DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Surveying - II

- Lecture Notes

Prepared by,
Mr. K. Srinivasan. M.Tech.,
Assistant Professor,
Dept .of Civil Engineering,
SMVEC
 CET 46 SURVEYING

UNIT – I Control Surveying Total Hours : 9

Working from whole to part - Horizontal and vertical control methods Triangulation - Signals
-Base line - Instruments and accessores - Corrections - Satellite station - Reduction to centre -
Trignometriclevelling - Single and reciprocal observations - Modern trends – Bench marking.
UNIT – II Engineering Survey Total Hours : 9
Setting out curves: Horizontal curves – Elements of a circular curve and notations –
Designation of a curve – Setting out a simple circular curve – Compound curve – Reverse
curve – Transition – vertical curve.
UNIT – III Survey Adjustments Total Hours : 9
Errors - Sources, precautions and corrections - Classification of errors - True and most
probablevalues - weighted observations - Method of equal shifts Principle of least squares –
Normal equation - Correlates - Level nets Adjustment of simple triangulation networks
UNIT – IV Advances in Surveying Total Hours : 9
Electro-optical system, Measuring Principle, Working Principle, Sources of error, Total
station, Microwave system Measuring and working principle, Sources of error, GPS –
Fundamentals – Introduction space, Control segments – Observation principle, Orbit
Representation
UNIT – V Remote Sensing and GIS Total Hours : 9
Introduction of Remote Sensing - Electro Magnetic Spectrum - Types of Platforms – different
types of aircrafts-Manned and Unmanned spacecrafts – sun synchronous and geo synchronous
satellites – Types and characteristics of different platforms- Basic principles of data
processing – GIS - Definition – Components of GIS – Data : Spatial and Non-spatial – Spatial
Data- Data model input – Data analysis output.
 UNIT – I CONTROL SURVEYING (Total hours: 9)

Working from whole to part – horizontal and vertical control methods – triangulation
– signals – base lines – instruments and accessories – corrections – satellite station –
reduction to centre – trigonometric levelling – single and reciprocal observations –
modern trends – bench marking
WORKING FROM WHOLE TO PART

According to this principle, it is always desirable to carryout survey work from whole to
part. This means, when an area is to be surveyed, first a system of control points is to be
established covering the whole area with very high precision. Then minor details are
located by less precise methods. The idea of working this way is to prevent the
accumulation of errors and to control and localize minor errors which, otherwise, would
expand to greater magnitudes if the reverse process is followed, thus making the work
uncontrolled at the end.

Working from the whole to the part is achieved by covering the area to be surveyed with
a number of spaced out control point called primary control points called primary control
points whose pointing have been determined with a high level of precision using
sophisticated equipment. Based on these points as theoretic, a number of large triangles
are drawn. Secondary control points are then established to fill the gaps with lesser
precision than the primary control points. At a more detailed and less precise level,
tertiary control points at closer intervals are finally established to fill in the smaller gaps.
The main purpose of surveying from the whole to the part is to localize the errors as
working the other way round would magnify the errors and introduce distortions in the
survey. In partial terms, this principle involve covering the area to be surveyed with large
triangles. These are further divided into smaller triangles and the process continues until
the area has been sufficiently covered with small triangles to a level that allows detailed

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surveys to be made in a local level. Error is in the whole operation as the vertices of the
large triangles are fixed using higher precision instruments.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CONTROL METHODS

Horizontal controls & its methods:

The horizontal control consists of reference marks of known plan position, from which
salient points of designed structures may be set out. For large structures primary and
secondary control points are used. The primary control points are triangulation stations.
The secondary control points are reference to the primary control stations.

Reference Grid: Reference grids are used for accurate setting out of works of large
magnitude. The following types of reference grids are used:

 Survey Grid
 Site Grid
 Structural Grid
 Secondary Grid

Survey grid is one which is drawn on a survey plan, from the original traverse. Original
traverse stations form the control points of the grid.

The site grid used by the designer is the one with the help of which actual setting out is
done. As far as possible the site grid should be actually the survey grid. All the design
points are related in terms of site grid coordinates.

The structural grid is used when the structural components of the building are large in
numbers and are so positioned that these components cannot be set out from the site grid
with sufficient accuracy. The structural grid is set out from the site grid points.

The secondary grid is established inside the structure, to establish internal details of the
building, which are otherwise not visible directly from the structural grid.
Vertical control & its methods:

The vertical control consists of establishment of reference marks of known height relative
to some special datum. All levels at the site are normally reduced to the nearby bench
mark, usually known as master bench mark. The setting of points in the vertical direction
is usually done with the help of following rods:

 Boning rods and travellers

 Sight Rails Slope rails or batter boards
 Profile boards

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Boning Rod: A boning rod consists of an upright pole having a horizontal board at its
top, forming a ‘T ‘shaped rod. Boning rods are made in set of three, and many consist of
three ‘T’ shaped rods, each of equal size and shape, or two rods identical to each other
and a third one consisting of longer rod with a detachable or movable ‘T’ piece. The third
one is called traveling rod or traveler.

Sight Rails: A sight rail consist of horizontal cross piece nailed to a single upright or pair
of uprights driven into the ground. The upper edge of the cross piece is set to a convenient
height above the required plane of the structure, and should be above the ground to
enable a man to conveniently align his eyes with the upper edge. A stepped sight rail or
double sight rail is used in highly undulating or falling ground. Slope rails or Batter
boards: There are used for controlling the side slopes in embankment and in cuttings.
This consist of two vertical poles with a sloping board nailed near their top. The slope
rails define a plane parallel to the proposed slope of the embankment, but at suitable
vertical distance above it. Travelers are used to control the slope during filling operation.

Profile boards: These are similar to sight rails, but are used to define the corners, or sides
of a building. A profile board is erected near each corner peg. Each unit of profile board
consists of two verticals, one horizontal board and two cross boards. Nails or saw cuts
are placed at the top of the profile boards to define the width of foundation and the line
of the outside of the wall

Positing of a structure:

There are three types of positing of structure

 Offset from the existing building

 Co-ordinates from the site grid

 Offset from the baseline

TRIANGULATION

The horizontal control in Geodetic survey is established either by triangulation or

by precise traverse. In triangulation, the system consists of a number of inter -
connected triangles in which the length of only one line is called the base line and
the angles of the triangle are measured very precisely. Knowing the length of one
side and the three angles, the lengths of the other two sides of each triangle can be
computed. The apex of the triangles are known as the triangulation stations and
the whole figure is called the triangulation system or triangulation figure.

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The objects of triangulation are:
 To provide the most accurate system of horizontal control points on which
the less precise triangles may be based, which in turn may form a framework
to which cadastral, topographical, hydro-graphical, engineering and other
surveys may be referred
 To assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making
observations for latitude, longitude and gravity

Classification of Triangulation system

 First order Triangulation system

 Second order Triangulation system

 Third order Triangulation system

First order Triangulation system:

The first order triangulation system is of the highest order and is employed either to
determine the earth’s figure or to furnish the most precise control points to which
secondary triangulation may be connected. The general specifications are:

 Average triangle closure: 1 to 3 seconds

 Length of the base line: 5 to 15 km

 Length of the side of the triangles: 30 to 150 km

 The degree of accuracy: 1 in 5,00,000

 Check on the base: 1 in 25,000

Second order Triangulation system:

The second order triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework
of primary triangulation. The stations are fixed at close intervals so that the sizes of the
triangles formed are smaller than the primary triangulation. The general specifications
are:

 Average triangle closure: 3 to 8 seconds

 Length of the base line: 1.5 to 5 km

 Length of the side of the triangles: 8 to 65 km

 The degree of accuracy: 1 in 5,00,00

 Check on the base: 1 in 10,000

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Third order Triangulation system:

The third order triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework
of secondary triangulation and forms the immediate control for detailed engineering and
other survey. The general specifications are:

 Average triangle closure: 6 to 12 seconds

 Length of the base line: 0.5 to 3 km

 Length of the side of the triangles: 1.5 to 10 km

 The degree of accuracy: 1 in 5,000

 Check on the base: 1 in 5,000

ROUTINE OR PROCESS OF TRIANGULATION SURVEY
The routine of triangulation survey generally consists of the following operations:

 Reconnaissance

 Erection of signals and towers

 Measurement of base lines

 Measurement of horizontal angles

 Computation of latitude and longitude

 Computation of all the values

Reconnaissance survey:
It includes the following operations:

 Examination of the place to be surveyed

 Selection of the suitable sites for base lines

 Selection of suitable positions for Triangulation stations

 Determination of intervisibility and height of stations

 Collection of miscellaneous information regarding communication of water, food,

labour and guides etc.

Selection of triangulation station:

1. The triangulation stations should be intervisible.

2. They should form well-shaped triangles.

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 3. The stations should be easily accessible
4. They should be so selected that the length of sight is neither too small nor
too large.
5. They should be in commanding situation so as to serve as the control of the
subsidiary triangulation and for possible future extension of the principal
system.
6. In heavily wooden country, the stations should be located that the cost of
clearing and cutting and of building towers is minimum
7. The stations should be situated so that the lines of sight do not pass over
towns, factories, furnace, etc. nor graze any observation so that the effects
of irregular atmospheric refraction is avoided.

The height of the instrument as well as the signal depends upon the following factors:

 The distance between the stations

 The relative elevation of stations
 The profile of the intervening ground
The distance between the stations:

If there is no obstruction due to intervening ground, the distance of the visible horizon
from a station of known elevation above datum is given by
𝐷2
h= (1 − 2𝑚)
2𝑅

where, h = height of the station above datum

D = distance to the visible horizon

R = mean radius of the earth

m = mean co-efficient of refraction = 0.07 for sight over land and = 0.08 for sight over sea

If the values of D and R are substituted in proper units, the value of h corresponding to
m = 0.07 is given by

h = 0.574 D2, where h is in feet and D is in miles

h = 0.06728 D2, where h is in metres and D is in km

Relative elevation of stations:
𝐷2
If there is no obstruction due to intervening ground, the formula h = (1 − 2𝑚) may
2𝑅
be used to get the necessary elevation of a station at distance, so that it may be visible
from another station of known elevation.

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Let, h1 = known elevation of station A above datum

h2 = required elevation of B above datum

D1 = distance from A to the point of tangency

D2 = distance from B to the point of tangency

D = the known distance between A and B

Then, h = 0.06728 D12

ℎ1
D1 = √ = 3.8553 √ℎ1
0.06728

D2 = D- D1
Profile of the intervening ground:
In the reconnaissance, the elevations and positions of peaks in the intervening ground
between the proposed stations should be determined. A comparison of their elevations
should be made to the elevation of the proposed line of sight to ascertain whether the line
of sight is clear off the obstruction or not.

Let, h1 = known elevation of station A above datum

h2 = required elevation of B above datum

h = height of line of sight at the obstruction C

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2s = distance between the two stations A and B

(s + x) = distance of obstruction C from A

(s – x) = distance of obstruction C from B

ζ = zenith distance from A to B

The height h of the line of sight at the obstruction is given by

1 1 𝑥 1−2𝑚
h = 2 (ℎ2 + ℎ1) + 2 (ℎ2 − ℎ1) 𝑠 − (𝑠 2 − 𝑥 2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ζ ( )
2𝑅

The value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ζ can be taken approximately equal to unity. For more accuracy,
(ℎ2−ℎ1)2
Cosec2 ζ = 1 +
4 𝑠2
1−2𝑚
The expression = 0.574, if x, s and R are substituted in miles and h1, h2 and h are in
2𝑅
1−2𝑚
feet and = 0.06728, if x, s and R are substituted in km and h1, h2 and h are in metres.
2𝑅

Station marks:

The triangulation station should be permanently marked with copper or bronze tablets.
The name of station and the year in which it is set should be stamped on the tablet. The
following are essentials of good construction of station marks:

1. The mark should be distinctive and indestructible. Two marks should be

provided, one visible on the surface and the other buried vertically below. The
mark may be set on firm rock, or on concrete monument
2. Two or three reference marks, similar I material and shape to the station mark,
should be installed. The distance and bearings of these references mark from the
station marl and from each other should be recorded on them
3. At each station where a tall signal tower is needed, an azimuth mark should be
established at some distance away from the station mark. The azimuth mark
should of the same size and character as the reference mark
SIGNALS

A signal is a device erected to define the exact position of an observed station. The
signal may be classified as under:

1. Daylight or nonluminous (opaque) signal

2. Sun or luminous signal and
3. Night signal

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A signal should fulfil the following requirements:

 It should be clearly visible against any background

 It should be capable of being accurately centred over the station mark
 It should be suitable for accurate bisection
 It should be free from phase or should exhibit little phase

Non luminous or opaque signals:

Non-luminous signals Non-luminous signals are used during day time and for short
distances.
These are of various types, and the most commonly used are of following types.

1. Pole signal: It consists of a round pole painted black and white in alternate strips,
and is supported vertically over the station mark, generally on a tripod. Pole
signals are suitable up to a distance of about 6 km.
2. Target signal: It consists of a pole carrying two squares or rectangular targets
placed at right angles to each other. The targets are generally made of cloth
stretched on wooden frames. Target signals are suitable up to a distance of 30 km.
3. Pole and brush signal: It consists of a straight pole about 2.5 m long with a bunch
of long grass tied symmetrically round the top making a cross. The signal is erected
vertically over the station mark by heaping a pile of stones, upto 1.7 m round the
pole. A rough coat of white wash is given to make it more conspicuous to be seen
against black background. These signals are very useful, and must be erected over
every station of observation during reconnaissance.
4. Stone cairn: A pile of stone heaped in a conical shape about 3 m high with a cross
shape signal erected over the stone heap, is stone cairn. This white washed opaque
signal is very useful if the background is dark.
5. Beacons: It consists of red and white cloth tied round the three straight poles. The
beacon can easily be centered over the station mark. It is very useful for making
simultaneous observations.

Luminous signals:

1. Sun signals: Sun signals reflect the rays of the sun towards the station of
observation, and are also known as heliotropes. Such signals can be used only in
day time in clear weather.
2. Heliotrope: It consists of a circular plane mirror with a small hole at its centre to
reflect the sun rays, and a sight vane with an aperture carrying a cross-hairs. The
circular mirror can be rotated horizontally as well as vertically through 360°. The
heliotrope is centered over the station mark, and the line of sight is directed
towards the station of observation. The sight vane is adjusted looking through the
hole till the flashes given from the station of observation fall at the centre of the

9
 cross of the sight vane. Once this is achieved, the heliotrope is disturbed. Now the
heliotrope frame carrying the mirror is rotated in such a way that the black shadow
of the small central hole of the plane mirror falls exactly at the cross of the sight
vane. By doing so, the reflected beam of rays will be seen at the station of
observation. Due to motion of the sun, this small shadow also moves, and it should
be constantly ensured that the shadow always remains at the cross till the
observations are over. The heliotropes do not give better results compared to
signals. These are useful when the signal station is in flat plane, and the station of
observation is on elevated ground. When the distance between the stations exceed
30 km, the heliotropes become very useful.

Night signals:

When the observations are required to be made at night, the night signals of following
types may be used.

 Various forms of oil lamps with parabolic reflectors for sights less than 80 km.
 Acetylene lamp designed by Capt. McCaw for sights more than 80 km.
 Magnesium lamp with parabolic reflectors for long sights.
 Drummond’s light consisting of a small ball of lime placed at the focus of the
parabolic reflector, and raised to a very high temperature by impinging on it a
stream of oxygen.
 Electric lamps.

PHASE OF SIGNALS

Phase of signal is the error of bisection which arises from the fact that, under illuminated,
the signal is partly in light and partly in shade. It is thus the apparent displacements of
the signal. The correction can be applied under two conditions:

i. When the observation is made on the bright portion

ii. When the observation is under on the bright line

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When the observation is made on the bright portion:

From fig (a)

Let, A = position of the observer

B = centre of the signal

FD = visible portion of the illuminated surface

AE = line of sight

E = mid-point of FD

Β = phase correction

θ1 and θ2 = angles which the extremities of the visible portion make with AB

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r = radius of the signal

D = distance AB

1
The phase correction β = θ1 + 2(θ2 - θ1)

𝑟
But, θ2 = 𝐷

𝑟 sin(90− 𝛼) 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
And θ1 = = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐷 𝐷

1 𝑟 cos 𝛼 𝑟 𝑟 ( 1+cos 𝛼)
β= { + }=
2 𝐷 𝐷 2𝐷

1 1
𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 206265 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼
2 2
= 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐷 𝐷

When the observation is under on the bright line:

From fig (b),

Let,

∠EAB = β = phase correction

Since SE and S1A are parallel,

∠SEA = 180 – -β)

1 1 1
∠BEA = 180 - ∠ SEA = 180 − [180 − (𝛼 − 𝛽)] = 90 + (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2 2 2

1 1
∠EBA = 180 – (𝛽 + ∠BEA ) = 180 – β – 90 - 2 (𝛼 − 𝛽)= 90 - 2 (𝛼 − 𝛽)

1
≈ 90 − 2 𝛼

1 1 1
𝑟 sin(90− 𝛼) 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 206265 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
2 2 2
Therefore, β = = radians = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷

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BASE LINES

In surveying, a baseline is a line between two points on the earth’s surface and the
direction and distance between them. In a triangulation network, at least one baseline
needs to be measured to calculate the size of the triangles by trigonometry.

In selecting site for a base line, the following requirement should be considered.

1. The site should be fairly leveled or uniformly sloping or gently undulating.

2. Should be free form obstructions throughout the entire length.
3. Ground should be firmed and smooth.
4. The site should can be such that the whole length can be laid out the extremities
of the line being inter-reversible at ground level.
5. The site should be such that well shaped triangle can be obtained in connecting
the end stations of the base line to the main triangulation stations.

INSTRUMENTS AND ACCESSORIES

The equipment for base line measurement

 Three standardized tapes: out of the three one is used for field measurement and
the other two are used for standardizing the field tape at suitable intervals
 Straining device, marking tripods or stakes and supporting tripods or stakes
 A steel tape for spacing the tripods or stakes
 Six thermometers, four for measuring the temperature of the field tape and two
for standardizing the four thermometers
 A sensitive and accurate spring balance

Forms of base line measuring apparatus:

a) Rigid bars
b) Flexible bars
Rigid bars:

Before the invention of invar tapes, rigid bars were used for work of highest precision.
The rigid bars may be divided into two classes:

i. Contact apparatus, in which the ends of the bars are brought into successive
contacts. Eg: The Eimbeck Duplex Apparatus
ii. Optical apparatus, in which the effective length of the bars are engraved on them
and observed by microscopes. Eg: The Colby Apparatus and the Woondward Iced
Bar Apparatus

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The rigid bars may also be divided into the following classes depending upon the way in
which the uncertainties of temperature corrections are minimized:

i. Compensating base bars, which are designed to maintain constant length under
varying temperature by a combination of two metals. Eg: The Colby Apparatus
ii. Bimetallic non-compensating base bars, in which two measuring bars act as a
bimetallic thermometer. Eg: The Eimbeck Duplex Apparatus
iii. Monometallic base bars, in which the temperature is either kept constant at
melting point of ice or is otherwise ascertain. Eg: the Woondward Iced Bar
Apparatus
Flexible apparatus:

In recent years, the use of flexible instruments has increased due to the longer length that
can be measured at a time without any loss in accuracy. The flexible apparatus consists
of:

a) Steel or invar tapes

b) Steel and brass wires

The flexible apparatus has the following advantages over rigid bars:

 Due to the greater length of the flexible apparatus a wider choice of base sites is
available since rough ground with wider water gap can be utilized
 The speed of measurement is quicker and thus less expensive
 Longer bases can be used more check bases can be introduced at closer intervals

CORRECTIONS

After having measured the length, the correct length of the base is calculated by applying
the following corrections:

1. Correction for absolute length

2. Correction for temperature
3. Correction for pull or tension
4. Correction for sag
5. Correction for slope or vertical alignment
6. Correction for horizontal alignment
7. Reduction to sea level
8. Correction to measurement in vertical plane

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Correction for absolute length:

If the absolute length of the tape is not equal to its nominal length, a correction will have
to be applied to the measured length of the line. If the absolute length of the tape is greater
than the nominal length, the measured distance will be too short and the correction will
be additive. If the absolute length of the tape is lesser than the nominal length, the
measured distance will be too great and the correction will be subtractive.

