lens. A lens system that can cover an angle
of 60° or more; to enable it to do this it must have a very
short focal length.
Widmanstiitten structure. A type of microstructure;
arising from second-phase precipitates occurring within
the primary grains as well as at grain boundaries and the
precipitates within the grains being preferentially or-
dered on definite planes of the primary phase. This leads
to the appearance of needlelike or platelike crystals in
parallel arrays.
Wien's displacement law. A statement that when the
temperature of a blackbody increases, the wavelength,
Amax, corresponding to the maximum energy density of
thermal radiation decreases such that Amax T = constant.
The constant has a value of 2.898 x 10-3 mK.
wiggler. An array of permanent magnets of alternating
polarity arranged to make an electron beam wiggle in
the horizontal plane and so radiate photons in a forward
direction; an essential part of an FEL. Also called an
undulator.
wilkenite. A type of bentonite used in a variety of ce-
ramic bodies and refractories, and as a suspension agent
in porcelain-enamels and glazes.
willemite. Zn2Si04; a zinc ore; sp. gr. 3.3; hardness
(Mohs) 5.5; used to make crystalline glazes.
Williamson kiln. A cross-fired tunnel kiln in which both
direct-fire and muffle segments are incorporated.
Williamson's blue. A range of iron-bearing blue pig-
ments.
willow blue. A dilute cobalt-blue colorant.
wimbly. A condition of unusual flexibility.
Winchester. A straight-sided glass bottle of 2.5-liter ca-
pacity.
wind. A term sometimes used to describe air bubbles in
ware.
WINDING
winding. A wire wound in the shape of a coil or spiral
around a ceramic core.
winding collet. A drum onto which continuous ceramic
or glass fiber is wound as they are manufactured; wind-
ing speeds at the periphery in excess of 180 km hr- 1 are
required to achieve the fine diameters needed in these
products.
window dip. The dipping of ware sideways into a slip or
glaze.
window glass. A continuously drawn soda-lime glass
produced in sheet form; used mainly to make windows.
wind-ridge tile. Specially shaped ceramic or concrete
tile made to cover the ridge of a pitched roof.
winning. The process of extracting a raw material from
some source, such as an ore or reclaimed product, and
converting the material to a useful product.
wire, brass. See brass wire.
wire cloth. A fabric of wire mesh woven in squares to be
used in sieves and screens.
wire-cut brick. Brick units cut from extruded clay col-
umns by means of a taut wire.
wired safety glass. A glass containing an embedded net-
work of wire which resists shattering when broken.
wire glass. See wired safety glass.
wire glass, polished. See polished wire glass.
witherite. BaC0 3 ; a mineral form of barium carbonate;
mp 1360°C; sp. gr. 4.27-4.35; hardness (Mohs) 3-
3.75; used in optical, plate, and tableware glasses, pot-
tery bodies, and as a flux in glazes and
porcelain-enamels; also used in structural clay bodies
to prevent efflorescence.
witness hole. A small opening provided to verify that
mating parts do so up to the specification.
Witten-Sanders model. A kinetic model of diffusion-
limited aggregate formation; able to produce a model of
a fractal aggregate having the observed structure of
colloidal particle combinations.
wolframite. A solid solution ofhuebnerite, MnW04 , and
ferberite, FeW04 ; used as a source of tungsten; sp. gr.
7.12-7.51; hardness (Mohs) 4-4.5; brown to black
color with adamantine luster; prismatic or tabular crys-
tals.
wollastonite. See calcium metasilicate.
wonderstone. A synonym for pyrophyllite.
wood ash. The residue from burned timber; rich in pot-
ash but containing only small amounts of soda; used in
early European glass manufacture.
wood flour. Finely ground wood used as a filler.
354
wood opal. Petrified wood with opal as the petrifying
agent.
wood pitch. A dark, viscous residue left after the distil-
lation of wood tar; used as a binder in carbon briquette
formation.
Wood's glass. Glass with a high transmission factor for
ultraviolet radiation but which has high opacity for
visible light.
Woods Hole sediment analyzer. A technique for deter-
mining the particle size distribution in a clay suspension
based on changes in pressure resulting from the settling
of the clay particles.
wood spirit. Another name for methanol.
Wood's process. A technique used to make glass tubing
and rod in which molten glass is drawn from an orifice;
the tubing is formed by drawing rod around a refractory
cone.
wool. An entangled mass of fibers without any obvious
arrangement.
wool drag. The smearing of color during the application
of background color on pottery and other ceramic ware.
wool, glass. See glass wo"l.
wool, mineral. See mineral wool.
wool, rock. See rock wool.
Worcester china. Porcelain articles made in Worcester,
England, from 1751.
work. (I) The transfer of energy expressed as the product
of a force and the distance through which its point of
application moves in the direction of the force. (2) A
piece or item being operated on in the process of manu-
facture, such as grinding, polishing, or other process.
(3) Physical or mental effort directed toward doing or
making something.
workability. (I) The property of being workable. (2) The
combination of properties which contribute to the ease
with which concrete, mortar, ramming mixes, and plas-
tic masses can be mixed, handled, transported, and
placed with a minimum of effort or loss of homogeneity.
workability agent. An admixture used in concrete, mor-
tar, and other plastic mixes to improve their workabil-
ity.
workability index. A measure of the consistency and
molding properties of plastic masses, particularly re-
fractories.
work board. A long narrow board on which greenware
is placed for drying and transport.
work function. The energy needed to remove an elec-
tron to infinity; expressed as the height of the energy
barrier at the surface of a solid. Usually very high for a
ceramic, around 10 eV, except for special ceramics
containing electron energy bands, such as LaB6 which
 355
is a good electron emitter because of its low work
function.
work hardening. When a solid is plastically deformed,
more dislocations are introduced on intersecting planes
which can become entangled and so making them hard
to move; thus, a greater stress is needed to cause further
strain and the material is said to be work hardened.
working end. The end compartment or section of a
glass-melting tank from which molten glass is taken for
forming.
working molds. Plaster-of-paris molds in which ce-
ramic bodies are shaped by casting, jiggering, or roller
forming.
working point. The temperature at which the viscosity
is 1<P N m s-I and suitable for most forming processes.
working range. The temperature range in which glass
may be shaped into ware, the lower temperature being
such that the glass is sufficiently fluid or plastic for
forming, and the upper temperature being such that the
formed ware will retain its shape as formed. Expressed
as the glass viscosity it is the range 102 to 106 N s m- I.
working standard. Any specification or standard of
quality in current or regular use.
working stress. A stress specified to be just below the
damaging stress.
working substance. The fluid, usually water, steam, or
air, that operates an engine.
working time. The period of time during which a sand
mixture can be used to make cores.
work of adhesion. Wad; the change in energy in separat-
ing glass from a substrate: Wad = k("1v + Iyv - "rl-
flla)A, where k is a constant, sYv is the free energy ofthe
WYTHE
solid-vapor interface, Lyv the liquid-vapor interface,
"rl solid-liquid interface, fila is the thermal expansion
mismatch, and A is the contact area.
workpiece. The article, product, or sample being heated
by an infrared source.
work size. d; the dimension of the area to be covered by
bricks or pavers.
work speed. (I) The rate of table traverse during abra-
sive grinding. (2) The rate at which work is rotated
during centerless and internal grinding operations.
work-to-break. In a tensile test it is the total energy
needed to rupture a specimen; the integral of the stress-
strain curve.
worm gear. A threaded shaft, the worm, that mates with
a gear wheel so that rotary motion can be transferred
between two shafts at right angles to each other.
wreathing. A slightly raised crescent on the inside wall
of slip-cast ware.
wrinkle. A defect in glass containers consisting of a
series of horizontal marks, one above the other.
writing, magnetic. See magnetic writing.
wulfenite. PbMo04 ; a yellow-orange mineral with tabu-
lar crystal form; a source of molybdenum and some-
times used as a ceramic pigment.
WVT. See water vapor transmission.
wye. Any item made in the shape of a "Y."
wythe. (I) Each continuous vertical section of masonry
one unit in thickness. (2) The thickness of the masonry
units separating flues in a chimney.
 x
xanthates. Various salts of xanthic acid, ROC(S)SH,
