Designing Chilled Water Systems: Boilers, Chillers

02/06/2019 Designing chilled water systems - Consulting - Specifying Engineer
BOILERS, CHILLERS
Designing chilled water systems

Typically used for cooling and dehumidifying a building’s air, chilled water (CHW)
systems circulate it throughout a building or campus complex. CHW systems also
may be used for removing process or other heating loads.
BY RANDY SCHRECENGOST, PE, CEM, STANLEY CONSULTANTS, AUSTIN, TEXAS
SEPTEMBER 16, 2014
Learning objectives:
1. Understand the codes and standards that guide CHW system design and
energy e ciency requirements.
2. Learn design basics for CHW systems to meet a distribution loop’s load
requirements.
3. Understand key equipment and its integration to improve energy e ciency.
Regardless of whether the design is for a new chilled water (CHW) system or a modi cation to an
existing system, an early review of codes, standards, and regulations is necessary to allow for an
expedient design and avoid con icts that will cost time and money to resolve. Local, state, and federal
codes and regulations will dictate permitting requirements that affect the location of buildings and
equipment (central plants, cooling towers, buried piping systems), fuel handling and storage,
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Groups such as ASHRAE, Air Conditioning, Heating, and

Refrigeration Institute (AHRI), the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and NFPA all have
standards to review for systems, equipment, and testing
requirements.
A good primary resource for most engineers today is

ASHRAE. ASHRAE’s various technical committees write
standards and guidelines to establish consensus for such
items as: methods of testing and classi cation, design,
protocol, and ratings for systems and equipment
components of those systems. These consensus
standards and guidelines are developed by industry leaders
with a wide variety of practical and technical/research
experience, and published to de ne minimum values or to
encourage acceptable and enhanced performance.
ASHRAE has numerous technical sources of information including a series of four handbooks that are
updated every 4 years. Two of these handbooks, Fundamentals – 2013 and HVAC Systems and
Equipment – 2012, contain several chapters lled with information and basic criteria needed to design
CHW systems. Each handbook has an entire chapter dedicated to listing “Selected Codes and Standards
Published by Various Societies and Associations” relevant to the topics covered within the handbooks.
All of the related building system codes—Building O cials Code Administrators International (BOCA) and
International Building Code (IBC )—and system components such as piping (ASME B31), ductwork
(SMACNA), motors and generators (IEEE, NEMA, UL), and other codes and standards are listed for
reference. This is very valuable for any designer or engineer beginning a new project, as these resources
are updated every 3 or 4 years.
There are several major components within a CHW system, but chillers are machines lled with
refrigerants used in the exchange of heat to “create” and provide the cold water. When chillers are placed
in rooms or con ned spaces, the designer of the system must incorporate safety provisions to the
equipment operator and/or the public. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15-2013: Safety Standard for
Refrigeration Systems is the reference standard for “machinery rooms” that typically house the larger
equipment (i.e., chillers, pumps) necessary for a CHW system. This standard should be used in
conjunction with ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2013, Designation and Safety Classi cation of Refrigerants.
ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2013: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings is the
reference standard for energy e ciency. This standard illustrates minimum e ciency and control
systems requirements along with commissioning for building envelope, HVAC, power, lighting, and other
equipment, all of which is included in a CHW system design. In ASHRAE 90.1, Chapter 6 is where
designers will nd minimum energy e ciency requirements for HVAC and CHW system construction
with listings for component items such as water- and air-cooled chillers, piping system design ow rates,
insulation, and controls.
In addition, ASHRAE also published Guideline 22-2012: Instrumentation for Monitoring Central Chilled-
Water Plant E ciency, which helps designers better understand how to control CHW plants, and has
recently developed a District Cooling Guide – 2013 under the auspices of ASHRAE Technical Committee
6.2, District Energy, which does an excellent job of covering items mentioned later in this article.
What is a CHW system?
From the early years of HVAC design, the use of CHW to transfer heat from areas of higher loads (e.g.,
building loads at air handler coils, or industrial equipment loads at heat exchangers) to a condensing
water loop or a refrigeration system for heat rejection has been successful. In a very broad sense, a CHW
system consists of the following components:
A heat absorption component such as a chiller (or evaporator)