Absolute length of tape is its actual length under specified condition

𝐿. 𝑐
Ca =
𝑙

Where,
Ca = correction to be applied to the tape in m
L = measured length in m
C = correction per tape length m
L = nominal length of tape in m

Correction for temperature:

If the temperature in the field is more than the temperature at which the tape was
standardized, the length of tape increases, measured distance becomes less and the
correction is therefore additive. Similarly, if the temperature is less the length of the tape
decreases, measured distance becomes more and the correction is negative. Hence
temperature correction is given by

Ct m –T0) L

Where,
= coefficient of thermal expansion per one degree Kelvin
Tm = temperature during the measurement in Kelvin
T0 = temperature at which the tape 15tandardized in Kelvin
L = measured length

Correction for Pull:

If the pull applied during measurement is more than the pull at which the tape was
standardized the length of the tape increases, measured distance between becomes less

15
and the correction is positive. Similarly, if the pull is less, the length of the tape decreases,
measured distance becomes more and the correction is negative. The correction of pull is
given by,

(𝑃−𝑃0)𝐿
Cp =
𝐴𝐸

Where,
P = pull in Newtons
L = length of measured line in m
P0 = standard pull in Newtons
E = Young’s Modulus in N/mm2
A = cross sectional area of tape in mm2

Correction for Sag:

When the tape is stretched on support between two points, it takes the form of a
horizontal catenary. The horizontal distance will be less than the distance along the curve.
The difference between horizontal distance and the measured length along catenary is
called the sag correction.

Sag correction is given by,

𝑙 𝑊2
Cs =
24 𝑛2 𝑃2

Where,
l = horizontal distance between supports in meters
W = weight of tape in Newtons
P = Pull applied in Newtons
n = number of equal spans

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Correction for slope or vertical alignment:

The distance measured along the slope is always greater than the horizontal distance and
the correction is always subtractive.

Slope or vertical alignment correction is given by,

𝜃
Cv = 2L sin2
2

Where,
l = horizontal distance between supports in meters
θ = slope of the line

Correction for horizontal alignment:

a) Bad ranging or misalignment
If the tape is stretched out of line, measured distance will always be more and
hence the correction will be negative.

Hence correction,
𝑑2
Ch =
2𝐿

Where,
d= perpendicular deviation
L= measured length of the line

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 b) Deformation of the tape in horizontal plane
If the tape is not pulled straight and the length of the tape is out of line by amount
d, then

𝑑2 𝑑2
Ch = +
2 𝐿1 2 𝐿2

c) Broken base
Due to some obstruction it may not be possible to set out the base in one
continuous straight line. Such a base is called a broken base.

𝑎𝑐 𝛽2
Ch = × 4.2308 × 10−8
(𝑎+𝑐)

Reduction to mean sea level:

The measured horizontal distance should be reduced to the distance at the mean sea
level, called the geodetic distance. If the length of the base is reduced to mean sea level,
the calculated length of all other triangulation lines will also be corresponding to that
mean sea level.

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 𝐿ℎ
Cmsl =
𝑅

Where,
L= measured horizontal distance
h = mean equivalent of the base line above M.S.L
R= radius of earth

SATELLITE STATION: REDUCTION TO CENTRE

In order to better visibility, objects such as church spires, flagpoles sometimes selected as
the Triangulation stations. The observations are taken from such a station, it is impossible
to set up an instrument over it. In such a case a subsidiary station known as satellite
station or eccentric station or false station is selected as near to the main station. The
observations are taken to other triangulation stations with the same precision as in the
case of True stations. The operation of applying the corrections due to the eccentricity is
generally known as Reduction to Centre.

The distance between the True station and the Satellite station is determined either by
trigonometrical levelling or triangulation. These stations should be avoided as far as
possible in Primary Triangulation.

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Let A, B, C = triangulation stations

S= satellite station for B

d= BS = eccentric distance between B and S

θ = ∠ASC = observed angle at S

γ = ∠CSB = observed angle at S

β1 = ∠SAB

β2 = ∠SCB

AC = b, AB = c and BC = a

O = point of intersection of lines AB and CS

 The angles CAB and ACB are known by observations to B from A and C
respectively. The length of the side AC is known by computing from the adjacent
triangle. The side AB and AC can be calculated by applying sine rule to the triangle
ABC
𝑏 sin 𝐶𝐴𝐵
Thus, BC = a =
sin 𝐴𝐵𝐶

𝑏 sin 𝐴𝐶𝐵
and AB = c =
sin 𝐴𝐵𝐶

20
 In the above expression, ∠ABC may be taken equal to 180 - ∠ BAC - ∠ BCA, at the
first instance to calculate the sides AB and BC.

 Knowing the sides AB and BC, and the eccentric distance SB, triangles ABS and
CBS can be solved by sine rule to get the values of β1 and β2 respectively,
𝑆𝐵 sin 𝐴𝑆𝐵 𝑑 sin(𝜃+𝛾)
Thus, from ΔABS, sin β1 = =
𝐵𝐴 𝑐
𝑆𝐵 sin 𝐵𝑆𝐶 𝑑 sin 𝛾
And from ΔCBS, sin β2 = =
𝐵𝐶 𝑎

Since BS is very small in comparison to BA and BC, the angle β1 and β2 are
extremely small and we may write,

𝑑 sin(𝜃+𝛾) 𝑑 sin(𝜃+𝛾)
β1 = = × 206265
𝑐 sin 1′′ 𝑐
𝑑 sin 𝛾 𝑑 sin 𝛾
β2 = = × 206265
𝑎 sin 1′′ 𝑎

 After having calculated the angles β1 and β2 the observed angle θ at S is reduced
to that as B as follow:

∠ABC = α = ∠AOC - β2 = (β1 + θ) - β2 = θ + β1- β2

𝑑 sin(𝜃+𝛾) 𝑑 sin 𝛾
= θ+ −
𝑐 sin 1′′ 𝑎 sin 1′′

The above expression for the true angle α does not cover all the four possible cases
corresponding to the four positions of the satellite station S as shown in the fig.

21
Case I: Position S to the left of B, the true angle α = θ + β1- β2

Case II: (Fig b) Position S to the right of B, the true angle α = θ - β1 + β2

Case III: (Fig c) Position S between AC and above B, the true angle α = θ - β1 - β2

Case IV: (Fig d) Position S between AC and below B, the true angle α = θ + β1 + β2

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELLING

Trignometrical levelling is the process of determining the differences of elevations of

stations from observed vertical angles and known distances, which are assumed to be
either horizontal or geodetic lengths at mean sea level. The vertical angles may be
measured by using theodolite and horizontal distances may be measured by tape or
chain.

22
Trignometrical levelling can be classified as

1. Observations for height and distances

2. Geodetical observations

Heights and distances:

1. Base of the object accessible

2. Base of the object inaccessible (Instrument stations in the same vertical plane)

3. Base of the object inaccessible (Instrument stations not in the same vertical plane)

Base of the object accessible:

Let it be assumed that the horizontal distance between the instrument and the object can
be measured accurately.

Let, P= instrument station

Q = point to be observed

A = centre of the instrument

Q’ = projection of Q on horizontal plane through A

D = AQ’ = horizontal distance between P and Q

h’ = height of the instrument at P

h = QQ’

S = reading on the staff kept at BM with line of sight horizontal

α = angle of elevation from A to Q

23
From ΔAQQ’, h = D tan α
RL of Q = RL of Bench mark + S + h

= RL of P+ h’ + D tan α

Base of the object inaccessible (Instrument stations in the same vertical plane)
If the horizontal distance between the instrument and the object cannot be measured due
to obstacles, two instrument stations are used so that they are in the same vertical plane
as the elevated object.
a) Instrument axes at the same level

Let, h = QQ’

α1 = angle of elevation from A at Q

α2 = angle of elevation from B at Q

24
S = staff reading on BM taken from both A and B, the reading being the same in both the
cases

b = horizontal distance between the instrument stations

D = horizontal distance between p and Q

From ΔAQQ’, h = D tan α1

From ΔBQQ’, h = (b + D) tan α2

D tan α1 = (b + D) tan α2

or D (tan α1 - tan α2) = b ) tan α2

𝑏 tan 𝛼2
or D=
tan 𝛼1−tan 𝛼2
𝑏 tan 𝛼1 tan 𝛼2 𝑏 sin 𝛼1 sin 𝛼2
h = D tan α1 = =
tan 𝛼1−tan 𝛼2 sin (𝛼1− 𝛼2)

RL of Q = RL of BM + S + h
b) Instrument axes at different levels

If S1 and S2 are the corresponding staff readings on staff kept on BM, the difference in
levels of the instrument axes will be (S2-S1) or (S1-S2) depending on whichever axis is
higher.

Q’ = projection of Q on horizontal line through A

Q”= projection of Q on horizontal line through B

From ΔQAQ’, h1 = D tan α1

From ΔBQQ’’, h2 = (b+D) tan α2

Subtracting the above eqns, we get, (h1 – h2) = D tan α1 - (b+D) tan α2

25
But, h1 – h2 = S2-S1 = s

S = D tan α1 – b tan α2 – D tan α2

Or, D (tan α1 -tan α2) = s + b tan α2

𝑠+𝑏 tan α2
D=
tan α1− tan α2
(𝑏+𝑠 cot α2)tan α2
D=
tan α1− tan α2

Now,

h1 = D tan α1
(𝑏+𝑠 cot α2)tan α2 tan α1
=
tan α1− tan α2

(𝑏+𝑠 cot α2)sin α2 sin α1

=
sin(α1− α2)

RL of Q = RL of BM + S1 + h1

c) Instrument axes at very different levels

If (S2-S1) is too great to be measured on a staff kept at the BM the following procedure is
adopted.

26
Let r be the vane reading on instrument station P

We have,

h1 = D tan α1

h2 = (b+D) tan α2

Subtracting the above eqns, we get, (h2 – h1) = (b+D) tan α2 - D tan α1

But, h2 – h1 = S1-S2 = s

D (tan α1 -tan α2) = b tan α2 - s

𝑏 tan α2−s
D=
tan α1− tan α2
(𝑏− 𝑠 cot α2)tan α2
D=
tan α1− tan α2

Now,

h1 = D tan α1
(𝑏−𝑠 cot α2)tan α2 tan α1
=
tan α1− tan α2

(𝑏−𝑠 cot α2)sin α2 sin α1

=
sin(α1− α2)

Height of station P above the axis at B = h – r = b tan α − r

Height of station A above the axis at B = s = b tan α − r + h’

Now, RL of Q = RL of A + h1 = RL of B + s + h1

= RL of BM + bask sight taken from B + s + h1

27
Base of the object inaccessible (Instrument stations not in the same vertical plane)
Let P and R be the two instrument stations not in the same vertical plane as that of Q.

From ΔAQQ’, QQ’= h1 = D tan α1

From ΔPRQ1, ∠PQ1R = 180 – (θ1+θ2) = π - (θ1+θ2)

From the sine rule,

𝑃𝑄1 𝑅𝑄1 𝑅𝑃 𝑏
= = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 sin[𝜋 − (𝜃1 + 𝜃2)] sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2)

𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
PQ1 = D = and RQ1 =
sin(𝜃1+𝜃2) sin(𝜃1+𝜃2)

Therefore we get,
𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1
h1 = D tan α1 =
sin(𝜃1+𝜃2)

RL of Q = RL of BM + S + h1

28
SINGLE AND RECIPROCAL OBSERVATIONS
The difference in elevation between two points can be found out by two methods:

i. By single observation
ii. By reciprocal observation

1) Difference in elevation by single observation:

In this case, the observations are made from only one station. The following corrections
will have to be applied:

 Correction for curvature

 Correction for refraction
 Correction for axis signal

Since the sign of these corrections will depend upon the sign of the angle observed we
shall consider the following cases:

i. When the observed angle is the angle of elevation

ii. When the observed angle is the angle of depression

29
For angle of elevation:

Let,

1= observed angle corrected for axis sig - 1)

𝑆2−ℎ1 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑠2−ℎ1) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2

=( - ) seconds (or) = ( - )
𝑑 sin 1" 𝑑

d = horizontal distance = arc PP1

∠P’PQ = r = mθ

QP1 = H = difference in elevation between Q and P.

30
In ΔPQP1
𝜃
∠QPP1 = ∠P’PA +∠P’PQ+∠APP1 1 – mθ+
2
𝜃 𝜃
∠PP1Q = (90- 2)+ θ = 90 + 2
𝜃 𝜃
∠PQP1 = 180 – 1 – mθ+ ) – (90 + 2 ) = 90 – 1 – mθ + θ)
2

𝑄𝑃1 𝑃𝑃1
=
sin 𝑄𝑃𝑃1 sin 𝑃𝑄𝑃1

𝜃 𝜃
sin 𝑄𝑃𝑃1 𝑑 sin(α1 – mθ+ ) 𝑑 sin(α1 – mθ+ )
2 2
Or QP1 = H = PP1 = =
sin 𝑃𝑄𝑃1 sin[90 – (α1 – mθ + θ)] cos[α1 – mθ + θ]

Approximate expression:

An approximate expression however can be had by considering ∠PP1Q to be equal to 90,

especially when θ is very small. Then,
𝜃
QP1 = H = PP1 tan QPP1 1- mθ + 2)
𝑑
= d tan { 1+ (1-2m) }
2𝑅 sin 1"

31
For angle of depression

Let, β = observed angle or depression to P

β1
𝑆1−ℎ2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑠1−ℎ2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 β
= (β+ ) seconds (or) = (β + )
𝑑 sin 1" 𝑑

d = horizontal distance = arc QQ1

∠Q’QP = r = mθ

Q1P = H = difference in elevation between P and Q.

In ΔQPQ1
𝜃
∠PQQ1 = ∠Q’QB +∠Q’PQ-∠Q1QB = β1 + mθ - 2
𝜃 𝜃
∠QQ1Q = (90- θ) + = 90 + 2
2

32
 𝜃 𝜃
∠Q1 PQ= 180 – (β1+ mθ - 2) – (90 - 2) = 90 – (β1 + mθ - θ)

𝑃𝑄1 𝑄𝑄1
=
sin 𝑃𝑄𝑄1 sin 𝑄𝑃𝑄1

𝜃 𝜃
sin 𝑃𝑄𝑄1 𝑑 sin(β1+ mθ − ) 𝑑 sin(β1+ mθ − )
2 2
Or PQ1 = H = QQ1 = =
sin 𝑄𝑃𝑄1 sin[90 – (β1 + mθ − θ)] cos[β1 + mθ − θ]

Approximate expression:

An approximate expression however can be had by considering ∠PQ1Q to be equal to 90,

especially when θ is very small. Then,
𝜃
Q1P = H = QQ1 tan PQQ1 = d tan (β1+ mθ - 2)
𝑑
= d tan {β1 - (1-2m) }
2𝑅 sin 1"

Application of corrections in linear measurements

Axis signal correction = s2-h1
𝑑2
Curvature correction =
2𝑅
𝑑 𝑚𝑑 2
Refraction correction = rd = mθ.d = m .𝑑 =
𝑅 𝑅

2) Difference in elevation by reciprocal observations:

Reciprocal observations are generally made to eliminate the effects of refraction. In this
method, observations are made simultaneously from both the stations so that the
refraction effect is the same.

33
Let,
𝑆2−ℎ1
∠ PP’Q’ = 1 -
𝑑 sin 1"

∠ P’QP = r = mθ = refracted error at P

𝜃
∠ Q’PP1 = 2 = curvature effect
𝑆1−ℎ2
∠ Q1QQ’ = β1 = observed angle of depression at q corrected for axis signal = β+
𝑑 sin 1”

∠ Q’QP = r = mθ = refracted error at Q

𝜃
∠ Q1QQ2 = 2 = curvature effect

Arc PP1 = chord PP1 = arc QQ1 = chord QQ1 = d = horizontal distance
∠ QPP1 = angle of elevation corrected for axis signal, curvature and refraction

34
 𝜃
1+ – mθ
2

Similarly, ∠ PQQ1 = angle of depression corrected for axis signal, curvature and refraction
𝜃
= β1 - +mθ
2

Since PP1 and QQ1 are parallel to each other, ∠ QPP1 = ∠ PQQ1
𝜃 𝜃
1+ – mθ = β1 - +mθ
2 2

1 𝜃 𝜃
= 2 {(𝛼1 + 2 − 𝑚𝜃) + (𝛽1 − 2 + 𝑚𝜃)}

𝛼1+𝛽1
=
2
𝜃
In Δ QPP1, ∠ QPP1 1+ – mθ ; ∠ PQP1 = 90 – (β1 +mθ)
2

𝑄𝑃1 𝑃𝑃1
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑃𝑃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑄𝑃1
𝜃 𝜃
sin 𝑄𝑃𝑃1 sin(α1 + – mθ) sin(α1 + – mθ)
2 2
QP1 = H = PP1 =𝑑 =𝑑
sin 𝑃𝑄𝑃1 sin[90 – (β1 +mθ)] 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (β1 +mθ)

𝜃 𝛼1+𝛽1
But (𝛼1 + 2 − 𝑚𝜃) =
2
𝜃 𝛼1+𝛽1 𝛼1+𝛽1 𝜃
And 𝛽1 − 2 + 𝑚𝜃 = or β1 +mθ = +
2 2 2
𝛼1+𝛽1
𝑑 sin( )
2
Therefore, H = 𝛼1+𝛽1 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 {( )+ }
2 2

𝜃 𝛼1+𝛽1
If 2 is small, then, H = d tan ( )
2

If 𝛼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽1, both are angle of depression then the equation become,
𝛽1−𝛼1
𝑑 sin( )
2
H= 𝛽1−𝛼1 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 {( )+ }
2 2

If the value of H obtained from the above expression is positive, Q is higher than P. if H
is negative, Q will be lower than P

Hence the general expression for H is given by,

𝛽1±𝛼1
𝑑 sin( )
2
H= 𝛽1±𝛼1 𝜃 – if it is angle of depression)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 {( )+ }
2 2

35
BENCH MARKING
It is a fined reference point of known elevation. The classification of bench markings are:

1. Permanent Bench mark: These are established by different government departments

like PWD, Railways, Irrigation etc., The RL of these points are determined with reference
to G.T.S Benchmarks. Points on rocks, culvert, gate, pillars etc.

2. Temporary Bench mark: These are established temporarily whenever required. These
are generally chosen to close the day’s work and to start the next days. Points on roofs,
walls, basements etc.