employed as flotation agents in the beneficiation of
minerals for ceramic and other uses.
x-band. Electromagnetic radiation between 8 and 10
GHz.
xenocryst. A crystalline material which is not in equilib-
rium with other minerals in a rock.
xenolith. A rock inclusion which is unrelated to the rock
in which it occurs.
xenomorphic. A description of any mineral not sharing
its characteristic crystal habit because of deformation
pressures from adjacent rocks.
xenothermal deposit. A mineral which has been formed
at low pressure and high temperature, usually at shallow
to moderate depths.
xenotime. YP04 ; sp. gr. 4.4-5.1; hardness (Mohs) 4-5;
a lustrous, vitreous, natural phosphate ranging from
white to brown in color.
xerogel. A porous solid that is the last product of the
gelation of a sol when all the interstitial liquid disper-
sion medium is removed. It usually has to be heated to
produce the desired oxide shape or powder.
xerography. A dry method of photocopying in which an
image is projected through a camera lens onto a smooth
electrostatically charged metallic plate which has been
coated with selenium or other photoconductive mate-
rial; a pigmented powder containing a developing resin
is cascaded or dispersed over the plate, adhering to the
plate in thicknesses proportional to the patterned
charges remaining on the plate after exposure, the in-
tensity of the pattern varying with the darkness and
shading of the image; the image then is transferred
electrostatically to paper or other surface placed in
contact with the plate, and fixed by heat or other means
to provide a positive reproduction of the subject.
xeroradiography. A xerographic technique in which x
rays are employed to project an image onto a photosen-
sitive plate.
356
xonotlite. C6 S6H in cement notation; a well crystallized
calcium silicate hydrate formed under hydrothermal
conditions from Si0 2 and CaO in an autoclave; a con-
stituent of insulating and lightweight building materi-
als.
XPMA. Abbreviation for x-ray photoelectron microana-
lysis.
XPS. See photoelectron spectroscopy or ESCA.
x ray. A high-frequency electromagnetic ray of ex-
tremely short wavelength, 0.006-12 nm, emitted as a
result of a sudden change in the velocity of an electric
charge such as occurs when cathode rays strike a solid,
usually metallic, in a vacuum tube.
x-ray absorption. The absorption of energy from an x-
ray beam by a medium through which the beam is
passing.
x-ray analysis. Determination of the atomic distribution,
structure, chemical analysis, and anisotropic behavior
of crystalline materials by means of x rays.
x-ray computed tomography. CT; a bulk, nondestruc-
tive examination method able to display 2-D x-ray
sections of complex ceramic parts; density variations
ranging from 0.01 to 0.02% and flaws as small as 5 11m
can be found.
x-ray crystallography. The study of the structure, iden-
tity, texture, and behavior of crystals by x-ray tech-
niques.
x-ray density. The density of a solid calculated from the
measured x-ray unit cell parameters and the number of
atoms per unit cell.
x-ray diffraction. Scattering of an x-ray beam into many
beams at definite angles to the original beam in the
orderly pattern characteristic of different atoms; used as
an analysis of crystal structure.
x-ray lithography. Using x rays to etch out integrated
circuits on chips. Because x rays have shorter wave-
 357
length than visible light, they produce finer patterns and
hence denser circuits.
x-ray photograph. A shadow produced on photosensi-
tive film by exposure to x rays.
x-ray protective glass. A glass containing a high per-
centage of lead oxide and, occasionally, barium oxide,
which exhibits a high degree of opacity to x rays.
Sometimes known as document glass.
X-UNIT
x-ray spectroscope. An instrument for comparing the
color intensity between corresponding parts of different
spectra, or between parts of the same spectrum.
x-ray spectrum. Patterns of emission from matter bom-
barded by high-velocity electrons.
x-ray tube. A vacuum tube containing a metal target on
which x rays are produced by impact of electrons.
x-unit. xu; an old unit used to express the wavelength of
x rays or gamma rays; equal to 1.00202 x 10-13 m.
 y
Y 123. Another abbreviation for the high temperature
superconductor YBa2Cu307_r
YAG. Acronym for yttrium aluminum garnet, Y3AlS012'
crystals of which are capable of sustaining laser activity
when doped with neodymium.
yard, laying. See laying yard.
yard, stripping. See stripping yard.
yarn. A group of continuous strands of glass, ceramic,
asbestos, or other fiber twisted to a form suitable for
weaving.
yarn filament. A yam composed of continuous fila-
ments assembled with or without a twist.
yarn number. Relates size or fineness of a yarn by stat-
ing the material as mass per unit length or as length per
unit mass.
y-axis. Refers in laminates to the axis in the plane of the
laminate which is perpendicular to the x-axis.
y-bar. The distance from an arbitrary axis to the center
of gravity of a plane section of a fiber composite.
YBCO. Abbreviation for YBa2Cu307' a high-Tc super-
conducting oxide.
Y -compounds. See Ferroxcube and Ferroxplanas.
Y -connection. A three-phase star connection in electri-
cal engineering.
yellow, antimony. See lead antimonate.
yellow cake. A uranium ore.
yellowing. A defect in the lasting quality of a finish
which changes to yellowish hues with time. Usually
associated with clear, white, or light-colored coatings.
yellow lead oxide. PbO; mp 888°C; sp. gr. 9.53; used
extensively in table, optical, and electrical glass to
increase the density, refractive index, brilliance, dura-
bility, and working properties. Also used in glazes and
358
enamels as a fluxing ingredient. Known commercially
as litharge.
yellow ocher. FeO(OH)·nH20; used as a yellow pig-
ment. Also known as limonite.
yellowware. A buff or yellow semi vitreous or earthen-
ware body which sometimes is coated with a clear,
colorless glaze.
yellow zinc. See zinc chromates.
yield. (I) The measure of stress at which a permanent
change will occur in the shape of a solid body without
causing the body to fracture. (2) The number of cubic
feet of concrete produced per sack of cement, calculated
as total volume per batch divided by the number of
sacks per batch. (3) To move under the action of a force
but only to establish and maintain a new position.
yield factor. A multiplier used to limit loads to ensure
that the structure will sustain no permanent set if sub-
jected to a limit load.
yield point. (I) Minimum unit of stress at which continu-
ous flow will occur in a clay-water or similar mass
when subjected to some force such as tension, compres-
sion, torsion, or shear. (2) The minimum unit of stress
at which a solid material will deform without an in-
crease in the applied load. (3) The point on a stress-
strain curve at which the increase in strain is no longer
proportional to the increase in stress. Several methods
exist to determine yield point: e.g., Coplan's construc-
tion which defines it as the stress corresponding to the
intersection of the tangent at the origin with the tangent
having least slope.
yield strength. cry; the stress at the yield point.
yield stress. The minimum stress at which creep will
occur in a solid body. See creep.
yield temperature. The minimum temperature at which
permanent deformation will occur in a solid body under
specified conditions of stress.
 359
yield value. The force that will just cause flow in a
molded mass of sand or a thixotropic suspension.
YIG. Acronym for yttrium iron garnet, Y3Fe2Fe3012,
which is equivalent to Y3Fe2(Fe04h.
yoke. A C-shaped solid or laminated piece of soft mag-
netic material around which a coil to carry magnetizing
current has been wound.
yoke magnetization. A longitudinal magnetic field in-
duced in a material, or in an area of a material. by means
of an external yoke-shaped electromagnet.
Young-Dupre equation. An equation representing the
balance of forces acting on a molten liquid drop in
contact with a solid substrate: 'yv - 'yl =Lyg cos e where
the symbols 'Yv' 'YI' and Lygrepresent the free energy of
the solid-vapor, solid-liquid, and liquid-glass inter-
faces, respectively, and e is the contact angle.
Young's modulus. E; the ratio of tensile stress to tensile
strain within the elastic limit of a solid body; also known
as the modulus of elasticity. E = a/E. Related to shear
modulus, G, and bulk modulus, K: E= 2G(1+ u) =3K(l
- 2u) where u is Poisson's ratio.
ytterbite. (Ce,La,Nd,YhFeBe2Si2011; now called
gadolinite; a mineral from which several rare earths are
extracted.
ytterbium iron garnet. Yb3Fe5012; used as a resonator
at microwave frequencies. See YIG.
ytterbium oxide. Yb 20 3; mp 2346°C; sp. gr. 9.18; used
as a component in electrically conducting ceramics,
glass-ceramics, special refractories, phosphors, etc.
ytterbium silicate. (I) Yb 20Si04; mp 1979°C; hardness
(Mohs) 5-7. (2) Y4(Si04h; mp 1949°C; sp. gr. 4.39;
hardness (Mohs) 5-7; (3) Y2Si207; mp 1777°C; sp. gr.