A compressor in a refrigerant cycle
A heat rejection component such as a cooling tower (or radiator)
CHW piping
Either condenser water (CW) piping (for a water-cooled system) or refrigerant based piping (for an
air-cooled or evaporative-cooled distribution system) to move the separate uid systems between
the respective components.
Each of the CHW and CW/refrigerant distribution systems will include various additional components
and devices such as a pump, a compressor, an expansion tank, air separators/air eliminators, water or
refrigerant treatment and ltration devices, isolation and control valves, and a controls system consisting
of numerous temperature, pressure, and ow rate metering and control devices. For chillers using air
cooling on the condenser side, there is no need for a condenser water loop including piping, cooling
tower, and pump. For this article, the uid systems discussed will be water only.
The CHW portion of the system circulates and ows between the chiller and the building loads through
pumping by the CHW pump (although dependent upon the system, usually referred to as the primary
pump), and can be operated as constant ow or variable ow. For water-cooled chillers, a condenser
water loop is necessary, and always operates when the chiller is energized to operate. This loop also
requires a condenser water pump to circulate the CW through the piping between the chiller and the
cooling tower or heat rejection device (radiator or closed circuit cooler). The CW system has traditionally
been a constant ow (CF) system, but recently designs have included variable ow (VF) in this system as
well. Any variable ow application (CHW or CW) increases the intricacy of the design, construction, and
operation of a system, but at times of low load and corresponding reduced ow rate requirement, may
offer signi cant pump energy savings. Decisions regarding constant and variable system ows dictate
designs typically referred to as primary/secondary (PS) and variable primary (VP) system designs.
Selecting a CF versus a VF system requires many

considerations during the design effort. As with any design,
the designers of a CHW system should consider various
options and equipment through discussions with the
owner, and recommend one or more of these options to
meet the project goals and performance requirements.
Among the many important items to consider regarding
these system designs are any system constructability and
budgetary constraints, system operability, operations and
maintenance costs, and energy consumption costs.
Depending on the size of the building and the related cooling loads necessary to cool and dehumidify the
building’s airstreams or other processes where some form of cooling is needed, the CHW system may
have more than one of the larger components mentioned (chillers, cooling towers, pumps), and may be
independent from nearby surrounding buildings. Or the building may have some combination of CHW
distribution piping systems connected to a larger thermal utility network that serves several buildings
simultaneously from a large, remote central plant arrangement.
CHW system types
The rst step in designing any e cient, effective HVAC system for a building is to perform an accurate
building load calculation and energy model. The 2013 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals Chapters 18
and 19, and ASHRAE 90.1 provide methods and guidelines for developing HVAC load calculations and
building energy modeling. The type of CHW system designed and installed and the amount of the CHW
required for these cooling loads will be a major component in the overall building energy usage. When
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designing new or retro tting existing CHW systems, the interaction between all building loads as related X
to outdoor air (OA) ventilation requirements, and the energy needed to condition that amount of air ow,
along with the internal building’s return air (RA) loads and any other process heat loads, should be part of
the system considerations so all the equipment can be sized and controlled properly to account for all the
energy impacts, including the energy transfer for hydronic system preheat or precool opportunities.
An independent, stand-alone single chiller system type is relatively easy to design and operate, but even
though the rst cost is less, this system is typically the least energy-e cient design for buildings. This is
because chillers are normally selected within a small percentage range of the calculated design process
loads of the building (or buildings) they serve. Based on a variety of research, and dependent on the
building loads throughout the day, the majority of the time the CHW system operates at part load and is
in the 45% to 60% range. The chiller operates at full capacity for only a small percentage of time.
Designers should select a chiller at a higher part load