3. Arbitrary Bench Mark: When the RL of some fixed Points are assumed, they are termed
an arbitrary Bench mark

36
 UNIT – II ENGINEERING SURVEY (Total hours: 9)
Setting out curves: horizontal curves – elements of a circular curve and notations –
designation of a curve – setting out a simple circular curve – compound curve – reverse
curve – transition – vertical curve
HORIZONTAL CURVES

Whenever the direction of a road or railway line is to be changed, curves are provided
between the intersecting straights. This is necessary for smooth and safe movement of the
vehicles and for the comfort of passengers. The curves required may be in the horizontal
planes or in the vertical planes. Accordingly the curves are classified as horizontal curves
and vertical curves. Horizontal curves are further classified as circular curves and
transition curves.
DEFINITION AND NOTATIONS

1. Back tangent: The tangent (AT1) previous to the curve is called the back tangent
or first tangent
2. Forward tangent: The tangent (T2B) following the curve is called the forward
tangent or second tangent
3. Point of intersection: If the two tangent AT1 and T2B are produced, they will meet
at a point which is called the point of intersection (PI) or vertex (V)
4. Point of curve (PC): It is the beginning of the curve where the alignment changes
from a tangent to a curve
5. Point of tangency (PT): It is the end of the curve where the alignment changes
from a curve to tangent
6. Intersection angle: The angle V’VB between the tangent AV produced and VB is
called the intersection angle (Δ) or the external deflection angle between the two
tangents
7. Deflection angle to any point: The deflection angle to any point on the curve is
the angle at PC between the back tangent and the chord from PC to point on the
curve
8. Tangent distance (T): It is the distance between PC to PI
9. External distance (E): It is the distance from the mid-point of the curve to PI
10. Length of curve (L): It is the total length of the curve from PC to PT
11. Long chord: It is chord joining PC to PT
12. Mid ordinate (M): It is the ordinate from the mid-point of the long chord to the
mid-point of the curve
13. Normal chord (C): A chord between the successive regular stations on a curve
14. Sub-chord (c): Sub-chord is any chord shorter than the normal chord
15. Right-hand curve: If the curve deflects to the right of the direction of the progress
of survey, it is called the right-hand curve
37
 16. Left-hand curve: If the curve deflects to the left of the direction of the progress of
survey, it is called the left-hand curve

DESIGNATION OF CURVE

 The sharpness of the curve is designates either by its radius or by its degree of
curvature
 According to the arc definition, the degree of the curve is defined as the central
angle of the curve that is subtended by an arc of 100 ft length (highway practice)
 According to chord definition, the degree of the curve is defined as the central
angle of the curve that is subtended by a chord of 100 ft length (railway practice)

Arc definition:
From familiar proportion,

100 : 2 π R = D : 360
360 100
R= ×
𝐷 2𝜋
5729.578
= ft
𝐷
5730
R≈
𝐷

Chord definition:
From triangle POC,
1 50
Sin 2 𝐷 =
𝑅
50
R= 1
sin 𝐷
2

1 1
When D is small, Sin 2 𝐷 can be taken as 2 𝐷 radians
50
R=𝐷 𝜋 where D is in degrees
×
2 180

50 ×360 5729.578 5730

= = ≈ ft
𝐷 ×𝜋 𝐷 𝐷

38
ELEMENTS OF A CIRCULAR CURVE
1) Length of the curve (l):

𝝅𝑹
Length, l = T1CT2 = RΔ where Δ is in radians = ∆
𝟏𝟖𝟎

2) Tangent length (T):

∆ ∆
Tangent length, T=T1V = VT2 = OT1 tan 2 = R tan 𝟐

3) Length of the long chord (L):

∆ ∆
Length of the long chord, L = T1T2 = 2 OT1 sin 2 = 2 R tan 𝟐

4) Apex distance or external distance (E):

∆ ∆
Apex distance, E = CV = VO - CO = R sec 2 - R = R [sec 𝟐 -1]

5) Mid-ordinate (M):
∆ ∆
Mid-ordinate, M = CD = CO – DO = R – R cos 2 = R [1- cos 𝟐 ]

SETTING OUT A SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

The methods of setting out curves can be mainly divided into two heads depending upon
instruments used:

1. Linear methods: In the linear methods, only a chain or tape is used. Linear
methods are used when (a) a high degree of accuracy is not required, (b) the curve
is short
2. Angular methods: In angular method, an instrument such as a theodolite is used
with or without a chain.
1. Linear methods:
Following are some of the linear methods for setting out simple circular curves:

 By ordinates or offsets from the long chord

 By successive bisection of arcs

39
  By offsets from the tangents
 By offsets from chords produced (or by deflection distances)

By ordinates or offsets from the long chord:

Let, R = radius of the curve

O0 = mid-ordinates

Ox = ordinate at distance x from the mid-point of the chord

T1 and T2 = tangent points

L = length of the long chord actually measured on the ground

Bisect the long chord at point D

40
From ΔOT1D,

OT12 = T1D2 + DO2

𝐿 𝐿
Or R2 = (2)2 + (CO – CD)2 = (2)2 + (R – O0)2

𝐿 𝐿
(R-O0) = √𝑅 2 − (2)2 or O0 = R - √𝑅 2 − (2)2

In order to calculate the ordinate Ox to any point E, draw the line EE1, parallel to the long
chord T1T2. Join EO to cut the long chord in G.

Then, Ox = EF = E1D = E1O – DO

= √(𝐸𝑂)2 − (𝐸𝐸1)2 − (𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝐷)

= √𝑅 2 − 𝑥 2 − (𝑅 − 𝑂0 )
By successive bisection of arcs:

Procedure:

1. Join the tangent point T1, T2 and bisect the long chord at D. Erect the perpendicular
DC and make it equal to the versed sine of the curve. Thus,
∆ 𝐿
CD = R (1-cos 2) = R - √𝑅 2 − (2)2

41
 2. Join T1C and T2C and bisect them at D1 and D2 respectively. At D1 and D2 set out
∆
perpendicular offsets C1D1 = C2D2 = R (1-cos 4) to get points C1 and C2 on the
curve.
3. By the successive bisection of these chords, more points may be obtained.

By offsets from the tangents:

If the deflection angle and the radius of curvature are both small, the curves can be set
out by offsets from the tangent. The offsets from the tangents can be of two types:

i. Radial offsets
ii. Perpendicular offsets
Radial offsets

Let,

Ox = radial offset De at any distance x along the tangent

T1D = x

From ΔT1DO,

DO2 = T1O2 + T1D2

Or (DE + EO)2 = T1O2 + T1D2

Or (Ox + R)2 = R2 + x2

42
Ox = √𝑅 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑅

Perpendicular offset

Let, DE = Ox = offset perpendicular to the tangent

T1D = x, measured along the tangent.

Draw EE1, parallel to the tangent.

From ΔEE1), we have

E1O2 = EO2 – E1E2

Or (T1O – T1E1)2 = EO2 –E1E2

Or (R-Ox)2 = R2 – x2

From which, Ox = √𝑅 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑅

43
By offsets from chords produced (or by deflection distances):

This method is very useful for long curves and is generally used on highway curves when
a theodolite is not available.

Let, T1A1 = T1A = initial sub-chord = C1

A, B, D etc. = points on the curve

AB = C2

BD = C3 etc.

T1V = rear tangent

∠ A1T1 – deflection angle of the first chord

A1A = O1 = first offset

B2B = O2 = second offset

D2D = O3 = third offset

Now, arc A1A = O1 = T1A

44
Since T1V is the tangent to the circle at T1

∠ T1OA = 2∠ A1T1

T1
𝑇1𝐴
2𝑅
𝑇1𝐴 𝑇1𝐴2
∴ Arc A1A = O1 = T1A. =
2𝑅 2𝑅

Taking arc T1A = chord T1A, we get

𝐶2
O1 =
2𝑅

In order to obtain the value of the second offset O2 for getting the point B on the curve,
draw a tangent AB1 to the curve at A to cut the rear tangent in A’. Join T1A and prolong
it to point B2 such that AB2 = AB = C2 = length of the second chord. Then O2 = B2B
𝐶22
B1B =
2𝑅

Again, ∠ B2AB1 = ∠ A’AT1 being opposite angles

Since T1A’ and A’A are both tangents, they are equal in length.

∠ A1T1 ∠ A1T1A

∠ A1T1A = ∠ A1T1
𝑇1𝐴 𝐶2 . 𝐶1
Arc B2B1 = AB2 2 = C2 . =
2𝑅 2𝑅

Arc B2B = B2B1 + B1B

𝐶2 . 𝐶1 𝐶22 𝐶2
O2 = + = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )
2𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅

𝐶3
Similarly, the third offset O3 = D1D = (𝐶2 + 𝐶3 )
2𝑅

The last or nth offset is given by

𝐶
On = 2𝑅𝑛 (𝐶𝑛−1 + 𝐶𝑛 )

2. Angular or Instrumental method:

The following are instrumental methods commonly used for setting out a circular curve:

 Rankine’s methods of tangential ( or deflection ) angle

45
  Two theodolite method
 Tacheometric method
Rankine’s methods of tangential (or deflection) angle:

A deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle between the tangent at point of
curve (PC) and the line joining that point to PC (Δ). Thus, referring to the f 1 is the

1 2 is the deflection angle of B. In this method points on the

curve are located by deflection angles and the chord lengths. The formula for calculating
deflection angles of various chords can be derived as shown below:

Let A, B, C … be points on the curve. The chord lengths T1A, AB, BC… be C1, C2, C3…
1 2 3… tangential angles, which of the successive chords make with respective
tangents. Δ1, Δ2, Δ3… be deflection angles.

∠VA1A = ∠A1T1A + ∠A1AT1 1 1 1

From the property of circular curve, ∠T1OA = ∠VA1 1

Therefore, Chord length = C1 = R × 2 1 1 is in radians

𝜋
=R× 1 × 180 1 is in degrees.
𝐶 180
Therefore, 1 = 2𝑅1 × degrees …(1a)
𝜋
𝐶 180
= 2𝑅1 × × 60 minutes
𝜋
𝐶1
= 1718.87 minutes
𝑅
𝐶2
2 = 1718.87 minutes …(1b)
𝑅

From Fig.,

46
Δ1 1

For the second chord

Δ2 = VT1B = Δ1 2 1 2

Similarly, Δn 1 2 3 n= Δn–1 n

Thus, the deflection angle of any chord is equal to the deflection angle for the previous
chord plus the tangential angle of that chord.

Note that if the degree of curve is D for standard length s,

𝜋 𝑠 180
s = RD× 180 or R = × ……. (2)
𝐷 𝜋

If the degree of a curve is given, from equations (1) and (2) deflection angles can be found.
Setting the theodolite at point of curve (T1), deflection angle Δ1 is set and chord length C1

47
is measured along this line to locate A. Then deflection angle Δ2 is set and B is located by
setting AB = C2. The procedure is continued to lay the full curve.

Two theodolite method:

In this method, two theodolites are used, one at the point of curve (PC i.e. at T 1) and
another at the point of tangency (PT i.e. at T2). For a point on the curve deflection angle
with back tangent and forward tangent are calculated. The theodolites are set at PC and
PT to read these angles and simultaneous ranging is made to get the point on the curve.

Referring to Fig., let Δ1 be deflection angle made by point A with back tangent and Δ’1 be
the deflected angle made by the same point with forward tangent at T2. The method of
finding Δ1 is already explained in the previous article. To find expression for Δ’1, draw a
tangent at A intersecting back tangent at A1 and forward tangent at A2.

In triangle A1T1A, since A1T1 and A1A both are tangents,

∠A1T1A = ∠A1AT1 = Δ1

48
Therefore, Exterior angle ∠VA1A2 = 2Δ1

Similarly, referring to triangle A2AT2, we get

Exterior angle ∠VA2A1 = 2 Δ’1

Now, considering the triangle VA1A2, the exterior angle

∠V’VA2 = ∠VA1A2 + ∠VA2A1

i.e. Δ = 2 Δ1 + 2 Δ’1

therefore, Δ’1 = Δ2 – Δ1

Hence, after finding the deflection angle with back tangent (Δ1), the deflection angle Δ’1
with forward tangent can be determined.
Procedure to set out curve:
The following procedure is to be followed:

1. Set the instrument at point of curve T1, clamp horizontal plates at zero reading and
sight V. Clamp the lower plate.

2. Set another instrument at point of forward tangent T2, clamp the horizontal plates at
zero reading and sight V. Clamp the lower plate.

3. Set horizontal angles Δ1 and Δ’1 in the theodolites at T1 and T2 and locate intersecting
point by ranging. Mark the point.

4. Similarly fix other points

Tacheometric method:
If the terrain is rough, linear measurements may be replaced by the tacheometric
measurements. The lengths of chord T1A, T1B … may be calculated from the formula 2R
sin Δ1, 2R sin Δ2 … etc. Then the respective staff intercepts s1, s2, … may be calculated
from the formula.
𝑓
D = 𝑖 s cos2 θ + (f + d) cos θ

= ks cos2 θ + C cos θ

49
Procedure to set the curve

1. Set the theodolite at T1 and sight the point if intersection (V) when the reading is zero.
The line of sight is thus oriented along the rear tangent.

2. Set the angle Δ1 on the Vernier, thus directing the line of sight along T1A.

3. Direct a staffman to move in the direction T1A till the calculated staff intercept s1 is
obtained. The staff is generally held vertical. Thus, the first point A is fixed.

4. Set the angle Δ2, now, thus directing the line of sight along T1B. Move the staff
backward or forward along T1B until the staff intercept s1 is obtained, thus fixing the
point B.

5. Fix other points similarly

50
COMPOUND CURVE
Elements of a compound curve
T1DT2 is a two centred compound curve having two circular arcs T1D and DT2 meeting at
a common point D known as the point of compound curvature (P.C.C) T1 is the point of
curve (P.C.) and T2 is the point of tangency (P.T). O1 and O2 are the centres of the two
arcs.

Rs = the smaller radius (T1O1)

R1 = the longer radius (T2O2)

D1D2 = common tangent

Δ1 = deflection angle between the rear and the common tangent

Δ2 = deflection angle between the common and the forward tangent

Δ = total deflection angle

tS = the length of the tangent to the arc (T1D) having a smaller radius

tL = the length of the tangent to the arc DT2 having a longer radius

TS = tangent distance T1B corresponding to the shorter radius

TL = tangent distance BT2 corresponding to the longer radius

From the given fig, we have

1
tS = T1D1 = D1D = Rs tan 2 Δ1 ……(1)
1
tL = T2D2 = D2D = RL tan 2 Δ2 ……(2)

Δ = Δ1 + Δ2 ……(3)

From triangle BD1D2, we have

sin 𝛥2 sin 𝛥2
D1B = D1D2 . = (tS + tL )
sin 𝛥 sin 𝛥

and
sin ∆1 sin ∆1
D2B = D1D2 . = (tS + tL)
sin ∆ sin ∆

therefore,
sin ∆2
Ts = T1D1 + D1B = tS + (tS + tL) sin ∆
……(4)

and

51
 sin ∆1
TL = T2D2 + D2B = tL + (tS + tL) ……(5)
sin ∆

Relationship between the parts of a compound curve

There are seven quantities of two centred compound curve, i.e. Δ, Rs, T S, Δ1, RL, TL and
Δ2. When four of these, including an angle, are given or assumed, the other three may be
determined. Usually, the lengths of the two radii, RS and RL are established from the plan
and the angle Δ is measured in the field. The fourth quantity out of Δ1, Δ2, TS and TL is
usually selected from the plan. The calculation of the rest of the three quantities may be
made as explained below:
Case (1):
Given: Δ, RS, RL, Δ1 (or Δ2)

Required: Δ2 (or Δ1), TS and TL

This is the most common case.

From the eqn (3),

Δ2 = Δ – Δ1 (or Δ1 = Δ – Δ2)

From eqn (4) and (2), we have

1 1 1 sin 𝛥2
TS = RS tan Δ1 + (RS tan Δ1 + RL tan Δ2)
2 2 2 sin 𝛥

and
1 1 1 sin 𝛥1
TL = RL tan 2 Δ2 + (RS tan 2 Δ1 + RL tan 2 Δ2) sin 𝛥

Case (2):
Given: Δ, RS, RL, and TS.

Required: Δ1, Δ2 and TL.

In given fig, prolong the short curve T1D to a point D’ until it has the central angle Δ. Its
tangent B’D’ will then be parallel to the tangent BT2.
1
Then T1B’ =B’D’ =RS tan2 ∆ ……(1)

Draw BP perpendicular to B’D’.

Prolong B’D’ to meet O2 T2 in Q. Draw O1S perpendicular to O2T2.

1
Then T2Q = BP =BB’ sin Δ = (T1B – T1B’) sin Δ = (Ts – Rs tan 2 ∆ ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛥 .…..(2)

52
 1
Also, B’P =BB’ cos Δ =(Ts –Rs tan 2 ∆ )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛥 .…..(3)

Now, O2S = O2T2 – T2Q – QS = RL –BP –Rs …..(4)

𝑂2𝑆
From triangle O1O2S, cos Δ2 = 𝑅𝐿−𝑅𝑆 ……(5)

Δ1 = Δ – Δ2 ……(6)

and O1S =(RL –Rs) sin Δ2 …….(7)

TL = BT2 = PQ = QD’ + B’D’ – B’P = O1S + B’D’ –B’P …….(8)

Thus Δ1, Δ2 and TL are determined from (5), (6) and (8) above.
Case (3):
Given: Δ, RS, RL, and TL

Required: Δ1, Δ2 and TS

In given fig, prolong the long curve T2D to a point D’ until it has a central angle D’O2T2 =
Δ. Its tangent B’D’ will then be parallel to the tangent BT1.
1
Then, T2B’ =B’D’ = RL tan 2 ∆ ……(1)

Draw BP perpendicular to D’B’.

Prolong BT1 to meet D’O2 in Q. Draw O1S perpendicular to D’O2.

Then, D’Q = BP =BB’ sin Δ = (T2B’ – T2B) sin Δ

1
= (RL tan 2 ∆ − TL) sin Δ ……(2)
1
Also, B’P = BB’ cos Δ = (RL tan 2 ∆ - TL) cos Δ ……(3)

Now, O2S = O2D’ – D’Q – QS = RL – BP – RS ……(4)

𝑂2𝑆
From triangle O1O2S, cos Δ1 = 𝑅𝐿−𝑅𝑠 …….(5)

Δ2 = Δ – Δ1 ……(6)

O2S = (RL – Rs) sin Δ1 ……(7)

and TS = T1B = QB – QT1 = D’P – O1S

= D’B’ + B’P – O1S ……(8)

Thus, Δ1, Δ2 and Ts are determined from (5) , (6) and (8) above.

53
Case (4):
Given: Δ , TS, TL and Rs.

Required: Δ1, Δ2 and RL

Refer fig given in case (1)

As in case (2), we have

1
T1B’ = B’D’ = Rs tan2 ∆ ……(1)
1
T2Q = (Ts – Rs tan 2 ∆) sin Δ …...(2)
1
and B’P = B’B cos Δ = (Ts –Rs tan 2 ∆ )cos Δ ……(3)

Now O1S = QD’ = QP + PB’ – B’D’ = TL + B’P –B’D’ ……(4)

Join DD’ and prolong it to pass through T2.