4.06; hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
yttrium aluminate. (1) YAI0 3; sp. gr. 5.50; host for
Nd 3+ to form a laser with a wavelength of 1.06!lm and
variable power: 35 W along crystal b-axis, 6 W along
c-axis. (2) Y4A1209; mp 2838°C. (3) Y3A15012' Acts as
host for Nd3+ ions to form a laser of 25 W power and a
wavelength of 1.06 !lm.
Y-TZP
yttrium barium copper oxide. See 1-2-4 superconduc-
tor, 2-4-7 superconductor, and Y 123'
yttrium boride. YB 6 ; one of several boride composi-
tions, e.g., YB 2, YB 4, YB 6 , with special semicon-
ducting properties developed for use as a soft x-ray
monochromator.
yttrium carbonate. Y 2(C0 3h·3H 20; used as a phos-
phor in refractory gas mantles.
yttrium doped zirconia. A cubic stabilized form of
Zr02 having the appearance of diamond and used as a
substitute in some applications. The refractive index,
dispersion, and hardness have values 2.18, 0.06, and 8.5
(Mohs) compared with 2.42, 0.044, and 10, respec-
tively, for diamond.
yttrium ferrite. YFe03; mp 1560°C; sp. gr. 5.17; a fer-
romagnetic ceramic.
yttrium magnesium sialon. YMgSi 2 0 5N; a pyroxene
phase containing Si(O,N)3 chains; mp > 1450°C, which
means it may be a useful grain boundary stabilizer in
the W-sialons.
yttrium oxide. Y 20 3; sp. gr. 4.84; mp 241O°C; used to
make red phosphors for television tubes, in the produc-
tion of microwave filters, and, with Zr02, in the manu-
facture of special high-temperature refractories.
yttrium oxysulfide. Y202S; the host material for Eu 3+
ions to act as red phosphors for color TV tubes.
yttrium silicate. (I) Y20Si04; mp 1979°C; sp. gr. 4.49;
hardness (Mohs) 5-7. (2) Y4(Si04h; mp 1949°C; sp.
gr. 4.39; hardness (Mohs) 5-7. (3) Y2Si 20 7; mp
1777°C; sp. gr. 4.06; hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
yttrium silicon oxynitride. See K-phase.
YTZ. Abbreviation for yttrium partially stabilized
tetragonal zirconia; a tough ceramic offered as balls for
grinding mills that provide very efficient grinding with-
out product contamination.
Y-TZP. Abbreviation for yttria-doped tetragonal zir-
conia polycrystals.
 z
Zacharaison rules of glass formation. (I) An oxygen
atom is linked to no more than two glass-forming atoms.
(2) the coordination number of glass-forming atoms is
small. (3) the oxygen atom polyhedra share corners with
each other, but not faces or edges. (4) the polyhedra are
linked in a random 3-D network.
zaffer. An impure form of cobalt oxide; used in the
production of smalt.
Zahn cup. An orifice-type viscometer in which the time
required for a measured quantity of glaze or porcelain-
enamel slip to flow through an opening of specified size
is taken as a measure of the slip viscosity.
zaratite. NiC0 3 ·2Ni(OH}zAH 20; an amorphous min-
erai containing mainly green, hydrated nickel carbon-
ate.
z-axis. The reference axis at 90 0 to the laminate plane in
a composite.
ZBLAN. Acronym for commercially available fluoroz-
irconate glass fibers containing ZrF4' BaF2, LaF3 , AIF3,
and NaF. See fluorozirconate glass.
z-chart. A statistical aid used in industry; constructed by
plotting weekly data, the moving annual total and the
cumulati ve total dating from the start of the current
year.
Z-compounds. See Ferroxcube or Ferroxplanas.
zebra roof. A roof used in basic open-hearth furnaces
consisting of silica and chrome magnesite refractories
arranged in alternate rings, resulting in a striped appear-
ance.
Zeeman effect. The splitting of the spectroscopic lines
of a source of radiation when subjected to a moderately
intense magnetic field.
Zener current. The current through an insulator when
placed in an electric field of sufficient intensity to excite
an electron directly from the valence to the conduction
band.
360
Zener diode. A semiconductor voltage regulator that
gives a sharp increase in reverse current at a well-de-
fined reverse current at a specific reverse voltage.
Zener voltage. The field required to excite the Zener
current; usually on the order of 107 volts per centimeter.
See Zener current.
zeolite. A class of hydrous aluminum silicates of the
approximate composition Na6AI2Si701S·7H20; used in
ion-exchange reactions. They can be dehydrated and
rehydrated without destroying the structure.
zeolite process. A water-softening process involving the
cationic exchange of the sodium in zeolite for the cal-
cium and magnesium in hard water.
zeolite structure code. Zeolites are referred to by the
first three letters of their name in capitals, for example,
FAU is faujasite, SOD is sodalite.
zero, absolute. See absolute temperature.
zero-carbon steel. Sheet steel of extremely low carbon
content on which porcelain-enamel cover coats usually
may be applied and fired without the need of a ground
coat.
zero crossing. A number equal to the number of times
the load-time curve crosses the zero load level in a
cyclic fatigue test.
zero-point energy. The energy remaining in a substance
at absolute zero as a result of the energy levels only
being able to define two electrons.
zeta potential. The electrical potential measured at the
shear plane formed between the Stern layer and the
movable liquid layer close to the surface of a solid
immersed in an aqueous solution. It is not the electro-
static potential at the solid-liquid interface but it is
related to it and hence to the dispersibility of solid
particles in a colloid.
zigzag kiln. A type of kiln in which the dividing walls
are staggered in a manner so as to force the heat to flow
through the kiln in a zigzag pattern.
 361
zinc aluminate. ZnAI 20 4; mp 1950°C; sp. gr. 4.5S; a
spinel used as a refractory lining in containers for the
melting of selected metals.
zinc ammonium chloride. Zn(NH4hCI4; sp. gr. I.S;
used as a soldering flux in glass-to-metal and ceramic-
to-metal seals.
zinc antimonate. A spinel phase of approximate compo-
sition Zn7Sb2012 which occurs in overfired ZnO varis-
tors as an insulating precipitate that influences the
overall varistor performance. It acts as a grain growth
inhibitor during sintering.
zinc antimonide. ZnSb; used as a p-type leg in ther-
mionic-power generators; unstable at approximately
1000°C.
zinc antimony spinel. See zinc antimonate.
zincate bath. A solution containing ZnO~- or
[Zn(OH)41 2- ions and 10 g I-I zinc from which zinc
metal layers are galvanically plated.
zinc beryllium silicate. A phosphor material formerly
much used in fluorescent lamps but withdrawn after its
implication in berylliosis.
zinc blende. Natural ZnS; see zinc sulfide.
zinc borate. Various compounds ofZnO and B20 3; used
as fluxes in ceramic compositions; a white amorphous
powder of uncertain composition used as a flame retar-
dant.
zinc carbonate. ZnC0 3; loses CO2 at 300°C; sp. gr.
4.42-4.45; used in Bristol and other glazes. Also known
as smithsonite.
zinc cement. A quick-hardening cement composed of
zinc oxide made into a paste by the use of a zinc chloride
solution.
zinc chloride. ZnCI2; mp 290°C; bp 732°C; sp. gr. 2.91;
used in special cements, glass-etching compositions,
dental cements, etc.
zinc chromates. Various compounds ofZnO and Cr203;
used as a yellow ceramic colorant, originally described
as ZnCr04-4Zn(OH)2 but now known to be
K2Zn4Cr4016(OHh·2H20. Also known as yellow zinc.
zinc crown glass. An optical glass containing substan-
tial amounts of zinc oxide as an auxiliary flux. See
optical crown glass.
zinc ferrate. ZnFe204; a partially inverse spinel melting
at about 1590°C; sp. gr. 5.33; used for its magnetic and
semiconducting properties.
zinc flash. A colored surface produced on brick by the
introduction of zinc into the fireboxes of the kiln at the
end of the firing operation, the zinc vapors depositing
on the surface of the brick to form various shadings
ranging from yellow to green.
ZIRCAR
zinc fluoride. ZnF2; mp S72°C; sp. gr. 4.S4; used as a
gaseous opacifier and flux in porcelain-enamels and
glazes.
zinc fluosilicate. ZnSiF6·6H20; decomposes on heating;
sp. gr. 2.1; used as a concrete hardener.
zinc glass. Glass of the ordinary soda-lime type in which
part of the calcium oxide is replaced by zinc oxide.
zincite. ZnO; rare mineral; sp. gr. 5.4-5.7; hardness
(Mohs) 4-4.5; used in the production of zinc oxide of
high purity; hexagonal structure with pyramidal crys-
tals often twinned at the base.
zinc molybdate. ZnMo04; mp about 900°C; occasion-
ally used as an adherence-promoting agent in white
porcelain-enamels.
zincniobate. (1) ZnNb20 6 ; mp 139SoC. (2)
Zn3(Nb04h; used in dielectric packaging.
zinc nitride. Zn3N; a semiconducting material used in
electronic applications.
zinc oxide. ZnO; sublimes at ISOO°C; sp. gr. 5.6-5.S;
used as an opacifier and fluxing ingredient in glass,
glazes, porcelain-enamels, magnetic ferrites, dental ce-
ments, and special piezoelectric compositions. Finds
growing application when doped with antimony oxide,
Sb20 3, as a ceramic varistor for protection of electronic
circuits from transient overvoltages.
zinc palmitate. Zn[CH3(CH2)4C02h; used as a die lu-