e ciency to maximize energy savings based on the larger
run hours at part load. Review AHRI’s Standard 550/590:
Performance Rating of Water-Chilling and Heat Pump
Water-Heating Packages Using the Vapor Compression
Cycle for more details. Additionally, if the building’s cooling
requirements include any mission critical functions within
its structure, provisions for redundancy (N+1) must be
incorporated in the design. If a single chiller fails, or a
related single pump or cooling tower associated with the
chiller fails, the CHW system or all cooling capacity is lost.
Thus, many CHW systems have two or three redundant
equipment components installed. This provides some level
of backup and allows for more e cient operation at low-load time periods. There are exceptions with
some manufacturers who provide dual compressor chillers that can operate at a high-e ciency point at
50% capacity (one compressor), and also provide some redundancy for a chiller plant.
Figure 2 is a schematic that shows a building single-chiller CHW system. Figure 2 illustrates a similar
independent system, but where multiple components would be installed because the building, and the
cooling load, is larger or redundancy is required (N+1). In both single-chiller and multiple-chiller
arrangements, the CHW loop can be either constant ow or variable ow (which must remain above
manufacturer required minimum ows).
The use of two or more chillers with part load capacity will
provide more opportunities to improve the CHW system
part-load performance and help reduce energy
consumption, and can greatly assist in providing
redundancy in the design. These chillers can be designed
to operate in series or parallel modes. (Figure 5 is a parallel
chiller arrangement.)
Figure 6 shows a large 1450-ton chiller, which is one of

three in a parallel arrangement. The parallel arrangement is
more common with chillers that are typically the same type
and size, but is not mandatory. The chillers do not need to be sized individually to meet the building
capacity but can be operated together to do so. In this case, the CHW will ow in parallel paths through
both chillers and will generally experience similar pressure drops. In a series chiller arrangement, the
CHW ow will go through both chillers in series and the water pressure drop is additive. In both
arrangements, one or both chillers may be on variable speed drives (VSDs) and the CHW, and even the
condenser water, loop can be either constant ow or variable ow.
Finally, the building or buildings may not have any chillers or cooling towers, but only CHW distribution
piping systems connected to a larger thermal utility network from a remote CHW central plant (CP)
arrangement. Typically these central CHW plants
our Privacy serve
Policy multiple
for more buildings of various types ranging in
information.
function or use, size, construction materials, age, and

cooling loads. Some buildings may have more than one
CHW loop inside its walls. The building’s piping distribution
systems may or may not have a pump (typically identi ed
as a secondary or tertiary building pump depending on the
system) within its structure. The larger CHW central plant
that provides the buildings with CHW may have chillers in a
parallel or series arrangement, and may have pumps
(primary and/or secondary) located within the CP building.
Another term for this type of arrangement that is becoming

more common is a district cooling plant (DCP) that also
serves a localized campus, whether in a college or university setting, an industrial complex, or large urban
mixed-use site. The design of these DCPs must take into account the diversity of all loads throughout the
area they serve including when the different peak loads will occur. (See Figures 3 and 4 for schematic
arrangements of a larger central plant.)
CHW pumping schemes
Regardless of the CHW plant location, an overall campus

thermal utility master plan can provide the design options
for consideration and evaluation of pumping schemes for
circulating CHW. There are two common con gurations for
CHW plant pumping schemes that will work with the
selected CHW equipment to deliver the CHW to a building
or group of buildings:
1. Primary-secondary (PS)
2. Variable-primary (VP).
In the PS scheme, the primary CHW loop is typically constant volume ow while the secondary loop is
variable volume ow. There are still some older systems where the secondary loop is also constant
volume. This loop will have three-way valves located at some or all of the building loads to allow for
required minimum ow rates. However, these systems are commonly being replaced because the
technology and e ciencies of the chillers have increased, as have the energy costs associated with
operating the distribution system. The VP scheme, sometimes called direct-primary, can be either a
constant or a variable volume ow system. Again, because energy costs are so important, this loop is
usually variable ow with variable frequency drives (VFDs) on the primary pumps.
The designer should become aware of the various

advantages and disadvantages for either scheme, which
include: central plant operators’ familiarity with their
different operational modes, different size pump motor
requirements, different capital investment requirements for
infrastructure, and “low delta T syndrome.” See Figure 5 for
a schematic that shows a proposed PS CHW system;
Figure 6 is a schematic that shows a possible VP CHW
system.
Along with the discussion of pumping schemes, it is