1
Evidently, ∟T2D’Q = 2 Δ2
1 𝑇2𝑄 𝐵𝑃
tan 2 ∆2 = 𝑄𝐷′ = 𝑄𝐷′ …….(5)

Δ1 = Δ – Δ2 ……(6)
𝑂1𝑆
RL – RS = O1O2 = sin 𝛥2 …….(7)
𝑂1𝑆
RL = RS + sin 𝛥2

Thus, Δ1, Δ2 and RL can be computed from (5), (6) and (7) above.
Case (5):
Given: TS, TL and RL

Required: Δ1, Δ2 and Rs

Refer fig given in case (3), we have

1
T2B’ = B’D’ = RL tan 2 ∆ ……(1)
1
D’Q = BP = (RL tan 2 ∆ - TL) sin Δ ……(2)
1
and B’P =BB’ cos Δ = (RL tan 2 ∆ - TL) cos Δ …...(3)

Now O1S = QT1 = QB – T1B = D’P – T1B = D’B’+B’P –Ts …..(4)

Join DT1 and prolong it to pass through D’.

54
 1
Evidently ∟D’T1Q = 2 ∆1

1 𝐷′ 𝑄 𝐵𝑃
tan 2 ∆1 = 𝑄𝑇1 = 𝑂1𝑆 ……(5)

Δ2 = Δ – Δ1 ……(6)
𝑂1𝑆
RL – Rs = O1O2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛∆1
𝑂1𝑆
Rs = RL – 𝑠𝑖𝑛∆1 ……(7)

Thus, Δ1, Δ2 and Rs can be computed from (5), (6) and (7).
Setting out a compound curve
The compound curve can be set by deflection angles.

1. After having known any four parts, calculate the rest of the three parts by the
formulae developed above.
2. Knowing TS and TL, locate points T1 and T2 by linear measurements from the point
of intersection.
3. Calculate the length of curves ls and lL. Calculate the chainage of T1, D and T2 as
usual.
4. For the first curve, calculate the tangential angles etc., for setting out the curve by
Rankine’s method.
5. Set the theodolite at T1 and set out the first branch of the curve as already
explained.
6. After having located the last point D (PCC) shift the theodolite to D and set it there.
∆1
With the Vernier set to (360 - ) reading, take a backsight on T1 and plunge the
2
telescope. The line of sight is thus oriented along T1D produced and if the
∆
theodolite is now swung through 21, the line of sight will be directed along the
common tangent DD2. Thus the theodolite is correctly oriented at D.
7. Calculate the tangential angles for the second branch and set out the curve by
observations from D, till T2 is reached.
8. Check the observations by measuring the angle T1DT2, which should be equal to
∆1 +∆2 ∆
(180 - ) or (180 - 2)
2

55
REVERSE CURVE
A reverse curve consists of two circular arcs of same or different radii having their centres
on the opposite sides of the common tangent at the point of reverse curvature. The reverse
curve is also tangent at the point of reverse curvature. The reverse curve is also known as
a serpentine curve or S-curve because of their shape.

Reverse curves are generally used to connect two parallel roads or railways lines, or when
two lines intersect at a very small angle. These are used in hilly terrains and in railways
siding as crossovers. These are also used on highways and railways designed for low
speed. As far as possible, they should not be used on main highways and railways
designed for high speed.
Elements of a reverse curve

Figure shows a general case of a reverse curve in which AV and BV are two straights and
T1CT2 is the reverse curve.

Let

Δ – the angle of deflection (∟A’VB)

R1 – the radius of first circular arc

R2 – the radius of second circular arc.

T1, T2 – the tangent points

C – the point of reverse curvature

56
 1 – the angle subtended at the centre by the first curve

2 – the angle subtended at the centre by the second curve

β1 – the angle of deflection between the first tangent and the common tangent

β2 – the angle of deflection between the second tangent and the common tangent.

Join T1T2. Drop perpendiculars O1M and O2N to line T1T2. Through O1P draw O1P parallel
to T1T2 cutting O2N produced at P.

Let A’, B’ be the points where common tangent intersects the first and the second tangents
respectively.

The points O1, C and O2 are in a line, since C is the point on both curves and A’B’ is
common tangent.

Since A’T1 and A’C are tangents to first curve,

∟A ≤ A’E = ∟T1O1C = 1

Similarly, ∟A’B’V = ∟T2O2C = 2

From Δ A’VB’, 1 =Δ+ 2

or Δ = 1– 2 …(1)

Similarly, from Δ T1 T2V, β1 = Δ + β2

or Δ = β1 – β2 …(2)

From equations (1) and (2), we get

1 – 2 = β1 – β2

or 1 – β1 = 2 – β2 …(a)

Now, ∟T1O1M + ∟O1T1M = 90° = ∟O1T1M + ∟A’T1M

∟T1O1M = ∟A’T1M = β1 …(b)

Similarly, ∟T2O2N = β2 …(c)

T1M = R1 sin β1

T2N = R2 sin β2

MN = O1P = (R1 + R2) sin ( 2 – β2)

therefore, Tangent length T1T2 = T1M + MN + T2N

= R1 sin R1 + (R1 + R2) sin ( 2 – β2) + R2 sin β2

57
O2P = O2N + NP = O2N + O1M

= R2 cos β2 + R1 cos β1 …(d)

and also O2P = (R1 + R2) cos ( 2 – β2) …(e)

therefore, from equations (d) and (e), we get

(R1 + R2) cos ( 2 – β2) = R1 cos β1 + R2 cos β2

R1 cos β1 + R2 cos β2
cos ( 2 – β2) = ………….. (3)
R1 + R2

Since 2 – β2 = 1 – β1,
R1 cos β1 + R2 cos β2
cos ( 1 – β1) = ………………. (4)
R1 + R2

It may be noted that when the angle 1 is greater than 2, the point of intersection occurs
before the reverse curve starts as shown in fig. If 1 is less than 2, point of intersection
occurs after the reverse curve as shown in fig. The equations for both the cases will be
identical.

Thus, in the elements of a reverse curve, these are seven quantities involved, namely, Δ,
1, 2, β1, β2, R1 and R2. Three independent equations are available connecting these seven
quantities. Hence, either four quantities or three quantities and one conditional
relationship should be specified to find out all seven quantities.

Relationship between various parts of a reverse curve

Case I: Intersecting straights:

Given: 1, 2 and ‘d’, the length of common tangent.

Condition: R1 = R2 = R

Required: R and chainages of T1, C, T2, if that of V are given.

Referring to Fig.

58
Let A’B’ = d (given)

Join O1A’ and O2B’.

Since T1A’ and CA’ are tangents to first curve,

𝛼1
∟T1O1A’ = ∟A’OC = 2
𝛼1
A’T1 = R tan 2

thererfore, chainage of first tangent point (T1) = chainage of V – T1V

chainage of C = chainage of T1 + length of first arc

chainage of second tangent point (T2) = chainage of E + length of second arc

Case II: Intersecting straights

Given: Length of the line joining tangent points T1 and T2, angles β1 and β2.

Condition: R1 = R2 = R

Required: Common radius R.

Referring to Fig.,

59
Let T1T2 = L

O1M = R cos P1 = PN

O2N = R cos β2

Let ∟O2O1P = θ. Then from ΔO2O1P,

𝑂2 𝑃 R cos β1 +R cos β2 cos β1 + cos β2
sin θ = = = …(1)
𝑂1 𝑂2 𝑅+𝑅 𝑅

Hence, θ may be found.

Then, L = T1M + MN + NT2

= R sin b1 + (R + R) cos θ + R sin β2

𝐿
therefore, R = …(2)
sin β1+2cos θ+ sin β2

Hence, R can be found.

Case III: Intersecting straights.

Given: T1T2 = L, β1, β2 and R1 or R2.

60
Required: To find the other radius.

Referring to Fig.,

MN = O1P = √𝑂1 𝑂22 + 𝑂2 𝑃2

O1O2 = R1 + R2

O2P = O2N + NP

= O2N + O1M

= R2 cos β2 + R1 cos β1

Case IV: Parallel straights

Given: R1, R2 and the central angles.

Required: Elements of reverse curve.

Referring to Fig.,

61
Let C be the point of reverse curve.

1 – central angle T1O1C

2 – central angle T2O2C

From the property of circular curve, the angle between first tangent and common tangent,

∟A”A’C = ∟T1OC = 1

and ∟B”B’T1 = ∟T2OC = 2

since BB’ ||AA’, ∟A’’A’C = ∟B’’B’T1

i.e. 1 = 2 =
𝛼 𝛼
T1T2 = 2R1 sin 2 + 2R2 sin 2
𝛼
= 2(R1 + R2) sin 2

Distance between two parallel straights, V = C1T2 + C2T2

where C1C2 || to the given straights.

i.e. V = (R1 – R1 cos a) + (R2 – R2 cos a)

= (1 – cos a) (R1 + R2) …(1)

62
 𝛼 𝛼
But from D T1T2D, V = T1T2 sin 2 = L sin 2 …(2)
𝛼 𝛼
From equations (1) and (2), L sin 2 = (R1 + R2) (1 – cos a) = (R1 + R2)2 sin2 2

TRANSITION CURVE
A transition curve is a horizontal curve of varying radius. The radius of such a curve
varies from infinity to a certain fixed value. The transition curve provides a gradual
change from the straight line to the circular curve and again from the circular curve to
the straight line. A transition curve is provided on both ends of a circular curve. The
curvature varies from zero at the tangent point to a definite value just at the junction with
the circular curve. A transition curve is also provided between two branches of a
compound curve or a reverse curve so that the changes in curvature are gradual.
Transition curves are provided in railways tracks to ensure safe running of trains.
Transition curves are required on roads and railways to lessen discomfort at the junction
of a straight line and a curve. On railways, transition curves are used invariably. On
highways, they are seldom used.
Super-elevation:

When a pavement or track is sloped upward towards the outside of a curve, it is said to
be banked or super-elevated. Thus, super-elevation or cant is the amount by which the
outer end of the road or outer rail is raised above the inner one.

When a vehicle moves on a curve, there are two forces acting:

i. weight of the vehicle and

ii. the centrifugal force.

Both the forces pass through the CG of the vehicle. Since the centrifugal force always acts
perpendicular to the axis of rotation, its direction is horizontal acting away from the
centre of the curve. The weight of the vehicle acts vertically. The resultant R of these two
should be normal to the surface for equilibrium.

63
Let,
W = weight of the vehicle

P = centrifugal force

v = speed of the vehicle

g = acceleration due to gravity

B = width of the road

F = distance between the centres of the rails

R = radius of the curve

θ = inclination of the road or rail surface

𝑊 𝑣2
From mechanics, P =
𝑔𝑅

𝑃 𝑣2
or 𝑊 = ………….(1)
𝑔𝑅

If the resultant R is to be normal to the surface, its inclination with W will be the same as
the inclination of the surface with the horizontal, i.e. θ. Hence
𝑃 𝑣2
tan θ = = …………. (2)
𝑊 𝑔𝑅

If e is the cant or super-elevation, we have

𝐵 𝑣2
e = B tan θ = on roads ……. (3)
𝑔𝑅

𝐺 𝑣2
e = G tan θ = on railways …………… (4)
𝑔𝑅

64
Equilibrium cant and cant deficiency:

In case of railways, if the cant is provided as given by equation (4), the load carried by
both the wheels will be the same, the springs will be equally compressed and the
passengers will not tend to lean in either direction. Such a cant is known as equilibrium
cant. If the cant is provided less than this, more weight will be carried by the outer wheels,
the outer springs will be more highly compressed than the inner and passenger will tend
to lean outwards.

The track will have cant deficiency under these conditions.

1
The amount of cant is limited to 6”on a standard gauge having G = 4’112’’. Taking G = 5”
approximately, V’ in mph and R’= radius in feet, the cant e’ is given by
𝑉′×5280 2
5( )
e’ = 60 ×60
× 12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
32 ×𝑅′

4 𝑉 ′2
or e’ = 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝑅′

however, taking V in kmph, G = 1.5 m and R in m, the cant e (cm) is given by

𝑉×1000 2
1.5 ( ) 1.18 𝑉 2
e= 60 ×60
× 100 𝑐𝑚 or e = 𝑐𝑚
9.81 ×𝑅 𝑅

Centrifugal force:
The ratio of the centrifugal force and the weight is called the centrifugal ratio.
𝑃 𝑊𝑣 2 1 𝑉2
Thus, centrifugal ratio = 𝑊 = . =
𝑔𝑅 𝑊 𝑔𝑅

1 1
The maximum value of centrifugal ratio is taken equal to 4 on roads and 8 on railways.

𝑃 1 𝑉2 𝑔𝑅
Thus, for roads, 𝑊 = = , v=√
4 𝑔𝑅 4

𝑃 1 𝑉2 𝑔𝑅
For railways, 𝑊 = = ,v=√
8 𝑔𝑅 8

Super-elevation on highways: side friction factor

Side friction factor (f) is defined as the force transferred by friction parallel to the
pavement per unit force normal to the pavement.

Let, N = the sum of the forces normal to the parallel

T = the sum of the forces parallel to the pavement transferred to it friction

65
 𝑇
f = side friction factor = 𝑁

Resolving the forces P and W normal to the pavement,

N = P sin θ + W cos θ

Resolving the forces P and W tangential to the pavement

T = P sin θ - W cos θ

Now, T = fN

or (P sin θ - W cos θ) = f(P sin θ + W cos θ)

or P(cos θ – f sin θ) = W(sin θ + f cos θ)

𝑃 (sin θ + f cos θ) tanθ + 𝑓
or = =
𝑊 (cos θ – f sin θ) 1−𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ

𝑃 𝑣2
but 𝑊 =
𝑔𝑅

𝑣2 tanθ + 𝑓
therefore =
𝑔𝑅 1−𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ

VERTICAL CURVE
Vertical curves are provided when a highway or a railway crosses a ridge or a valley.
When the grade line of a highway or railway changes grade such as while crossing low
ridges or valleys, provision must be made for a vehicle to negotiate this transition
smoothly and to provide vision over the crest of a hill for enough ahead to give the driver
of the vehicle ample time to react to a dangerous situation. A curve used to connect two
different grade lines of railways or highways is called a Vertical Curve. Such a curve is
introduced to round off the angle and to obtain a gradual change in the gradient so that
the vehicle passing over it may not experience a shock or a sudden jerk. It also keeps the
gradients of the roads within certain limits and provides a minimum sight distance. A
parabola is most commonly used as a vertical curve.

The general equation of a parabola with a vertical axis can be written as

y = ax2 + bx ……….. (1)

𝑑𝑦
The slope of this curve at any point is given by = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ……… (2)
𝑑𝑥

The rate of change of slope or rate of change of grade (r) is given by

𝑑2 𝑦
= 𝑟 = 2𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 …………. (3)
𝑑𝑥 2

66
Thus, the grade changes uniformly throughout the curve, which is a desired condition.
The grade:
The grade or gradient of a rail-road or highway is expressed in two ways:

i. As a percentage: eg. 2% or 3 %
ii. As a vertical in n horizontal: eg. 1 in 100 or 1 in 400

A grade is said to be upgrade or +ve grade when elevations along it increase, while it is
said to be downgrade or –ve grade when the elevations decrease along the direction of
motion.

Rate of change of grade (r): Equations (2) gives the grades at any point on the curve. The
gradient changes from the point to point on the curve, but the rate of change of grade,
given by equation, (3) is constant in a parabola.

Types of vertical curves:

1) An upgrade (+g %) followed by a downgrade (-g %)

67
2) A downgrade (-g %) followed by an upgrade (+g %)

3) An upgrade (+g %) followed by another upgrade (+g %): g2 > g1

68
4) An upgrade (+g %) followed by another upgrade (+g %): g1 > g2

5) A downgrade (-g %) followed by another downgrade (-g %): g2 > g1

69
 6) A downgrade (-g %) followed by another downgrade (-g %): g1 > g2

Length of vertical curve:

The length of the vertical curve can be obtained by dividing the algebraic difference of
the two grades by the rate of change of grade, due regard being paid to the sign of the
grade. Thus,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑔1 −𝑔2
Length of curve (L) = = chains
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑟

Computation and setting out a vertical curve:

In vertical curves, all distances along the curve are measured horizontally and all offsets
from the tangents to the curve are measured vertically. The length of the curve is thus its
horizontal projections, without appreciable error since the curve is quite flat.

70
Let, OX and OY = the axes of the rectangular ordinates passing through the beginning
(O) of the vertical curve

OA = tangent having + g% slope

AB = tangent having – g% slope

Q = any point on the curve having coordinates (x,y)

Draw PQR, a vertical line through Q

The equation of the parabola can be written as:

y = ax2 + bx
𝑑𝑦
therefore, = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
At x=0, = +g1
𝑑𝑥

g1 = 2a(0) + b or b = g1

hence, the eqn of the parabola is

y = ax2 + g1x

Let, PQ = h = vertical distance between the tangent and the corresponding point Q on the
cuve

= tangent correction

PQ = PR-QR

but PR = g1x and QR = y

71
PQ = h = g1x – y

but, g1x – y = - ax2

hence h = g1x – y = - ax2

or h = C x2

or h = kN2

where N is counted from O at the beginning of the curve.

Thus, difference in elevation between a vertical curve and a tangent to it varies as the
square of its horizontal distance from the point of tangency. This difference in elevation
is also known as the tangent correction.

72
 UNIT – III SURVEY ADJUSTMENTS (Total hours: 9)
Errors – sources, precautions, and corrections – classification of errors – true and most
probable values – weighted observations – method of equal shifts – principle of least
square – normal equation – correlates – level nets – adjustments of a simple
triangulation networks

ERRORS
Error is the difference, after blunders have been eliminated, between a measured or
calculated value of a quantity and the true or established value of that quantity.

SOURCES

Errors in measurements stem from three sources: personal, instrumental, and natural.

Personal Errors:

Personal errors are caused by the physical limitations of the human senses of sight and
touch. An example of a personal error is an error in the measured value of a horizontal
angle, caused by the inability to hold a range pole perfectly in the direction of the plumb
line. Personal errors can be either systematic or random. Personal systematic errors are
caused by an observer tendency to react the same way under the same conditions. When
there is no such tendency, the personal errors are considered to be random.

Common sense, self-calibration (estimating personal errors by experiments and

experience) and attention to proper procedures generally keep such errors to a minimum.

Instrument Error:

Instrumental errors are caused by imperfections in the design, construction, and

adjustment of instruments and other equipment. Instruments can be calibrated to
overcome these imperfections. Examples of instrument error are:

 Imperfect linear or angular scales.

 Instrument axes are not perfectly parallel or perpendicular to each other.
 Misalignment of various part of the instrument.
 Optical distortions causing “what you see is not exactly what you are supposed to
see”.

Most instrumental errors are eliminated by using proper procedures, such as observing
angles in direct and reverse modes, balancing foresights and back sights and repeating
measurements. Since not all instrument errors can be eliminated by procedures,

73
instruments must be periodically checked, tested and adjusted (or calibrated.)
Instruments must be on a maintenance schedule to prevent inaccurate measurements.

Natural Errors:

Natural errors result from natural physical conditions such as atmospheric pressure,
temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, and atmospheric refraction. Examples of natural
errors are:

 A steel tape whose length varies with changes in temperature.

 Sun spots activity and its impact on the ionosphere, hence on GPS surveying.

Natural errors are mostly systematic and should be corrected or modeled in the
adjustment. Some natural errors such as the effect of curvature and refraction can be
eliminated by a procedure. The leveling procedure to eliminate curvature and refraction
corrections is to average foresights and backsights.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ERRORS

Excluding gross errors, which were discussed above, there are two general types of
errors, systematic and random.