bricant.
zinc phosphate. Zn3(P04h-4H20; mp 900°C; sp. gr.
3.0S; used in dental cements and in the production of
phosphors.
zinc selenide. ZnSe; mp above 1 100°C; sp. gr. 5.33; used
in infrared optical windows.
zinc silicate. (1) Zn2Si04; mp 1509°C; sp. gr. 3.3; hard-
ness (Mohs) 5.5. (2) ZnSi03; mp 151O°C; sp. gr. 4.1;
hardness (Mohs) 5-7.
zinc silicofluoride. ZnSiF6·6H 20; decomposes on heat-
ing; sp. gr. 2.1; employed as a hardener for concrete.
zinc sulfide. ZnS; sp. gr. 3.9-4.1; mp 1020°C; sublimes
at IIS0°C; hardness (Mohs) 3.5-4.0; used in white and
opaque glasses, in x-ray and television tubes, phos-
phors, and similar products; a semiconductor.
zinc telluride. ZnTe; mp 123SoC; sp. gr. 5.54; a II-VI
semiconductor with the zinc blende, ZnS, structure.
zinc titanate. (1) ZnTi03; perovskite; mp above
1500°C; a dielectric material. (2) TiZn204; mp above
1500°C; a spinel phase used in dielectric applications.
zinc zirconium silicate. ZnZrOSi04; mp 20S0°C; used
primarily as an ingredient in ceramic glazes.
zircar. A commercially available yttria-stabilized zir-
conia fiber; usually supplied as chopped strand; sp. gr.
5.6-5.9.
ZIRCON
zircon. ZrSi04; softening temperature 850-950°C due
to the presence of Si02 from dissociated zircon; mp
2250°C; sp. gr. 4.68; hardness (Mohs) 7.5; used in
porcelain-enamels and glazes as an opacifier and to
improve color stability and crazing resistance; also used
in refractories, abrasives, grinding wheels, precision
molds for the casting of alloys, electrically resisting
cements and in conventional electrical and technical
porcelains.
zirconalite. A monoclinic phase of ideal composition
CaZrTi20 7 derived from a defect fluorite lattice; a
major phase in Synroc, a synthetic material considered
for immobilizing high-level nuclear waste.
zircon colors. A spectrum of colors produced when zr02
is heated with SiOz in the presence of colored ions so
that they take up Zrll+ sites in ZrSi04. For example, V4+
ions give blue colors, p~+ ions give yellow colors.
Alkali halide mineralizers are important in the process
because by producing volatile halides, SiX4, the reac-
tion with zr0 2 is expedited.
zircon flour. Finely milled zirconium silicate used as a
mill wash.
zirconia. zr02; polymorphism restricts its widespread
use; mp about 2700°C; sp. gr. 5.73; hardness (Mohs)
6.5; used as an opacifier in porcelain-enamels and
glazes, as an abrasive in polishing and grinding com-
pounds, as setter plates for the firing of ceramics, fer-
rites, and titanates, as wind-tunnel liners, as a refractory
structural material in nuclear applications, as a highly
corrosion-resistant ceramic, and as a refractory for
high-temperature use, but all these applications are
subject to restricted firing ranges or the zirconia has to
be stabilized by solid solution formation with a number
of other cubic oxides, such as yttria.
zirconia brick. A refractory brick composed of > 50%
of zirconia; used to line metallurgical furnaces because
of its resistance to basic slags.
zirconia glow. The burst of heat and light which is ob-
served when an amorphous ultrafine powder of hy-
drated zirconia transforms to the tetragonal crystalline
state.
zirconia refractories. A refractory composed essen-
tially of zirconium oxide.
zirconia toughening. The inclusion of a mixture of
tetragonal and monoclinic forms of zr0 2 into ceramic
systems to increase K1c' their fracture toughness pa-
rameter. Energy is absorbed ahead of a crack tip in such
a composite by mechanisms involving tetragonal to
monoclinic phase transformation and microcrack gen-
eration according to the following toughening equation:
Kic = Ko + (2E)TrT)112 + (2Eymrm) 112, where Ko is the
fracture toughness parameter of the matrix ceramic, E
is the elastic modulus, y is the energy density absorbed
ahead of the crack, r is the radius of the process zone,
subscript T indicates the stress-induced tetragonal -+
monoclinic phase transformation, and subscript m indi-
cates a microcrack nucleation mechanism.
362
zirconia whiteware. Any whiteware product containing
substantial amounts of zirconia, zr02, as an essential
ingredient.
zircon iron corals. Calcined, synthetic, inorganic stain
formed from zirconia, silica, and iron oxide, Fe203' in
which the zircon crystals completely occlude a-hema-
tite iron oxide. The stability of the color depends on how
completely the zircon crystals form around the iron
oxide crystals. When powdered and mixed with glaze
frit a range of colors can be developed when fired.
zirconium aluminate. ZrAI 20 4; used as a component in
high-temperature refractories.
zirconium beryIIide. (I) ZrBel3; mp 1930°C; sp. gr.
2.72. (2) Zr2Bel7; mp 1980°C; sp. gr. 3.08. Both alloys
have good strength at elevated temperatures; used as
moderators in nuclear reactors.
zirconium carbide. zrC; mp 3540°C; sp. gr. 6.44; hard-
ness (Mohs) 8-9; employed as an abrasive, refractory,
incandescent filament, and cutting tool.
zirconium diboride. ZrB 2; mp 3040°C; sp. gr. 6.1; used
in cutting tools, metal-casting refractory molds, refrac-
tory pouring spouts, rocket nozzles, combustion cham-
ber liners, thermocouple tubes, and other
high-temperature products. See borides.
zirconium dioxide. Zr02; see zirconia.
zirconium dioxide porcelain. A porcelain in which zir-
conium dioxide, zr0 2, is a major component.
zirconium dioxide refractory. A refractory oflow ther-
mal conductivity in which zirconium dioxide, zr02, is
a major ingredient; the stabilized zr0 2 refractories in
which, by the addition of Y203 to the Zr02' the zirconia
remains in the cubic or tetragonal form, are used at
temperatures above 2200°C.
zirconium hydroxide. Zr(OH)4; decomposes to Zr02 at
550°C; sp. gr. 3.25; used in glass manufacture.
zirconium naphthenate. An amber-colored, transpar-
ent, heavy liquid sometimes used in porcelain-enamels
and glazes.
zirconium nitride. ZrN; mp 2930°C; sp. gr. 7.32; a
brass-colored material used in refractories, crucibles,
and cermets.
zirconium oxide. See zirconia.
zirconium phosphate. See zirconyl phosphate.
zirconium silicate. See zircon.
zirconium spinel. ZrAI 20 4; a spinel having a melting
point of 17 10°C.
zirconium sulfate. Zr50g(S04}z·xH20; a precipitate
from solutions containing zirconyl cations and sulfate
anions obtained by adding ammonia; used to make
ultrafine particle size zr02.
zirconium tetra n-butoxide. Zr(n-OBu)4; an alkoxide
salt soluble in butyl alcohol which can be oxidized by
 363
hydrogen peroxide and nitric acid to a transparent sol
from which zirconia fibers can be spun.
zircon porcelain. A vitreous ceramic whiteware used in
technical applications, crucibles, combustion boats,
thermocouple tubes, etc., and in which zirconia, Zr02,
is an essential component.
zircon praseodymium yellow. An inorganic stain pro-
duced by reacting silica and zirconia with small
amounts of praseodymia, Pr20 3, so that some zr4+ is
replaced by ~+ in the zircon structure. When mixed
with glaze frit and fired onto ware it develops a range
of yellow colors.
zircon refractory. Any refractory product composed
substantially of zircon, ZrSi04.
zircon sand. A natural sand containing considerable
amounts of zirconia, zr02, titania, Ti0 2, and related
materials, but mainly powdered ZrSi04.
zircon vanadium turquoise. A stain fonned from zir-
con, ZrSi04, in which a few zr4+ sites are substituted
by V4+; when powdered and mixed with overglaze it
develops a range of blue colors.
zircon whiteware. Any ceramic whiteware containing
zircon, ZrSi04, as an essential ingredient.
zirconyl. The complex cation zr02+.
zirconly phosphate. ZrO(P04b a possible semirefrac-
tory capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1600°C
and used in the production of some glass containers.
ZWITTERION
zirkite. A mineral source of zirconium dioxide, zr02;
used in refractories and low-expansion bodies of high
thennal-shock resistance.
Zisman apparatus. An instrument for measuring con-
tact-potential differences between solid-solid and
solid-liquid interfaces.
zoisite. An orthorhombic orthosilicate mineral of pink
color; Ca2AI3(Si04h(OH).
zone control. A system of independent heating and tem-
perature controls for each zone of a furnace or kiln.
zone melting. A method of separating or purifying a
substance by differential solubility in which a series of
molten zones traverse a rod or charge of a semiconduc-
tor or other substance.
zone refming. A procedure for purifying materials in
which a narrow molten zone is moved slowly along the
length of a specimen in such a manner that impurities
are retained in and moved along with the molten mate-
rial to the end of the specimen where they are collected
and removed by severing; the process may be repeated
until the desired degree of purity is attained.
ZTA. Abbreviation for zirconia-toughened alumina; a
composite consisting of an alumina matrix and a disper-
sion of partially stabilized tetragonal zirconia.
zwitterion. An ion that carries both a positive and nega-
tive charge.
 Appendix