important to understand the phenomenon known as low delta T syndrome, and its subsequent impact on
chiller plant capacity and energy usage.
CHW system design considerations
CHW systems are all designed for a differential

temperature or delta T between the CHW supply and return
water between the chiller and the building loads. This delta
T will affect building equipment (air handling or fan coil
units) coil sizes, distribution system pumping costs, and chiller sizing and costs with associated energy
costs required to produce the differential. A higher delta T usually means the costs will increase for the
chiller as it will affect the chiller evaporator log mean temperature difference (LMTD) and require longer
tubes or more chiller passes, which in turn increases chiller pressure drops that need to be overcome by
the pumps. Table 2 illustrates a distribution pumping cost relationship.
For the planned system, designers need to vary their

selections of CHW supply temperatures along with the
CHW delta T ranges to determine the best balance for
each. Selecting a chiller for a higher delta T may reduce
other equipment cost and energy use when compared to
the traditional 10 F delta T. At higher temperature
differentials of 12 to 18 F delta T, low supply water
temperatures (38 to 40 F), and variable ow with
modulating valves, a design strategy could reduce pump energy (lower ow) and piping installation cost
(smaller pipe sizes).
However, lower leaving water temperatures use more energy that may not be offset by perceived gains in
pumping and fan energy savings. Colder supply water means higher compressor horsepower costs. And
the selected delta T will also affect a building’s air handler coils regarding ow rates and supply air
temperatures. The distribution loop’s supply temperature should be set for the building’s temperature and
humidity control needs. The total annual system energy use must be considered for any of these options.
Low delta T syndrome
Low delta T syndrome occurs when a design CHW temperature range is not maintained. Every CHW
plant will experience low delta T at some point during its continued operation. This phenomenon causes
plant operators to run extra pumps and chillers to meet CHW load. This in turn reduces the plant’s cooling
output capacity and wastes energy. A CHW plant’s output capacity can be de ned by the following
equation for a water-only system:
Q (Btu/hr) = 500 x gpm x delta T
Because load is directly proportional to ow rate and delta

T, a change in delta T will require a change in ow rate for
the same load. A change in ow rate implies a change in
delta T for the same load. In a plant setting, if delta T is low,
at least three problems can occur: increased pump energy
usage, an increase in chiller energy usage, and an inability
to meet some cooling loads. Designers should research
and become familiar with this phenomenon but realize low
delta T is a symptom of problems on the load side at the
buildings and possible overpumping at the plant on the
CHW loop (see Table 3).
Hydraulic modeling
Some form of hydraulic modeling of a building or thermal