Systematic Errors:

A systematic error is an error that will always have the same magnitude and the same
algebraic sign under the same conditions.

In most cases, systematic errors are caused by physical and natural conditions that vary
in accordance with known mathematical or physical laws. Systematic errors are caused
by:

 Equipment out of calibration

 Use of insufficiently accurate computation equations (too few terms in a series.)
 Failure to apply necessary geometric reductions of measurements.
 Failure to apply necessary reductions of measurements due to weather related
conditions.
 Personal biases of the observer.
 Use of incorrect units (feet instead of meters.)

A systematic error of a single kind is cumulative. However, several kinds of systematic

errors occurring in any one measurement could compensate for each other. Some
examples of systematic errors are:

74
  EDM that measures 99.95 feet while indicating a measurement of 100.00 feet.
 Refraction in vertical angles.
 Observer’s tendency to sight on near or distant sights in a slightly different
manner.

Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor must recognize the
conditions that cause such errors. Once the conditions are known, the effect of these
errors can be minimized as follows:

 Turning angles (with theodolite or total station) in direct and reverse modes.
 Balancing (maintaining similar distances between level and rod) foresights and
backsights.
 Calibrating all surveying equipment.
 Calibrating EDM’s yearly at a baseline calibration site.

When systematic errors cannot be eliminated by procedural changes, corrections are

applied to the measurements. These corrections are documented in the user manuals of
the equipment or in surveying textbooks.

Undeterminable systematic errors can also be modeled into the adjustment computation,
but surveyors should not rely on this. They must eliminate all the known systematic
errors prior to proceeding with any adjustment of the survey data.

Random (Accidental) Errors:

A random error (or accidental error) is an error produced by irregular causes that are
beyond the control of the observer. They do not follow any established rule which can be
used to compute the error for a given condition or circumstance of the observation. The
occurrence, magnitude, and algebraic sign of a random error is truly random and cannot
be predicted. For a single measurement, it is the error remaining in the measurement after
all possible systematic and gross errors are eliminated. An important characteristic of the
random error is that if we repeat the same measurement many times, the sum of all these
errors tends to be zero. This is yet another good reason to make extra measurements
beyond the required minimum.

An example of a random error is the personal reading error of any scale. An observer
estimates the final reading that can be either high or low in estimation since exactness
cannot occur.

Unlike systematic errors, corrections for random errors cannot be computed directly.
Random errors must be compensated by adjustments. The adjustment process computes
adjusted observations for the actual ones in such a way that the remaining random errors
are minimized. An example of such a process is computing an average distance from

75
several measurements. The average represents the adjusted value for the distance for
which the random error is minimized.

Random error obey the laws of chance or the random theory of statistics. Therefore, they
are analyzed by applying the laws of probability. A complete discussion on the
mathematical laws of probability is beyond the scope of this manual. The reference list at
the beginning of this manual cites some excellent publications concerning the topic.

DEFINITIONS:

1. Independent quantity: An independent quantity is the one whose value is

independent of the values of other quantities. It bears no relation with any other
quantity and hence change in the other quantities does not affect the value of this
quantity. Eg: reduced levels of several bench marks.

2. Conditioned quantity: A conditioned quantity is the one whose value is

dependent upon the values of one or more quantities. Its value bears a rigid
relationship to some other quantity. It is also called dependent quantity. Eg: in a
triangle ABC, ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180. In this conditioned equation, any two angles
may be regarded as independent and the third as dependent or conditioned.

3. Direct observation: An observation is the numerical value of a measured quantity,

and may be either direct or indirect. A direct observation is the one made directly
on the quantity being determined. Eg: the measurement of a base, the single
measurement of an angle etc.

4. Indirect observation: An indirect observation is one in which the observed value

is deduced from the measurement of some related quantities. Eg: the measurement
of angle by repetition.

5. Observed value of a quantity: An observed value of quantity is the value

obtained when it is corrected for all the known errors.

6. True error: A true error is the difference between the true value of a quantity and
its observed value.

7. Most probable error: The most probable error is defined as that quantity which
added to, and subtracted from, the most probable value fixes the limits within
which it is an even chance the true value of the measured quantity must lie.

8. Residual error: A residual error is the difference between the most probable value
of a quantity and its observed value.

76
 9. Observation equation: An observed equation is the relation between the observed
quantity and its numerical value.

10. Conditioned equation: A conditioned equation is the equation expressing the

relation existing between the several dependent quantities.

The law of accidental errors:

Investigations of observations of various types show that accidental errors follow a

definite law, the law of probability. This law defines the occurrence of errors and can be
expressed in the form of equation which is used to compute the probable value or the
probable precision of a quantity. The most important features of accidental errors which
usually occur are:

 Small errors tend to be more frequent than the large ones; that is they are the most
probable
 Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that
is, they are equally probable
 Large errors occurs infrequently and are impossible

Probability curve: The theory of probability describes these features by stating that the
relative frequencies of errors of different extents can be represented by a curve as shown
in the fig.

This curve, called the curve of error or probability curve, forms the basis for the
mathematical derivation of theory of errors.

77
The formula for probable error is difficult to derive. It is stated here categorically:

Probable error of a single measurement is given by

∑ 𝑉2
Es = ± 0.6745 √ 𝑛−1

Where Es = probable error of single observation

v = difference between any single observation and mean of the series

n = number of observations in the series

Probable error of an average: Since the average of n measurements is the sum of the
√𝑛
measurements divided by n, the probable error of the average of n measurements in 𝑛
times the probable error of one measurement. Thus, probable error of an average or mean
is given by

√𝑛 ∑ 𝑣2 ∑ 𝑣2 𝐸𝑠
Em = 0.6754 √ = 0.6754 √ =
𝑛 (𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1) √𝑛

Probable error of a sum: When a measurement is the result of the sums and differences of
several (n) observations having different probable errors E1, E2, E3… En, the probable
error of the measurement is the square root of the sum of the squares of the probable
errors of the several of the several observations. Thus,

Probable error of measurement = √𝐸12 + 𝐸22 + 𝐸32 + ⋯ 𝐸𝑛2

Most probable value:

 The most probable value of a quantity is equal to the arithmetic mean if the
observations are of equal weights
 The most probable value of a quantity is equal to the weighted arithmetic if mean
in case of observation of unequal weights

Average error: An average error in a series of observation of equal weight is defined as the
arithmetic mean of separate errors, taken all with the same sign either plus or minus

Mean square error: The mean square error is equal to the square root of the arithmetic mean
of the squares of the individual errors. Thus,

𝑣12 +𝑣22 +𝑣32 ……… ∑ 𝑣2

m.s.e = ±√ = √
𝑛 𝑛

78
TRUE VALUE OF QUANTITY

The true value of a quantity is the value which is absolutely free from errors. The true
value of a quantity is indeterminate since the true error is never known.
MOST PROBABLE VALUE:
The most probable value of a quantity is the one which has more chances of being true
than has any other. It is deduced from the several measurements on which it is based.
WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS

The weight of an observation is a number giving an indication of its precision and

trustworthiness when making a comparison between several quantities of different
worth. Thus, if a certain observation is of weight 4, it means that it is four times as much
reliable as an observation of weight 1. When two quantities or observations are assumed
to be equally reliable, the observed values are said to be equal weight or of unit weight.
Observations are called weighted when different weights are assigned to them.
Observations are required to be weighted when they are made with unequal care and
under dissimilar conditions. Weights are assigned to the observations or quantities
observed in direct proportions to the number of observations
METHOD OF EQUAL SHIFTS
In this method, the discrepancy in the angular measurements is equally divided between
the three angles of a triangle. For any closed polygon with central stations, the equations
of conditions to be satisfied are:

i. Figure equation:
The sum of angles of a triangle = 180

ii. Station equation or local equation:

The sum of angles at a station = 360

iii. Side equation:

∑ (log sin left angle) = ∑ (log sin right angle)

PRINCIPLE OF LEAST SQUARES

It is found from the probability equation that the most probable values of a series of errors
arising from observations of equal weights are those for which the sum of the squares is
a minimum. The fundamental law of least squares is derived from this. According to the
principle of least squares, the most probable value of an observed quantity available from
a given set of observations is the one for which the sum of the squares of the residual
79
errors is a minimum. When a quantity is being deduced from a series of observations, the
residual errors will be the difference between the adopted value and the several observed
values.

Let V1, V2, V3 etc. be the observed values

x = most probable value

then x – V1 = e1

x – V2 = e2

x – V3 = e3

x – Vn = en ………. (1)

where e’s are the respective errors of the observed values.

If M = arithmetic mean, then

𝑉1 +𝑉2 +𝑉3 …..+𝑉𝑛 ∑𝑉
M= = ……. (2)
𝑛 𝑛

Where n = number of observed values.

From eqn (1),

nx - ∑V = ∑e
∑𝑉 ∑𝑒 ∑𝑉
or x = + , but +𝑀 from (2)
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑𝑒
x=M+ …….. (3)
𝑛
∑𝑒
If n is large and e is kept small by making precise measurement, becomes practically
𝑛
infinitesimal with respect to M.

Hence, x = M

Thus, the arithmetic mean is the true value where the number of observed value is very
large.

Let r1, r2, r3….rn be the residual (i.e. the difference between the mean values and the
observed values). Thus,

M – V1 = r1

M – V2 = r2

M – V3 = r3

80
M – Vn = rn ……………… (4)

Adding the above, nM - ∑V = ∑r

∑𝑉 ∑𝑟
Or M = +
𝑛 𝑛

Under the preceding conditions and by preceding equation

∑𝑉 ∑𝑟
M= and hence = 0 ……… (5)
𝑛 𝑛

Hence the sum of the residuals equals zero and the sum of plus residual equals the sum
of the minus residuals.

Let N be any other value of the unknown other than the arithmetic mean. We have,

N-V1 = r1’

N-V2 = r2’

N-V3 = r3’

N-Vn = rn’ ………… (6)

Squaring eqn (4) and adding, we get

∑ 𝑟 2 = 𝑛𝑀2 + ∑ 𝑉 2 − 2𝑀 ∑ 𝑉 ………… (7)

Similarly, squaring eqn (6), we get

∑ 𝑟 ′2 = 𝑛𝑁 2 + ∑ 𝑉 2 − 2𝑁 ∑ 𝑉 ………….. (8)

Substituting nM =∑V in eqn (7) we get,

∑ 𝑟 2 = 𝑀 ∑ 𝑉 − 2𝑀 ∑ 𝑉 + ∑ 𝑉 2 = ∑ 𝑉 2 − 𝑀 ∑ 𝑉

∑ 𝑉2 𝑉
= ∑ 𝑉2 − , by putting M = ∑ 𝑛
𝑛

∑ 𝑉2
Or ∑ 𝑉 2 = ∑ 𝑟 2 + …… (9)
𝑛

Substituting ∑ 𝑉 2 of eqn (9) in eqn (8), we get

′2 2
∑ 𝑉2 2
∑𝑟 = 𝑛𝑁 + ∑ 𝑟 + − 2𝑁 ∑ 𝑉
𝑛
∑𝑉 ∑ 𝑉2
= ∑ 𝑟 2 + 𝑛(𝑁 2 − 2𝑁 +
𝑛 𝑛2
∑𝑉 2
= ∑ 𝑟 2 + 𝑛(𝑁 − )
𝑛

81
 ∑𝑉 2
As (𝑁 − ) is always positive, ∑ 𝑟 2 is less than ∑ 𝑟 ′2. That is, the sum of the squares of
𝑛
the residuals found by the use of the arithmetic mean is a minimum. This is, thus, the
fundamental law of least squares.

Laws of weights:

From the method of least squares the following laws of weights are established:

(1) The weight of the arithmetic mean of the measurements of unit weight is equal to the
number of observations

(2) The weight of the weighted arithmetic mean is equal to the sum of the individual
weights

(3) The weight of algebraic sum of two or more quantities is equal to the reciprocal of the
sum of reciprocals of individual weights.

(4) If a quantity of given weight is multiplied by a factor, weight of the result is obtained
by dividing its given weight by the square of the factor.

(5) If a quantity of given weight is divided by a factor, the weight of the result is obtained
multiplying its given weight by the square of the factor.

(6) If an equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of the resulting equation is
equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the equation.

(7) The weight of an equation remains unchanged, if all the signs of the equation are
changed or if the equation is added to or subtracted from a constant.
Determination of probable error

I. Direct observation of equal weight on a single unknown quantity

a) p.e of single observation of unit weight
b) p.e of single observation of weight w
c) p.e of single arithmetic mean
II. Direct observation of unequal weight on a single unknown quantity
a) p.e of single observation of unit weight
b) p.e of single observation of weight w
c) p.e of single arithmetic mean
III. Computed quantities

Case 1. Direct observation of equal weight on a single unknown quantity

If observations on a single quantity are made with equal weights, its most probable value
will be equal to the arithmetic mean. Knowing the most probable value, the residual error

82
of each individual measurement can be found by subtracting the most probable value
from each observed value. Then,

∑ 𝑉2
a) p.e of single observation of unit weight = Es = ± 0.6745 √ 𝑛−1

b) p.e of single observation of weight w

𝑝. 𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑡 𝐸𝑠
=
√𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 √𝑤

∑ 𝑣2 𝐸𝑠
c) p.e of single arithmetic mean = ±0.6754 √ =
𝑛(𝑛−1) √𝑛

Case 2. Direct observation of unequal weight on a single unknown quantity

When observations are made with unequal weights, the most probable value of the
observed quantity is equal to the weighted arithmetic mean of the observed quantities.

From the principle of least squares, the most probable values of the observed quantities
are those that render the sum of the weighted squares of the residual errors is a minimum.

Let V1, V2, V3…. be observed quantities with weight w1, w2, w3, etc,

Then, by the above principle,

w1 v12 + w2 v22 + w3 v32+………+ wn vn2 = a minimum

where v1 = N – V1 ; v2 = N – V2 ; v3 = N – V3 ; vn = N – Vn

where N is the most probable value of quantity.

𝑤1 𝑉1+𝑤2 𝑉2+𝑤3 𝑉3+⋯..𝑤𝑛 𝑉𝑛
Hence N = which proves the proposition that the most
𝑤1+𝑤2+𝑤3+⋯𝑤𝑛
probable value of the observed quantity is equal to the weighted arithmetic mean of the
observed quantities.

∑ 𝑤𝑉 2
a) p.e of single observation of unit weight = Es = ± 0.6745 √
𝑛−1

b) p.e of single observation of weight w

𝑝. 𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑡 𝐸𝑠 ∑ 𝑤𝑉 2
= = ± 0.6745 √
√𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 √𝑤 𝑤(𝑛 − 1)

83
 ∑ 𝑤𝑣 2
c) p.e of single arithmetic mean = ±0.6754 √
∑ 𝑤 (𝑛−1)

Case 3. Probable error of computed quantities

The probable error of computed quantities follow the following laws depending upon
the relation between the compound quantity and the observed quantity

i. If a compound quantity is equal to sum or difference of the observed quantity plus

or minus a constant, the probable error of the computed quantity is the same as
that of the observed quantity
ii. If a compound quantity is equal to an observed quantity multiplied by a constant,
the p.e. of computed quantity is equal to the p.e. of observed quantity multiplied
by the constant
iii. If a compound quantity is equal to the sum of two or more observed quantities,
the p.e. of the computed quantity is equal to the square root of sum of the square
of p.e.’s of observed quantities
iv. If a compound quantity is a function of an observed quantity, its probable error is
obtained by multiplying the p.e. of the observed quantity with its differentiation
with respect to that quantities
v. If a compound quantity is a function of two more observed quantities, its probable
error is equal to the square root of summation if the squares of the p.e. of the
observed quantities multiplied by its differentiation with respect to that quantity
Distribution of error of the field measurements:

Whenever observations are made in the field, it is always necessary to check for the
closing error, if any. The closing error should be distributed to the observed quantities.
For example, the sum of the angles measured at a central angle should be 360; if the sum
is not equal to 360, the error should be distributed to the observed angles after giving
proper weightage to the observations. The following rules should be applied for the
distribution of error:

 The correction to be applied to an observation is inversely proportional to the

weight of the observation
 The correction to be applied to an observation is directly proportional to the
square of the probable error’
 In case of line of levels, the correction to be applied is proportional to the length

84
NORMAL EQUATION

A normal equation is the one which is formed by multiplying each equation by the
coefficient of the unknown whose normal equation is to be found and by adding the
equation thus formed. As the number of normal equation is the same as the number of
unknowns, the most probable values of the unknowns can be found from the equations.

Consider a round of angles observed at a central station, the horizon closing with three
angles x, y and z which are geometrically fixed by the condition equation.

x + y + z = 360 = -d (say)

If all the angles are of equal weight, the error e in the round will be (x + y + z + d). The
1
most probable value of each angle can then be obtained by applying a correction of 3 𝑒 to
each observed angle.

If, however, one angle is measured directly and the others indirectly, the error equation
takes the form

e = ax + by + cz + d …….(1)

If the measurements are repeated, giving different values (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), (x3, y3, z3)
etc., then we have

e1 = ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d

e2 = ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d

e3 = ax3 + by3 + cz3 + d etc. etc.

By the theory of least squares,

∑e2 = ∑(ax + by + cz + d)2 should be minimum

Differentiating this, in order, with respect to x, y and z and equating each expression so
obtained to zero, we get

∑a(ax + by + cz + d) = 0 (normal eqn for x) …….(2)

∑b(ax + by + cz + d) = 0 (normal eqn for y) …….(3)

∑c(ax + by + cz + d) = 0 (normal eqn for z) …….(4)

Eqns (2), (3) and (4) are nothing but the fundamental equation (1) multiplied by the
coefficient of x, y and z.

These equations are known as the normal equations the solution of which will lead to the
most probable value of x, y and z.

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Thus, equation (2) is the normal equation for x, equation (3) is the normal equation for y,
and equation (4) is the normal equation for z.

Now,

∑a(ax + by + cz + d) = a[(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) + (ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d) + (ax3 + by3 + cz3 + d)
+ ……..]

Similarly, ∑b(ax + by + cz + d) = b[(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) + (ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d) + (ax3 + by3
+ cz3 + d) + ……..]

And ∑c(ax + by + cz + d) = c[(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) + (ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d) + (ax3 + by3 + cz3
+ d) + ……..]

Hence if the observations are equal weight, we derive the following normal equations:

Rule 1: To form a normal equation for each of the unknown quantities, multiply each
observation equation by the algebraic coefficient of that unknown quantity in that
equation and add the result.

If, however, each set of the observations (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), (xn, yn, zn) have different
weights w1, w2,…..wn respectively, the error equations will take the following form:

e1 = ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d (weight w1)

e2 = ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d (weight w2)

en = axn + byn + czn + d (weight wn) ……………. (I)

By the theory of least squares,

∑we2 = ∑w(ax + by + cz + d)2 should be minimum

Differentiating this, in order, with respect to x, y and z and equating each expression so
obtained to zero, we get

∑wa(ax + by + cz + d) = 0 (normal eqn for x) …….(II)

∑wb(ax + by + cz + d) = 0 (normal eqn for y) …….(III)

∑wc(ax + by + cz + d) = 0 (normal eqn for z) …….(IV)

Eqns (II), (III) and (IV) are nothing but the fundamental equation (I) multiplied by the
coefficient of x, y and z respectively, and the weight of each equation. These are therefore
normal equations in x, y and z respectively.