Table A.I. Basic SI Units

Parameter Unit Abbreviation

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Table A.2. Prefixes for Units of Measure

Factor Prefix Factor Prefix

10 18 exa (E) 10- 1 deci (d)

10 15 peta (P) 10- 2 centi (c)
10 12 tera (T) 10- 3 milli (m)
109 giga (G) 10- 6 micro (j.L)
106 mega (M) 10- 9 nano (n)
103 kilo (k) 10- 12 pico (p)
102 hecto (h) 10- 15 femto (f)
10 1 deka (da) 10- 18 alto (a)

365
APPENDIX 366

Table A.3. Acceptable Metric SI Units

Parameter Acceptable unit(s) and abbreviation Accepted alternate

Length meter (m)

Mass kilogram (kg) gram (g)
metric ton (t)
Volume cubic meter (m3) liter (L)
Force newton (N)
Pressure or stress pascal (Pa)
Density kilograms/cubic meter grams/cubic centimeter
(kg/m3 ) (glcm3)
Energy joule (1)
Power watt (W)
Time second (s) year (yr)
day (d)
hour (h)
minute (min)
Amount of substance mole (mol)
Plane angle radian (rad) degree e)
minute (')
second (")
Solid angle steradian (sr)
Temperature kelvin (K) degree Celsius eC)
Thermal conductivity watts/meter-kelvin
(W/m'K)
Entropy joule/kelvin (I/K)
Specific heat joulelkilogram-kelvin
(Ilkg'K)
Permeability darcy (D)
(porous material)
Frequency hertz (Hz)
Electric current ampere (A)
Voltage* volt (V)
Electrical resistance ohm (n)
Quantity electricity coulomb (C)
Capacitance farad (F)
Conductance siemens (S)
Inductance henry (H)
Magnetic flux weber (Wb)
Magnetic flux density tesla (T)
Luminous intensity candela (cd)
Luminous flux lumen (1m)
Illuminance lux (Ix)
Radioactivity becquerel (8q) curie (Ci)
Absorbed dose gray (Gy) rad (rad)

*Also electric potential, electromotive force.

 367 APPENDIX

Table AA. Conversion from English/American to Metric Units

Parameter From Multiply by To get

Length inch 2.54 x 10- 2*

foot 0.3048*
yard 0.9144*
mile 1.6093 x 103
Area inch2 6.4516 x 10-4 * m2
foot 2 9.2903 x 10- 2
yard2 0.83613
acre 4.0469 x 103
mile2 2.5900 x 106
Volume inch3 1.6387 x 10- 5 m3
foot 3 2.8317 x 10- 2
yard3 0.76455
liquid quart (U.S.) 9.4635 x 10-4
liquid gallon (U.S.) 3.7854 x 10-3
barrel (oil) 1.5899
Mass pound 0.45360 kg
ounce 2.8350 x 10- 2
ton 9.0718 x 102
Density pound/inch3 2.7680 x 104 kg/m3
pound/foot3 16.018
g/cm3 1000*
Speed footlsecond 0.3048* m1s
mile/hour 0.44704*
Acceleration footlsecond 2 0.3048* m1s 2
inchlsecond2 2.54 x 10- 2*
Force poundal 0.13825 N
pound force 4.4482
dyne 10- 5
Pressure, stress psi 6.8948 x 103 Pa or N/m2
dyne/cm2 0.1*
pound/foot2 47.880
torr 1.3332 x 102
Energy Btu 1.0544 x 103 J
calorie 4.184*
erg 1.0 x 10- 7 *
kilowatt hour 3.60 x 106*
Power Btu/second 1.0544 x 103 W
Btu/hour 0.29288
calorie/second 4.184*
horsepower 7.4570 x 102
Heat capacity cal/(g 0c) 4.184 x 103* J/(kg·K)
Btu/(lb OF) 4.184 x 103*
Thermal conductivity Btu in.l(h ft 2 OF) 0.14413 W/(m·K)
cal/(s cm 0c) 4.184 x 102*
Btu/(h ft OF) 1.7296
Viscosity centipoise 10- 3* N·s/m2
Angle degree I. 7453 x 10- 2 rad
minute 2.9089 x 10- 4
second 4.8481 x 10- 6

*These factors are exact; others to five digits.

APPENDIX 368

Table A.5. Conversion from Metric to English/American Units

Parameter From Multiply by To get

Length m 39.370 inch

3.2808 foot
6.2137 x 10-4 mile
Area m2 1.5500 x 103 inch2
10.764 foot2
3.8610 x 10- 7 mile2
Volume m3 6.1024 x 104 inch3
35.315 foot3
1.0567 x 103 liquid quart (u. S.)
2.0288 X 105 teaspoon
Mass kg 2.2046 pound
1.1023 x 10- 3 ton
Density kg/m3 3.6127 x 10- 5 pound/inch3
6.2428 x 10- 2 pound/foot3
I x 10- 3* g/cm3
Speed mls 3.2808 footlsecond
2.2369 milelhour
Acceleration mls2 3.2808 footlsecond 2
Force N 0.22481 pound force
7.2330 poundal
IOS* dyne
Pressure, stress Pa or N/m2 1.4504 x 10-4 psi
10* dyne/cm2
2.0885 x 10-2 pound/foot2
7.5006 x 10- 3 torr
Energy J 9.4845 x 10-4 Btu
0.23901 calorie
107* erg
2.7778 x 10- 7 kilowatt hour
Power W 9.4845 x 10- 4 Btu/second
3.4144 Btu/hour
0.23901 calorie/second
1.3410 x 10- 3 horsepower
Heat capacity J/(kg·K) 2.901 x 10-4 call(g 0c)
2.3901 x 10-4 Btu/(lb OF)
Thermal conductivity W/(m·K) or J/(s·m·K) 6.9380 Btu in./(h ft 2 OF)
2.3901 x 10-9 call(s cm °C)
0.57816 Btu/(h ft OF)
Viscosity N·s/m2 1000* centipoise
Angle rad 57.296 degree
3.4377 x 103 minute
2.0626 x lOS second

*These factors are exact; others to five digits.