utility distribution CHW system should be completed for
any design because of the relationship of the volumetric ow rate to the pressures that will be
experienced
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(chillers, pumps, etc.) as well as the pressure class of all the distribution piping, ttings, and valves within
the system. These pressures will, in turn, be related to the selected pumping scheme. The typical system
delivering CHW from a chiller or the entire central plant is a closed loop hydronic system, and this means
that the starting point within the system is the same as the ending point within that system. For
reference, the typical condenser water system is considered an open loop, but it can be closed dependent
on the heat rejection equipment used.
Every component within the CHW system will affect the pressure of the CHW at any point and will: x the
pressure at a particular level, increase the pressure, or decrease the pressure. Expansion tanks within a
closed loop system will act as the point of constant pressure and be considered the reference pressure
for the system, and will also allow for the expansion or contraction of the CHW due to thermal and
volumetric changes in the closed system. The CHW pumps will increase pressure by raising the suction
pressure at the pump by the total dynamic head of the system.
The total dynamic head of the system is de ned as “equal to the total discharge head minus the total
suction head of the CHW pump typically expressed in feet of water.” All equipment within the system
(chillers, heat exchangers), and all piping, ttings, isolation and/or control valves, and any other
appurtenances will decrease the system pressure through the friction effects as the water passes
through the system.
System controls
Control sequences are a key element in achieving any energy management and savings goals. Most
chiller control sequences are straightforward and easy to use for the operation of one or more chillers
within a plant. All chillers have an internal sequence they use to run, and a series of safety sequences to
prevent inadvertent damage while starting or running. An overall control sequence can be simply
manually enabling the chiller or chillers to run as needed, although this could lead to wasted energy as
the chillers will run even when not needed, or automating the process through a BAS.
The control schemes for a CHW system usually vary with the size and complexity of the system, and
especially with the type of pumping scheme chosen. The system’s CHW ow can be controlled from
static pressure, which provides some reliability but has limited exibility for operational changes, and can
waste energy in over pumping. Or, CHW ow can be controlled from differential pressure using delta P at
the CHW plant, in the distribution system, and/or at the hydraulically most remote location. In addition,
there is typically some type of chiller staging sequence such as with load or amps (kilowatts) of the
motors, or some other strategy such as Btu metering and metering secondary CHW ow rates.
As mentioned earlier, ASHRAE has developed numerous sources of information for CHW systems that
can be used as resources for the designer. Furthermore, ASHRAE 90.1 requires various efforts such as
pump pressure optimization where pump control setpoints are varied due to control valve positions in the
system, and CHW temperature reset, which uses feedback from the building control valves and outside
air temperatures to reset the CHW supply temperature upward when available to reduce chiller loads. In
some cases, these efforts may be easy, particularly if the CHW system is relatively small and/or the
chiller plant is part of the building.
It is not as easy if the chiller plant is part of a campus environment, although decoupling the central plant
control from any building-level control would allow the plant to operate as it needs to while the buildings
all operate separately. A complete optimization of a plant must evaluate the e ciency of the entire CHW
system and operate all the individual components (chillers, cooling towers, pumps) at various levels to
optimize the overall CHW system operation.
Randy Schrecengost is a project manager/senior mechanical engineer with Stanley Consultants. He has
extensive experience in design and project and program management at all levels of engineering, energy
consulting, and facilities engineering. He is a member of the Consulting-Specifying Engineer editorial
advisory board.
References
1. ASHRAE Handbook – HVAC Systems and Equipment 2012

2. ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals 2013
3. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15-2013: Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems
4. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2013: Designation and Safety Classi cation of Refrigerants.
5. ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2013: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
6. ASHRAE Guideline 22-2012: Instrumentation for Monitoring Central Chilled-Water Plant E ciency
7. ASHRAE District Cooling Guide – 2013
8. McQuay International Chiller Plant Design, Application Guide 2002
9. ITT Fluid Technology Corporation, 1968, Primary Secondary Pumping Application Manual
10. ITT Fluid Technology Corporation, 1996, Large Chilled Water Systems Design Workshop Manual
11. “Chilled Water Plant Pumping Schemes,” James J. Nonnenmann, PE, Stanley Consultants Inc.
12. “Chilled Water System Hydraulics,” James J. Nonnenmann, PE, Stanley Consultants Inc.
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02/06/2019 Designing chilled water systems - Consulting - Specifying Engineer

Designing chilled water systems

3. Understand key equipment and its integration to improve energy e ciency.

Groups such as ASHRAE, Air Conditioning, Heating, and

A good primary resource for most engineers today is

What is a CHW system?

A heat absorption component such as a chiller (or evaporator)

Selecting a CF versus a VF system requires many

CHW system types

Designers should select a chiller at a higher part load

Figure 6 shows a large 1450-ton chiller, which is one of

function or use, size, construction materials, age, and

Another term for this type of arrangement that is becoming

CHW pumping schemes

Regardless of the CHW plant location, an overall campus

The designer should become aware of the various

Along with the discussion of pumping schemes, it is

CHW system design considerations

CHW systems are all designed for a differential

For the planned system, designers need to vary their

Low delta T syndrome

Q (Btu/hr) = 500 x gpm x delta T

Because load is directly proportional to ow rate and delta

Some form of hydraulic modeling of a building or thermal

1. ASHRAE Handbook – HVAC Systems and Equipment 2012

Codes and Standards

Fire, Life Safety

3010 Highland Parkway Suite 325

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