Now, ∑wa(ax + by + cz + d) = a[w1(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) + w2(ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d)… +

wn(axn + byn + czn + d)]

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∑wb(ax + by + cz + d) = b[w1(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) + w2(ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d)…. + wn(axn +
byn + czn + d)]

∑wc(ax + by + cz + d) = c[w1(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d) + w2(ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d)….. + wn(axn +

byn + czn + d)]

Hence if the observation equations are of different weights, we derive the following rule
for forming the normal equations:

Rule 2: To form the normal equation for each of the unknown quantities, multiply each
observation equation by the product of the algebraic coefficient of that unknown
quantities in that equation and the weight of that observation and add the results.
Determination of most probable values:
In practice, the following cases may arise of which the most probable value may be
required to be determined:

 Direct observations of equal weights

 Direct observations of unequal weights
 Indirectly observed quantities involving unknowns of equal weights
 Indirectly observed quantities involving unknowns of unequal weights
 Observation equation accompanied by condition equation
Alternative method of differences:

The above direct method of solving the normal equations is very laborious since it
involves large numbers. In order to make them as small as possible, we can solve the
equation by method of differences. A set of values is assumed for the most probable
values of the unknown quantities and the most probable series of errors are determined
by normal equation. The error so found are then added algebraically to the observed
values to get the most probable values of the measurements. The procedure for the
solution of the problem is as follows:

i. Let k1, k2, k3, etc. be the corrections to the observed values
ii. Replace the observation equations by equations in terms of k 1, k2, k3, etc., to
express the discrepancy between the observed results and those given by the
assumed values, always subtracting the latter from the former
iii. Form the normal equations in term of k1, k2, k3 etc., and solve them to get k1, k2, k3,
etc.
iv. Add these algebraically to the quantities to get their most probable values

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CORRELATES

Correlates or correlatives are the unknown multiples or independent constants used for
finding most probable values of unknown. In the method of correlated, all the condition
equations are collected. To this is added one more equation of condition imposed by the
theory of least squares.

Suppose, for example, the angles A, B, C, D are measured at a station closing the horizon
the observed values of angles, A, B, C, D may be of weights w1, w2, w3 and w4
respectively.

Let E be the total residual error in the summation of the four angles such that

A+B+C+D-360 = E

Let e1, e2, e3 and e4 be the corrections to be applied to the observed angles. Then, we have
one equation of condition:

∑e = e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 = E ……….. (1)

Further the least square condition requires that

∑(we2) = w1e12 + w2e22 + w3e32 + w4e42 = a minimum ……….. (2)

Thus, we get two condition eqns. Differentiating these two eqns, we get

1 2 3 4 = 0 ……….. (3)

1 e1 1 + w2e2 2 + w3e3 3 + w4e4 4 = 0 ……….. (4)

Multiplying the above eqn by a correlative -λ and add the result to eqn (4). Thus,

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-λ1 1 –λ1 2 –λ1 3 –λ1 4 =0
w1 e1 δe1 + w2 e2 δe2 + w3 e3 δe3 + w4 e4 δe4 = 0
Therefore, ..(5)
δe1(w1 e1−λ1)+ δe2 (w2 e2−λ1)+ δe3(w3 e3−λ1)+ δe4(w4 e4−λ1) = 0

Since 1 2 3 are definite quantities and are independent of each other, their
coefficient must vanish independently or

λ1 = w1 e1 = w2 e2 = w3 e3 = w4 e4
λ λ λ λ
from which e1 = 𝑤1 ; e2 = 𝑤1 ; e3 =𝑤1 ; e4 =𝑤1 ……… (6)
1 2 3 4

eqn (6) shows that the corrections to be applied are inversely proportional to the weight.
To fine the value of the correlative λ1, substitute eqn (6) in eqn (1). Thus,

λ1 λ λ λ 1 1 1 1
+𝑤1 +𝑤1 +𝑤1 = E or λ1 (𝑤 +𝑤 +𝑤 +𝑤 ) = E …….. (7)
𝑤1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

From eqn (7) the value of the correlative can be calculated since w1, w2, w3, w4 and E are
known.

ADJUSTMENTS OF SIMPLE TRIANGULATION NETWORKS

In a triangulation system, all the measured angles should be corrected so that they satisfy:

i. Conditions imposed by the station of observation, known as the station

adjustment
ii. Conditions imposed by the figure known as the figure adjustment

The most accurate method is that of least squares, and the most rigid application
follows when the entire system is adjusted in one mass, all the angles being
simultaneously involved. The process is exceeding laborious, even in nets
comprising few figures. As such, it is always convenient to break it into three parts
which are each adjusted separately.

 Single angle adjustment

 Station adjustments
 Figure adjustments
Single angle adjustments:

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Generally several observations are taken for a single angle. The corrections to
be applied are inversely proportional to the weight and directly proportional
to the square of probable errors. In the case of the measurement of the angle
with equal weights, the most probable value is equal to the arithmetic mean of
the observations, the most probable value of the angle is equal to the weighted
arithmetic mean of the observed angles.
Station adjustments:

Station adjustment is the determination of the most probable values of two or

more angles measured at a station so as to satisfy the condition of being
geometrically consistent. There are three cases of station adjustments:

 When the horizon is closed with angles of equal weights

 When the horizon is closed with angles from unequal weights
 When several angles are measured at a station individually, and in
combination.

Case 1: When the horizon is closed with angles of equal weights:

Angles A, B and C have been measured and the horizon is closed.

Hence A+B+C should be equal to 360. If this condition is not satisfied,
the error is distributed equally to all the three angles.

Case 2: When the horizon is closed with angles from unequal weights:

If the angles observed are of unequal weight, discrepancy is

distributed among the angles inversely as the respective weights.

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Case 3: When several angles are measured at a station individually,
and in combination:

The three angles A, B and C are measured individually. Also the

summation angles A+B and A+B+C have been measured. As
discussed earlier, the most probable value of the angles can be found
by forming the normal equations for the unknowns and solving them
simultaneously.

Figure adjustments:
The determination of the most probable values of the angles involved
in any geometrical figure so as to fulfil geometrical conditions is called
the figure adjustments. The triangulation system mainly consists of
the following geometrical figures:
 Triangles
 Quadrilaterals
 Polygon with central figure

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 UNIT – IV ADVANCES IN SURVEYING (Total hours: 9)
Electro-optical system, measuring principle, working principle, source of error, total
station, microwave system measuring and working principle, sources of error, GPS –
fundamentals – introduction space, control segments – observation principle, orbit
representation
Introduction:

Revolutionary changes have taken place in last few years in surveying instruments
that are used for measuring level differences, distances and angles. This has become
possible because of introduction of electronics in these measurements. With rapid
advancements in the technology and availability of cheaper and innovative electronic
components, these instruments have become affordable and easy to use.

Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMIs)

EDMIs were first introduced in 1950's by Geodimeter Inc. Early instruments were
large, heavy, complicated and expensive. Improvements in electronics have given lighter,
simpler, and less expensive instruments. EDMIs can be manufactured for use with
theodolites (both digital and optical) or as an independent unit. These can be mounted
on standard units or theodolites or can also be tribrach mounted.

The electronic methods depend on the value of velocity of Electromagnetic

radiation (EMR), which itself is dependent upon measurement of distance and time.
Hence, there is no inherent improvement in absolute accuracy by these methods. The
advantage is mainly functional - precise linear measurement can now be used for longer
base lines, field operations can be simplified and trilateration can replace or augment
triangulation.
Principle of EDMI

The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-magnetic (EM) beam

from one transmitter at the master station to a reflector at the remote station and receiving
it back at the master station. The instrument measures slope distance between transmitter
and receiver by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different frequencies, and
then measuring the phase difference at the master station between the outgoing and the
incoming signals. This establishes the following relationship for a double distance (2D):

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 Where m is unknown integer number of complete wavelengths contained within
double distance, Φ; is the measured phase difference and λ is modulation wavelength,
and k is constant. Multiple modulation frequencies are used to evaluate m, the
ambiguity.

Various EDMIs in use are based on two methods:

 Using timed pulse technique such as those used in variety of radar instruments.
 Using measurements of a phase difference which may be equated to one part of a
cycle expressed in units of time or length.

Pulse methods have advantages over the phase difference methods but their weight
and power requirement is such that they cannot be classed lightweight portable
instruments.
(i) Pulse techniques
All such measurements incorporate a very precise measurement of time usually
expressed in units of nanoseconds (1x10-9 s), which an EM wave takes to travel from one
station to another. In this method, a short, intensive pulse radiation is transmitted to a
reflector target, which is immediately transmitted back to the receiver. As shown in
Figure, the distance (D) is computed as the velocity of light (V) multiplied by half the
time (Δt/2) the pulse took to travel back to the receiver (D = V x Δt/2).

93
(ii) Phase difference techniques

The relationship between wavelength and associated phase difference can be

illustrated by the Figure 1.5 which shows that for a given complete cycle of EM wave, the
phase difference can be expressed both in terms of angular (degrees) and linear (fraction
of wavelengths) units. In phase difference method used by majority of EDMI, the
instrument measures the amount δλ by which the reflected signal is out of phase with the
emitted signal.

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Classification of EDMI
EDMI can be classified on the basis of three parameters:

(i) wavelength used

(ii) working range
(iii) achievable accuracy

Classification on the basis of wavelength

Present generation EDMIs use the following types of wavelengths:

(a) infrared
(b) laser
(c) microwaves

The first two types of systems are also known as electro-optical whereas the third
category is also called the electronic system.

Electro-optical Systems

1. Infrared Systems employing these frequencies allow use of optical corner

reflectors (special type of reflectors to return the signal, explained later) but need
optically clear path between two stations. These systems use transmitter at one
end of line and a reflecting prism or target at the other end.
2. Laser: These systems also use transmitter at one end of line and may or may not
use a reflecting prism or target at the other end. However, the reflector-less laser
instruments are used for short distances (100 m to 350 m). These use light reflected
off the feature to be measured (say a wall).
Electronic System
Microwave

 These systems have receiver/transmitter at both ends of measured line.

Microwave instruments are often used for hydrographic surveys normally up to
100 km. Hydrographic EDMIs have generally been replaced by Global Positioning
System (GPS) (GPS has been explained in a separate module in these lectures).
 These can be used in adverse weather conditions (such as fog and rain) unlike
infrared and laser systems. However, uncertainties caused by varying humidity
over measurement length may result in lower accuracy and prevent a more
reliable estimate of probable accuracy.

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 Existence of undesirable reflections and signal leakage from transmitter to the
receiver requires the use of another transmitter at the remote station (also called the slave
station). The slave station is operated at different carrier frequency in order to separate
two signals. This additional transmitter and receiver add to weight of equipment. Multi-
path effects at microwave frequency also add to slight distance error which can be
reduced by taking series of measurements using different frequency.
Classification on the basis of range

EDMIs are also available as:

1. long range radio wave equipment for ranges up to 100 km

2. medium range microwave equipment with frequency modulation for ranges up
to 25 km
3. short range electro-optical equipment using amplitude modulated infra-red or
visible light for ranges up to 5 km

Classification on the basis of accuracy

Accuracy of EDMI is generally stated in terms of constant instruments error and

measuring error proportional to the distance being measured: ± (a mm + b ppm).

1. The first part in this expression indicates a constant instrument error that is
independent of the length of the line measured.
2. The second component is the distance related error.

Here, a is a result of errors in phase measurements (θ) and zero error (z),
whereas b results from error in modulation frequency (f) and the group refractive index
(ng). The term group index pertains to the refractive index for a combination of waves-
carrier wave and multiple modulated waves in EDMI. θ and z are independent of
distance but f and ng are functions of distance and are expressed as

In above equations, σ indicates the standard error. Most EDMI have accuracy
levels from ± (3 mm + 1 ppm) to ± (10 mm + 10 ppm). For short distances, part a is more
significant; for long distances b will have large contribution.

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Selected electronic distance measuring instruments

Emission Range (m) Accuracy

Instrument Manufacturer
source (SIngle Prism) (mean square error)

Short Range

DI1001 Leica Infrared 1-800 ± (5 mm + 5 ppm)

RED M ini 2 Sokkia Infrared 800 ± (5 mm + 3 ppm)

DM-HI Topcan Infrared 0.15-800 ± (1 mm + 2 ppm)

DM-A5 Topcan Infrared 0.15-800 ± (5 mm + 3 ppm)

ND 20/21 Nikon Infrared N/A-700/1000 ± (5 mm + 5 ppm)

MD-14/MD-20 Pentax Infrared 1-1,000/1,600 ± (5 mm + 5 ppm)

Navigation
MA200 Infrared 1,600 ± (0.25 mm + 0.5 ppm)
Electronics

ND-26 Nikon Infrared N/A-2,000 ± (5 mm + 5 ppm)

DI1600 Leica Infrared 1-3,000 ± (3 mm + 5 ppm)

Intermediate Range

Geodimeter 220 Geotronics Infrared 0.2-2,300 ± (5 mm + 3 ppm)

DM-S2/DM-S3L Topcon Infrared 0.15-2,400 ± (5 mm + 3 ppm)

DI2002 Leica Infrared 1-2,500 ± (1 mm + 1 ppm)

RED 2A / RED 2L Sokkia Infrared 2,00-3,800 ± (5 mm + 5 ppm)

Leica / Kern
Leica Laser 20-5,000 ± (0.2 mm + 0.2 ppm)
ME5000

0-6,00
DIOR 3002S Leica Infrared ± (3.5 mm + 0.2 ppm)
No Prism, 300

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RED 2LV Sokkia Infrared 6,000 ± (5 mm + 5 ppm)

Eldi 10 Zeiss Infrared 0.2-7,000 ± (5 mm + 3 ppm)

Pulsar 50 Geo-Fennel Infrared 2-8,000 ± (5 mm + 5 ppm)

DI 3000S Leica Infrared 1-9,000 ± (3 mm + 1 ppm)

1.5-8,000
Criterian 100 Laser Technology Laser ± (90 mm + 50 ppm)
No Prism, 457

Long Range

1-10,000 ± 100 mm
Pro Survey 1000 Laser Atlanta Laser
No Prism, 850 ± 100 mm

1-10,000 ± 100 mm
Atlas 2000 Laser Atlanta Laser
No Prism, 1,500 ± 100 mm

Geodimeter Geotroincs Infrared 0.2-14,000 ±(5 mm + 1 ppm)

MRA 7 Navigation Microwave 10-50,000 ±(15 mm + 3ppm)

TOTAL STATION
This is an electronic instrument. In this instrument, all the parameters required to
be observed during surveying can be obtained. The value of observation gets displayed
in a viewing panel. The precision of this type of instrument varies in the order of 0.1" to
10".

 These instruments can record horizontal and vertical angles together with slope
distance and can be considered as combined EDM plus electronic theodolite. The
microprocessor in TS can perform various mathematical operations such as
averaging, multiple angle and distance measurements, horizontal and vertical
distances, X, Y, Z coordinates, distance between observed points and corrections
for atmospheric and instrumental corrections.

 Due to the versatility and the lower cost of electronic components, future field
instruments will be more like total stations that measure angle and distance
simultaneously having:

98
 o all capabilities of theodolites
o electronic recording of horizontal and vertical angles
o Storage capabilities of all relevant measurements (spatial and non-spatial
attribute data) for manipulation with computer.
 Nowadays surveying systems are available which can be use in an integrated
manner with Global Positioning System (GPS). Hence, future theodolites/total
stations may have integrated GPS receivers as part of the measurement unit.

Generally following types of total stations are available in the market:

 Mechanical/manual TS: The conventional multipurpose manual TS are used for

routine works with powerful built-in applications program and are cheaper than
the other types TS.
 Motorized TS: The motorized TS are equipped with servo to allow for fast, smooth
and accurate aiming. This increases the productivity by about 30%. The servo
technology enables automated measurement. For example, during angle
measurement one can simply aim the instrument at each point. The instrument
can then repeat the measurements automatically as many times as required. Servo
equipped TS act as base for auto-lock and robotic surveying.
 Auto-lock TS: Auto-lock TS allow for a semi-automatic measurement where
measuring and recoding takes place at the TS. In this case the instrument searches
for an active remote positioning target (RMT), locks to it and follows the target as
it moves to different points. Auto-lock technology eliminates the need for time-
consuming error prone focusing and allows you to work effectively even in poor
and low visibility environment. It improves the time efficiency by up to 50%.
 Automatic/Robotic TS: This a true one person surveying TS and is ideal for
surveying and stakeout operations. In this TS, the control unit can be taken to the
prism to record measurements and collect other data. Generally a radio
communication is used between TS and the prism. The control unit, battery,
antenna and radio modem are integrated to allow full control over instrument and
its operation. The prism used may be Omni-directional (usually for short distance
up to 500 m) which is always aligned to the instrument or directional for longer
distances. During stakeout, the control unit is used to move to point of interest. It
improves the time efficiency by up to 80%.
Salient features of modern TS

TS is a fully integrated equipment that captures all the spatial data necessary for a
three-dimensional position fix. The angles and distances are displayed on a digital
readout and can be recorded at the press of a button. Various components of a typical TS
are shown in Figure and are described below:

99
A typical TS has the following characteristics:

 Graphic display: All commands for survey operation as well as results are
displayed on graphic LCD using alphanumeric keyboard. Using built in software
with menu and edit facilities, they automatically reduce angular and linear
observations to three dimensional coordinates of the vector observed. Detachable
control units are available on particular instruments.

 Dual axis compensation: The dual axis tilt sensor monitors any inclination of the
standing axis in both X- and Y-directions. These tilt sensors generally have range
of 3'. Consequently horizontal and vertical angle readings are free from error due
to any deviation of the standing axis from the perpendicular (Figure 3.4). The
horizontal and vertical angles are automatically corrected, thus permitting single-
face observations without loss of accuracy.

100
Leveling and centering: A few TS have electronic display for leveling operation enabling
rapid and precise leveling. The electronic leveling also eliminates errors caused by direct
sunlight on plate bubbles. Laser plummet are replacing the optical plummet. A clearly
visible laser dot is projected on to the ground that helps in quick and convenient centering
of the instrument.

Storage: Most TS have on-board storage of records using PCMCIA memory cards of
different capacity. The card memory unit can be connected to any external computer or
to a special card reader for data transfer. The observations can also be downloaded
directly into intelligent electronic data loggers. Both systems can be used in reverse to
load information into the instruments. Some instruments and/or data loggers can be
interfaced directly with a computer for immediate processing and plotting of the data.

Friction clutch and endless drive: This eliminates the need for horizontal and vertical
circle clamps plus the problem of running out of thread on slow motion screws.

Guide light or Lumi-guide tracking light: This arrangement is fitted above the telescope
objective lens and enables the target operator to maintain alignment when setting-out
points. This system emits two visible beams of coherent red light, one steady and one
blinking, enabling the rod-man to locate the correct line quickly and easily by finding the
position where both are visible (Figure 3.6). This light changes colour when the operator

101
moves off-line. With the instrument in the tracking mode, taking measurements every 0.3
s, the guide light speeds up the setting-out process. It can also be used as a convenient
signal to the rod-man, assists in one-man clearing of lines and work as a prism illuminator
in night surveying.

 Measurement modes: Variety of measurement modes are available with TS such

as precise, accurate, and fast tracking, etc. These modes are result of a combination of
accuracy and speed. Depending up on accuracy levels required and measurement
times, the surveyor can choose an appropriate measurement mode.