 369 APPENDIX

Table A.6. Capacitor Color Code

Capacitance pF

Ring (1) Ring (2) + (3) Ring (4) Ring (5)

Temperature 1st + 2nd

coefficient significant figures Multiplier Tolerance

>10 pf <10 pf

Color ppmrC Color Value Color x Color ±% ±%

Black 0 Black 0 Black I Black 20 2

Brown -30 Brown I Brown 10 Brown I 0.1

Red -80 Red 2 Red 100 Red 2

Orange -150 Orange 3 Orange 1000 Green 5 0.5

Yellow -220 Yellow 4 Gray 0.01 Gray 0.25

Green -330 Green 5 White 0.1 White 10 I

Blue -470 Blue 6

Violet -750 Violet 7

Gray +30 Gray 8

White +500 White 9

-111111~
APPENDIX 370

Table A.7. Resistor Color Code

Ring (I) + (2)

First + second Ring (3) Ring (4)
significant figures Multiplier Tolerance

Color Value Color x Color %

Black 0 Black No color 20

Brown I Brown 10 Black 20
Red 2 Red 102 Silver 10
Orange 3 Orange 103 Gold 5
Yellow 4 Yellow 1()4 White 10
Green 5 Green 105 Green 5
Blue 6 Blue 106
Violet 7 Violet 107
Gray 8 Silver 0.01
White 9 Gold 0.1
Gray 0.01
White 0.01

-llill r-
 371 APPENDIX

Table A.S. Chemical Elements

Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic
Element Symbol number weight Element Symbol number weight

actinium Ac 89 227(?) mercury Hg 80 200.59

aluminum Al 13 26.98 molybdenum Mo 42 95.94
americum Am 95 243.13 neodymium Nd 60 144.24
antimony Sb 51 121.75 neon Ne 10 20.18
argon Ar 18 39.95 neptunium Np 93 237.00
arsenic As 33 74.92 nickel Ni 28 58.71
astatine At 85 2100) niobium Nb 41 92.91
barium Ba 56 137.34 nitrogen N 7 14.01
berkelium Bk 97 248(?) nobelium No 102 255(?)
beryllium Be 4 9.01 osmium Os 76 190.20
bismuth Bi 83 208.98 oxygen 0 8 16.0
boron B 5 10.81 palladium Pd 46 106.40
bromine Br 35 76.91 phosphorus P 15 30.97
cadmium Cd 48 112.40 platinum PI 78 195.09
calcium Ca 20 40.08 plutonium Pu 94 239.05
californium Cf 98 251(?) polonium Po 84 210.05
carbon C 6 12.01 potassium K 19 39.10
cerium Ce 58 140.12 praseodymium Pr 59 140.91
cesium Cs 55 132.91 promethium Pm 61 145(?)
chlorine CI 17 35.45 protactinium Pa 91 231.10
chromium Cr 24 52.00 radium Ra 88 226.00
cobalt Co 27 58.93 radon Rn 86 222.00
copper Cu 29 63.55 rhenium Re 75 186.20
curium Cm 96 247(?) rhodium Rh 45 102.91
dysporosium Dy 66 162.50 rubidium Rb 37 85.47
einsteinium Es 99 252(?) ruthenium Ru 44 101.07
erbium Er 68 167.26 samarium Sm 62 150.35
europium Eu 63 151.96 scandium Sc 21 44.96
fermium Fm 100 257(?) selenium Se 34 78.96
fluorine F 9 19.00 silicon Si 14 28.09
francium Fr 87 223(?) silver Ag 47 107.87
gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 sodium Na 11 22.99
gallium Ga 31 69.72 strontium Sr 38 87.62
germanium Ge 32 72.59 sulfur S 16 32.06
gold Au 79 196.97 tantalum Ta 73 180.95
hafnium Hf 72 178.49 technetium Tc 43 97(?)
helium He 2 4.00 tellurium Te 52 127.60
holmium Ho 67 164.93 terbium Tb 65 158.92
hydrogen H 1 1.01 thallium Tl 81 204.37
indium In 49 114.82 thorium Th 90 232.04
iodine I 53 126.90 thulium Tm 69 168.93
iridium Ir 77 192.20 tin Sn 50 118.69
iron Fe 26 55.85 titanium Ti 22 47.90
krypton Kr 36 83.80 tungsten W 74 183.85
lanthanum La 57 138.91 uranium U 92 238.03
lawrencium Lr 103 256(?) vanadium V 23 50.94
lead Pb 82 207.19 xenon Xe 54 131.30
lithium Li 3 6.94 ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
lutetium Lu 71 174.97 yttrium Y 39 88.90
magnesium Mg 12 24.31 zinc Zn 30 65.37
manganese Mn 25 54.94 zirconium Zr 40 91.22
mendelevium Md 101 258(?)
APPENDIX 372

Table A.9. Temperature-Conversion Table*

C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
F F F F F F F F F F
-200 -328 -346 -364 -382 -400 -418 -436 -454
-100 -148 -166 -184 -202 -220 -238 -256 -274 -292 -310
- 0 + 32 + 14 - 4 - 22 - 40 - 58 - 76 - 94 -112 -130
0 32 50 68 86 104 122 140 158 176 194 °C of

100 212 230 248 266 284 302 320 338 356 374 1 1.8
200 392 410 428 446 464 482 500 518 536 554 2 3.6
300 572 590 608 626 644 662 680 698 716 734 3 5.4
400 752 770 788 806 824 842 860 878 896 914 4 7.2
500 932 950 968 986 1004 1022 1040 1058 1076 1094 5 9.0
600 1112 1130 1148 1166 1184 1202 1220 1238 1256 1274 6 10.8
700 1292 1310 1328 1346 1364 1382 1400 1418 1436 1454 7 12.6
800 1472 1490 1508 1526 1544 1562 1580 1598 1616 1634 8 14.4
900 1652 1670 1688 1706 1724 1742 1760 1778 1796 1814 9 16.2
10 18.0
1000 1832 1850 1868 1886 1904 1922 1940 1958 1976 1994
1100 2012 2030 2048 2066 2084 2102 2120 2138 2156 2174
1200 2192 2210 2228 2246 2264 2282 2300 2318 2336 2354 OF °C
1300 2372 2390 2408 2426 2444 2462 2480 2498 2516 2534
1400 2552 2570 2588 2606 2624 2642 2660 2678 2696 2714 1 0.56
1500 2732 2750 2768 2786 2804 2822 2840 2858 2876 2894 2 1.11
1600 2912 2930 2948 2966 2984 3002 3020 3038 3056 3074 3 1.67
1700 3092 3110 3128 3146 3164 3182 3200 3218 3236 3254 4 2.22
1800 3272 3290 3308 3326 3344 3362 3380 3398 3416 3434 5 2.78
1900 3452 3470 3488 3506 3524 3542 3560 3578 3596 3614 6 3.33
7 3.89
2000 3632 3650 3668 3686 3704 3722 3740 3758 3776 3794 8 4.44
2100 3812 3830 3848 3866 3884 3902 3920 3938 3956 3974 9 5.00
2200 3992 4010 4028 4046 4064 4082 4100 4118 4136 4154 10 5.56
2300 4172 4190 4208 4226 4244 4262 4280 4298 4316 4334 11 6.11
2400 4352 4370 4388 4406 4424 4442 4460 4478 4496 4514 12 6.67
2500 4532 4550 4568 4586 4604 4622 4640 4658 4676 4694 13 7.22
2600 4712 4730 4748 4766 4784 4802 4820 4838 4856 4874 14 7.78
2700 4892 4910 4928 4946 4964 4982 5000 5018 5036 5054 15 8.33
2800 5072 5090 5108 5126 5144 5162 5180 5198 5216 5234 16 8.89
2900 5252 5270 5288 5306 5324 5342 5360 5378 5396 5414 17 9.44
18 10.00
3000 5432 5450 5468 5486 5504 5522 5540 5558 5576 5594
3100 5612 5630 5648 5666 5684 5702 5720 5738 5756 5774
3200 5792 5810 5828 5846 5864 5882 5900 5918 5936 5954
3300 5972 5990 6008 6026 6044 6062 6080 6098 6116 6134
3400 6152 6170 6188 6206 6224 6242 6260 6278 6296 6314
3500 6332 6350 6368 6386 6404 6422 6440 6458 6476 6494
3600 6512 6530 6548 6566 6584 6602 6620 6638 6656 6674
3700 6692 6710 6728 6746 6764 6782 6800 6818 6836 6854
3800 6872 6890 6908 6926 6944 6962 6980 6998 7016 7034
3900 7052 7070 7088 7106 7124 7142 7160 7178 7196 7214
*Dr. L. Waldo, Metallurigcal and Chemical Engineering, March, 1910.
Examples: 1648°C = 2984°F + 14.4°F = 2998°F
3267°F = 1790°C + 7.22°C = 1797°C
 373 APPENDIX

Table A.W. Weights and Measures:

Metric System
Weight
1000 grams = 1 kilogram (kg)
100 grams = 1 hectogram (hg)
10 grams = 1 dekagram (dag)
1 gram = 1 gram (g)
0.1 gram 1 decigram (dg)
0.01 gram = 1 centigram (cg)
0.001 gram = 1 milligram (mg)

Length
1000 meters = 1 kilometer (km)
100 meters = 1 hectometer (hm)
10 meters = 1 dekameter (dam)
1 meter = 1 meter (m)
0.1 meter 1 decimeter (dm)
0.01 meter 1 centimeter (cm)
0.001 meter 1 millimeter (mm)