 Automatic target recognition (ATR): This facility ensures that the instrument will lock
on to the active target (by using RMT: remote measurement target). The instrument
receives coded signal by IR diode on the RMT. In this mode, the instrument
automatically follows the reflector after the first measurement. The telescope is
pointed in the general direction of the target, and the ATR module completes the fine
pointing with excellent precision and minimum measuring time as there is no need to
focus. It can also be used on a moving reflector. A single key touch records all data
without interrupting the tracking process. Omni-direction (360o) prisms reflector are
used for short distances which are always aligned automatically ensuring high
accuracy. For longer distances directional active targets are available. The ATR mode
also allows operation in darkness.

 Reflectorless or direct reflex measurement: Distance measurement without prism is

also available on many instruments, typically using two different coaxial red laser
systems. One laser is invisible and is used to measure long distances (6 km to a single
reflector), the other is visible, does not require a reflector, and has a limited range of
about 200 m. A single key stroke allows one to alternate between the visible or
invisible laser. With Trimble 5600 DR 200+, distances of up to 500 m have been
recorded. The reflector-less measurements are useful for surveying the facades of
buildings, tunnel profiling, cooling tower profiling, bridge components, and dam

102
 faces - indeed any situation which is difficult or impossible to access directly. The
extremely narrow laser used clearly defines the target points.

 Remote control systems: This arrangement allows truly one-person surveying

capability. It is particularly useful for mass point surveys, cadastral surveys, staking
out and machine guidance. Control of operation is transferred to the surveyor at the
survey point where all functions can be called up. The unit generally employs a radio
communication between TS and the prism. The control unit, battery, antenna and
radio modem are integrated to allow full control over instrument and its operation.
Figure shows a Trimble system with one radio antenna for communication with RMT.

Field techniques with TS:

Various field operations in TS are in the form of wide variety of programs integrated
with microprocessor and implemented with the help of data collector. All these programs
need that the instrument station and at least one reference station be identified so that all
subsequent stations can be identified in terms of (X, Y, Z). Typical programs include the
following functions:

 Point location
 Slope reduction
 Missing line measurement (MLM)
 Resection
 Azimuth calculation
 Remote distance and elevation measurement
 Offset measurements
 Layout or setting out operation
 Area computation
 Tracking
 Stakeout

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GPS
Introduction:

Satellite navigation is a leading-edge technology which allows anyone with a

receiver to determine their position very accurately at any time by picking up signals
from a constellation of several satellites. Currently, the United States Global Positioning
System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS system are the only operational Satellite
navigation systems. Europe has begun the development of a third independent global
system, known as ‘Galileo’.
Satellite navigation Overview:

The following system overview uses examples based on GPS, however the
principles apply to all satellite navigation system. GPS is a satellite navigation system
capable of providing a highly accurate, continuous, global navigation service
independent of other positioning aids. GPS provides 24 hour, all-weather, worldwide
coverage with position, velocity and timing information.

The system uses 24 operational satellites to provide a receiver with at least six
satellites in view at all times. A minimum of four satellites in view are needed to allow
the receiver to compute its current latitude, longitude, altitude and time. With this
information the user’s receiver can also calculate other parameters such as its velocity
and acceleration.

Components of GPS:
Any satellite navigation system has three parts:

•The Space segment

•The Control segment

•The User segment

104
 All these parts operate together to provide accurate three-dimensional positioning,
timing and velocity data to users worldwide.

The Space Segment:

The GPS system constellation has 24 satellites in six 55° orbital planes, with four
satellites in each plane, with room for spares. The orbit period of each satellite is
approximately 12 hours at an altitude of 20,183 kilometers. With this constellation, a user
receiver has at least six satellites in view from any point on earth. Other systems use
satellites in different orbits and orbital periods.

The satellite broadcast signal contains data which identifies the satellite and
provides the positioning, timing, ranging data, satellite status and corrected orbit
parameters of the satellite.

GPS satellites transmit on two frequencies; one centered at 1575.42 MHz, known
as L1 and the other at 1227.60 MHz, known as L2. The L1 carrier is modulated by the C/A
code (Coarse/Acquisition) and the P code (Precision). P code is encrypted for military
and other authorized users. The L2 carrier is modulated only with the P code. Similar
signals exist for Galileo and GLONASS, although both systems differ in the way signals
are delivered. New L2C and L5 signals are being added to the system as new satellites
are launched.

The Control Segment:

The GPS control segment consists of a master control station, five base stations and
three data up-loading stations in locations round the globe. Other configurations are
possible for other satellite navigation systems.

The base stations track and monitor the satellites via their broadcast signals. These
signals are passed to the master control station where orbital parameters and timing
corrections are computed. The resulting corrections are transmitted back to the satellites
via the data up-loading stations.
The User Segment:
User receivers, can be referred to as the User Segment, and consist of equipment
which track and receive the satellite signals. User receivers must be capable of
simultaneously processing the signals from a minimum of four satellites to obtain
accurate position, velocity and timing measurements. However accuracy and reliability
is enhanced as the number of visible satellites increases.

105
Applications of Satellite Navigation:
Satellite navigation applications are almost limitless, but some typical ones include:

• Air traffic navigation and control and their related accuracy and integrity;
enhancement infrastructure;
• Management and tracking of ship and land vehicle fleets;
• Rental and personal car navigation systems;
• Automation of container location and tracking to increase the efficiency of ports;
• Navigation systems for remotely piloted air, land and water vehicles;
• Road and rail traffic monitoring;
• Dispatch and monitoring of emergency services;
• Automated car and truck guidance systems;
• Automated guidance of agricultural equipment for efficiency improvements in crop
spraying and harvesting
• Recreational guidance for hikers, boaters, cyclists and explorers;
• Aerial, seismic, and land surveying;
• Large structure monitoring (such as dams, bridges, buildings, etc);
• Accurate timing systems for communications and commerce; and
• Earthquake and tsunami detection and warning systems.

Map Datum:

Well-defined coordinate systems are required for positioning points in 2D or 3D

space on surface of earth. However, one needs to represent or idealize earth in a manner
suitable for proper representation of position. Several idealizations have been proposed
for the shape of earth. For example, the first approximation to shape of earth is Geoid, the
theoretical shape of earth. Differences in the density of the earth cause variation in the
strength of the gravitational pull, in turn causing regions to dip or bulge above or below
a mathematical reference surface called ellipsoid. This undulating shape is the Geoid. The
geoid is very irregular and the magnitude of geoidal deformation depends on the
variation in the strength of the magnetic field, and on geologic history. A rotational
ellipsoid is another mathematical approximation to earth's shape. It is an imaginary,
regular and smooth mathematical surface over which computation of coordinates
becomes very easy. An ellipsoidal surface can be further approximated by a sphere.

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 Following figure gives the most important surfaces from the view point of
positioning – the actual earth’s surface, and its approximation in the form of geoid and
ellipsoid. The separation between ellipsoid and geoid is indicated by Geoidal undulation
(N). The normal distance earth’s surface and geoid is called ortho-metric height (H). The
normal distance earth’s surface and ellipsoid is called the geodetic height (h). An
approximate relationship between these quantities is given by (h = H + N). Since geoid is
also very irregular, it is approximated by another surface called mean sea level (MSL).

As the actual earth surface is highly undulating, defining position on this surface
is quite difficult. We use the concept of datum which is a mathematical model of the earth
we use to calculate the coordinates (2D or 3D) on any map, chart, or survey system. The
datum can be vertical – to define vertical position (Z) with respect to a reference surface
or horizontal – to define the horizontal position (X and Y). Geoid is used for
representation of land and ocean surface topography and can be defined as that surface
which best fits the MSL. The MSL is generally used as the reference surface for heights or
as the vertical datum. Using conventional survey equipment which make use of plumb
bob and bubble tube to establish directions of gravity and level surface, one can easily
realize the difference in heights between two points However, even this surface (MSL) is
also not smooth enough for representation of horizontal coordinates. Hence, separate
horizontal datum, also called as the geodetic datum are used for horizontal positioning.
Geodetic datum define the size and shape of the earth and the origin and orientation of
the coordinate systems used to map the earth. Modern geodetic datum range from flat-
earth models used for plane surveying to complex models from spherical earth to
ellipsoidal models and derived from years of satellite measurements. These are used for
many applications which completely describe the size, shape, orientation, gravity field,
and angular velocity of the earth.

The ellipsoidal systems can be geocentric or non-geocentric. The geocentric

systems have their z-axis aligned either (a) with the instantaneous spin axis of the earth

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(instantaneous terrestrial system, ITS) or (b) with a hypothetical spin axis adopted by a
convention (conventional terrestrial systems, CTS). Such systems became useful only
quite recently, with the advent of satellite positioning. The World Geodetic System-84
(WGS-84) is one such system which is the global system for defining coordinates for GPS
measurements. The non-geocentric systems are used for local work (observations) in
which case their origin would be located at a point on the surface of the earth. For near-
geocentric systems, origin is usually as close to the center of mass of the earth as the
earlier geodesists could establish.

Such systems are off the center of mass by anything between a few meters and a
few km (more than 100 such systems are in existence around the world). These associated
reference ellipsoids are taken to be concentric with their coordinate system, geocentric or
near-geocentric, with the axis of revolution coinciding with the z-axis of the coordinate
system. Indian Everest system, on which all our topographic mapping is based, is an
example of such local geodetic system whose initial point or tie point is located at
Kalyanpur (MP, India).

Indian Geodetic Datum:

 The Indian system is a topo-centric system which is realized by:

o Choosing an initial point (origin)
o Specifying, the latitude and longitude of the initial point
o Azimuth of a line from this point
o Two parameters of a reference surface (ellipsoid):
 Components of deflection of vertical
 Geoidal undulation at the initial point
 Indian Geodetic datum, using Everest spheroid is a local geodetic datum, which
best fits to certain extent the Indian subcontinent. It is non-geocentric ellipsoid,
and its origin is far away from the geo-centre (C. G. of the Earth).

The geodetic coordinates based on Everest spheroid differ considerably (in many
cases even hundreds of meters) as compared to WGS 84 and other International
ellipsoids.

Details of the Indian topo-centric system:

Origin (Initial Point) Kalyanpur

Latitude of Origin 24o 07' 11''.26

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 Longitude of Origin 77 o 39' 17''.57

Meridional deflection of vertical -0''.29

Prime vertical deflection of vertical 2''.89

Semi major axis of Everest Spheroid 6,377,301 meters

Flattening of Everest Spheroid 1/300.8017

Geoidal undulation 0 meters

Azimuth to Surantal 190 o 27'06''.39

Types of GPS receivers:

Two basic types of GPS receivers are:

1. Code phase receivers

2. Carrier phase receivers
These receiver types can be further subdivided as

1. C/A code receivers

2. P-code receivers
3. Codeless receivers
4. Single and dual-frequency receivers
5. Receivers using cross-correlation or squaring or P-W techniques
Code dependent or code phase receivers:
These are also called code correlating receivers since they need access to the
satellite navigation message of the P- or C/A-code signal for operation. Following are the
characteristics;

 Use almanac data from satellite navigation message for operation and signal
processing
 Provides real-time navigation data

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  Have anywhere-fix capability because it can synchronize itself with GPS time at a
point with unknown coordinates once a lock on the signals of four satellites has
been obtained and, consequently, a quicker start-up time at survey
commencement.
 Unique capability to begin calculations without being given an approximate
location and time.
 In code based receivers, the phase position of the received code sequence is
compared with the phase of an identical code replica, generated by the receiver
(using the same algorithm as used for the code from the satellites) via a correlation
technique. Hence, the observable is also called the code phase. The two code
sequences are shifted stepwise in phase until maximum correlation is obtained.
 A complete code dependent correlation channel produces following observables
and information:
o code phase
o carrier phase
o change of carrier phase (Doppler frequency)

Carrier phase receivers:

Utilize the actual GPS signal itself to calculate a position. Two general types of
such receivers are (a) single frequency (b) dual frequency

(a) Single frequency receiver

 Tracks L1 frequency signal only
 Cheaper than dual frequency receivers
 Used effectively to relative positioning mode for accurate baselines of less than 50
km or where ionosphere effects can generally be ignored.

(b) Dual frequency receiver

 Tracks both L1 and L2 frequency signal

 More expensive than a single frequency receiver
 Can more effectively resolve longer baselines of more than 50 km where
ionosphere effects have a larger impact
 Eliminate almost all ionosphere effects by combining L1 and L2 observations

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Comparison of single and double frequency receivers:

Single Frequency Double frequency

Access to L1 only Access to L1 and L2

Mostly civilian users Mostly military users

Much cheaper Very expensive

Modulated with C/A and P codes It may not be possible for civilian users once Y code is
there.

Corrupted by ionospheric delay Almost independent of ionospheric delay

Used for short base lines Used for both long and short base lines

Most receivers are coded Most receivers with dual frequency are codeless

Most dual-frequency receivers utilize codeless and propriety semi-codeless

techniques allowing use of L2 during anti-spoofing (AS). "AS is a policy of the U.S.
Department of Defense by which the P-Code is encrypted (by the additional modulation
of a so-called W-Code to generate a new "Y-Code"), to protect the militarily important P-
Code signals from being "spoofed" through the transmission of false GPS signals by an
adversary during times of war. Hence civilian GPS receivers are unable to make direct P-
Code pseudo-range measurements and must use proprietary (indirect) signal tracking
techniques to make measurements on the L2 carrier wave (for both pseudo-range and
carrier phase). All dual-frequency instrumentation must therefore overcome AS using
these special signal tracking and measurement techniques".

Characteristics of codeless receivers:

 Use signals without the knowledge of codes which has the advantage that the
system is independent of possible restrictions on code access to civilian users.
 Neither the ephemeris nor the almanac and precise time can be extracted from
signals.

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 Nowadays totally codeless receivers are not built as it is almost certain that C/A code
will be available to all users. Such technique is useful, however, for access of L2 in times
of P-code denial (AS activated).

Geodetic receivers:

These receiver are essentially used for geodetic/surveying applications with the
following characteristics:

 carrier phase data as observables

 availability of both frequencies (L1, L2 )
 access to the P code, at least for larger distances, and in geographical region with
strong ionospheric disturbances (low and high latitudes).
Following factors should be kept in mind for such receivers:

 Tracking all signals from each visible satellite at any time (GPS only system
requires 12 dual frequency channels; GPS+GLONASS system needs 20 dual
frequency channels)
 Both frequencies should be available
 Low phase and code noise
 High data rate ( > 10 Hz) for kinematic applications
 High memory capacity
 Low power consumption and weight and small size
 Full operational capability under AS
 Capability to track weak signals (under foliage, and difficult environmental
conditions)
 Multi-path mitigation, interference suppression, stable antenna phase centre
(explained later)
 Good onboard and office software
Other useful features for geodetic receivers:

A modern GPS survey system should measure accurately and reliably anywhere
under any condition; it should be useable for almost any application (geodetic,
geodynamic, detailed GIS and topographic engineering survey, etc.) and may have the
following features:

 1 pps timing output

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  event marker (for marking special events or area of interest to the GPS use)
 ability to accept external frequencies
 fast data transfer to computer
 few or no cable connection
 radio modem
 DGPS and RTK capability (explained later)
 operate over difficult meteorological conditions
 ease in interfacing to other systems and from other manufacturer
 ease and flexibility of use (multi purpose applications)
 flexible set up (tripod, pole, pillar, vehicle)
Considerations in selection of GPS receivers:

Structure of GPS receiver:

Functionally, there are two groups of GPS receiver structures:

o Application processing
o Signal processing

Application processing

 Time and frequency transfer

 Static and kinematic surveying
 Navigation
 Ionospheric Total Electron Content (TEC) monitoring

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  Operation as differential GPS (DGPS) reference station
 GPS signal integrity monitoring
Signal processing

 Splitting of incoming signal into multiple satellite signals

 Generation of reference carrier
 Generation of reference PRN code
 Acquisition of satellite signal
 Tracking of code and carrier
 Demodulation and system data extraction
 Extraction of code phase measurements
 Extraction of carrier frequency and carrier phase
 Extraction of satellite Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) information
 Relationship of GPS system time

Components of GPS receiver:

 Antenna with preamplifier

 Radio frequency (RF) and intermediate frequency (IF) Front end section
 Signal tracker and Code co-relator section
 Reference oscillator
 Microprocessor (navigational solution unit)
Other parts: memory, power supply, display and control

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(i) Antenna and preamplifier

 Detects the electromagnetic waves arriving from the satellite, converts the wave
energy into an electrical current, amplifies the signal strength and passes on the
signal receiver electronics.
 GPS signal structure requires that all GPS antennas are right-handed circularly
polarized.
 Very sensitive as it has to pick up rather weak satellite signal, allows signal
reception from all elevation and azimuths of the visible hemisphere and should
minimize the multi-path effects.
 Voltage induced by GPS signal in the antenna is sent to the preamplifier
 Antenna Types: monopole or dipole, quadrifilar helix (also called volute), spiral
helix, microstrip (also called patch), choke ring

(ii) RF/IF Section

 GPS signal is down converted to a lower frequency in RF/IF section. This is done
by combining the RF signal with a sinusoidal signal generated by the local
reference oscillator.
 IF signal contains all code and data signals from the original RF signal with low
carrier frequency.

(iii) Signal tracker and code correlator

 IF signal from all satellites is passed on to this section. Here signals are isolated,
identified by their codes and assigned to a particular channel.
 Receiver channel is main electronic unit of GPS receiver.
 Various channel types: parallel, sequencing, and multiplexing

(iv) Reference oscillator

 Inexpensive quartz oscillators are used.

 Some receivers can also accept external high precision signal from atomic
frequency standards with less noise.

(v) Microprocessor (navigational solution unit)

 Controls the operation, including signal acquisition, signal processing, and

decoding of broadcast message.

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GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Introduction
A large variety of information systems are available for various applications. Figure 35.1 gives different
types of such systems. This module will focus on Geographical Information System (GIS), one of the
important spatial information systems with a capability to handle spatial information (information
distributed in space)

Figure 35.1: Different types of information systems

Definitions
 Experts of many disciplines such as geodesy, remote sensing, engineering, cartography,
geography, geology, environment, planning are the users of spatial data. When spatial data is used
in an information system, one tends to speak of spatial information system.
 Several informal definitions conveying capabilities of GIS are available as given below
o A map with database(s)
o Cartographic features represented as points, lines or polygons with attributes describing these
features
o A system with ability to
 store and retrieve data
 display particular attribute characteristics spatially
 identify locations by querying attribute data
 identify spatial patterns of attribute occurrence
 describe features by spatial query
 On more formal front, a typical GIS can be understood with various other definitions as given
below (Ref):

Toolbox-based definitions
 A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying
spatial data from the real world.
 A system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying data which are
spatially referenced to earth.
 An information technology which stores, analyses, and displays both spatial and non-spatial data.
Database definitions

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 A database system in which most of the data are spatially indexed, and upon which a set of
procedures operated in order to answer queries about spatial entities in the database.
 Any manual or computer based set of procedures used to store and manipulate geographically
referenced data.
Organization-based definition
 An automated set of functions that provides professionals with advanced capabilities for the
storage, retrieval, manipulation and display of geographically located data.
 An institutional entity, reflecting an organizational structure that integrates technology with a
database, expertise, and continuing financial support over time.
 A decision support system involving the integration of spatially referenced data in a problem
solving environment
Some other definitions
 An information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geographic co-
ordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatially-
referenced data, as well as a set of operations for working with the data. In a sense, a GIS may be
thought of as a higher-order map.
 A system of hardware and software that links mapped objects with text information that describes
them and provides tools for the storage, retrieval and manipulation of both types of data.
 A system of computer hardware, software and procedures designed to support the capture,
management, manipulation, analysis, and display of spatially referenced data for solving complex
planning and management problems.
o LIS Land information system - concerned primarily with the management and administration
of land parcels.
o FIS Facilities information system - concerned primarily with the management of transport,
communication, and service facilities such as roads, railways, sewage, water, power and
telephone lines, although these may also be concerned with area's features such as buildings,
and their characteristics, and their distribution.
o NRMIS or RIS Natural resource management information system - concerned primarily with
the management of natural and other areas resources such as water, soil, and vegetation
resources.