Capacity (liquid)
1000 liters = 1 kiloliter (kl)
100 liters = 1 hectoliter (hi)
10 liters = 1 dekaliter (dal)
1 liter = 1 liter (I)
0.1 liter = 1 deciliter (dl)
0.01 liter = I centiliter (cl)
0.001 liter = I cubic centimeter (cm3)
APPENDIX 374

Table A.ll.Weights and Measures:

United States System
Weight
(Avoirdupois)
1 long ton = 2240 pounds (lb)
1 short ton = 2000 pounds
1 pound = 16 ounces (oz) = 7000 grains
1 ounce = 437.5 grains (gr)
1 grain

(Troy)
1 pound (lb) = 12 ounces
1 ounce (oz) = 20 pennyweight
1 pennyweight (dwt) = 24 grains
1 grain
1 avoirdupois pound = 1.21528 troy pounds
= 14.583 troy ounces

Length
1 inch (in)
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches
1 yard (yd) = 36 inches
1 rod (rd) = 198 inches = 16.5 feet
1 chain (ch) = 792 inches = 66 feet
1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet = 1760 yards

Capacity (liquid)
1 fluid ounce (fl oz)
1 pint (pt) = 16 fluid ounces
1 quart (qt) = 2 pints
1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts
 375 APPENDIX

Table A.12. Weights and Measures:

Comparison of the Metric and U.S. Systems
Weight relations
(Avoirdupois)
II
1 gram 0.35274 ounce (avoir.)
1 kilogram 35.274 ounces
2.2046 pounds
1 metric ton 2204.62 pounds
1. 10231 short tons
0.984206 long ton
(Troy)
1 gram 0.032151 ounce (troy)
1 kilogram 32.151 ounces
2.6792 pounds
(Avoirdupois)
1 ounce (avoir.) 28.3495 grams
1 pound 453.5924 grams
1 short ton 907.185 kilograms
1 long ton 1016.647 kilograms
(Troy)
1 ounce (troy) = 31.1 035 grams
1 pound = 373.2418 grams
To convert units of one system into those of the other, multiply the
number of units by the equivalent opposite that unit in column II.
For example: To convert 3.5 kilograms into avoirdupois ounces,
multiply 3.5 by 35.274 (3.5 x 35.274 = 123.46 ounces).
Length
II II
1 millimeter = 0.03937 inch 1 inch 2.5400 centimeters
1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch 1 foot 30.480 centimeters
1 meter 39.37 inches 0.3048 meter
3.2808 feet 1 yard = 91.440 centimeters
1.09361 yards 0.9144 meter
To convert units of one system into those of the other, multiply the
number of units by the equivalent opposite that unit in column II.
For example: To convert 8.12 centimeters into inches, multiply 8.12
by 0.3937 (8.12 x 0.3937 = 3.197 inches).
APPENDIX 376

Table A.13. Weights and Measures: Comparison

of the Metric and U.S. Systems (continued)

Capacity (liquid measure)

II
1 liter 33.815 fluid ounces
2. 1134 pints
1.0567 quarts
0.26418 gallon
1 gallon = 3.7853 liters
1 quart 0.9463 liter
1 pint 0.47317 liter
1 ounce 29.5729 cubic centimeters
To convert units of one system into those of the other,
multiply the number of units by the equivalent opposite that
unit in column II.
Volume
1 cubic centimeter = 0.0616234 cubic inch
1 cubic meter 35.3145 cubic feet
1. 30794 cubic yards
1 cubic inch 16.38716 cubic centimeters
1 cubic foot 0.028317 cubic meter
1 cubic yard 0.76456 cubic meter
Area
1 square millimeter 0.00155 square inch
1 square centimeter 0.15501 square inch
1 square meter 1550.1 square inches
10.7643 square feet
1. 19603 square yards
1 square foot 929.034 square centimeters
1 square yard 0.836131 square meter
 377 APPENDIX

Table A.l4. Conversion Table* for Volumes and Weights

Multiply by

To convert from To in 3 To ft 3 To yd 3 To fl oz To pint To quart To gallon To grain

in 3 1.00000 .0 35787 .042143 .554112 .034632 .017316 .004329 252.891

ft 3 1728.00 1.00000 .037037 957.505 59.8442 29.9221 7.48052 436996
yd 3 46656.0 27.0000 1.00000 25852.6 1615.79 807.896 201.974 1179903
fl oz 1.80469 .001044 .043868 1.00000 .062500 .031250 .007813 456.390
Pint 28.8750 .016710 .0 36189 16.0000 1.00000 .500000 .125000 7302.23
Quart 57.7500 .033420 .001238 32.0000 2.00000 1.00000 .250000 1460.45
Gallon 231.000 .133681 .004951 128.000 8.00000 4.00000 1.00000 58417.9
Grain .003954 .052288 .0 78475 .002191 .0 3 1369 .04 6850 .04 1712 1.00000
oz troy 1.89805 .001098 .044068 1.05173 .065733 .032867 .008217 480.000
oz av 1.72999 .001001 .043708 .958608 .059913 .029957 .007489 437.500
Ib troy 22.7766 .013181 .034882 12.6208 .788800 .394400 .098600 5760.00
Ib av 27.6799 .016018 .035933 15.3378 .958611 .479306 .119826 7000.00
cm3 or gram .061024 .04 3531 .05 1308 .033814 .002113 .001057 .0 32642 15.4323
Liter or kg 61.0237 .035315 .001308 33.8140 2.11337 1.05669 .264172 15432.3
m3 61023.7 35.3146 1.30795 33814.0 2113.37 1056.69 264.172 1543203

Multiply by

To convert from To oz troy To oz av To Ib troy To Ib av To cm3 or g To lit or kg To m 3

in 3 .526857 .578037 .043905 .036127 16.3871 .016387 .04 1639

ft 3 910.408 998.848 75.8674 62.4280 28316.9 28.3169 .028317
yd 3 24581.0 26968.9 2048.42 1685.56 764556 764.556 .764556
fl oz .950813 1.04318 .079234 .065199 29.5736 .029573 .04 2957
Pint 15.2130 16.6908 1.26775 1.04318 473.177 .473177 .0 34732
Quart 30.4260 33.3816 2.53550 2.08635 946.354 .946354 .039463
Gallon 121.704 133.527 10.1420 8.34541 3785.42 3.78542 .003785
Grain .002083 .002286 .03 1736 .0 3 1428 .064799 .046479 .076479
oz troy 1.00000 1.09714 .083333 .068571 31.1035 .031104 .04 3110
oz av .911457 1.00000 .075955 .062500 28.3495 .028350 .04 2835
1b troy 12.0000 13.1657 1.00000 .822857 373.242 .373242 .03 3732
Ib av 14.5833 16.0000 1.21528 1.00000 453.593 .453593 .0 34536
cm3 or gram .032151 .035274 .002679 .002205 1.00000 .001000 .000001
Liter or kg 32.1507 35.2739 2.67923 2.20462 1000.00 1.00000 .001000
m3 32150.7 35273.9 2679.23 2204.62 1000000 1000.00 1.00000

*Olsen: Van Nostrand's Chemical Annual, 1926.

Note: The small subnumeral following a zero indicates that the zero is to be taken that number of times; for example,
0.0 31428 is equivalent to 0.0001428.
APPENDIX 378

Table A.15. End Points of Orton Pyrometric Cones*

End point End point End point End point
Cone No. large cone, °C small cone, °C Cone No. large cone, °C small cone, °C
022 585 10 1285 1330t
021 602 643 t 11 1294 1336t
020 625 666 t 12 1306 1355 t
019 668 723 t 13 1321 1349t
018 696 752 t 14 1388 1398+
017 727 784 t 15 1424 1430+
016 764 825 t 16 1455 1491+
015 790 843 t 17 1477 1512+
014 834 18 1500 1522+
013 869 19 1520 1541+
012 876 20 1542 1564+
011 886 23 1586 1605§
010 887 919 t 26 1589 1621§
09 915 955 t 27 1614 1640§
08 945 983 t 28 1614 1646§
07 973 1008 t 29 1624 1659§
06 991 1023 t 30 1636 1665§
05 1031 1062+ 31 1661 1683§
04 1050 1098 t 31 Y2 1699§
03 1086 1131 t 32 1706 1717§
02 1101 1148 t 32Y2 1718 1724§
01 1117 1178 t 33 1732 1743§
1 1136 1179 t 34 1757 1763§
2 1142 1179t 35 1784 1785§
3 1152 1197 t 36 1798 1804§
4 1168 1209t 37 1820§
5 1177 1221t 38 1850~
6 1201 1255 t 39 1865~
7 1215 1264t 40 1885~
8 1236 1300t 41 1970~
9 1260 1317 t 42 2015~

*National Bureau of Standards, 1956.

tSmall uncalcined cones, heated in air at 60°C/h rise.
+P.C.E. cones heated to 1200°C in 1 h, and then at 300°C/h rate.
§P.C.E. cones heated to 1400°C in 1 h, and then at 150°C/h rate.
~P.C.E. cones heated at 600°C/h in combustion furnace. All large cones heated at a rate of 60°C/h.
 379 APPENDIX

Table A.16. Some Factors for Calculating Properties of Glass Composition

Thermal expansionHeat Tensile Crushing

conduc- Density strength strength Specific
Compo- M.&H. W&S. E.&T. F.&P. tivity W&S. W.&S. Elasticity Hardness gravity
sition x 107 x 107 X 107 X 107 P.&F. W&S. Baillie kg/mm2 kg/mm2 C.&T. Auerbach H.&C.

Si0 2 0.8 0.8 0.15 0.0220 2.3 2.24 0.09 1.23 40 +3.32 0.001913
AI 20 3 5.0 5.0 0.42 0.0220 4.1 2.75 0.05 1.0 120 +10.1
B20 3 0.1 0.1 -1.98 0.0160 1.9 3.00 0.065 0.90 +0.75 0.002272

Na20 10.0 10.0 12.96 12.5 0.0160 2.6 3.20 0.02 0.52 110 -2.65 0.002674
KzO 8.5 8.5 11.7 0.0010 2.8 3.20 0.01 0.05 +3.9 0.001860
PbO 4.2 3.0 3.18 0.0080 9.6 10.30 0.025 0.48 +1.45 0.000512
ZnO 2.1 1.8 2.1 1.85 0.0160 5.9 5.94 0.15 0.6 +7.1 0.001245
CaO 5.0 5.0 4.89 0.0320 3.3 4.30 0.20 0.20 240 -6.3 0.001903
MgO 0.1 0.1 1.35 3.8 3.25 0.01 1.1 300 0.002439
BaO 3.0 3.0 4.2 5.7 0.0110 7.0 7.20 0.05 0.65 + 1.95 0.000673

As 20 S 2.0 2.0 4.1 2.90 0.03 1.00 0.001276

PzO s 2.0 2.0 0.0160 2.55 0.075 0.76 +1.32 0.001903
SbzOs 3.6
Sn0 2 2.0
Ti02 4.1
zr02 2.1

Na3AIF6 7.4
NaF 7.4
AIF3 4.4
CaF2 2.5

Cr20 3 5.1
CoO 4.4
CuO 2.2
Fez03 4.0
NiO 4.0
Mn02 2.2

M.&H.-Mayer and Havas: Sprechsaal42, 497 (1909), 44, 188, 207, 220 (1911).
W&S.-Winkelmann and Schott: Ann. Phys. Chem. 51, 730, 735 (1894).
E.&T.-English and Turner: J. Soc. Glass Technol. 4, 115 (1920),5, 121 (1921); J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 12,760 (1929).
F.&P'-Fetterolf and Parmelee: J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 12, 214 (1929).
P.&F.-Paalborn and Focke: lena Glass, p. 212.
-Baillie: J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 40, 141 (1921).
C.&T.-Clark and Thrner: J. Soc. Glass Technol. 3, 260 (1919).
H.&C.-Hodkin and Cousen: Glass Technology, Van Nostrand, 1925.
-Auerbach: Glass Technology, Van Nostrand, 1925.
APPENDIX 380

Table A.17. Ceramic Colors*t

Fired under Fired under
Color oxidizing conditions reducing conditions

White Aluminum oxide

Antimony oxide
Arsenic oxide
Calcium borate
Cerium compounds
Magnesium carbonate
Magnesium oxide
Silver
Tin oxide
Titanium dioxide
Zinc oxide
Zirconium dioxide

Black Chrome ore + pyrolusite + cobalt oxide Bismuth salts

Chromium Carbides
Cobalt Carbon
Iridium compounds Iridium sesquioxide
Iron oxides Lead salts
Manganese oxides Molybdenum compounds
Nickel oxides Nickel oxide
Pyrolusite Sulfides
Uranium oxide + copper oxide Uranium oxide

Gray Antimony gray Antimony (metallic)

Iridium oxide Carbon compounds
Osmium oxide Chromium
Palladium oxide Cobalt
Platinum salts Copper
Rhodium oxide Manganese
Ruthenium oxide Molybdenum compounds
Nickel compounds
Stannous oxide
Uranium
Vanadium salts

Silver Palladium
Platinum
Silver (metallic)

Red Bismuth uranate Copper salts

Cadmium sulfide + cadmium selenide + barites
Iron oxide, iron salts
Lead chromate (basic)
Lead uranate
Manganese oxide
Manganese pink
Neodymium salts
Purple of Cassius
Sodium diuranate

Pink Chrome-tin combinations

 381 APPENDIX

Table A.17. (Continued)

Fired under Fired under
Color oxidizing conditions reducing conditions

Orange Bismuth uranate

Cadmium sulfide and selenide
Chrome iron ore
Iron oxide + chromates
Iron titanate
Lead chromate (basic)
Lead uranate
Manganese oxide + titanates
Manganese tungstate
Sodium diuranate
Uranium titanate

Gold Metallic gold

Yellow Barium chromate Praseodymium salts

Bismuth salts Vanadium stannate
Cadmium sulfide
Ceric oxide
Gold salts
Iron oxide (with litharge)
Lead chromate
Lead oxide + antimony oxide
Manganese dioxide
Molybdenum salts
Nickel oxide
Praseodymium salts
Pyrolusite
Silver salts
Sodium diuranate
Vanadium stannate
Zinc chromate
Green (sea) Cobalt antimonate Chromic oxide
Copper compounds (lead glaze) Cobalt titanate
Nickel-zinc oxides

Green (leaf) Chromic oxide Cobalt titanate

Cobalt titanate Praseodymium salts
Copper salts
Nickel oxide + zinc oxide
Praseodymium salts

Blue (ice) Copper compounds Titanium dioxide (rutile)

Nickel oxide + zinc oxide

Blue (deep) Cobalt compounds Titanium dioxide (rutile)

Neodymium compounds Vanadium compounds
Violet Nickel oxide Copper (colloical metal)
Pyrolusite Titanium dioxide (rutile)
Purple of Cassius

*Wolf, Josef: WeJche Grundstoffe und ihre Verbindungen werden als Farbemittel in der Ton-
waren-, Glas-, und Emailerzeugung Verwendet, Sprechsaal70, 48, 49, 50, 601, 612, 625 (1937).
tSinger, Felix, and Singer, Sonja: Industrial Ceramics, Chemical Publishing Co., New York,
1963.
APPENDIX 382

Table A.I8. Weight and Approximate Thickness of Sheet Steel*

United States Standard Gauge for Sheet and Plate Steel
Number Equivalent thickness Approximate
of Weight per square foot of steel in decimal thickness in
gauge in pounds avoirdupois parts of an inch fractions of an inch

0000000 20.0 0.4900 1j2

000000 18.75 0.4594 15/32

00000 17.50 0.4288 7/16

0000 16.25 0.3981 13/32

000 15.00 0.3675 'Is

00 13.75 0.3369 11j32

0 12.50 0.3063 5/16

11.25 0.2757 9/32

2 10.625 0.2604 17/64

3 10.0 0.2451 1j4

4 9.375 0.2298 15/64

5 8.75 0.2145 7/32

6 8.125 0.1991 13/64

7 7.50 0.1838 3/16

8 6.875 0.1685 11j64

9 6.25 0.1532 5j32

10 5.625 0.1379 9/64

11 5.0 0.1225 1j8

12 4.375 0.1072 7/64

13 3.75 0.0919 3/32

14 3.125 0.0766 %4
15 2.183 0.0689 9/128

16 2.50 0.0613 1/16

17 2.25 0.0551 9;\60

18 2.00 0.0490 1/20

19 1.75 0.0429 7;\60

20 1.50 0.0368 'Iso

21 1.375 0.0337 11/320

22 1.25 0.0306 \132

23 1.125 0.0276 %20

24 1.00 0.0245 \40

25 0.875 0.0214 \/320

26 0.75 0.0184 3/160

27 0.6875 0.0169 11j640

28 0.625 0.0153 1j64

29 0.5625 0.0138 %40

30 0.50 0.0123 Vso

*Andrews: Enamels, The Twin City Printing Co., 1935.

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