Why GIS is needed:

Use of GIS is advocated on account of following observations:
 Poorly maintained geospatial data
 Out of date maps and statistics
 Inaccurate data and information
 Absence of data retrieval service
 Absence of data sharing
 Digital format data is compact and large quantities can be maintained and retrieved at a greater
speed and lesser cost
 Planning scenarios, decision models and interactive process are normal functions of GIS
 Ability to perform complex spatial analysis rapidly
 Ability to manipulate different types of data efficiently
Benefits of GIS
 Geospatial data better maintained in a standard format
 Revision and updating easier
 Geospatial data and information easier to search, analyze and represent
 Value added products can be generated
 Geospatial data can be shared and exchanged freely
 Productivity and efficiency of staff is improved

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 Saving in time and money

 Better decisions making
It should be noted that GIS has benefited from technical and conceptual developments over time in
various areas such as surveying, cartography, photogrammetry, remote sensing, CAD, spatial analysis,
etc.
GIS Synonyms
 Many terms related with geographical information are also frequently used as given in the
following figure.

Figure 35.2: Related areas for geographic information technology

4Ms of GIS
 In a GIS, we measure environmental parameters, develop maps portraying earth characteristics,
monitor changes in surrounding space and time, and also model alternatives of actions and
processes operating in the environment. These are called four Ms of GIS. A typical analysis
methodology in a GIS is provided in the Figure 35.3.

Figure 35.3: Analysis sequence in GIS environment

The figure shows that the data is collected from the real world. The data is input to GIS in computer
compatible format and subjected to variety of queries and transformation. This data can also be used for
modelling the real world using which certain decision can be taken about the real world.
Components of GIS
GIS consists of the following three components
Hardware Used to store, process and display
Software Used to control and perform operations
Expertise Human element required to drive system to meet requirements
Major Hardware Components

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The general hardware components of GIS comprise a computer or CPU (Figure 35.4). It is connected to a
disk drive unit, which provides space for storing data from maps and documents into digital form and
send them to the computer. A plotter is used to present the results of the data processing, and a tape or
CD/DVD drive is used for storing data or programs or for communicating with other systems. The user
controls the computer and the peripherals via a visual display unit (VDU) or terminal. A scanner or
digitizer is required to convert the analogue data into soft form.

Figure: Hardware components for GIS

Major software components
 GIS software comprises several functionally related components to carry out variety of
operations. These can be grouped as follows (Table 1):
o Data acquisition/Input
o Data processing and preprocessing
o Database management (storage and retrieval)
o Spatial data manipulation and analysis
o Product generation: output and visualization
Table 1: GIS Software Functional elements
Components Sub-components
Digitizing
Data acquisition/Input
Editing
Topology building
Projection transformation
Data processing and preprocessing
Format conversion
Attribute assignment, etc.
Data archival
Hierarchical modelling
Database management (storage and Relational modelling
retrieval) Relational modelling
Attribute query
Object oriented database
Measurement operations
Buffering
Spatial manipulation and analysis
Overlay operations
Connectivity operations
Scale transformation
Generalization
Graphical output and visualization
Topographic maps
Statistical maps

(a) Data input

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o Data input is the operation of encoding the data and writing them to the database and
creates the foundation for useful GIS. However, the process of good database creation is
very time consuming and complex operation upon which the usefulness of the GIS
depends.
o Data input involves data acquisition including identification and collection of data
required for applications. It covers all aspects of transforming data captured from existing
maps, field observations, and sensors into a compatible digital form. A wide range of
computer tools is available for this purpose, including the digitizer, lists of data in text
files, scanners and the devices necessary for recording data already written on magnetic
media such as tapes, drums and disks (Figure 35.5).
o Various sources for data input may be:
 text files
 existing maps
 aerial photographs
 satellite imagery
 airborne scanners
 field measurements
 other GIS databases

Figure: Data input for GIS

Data to GIS can be input in the following stages (Burrough, 1986):

(a) Entering the spatial data (digitizing)
(b) Entering the non-spatial, associated attributes; and
(c) Linking the spatial to the non-spatial data.

 Two principal approaches for inputting data are by manual cartographic digitizing and automatic
scanning.
 Non-spatial associated attributes are those properties of the entity that need to be handled in GIS,
but which are not themselves spatial in nature. For example, a road can be digitized as a set of
continuous pixels, or as a vector line entity. The road can be represented in the non-spatial part of
the GIS by a certain kind of a colour, symbol or data location. The data about the kind of road can
be included in the range of cartographic symbols normally available.
 Linking the spatial data to the already existing digitized points, lines, and areas can be done using
a special program that requires only the digital representation of the points, lines and areas
themselves, carrying unique identifiers as part of normal digitizing.
(b) Data Pre-processing/processing

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 Data input in a computer compatible form may also involve several steps known as pre-
processing. This involves manipulation of data in different ways to prepare it for further
modeling. For example, it may involve converting format i.e. georeferencing which consists of
geometric correction and resembling
 This process establishes a consistent system for recording. It results in a data type, georeferencing
system and data structure that is compatible with the system. The end result of the pre-processing
phase is a coordinated set of thematic data layers. The essential pre-processing procedures
include:
o Format conversion
o data reduction and generalization
o error detection and editing
o merging of points into lines and of points and lines into polygons where appropriate
o edge matching
o rectification/registration
o interpolation
o photo-interpretation
(c) Data storage and database management
 It concerns the way in which the data about the position, linkages (topology), and attributes of
geographical elements (points, lines, areas, and more complex entities representing objects on the
earth's surface) are structured and organised, both with respect to the way they must be handled
in the computer and how they are perceived by the users of the system (Figure 35.6). This
provides consistent method of data entry, update, deletion, and retrieval. The computer program
used to organise the database is known as database management system (DBMS) (Burrough,
1986).

Figure: Data storage and database management system

(d) Data analysis and modelling
 It is the most important capability of GIS as far as the user is concerned and facilitates spatial
analysis using spatial and non spatial attributes. It involves working within database to derive
new information using several basic and advanced tools for statistical analysis and modeling.
 This is achieved through a set of functions or software modules as given below (Valenzuela,
1991). More details on these functions will be presented later in another lecture.

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o Retrieval, (re)-classification, and measurement functions

o Overlay functions
o Neighborhood functions including search operations, topographic function, interpolation
o Connectivity operations including contiguity, proximity, network, and spread operators
 Modelling involves simplified representation of reality. It is one of the strongest capabilities of
GIS and facilitates better decision making.
(e) Data output
 It concerns the ways the data are displayed and the results of analyses are reported to the users
(Figure 35.7). Data may be presented as maps, tables, and figures in a variety of ways, ranging
from the ephemeral image on a cathode ray tube through hard copy output drawn on printer or
plotter to information recorded on magnetic media in digital form.
There are several professional GIS packages in the market such as

 ARCGIS
 ILWIS
 ERDAS
 IDRISI
 MAPINFO
 GRASS

The widely used database systems are Oracle and dBase

Figure: Data output for GIS

Introductory concept of geospatial data
 Now a few commonly used terms in GIS will be introduced. These will be covered in more detail
later.
 A real world inside a computer is represented in the form of spatial or geographical objects.
Spatial objects are delimited geographical areas, with a number of different kind of associated
attributes or characteristics (Figure 35.8).
 Any given spatial object will be one of the following types:
o Point
o Line
o Polygon
 The data can be arranged in a raster (grid form) or vector form. Details of these will be explained
later.

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Figure: Geographical data in computer

Point
 It is a spatial object with no area. One of the key spatial attribute of a point are its geodetic
location, often represented as a pair of coordinates (such as latitude-longitude, or northing-
easting). The non-spatial attributes may include range of information associated with a point,
depending on the application.
Line
 It is a spatial object, made up of a connected sequence of points. Lines have no width, and thus, a
specified location must be on one side of the line or the other, but never on the line itself.
Polygon
 It is a closed area. Simple polygons are undivided areas, while complex polygons are divided into
areas of different characteristics.
Nodes
 These are special kinds of points, usually indicating the junction between lines or the ends of line
segments.
Chains
 These are special kinds of line segments, which corresponds to a portion of the bounding edge of
a polygon.
Applications of GIS

Locating underground cables.

Planning facility maintenance.
Facility management
Telecommunication network services.
Energy use tracking and planning .
Agriculture crop suitability.
Management of forests, agricultural land, water
resources, wetlands, etc.
Environmental and natural resource management
Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA).
Disaster management and mitigation.
Waste dumping sites location .
Car navigation.
Locating houses and streets.
Street Networking
Site selection.
Ambulance services.

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Transportation planning .
Urban planning.
Regional planning.
Planning and engineering
Route selection for highways.
Public facility development .
Cadastre administration.
Taxation
Land information system
Zoning of land use
Land acquisition

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REMOTE SENSING

Definitions Of Remote sensing:

Various definitions of remote sensing are given below:
Photogrammetry and remote sensing are the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the environment, through the process of recording, measuring, and
interpreting imagery and digital representations of energy pattern derived from non-contact sensor
systems (Colwell, 1997, ASPRS combined definition)

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Technique of acquiring data about an object without touching it.

The non-contact recording of information from various spectral regions of electromagnetic
spectrum (ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and microwave regions) by means of various instruments (camera,
scanners, lasers, linear arrays, and/or frame arrays) which are located on platforms such as ground,
aircraft or spacecraft, and the analysis of acquired information by means of visual and digital image
processing.
Science and art of obtaining information about an object, area, or phenomenon through the
analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object, area, or phenomenon under
investigation.

Remote sensing system

A typical remote sensing system consists of the following sub-systems:
(a) scene
(b) Sensor
(c) Processing (ground) segment
Various stages in these sub-systems are indicated in the figure. The electro-magnetic (EM) energy forms
the fundamental component of a RS system. The following steps indicate how remotely sensed data gets
converted into useful information:

1. Source of EM energy (sun/self emission: transmitter onboard sensor).

2. Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth and its interaction with the
atmosphere (absorption/scattering).
3. Interaction of EMR with the earth surface (reflection, absorption, transmission) or re-
emission/self emission.

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4. Transmission of reflected/emitted energy from the surface to the remote sensor through the
intervening atmosphere.
5. Recording of EMR at the sensor and transmission of the recorded information (sensor data
output) to the ground.
6. Preprocessing, processing, analysis and interpretation of sensor data.
7. Integration of interpreted data with other data sources for deriving management alternatives and
applications.

Remote sensing system

Since the launch of TIROS-1 considerable developments have taken place in remote sensing
technology with recent efforts directed in the following main areas (Joseph, 2003):

1. increase in spatial resolution in civilian domain leading to an increase in accuracy and precision
of remotely sensed data
2. explosion in RS applications
3. use of smaller and cheaper satellites with faster response to achieve mission objectives
4. involvement of commercial operators in space segment
Remote sensing observation platforms:

Two types of platforms have been in use in remote sensing:

1. Airborne platforms
2. Space based platforms

Air bone platforms:

 Remote sensing of the surface of the earth has a long history, dating from the use of cameras
carried by balloons and pigeons in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
 Later, air craft carried mounted systems were developed for military purposes during the early
part of 20th century.

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 Air borne remote sensing was the well-known remote sensing method used in the initial years of
development of remote sensing in 1960’s and 1970’s.
 Air crafts were mostly used as RS platforms for obtaining photographs. Aircraft carrying the RS
equipment should have maximum stability, free from vibrations and fly with uniform speed.
 In India, three types of aircraft are currently used for RS operations: Dakota, AVRO and Beach-
craft super king AIR 200.
 The RS equipments are available in India are multi-spectral scanner, ocean colour radiometer,
aerial camaras for photography in black and white, colour and near infrared etc.
 The air craft operations are very expansive and moreover for periodical monitoring of constantly
changing phenomena like crop growth, vegetation covers etc. Air craft based platform cannot
provide cost and time effective solutions.

Space based platforms:

 Space borne remote sensing platforms, such as a satellite, offer several advantages over airborne
platforms, it is provides synoptic view (observation of large area in a single image), systematic
and repetitive coverage.
 The platforms in space are very less affected by atmospheric drag, due to which the orbits can be
well defined.
 Entire earth or any designed portion can be covered at specified intervals synoptically, which is
immensely useful for management of natural resources.

The space borne platform classified is broadly classified into two classes.

1. Low altitude near-polar orbiting satellites

2. High altitude Geo-stationary satellites

Satellite: it is a platform that carries the sensor and other payloads required in Remote sensing operation.
It is put into earth’s orbits can with the help of launch vehicles. Sun synchronous orbit (altitude 700-1500
km) defined by its fixed inclination angle from the earth’s north and south axis.

Geo-stationary satellites: These are mostly communication/ meteorological satellites which are
stationary in reference to the earth. In other words, their velocity with which earth rotates about its axis.
Such satellites always cover the fixed area over earth surface and their altitude is about 36000 km.

Landsat satellite programme: National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) of USA
planned the launching of a series of Earth Resources Technology Satellites (ERTS), and consequently
ERTS- I was launched in July 1972 and was operation till July 1978. Subsequently, NASA renamed
ERTS programme as “Landsat” programme and five Landsat satellites have been launched so far.
Landsat images have found a large number of applications such as agriculture, botany, cartography, civil
engineering, environmental monitoring, forestry, geography, land resources analysis, land use planning,
and oceanography and water quality analysis.

SPOT Satellite programme: France, Sweden and Belgium joined together and pooled up their resources
to develop an earth observation satellites programme known as System Pourl Observation Dela Terre,
abbreviated as SPOT. The first satellite of the series, SPOT- 1was launched in Feb. 1988. The high

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resolution data obtained from SPOT sensors, namely. Thematic mapper (TM) and High Resolution
Visible (HRV) have been extensively used for urban planning, urban growth assessment, transportation
planning, besides the conventional application related to natural resources.

Indian remote sensing satellites:

1. Satellite for earth observation (SEO-I), now called Bhaskara –I was the first Indian remote
sensing satellite launched by a soviet launch vehicle from USSR in june, 1979 Into a near circular
orbit.
2. SEO –II, (Bhaskara II) was launched in Nov. 1981 from a soviet cosmodrome.
3. India’s first semi-operational remote sensing satellite (IRS) was launched by the Soviet Union in
Sept. 1987.
4. The IRS series of satellites launched by the IRS mission are : IRS IA, IRS IB, IRS IC, IRS ID and
IRS P4.

Application of Remote Sensing and GIS:

Remote sensing affords a practical means for accurate and continuous monitoring of the earth’s
natural and other resources and of determine the impact of man’s activities on air, water and land.

A summary of RS and GIS applications is given below, discipline wise:

1. Agriculture
i. Early season estimation of total cropped area
ii. Monitoring crop condition using crop growth profile
iii. Identification of crops and their coverages estimation in multi-cropped regions.
iv. Crop yield modelling
v. Cropping system/crop rotation studies
vi. Command area management
vii. Detection of moisture stress in crops and qualification of its effect on crop yield
viii. Detection of crop violations
ix. Zoom cultivation-desertification
2. Forestry
i. Improved forest type mapping
ii. Monitoring large scale deforestation, forest fire
iii. Monitoring urban forestry
iv. Wild life habitat assessment
v. Forest stock mapping
3. Land use and soils
i. Mapping land use/ cover (level III) at1:25000 scale or better
ii. Change detection
iii. Identification of degraded lands/erosion prone areas
iv. Soil categorization
4. Geology
i. Lithological and structural mapping
ii. Geo morphological mapping

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iii. Ground water exploration

iv. Engineering geological studies
v. Geo- environmental studies
vi. Drainages analysis
vii. Mineral exploration
viii. Coal fire mapping
ix. Oil field detection.
5. Urban land use
i. Urban land use level IV mapping
ii. Updating of urban transport network
iii. Monitoring urban sprawl
iv. Identification of unauthorized
6. Water resources
i. Monitoring surface water bodies frequently and estimation of their spatial extent
ii. Snow-cloud discrimination leading to better delineation of snow area.
iii. Glacier inventory
7. Coastal environmental
i. More detailed inventory of costal land use on 1:25000 scale
ii. Discrimination of coastal vegetation types.
iii. Monitoring sediment dynamics
iv. Siting of coastal structures
8. Ocean resources
i. Wealth of oceans / exploration / productivity
ii. Potential fishing zone
iii. Coral reef mapping
iv. Low tide/ high tide marking
9. Watershed
i. Delineation of watershed boundaries / partitioning of micro watershed
ii. Watershed characterization at large scale ( size, shape, drainage, land use/cover)
iii. Siting water harvesting structures
i. Monitoring watershed development
ii. Major river valley projects

10. Environment
i. Impact assessment on vegetation, water bodies.
ii. Siting applications
iii. Loss of biological diversity/biosphere reserves/ecological hot spot areas/ wet land
environment.
11. Street network – based applications
i. Vehicle routing and scheduling
ii. Location analysis-site selection – evacuation palns.
12. Land parcel-based applications
i. Zoning, sub division plan review

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ii. Land acquisition

iii. Environmental management
iv. water quality management
v. maintenance of ownership
13. natural resources based applications
i. Management of wild and scenic rivers, recreation resources, flood plains, wet lands,
agricultural lands, aquifers, forest, wild life etc.
ii. Environmental impact analysts (EIA)
iii. View shed analysis
iv. Hazardous or toxic facility siting
v. Ground water modelling and contamination tracking
vi. Wild life analysis, migration routes planning
14. Facilities management
i. Locating underground pipes, cables
ii. Balancing loads in electrical networks
iii. Planning facility maintenance
iv. Tracking energy use
15. Disasters
i. Mapping flood inundated area, damage assessment
ii. Disaster watering mitigation
16. Digital elevation models
i. Contours (> 10 m)
ii. Slope / Aspect analysis
iii. Large scale thematic mapping up to 1:25000 scale.

Properties used in RS for discrimination

The following four properties are used for interpretation of RS information:

Spectral: wavelength or frequency, refractive or emissive properties of objects during interaction of
EMR
Spatial: viewing angle of sensor, shape and size of the object, position, site, distribution, texture
Temporal : changes in time and position which affect spectral and spatial properties
Polarization: object effects in relation to the polarization conditions of the transmitter and receiver

Multi-concept in RS
The multiple approach, considered to be the main strength of RS, could be described as follows:
1. Multi-stage Recording of information from various distances (altitudes: ground, air,
and space)
2. Multi-sensor Variety of sensors are used to record information, e.g. MSS, TM, LISS,
aerial photography, etc.
3. Multi-temporal Sequence of RS observations with different acquisition dates or times.
4. Multi-spectral Use of different wavelength bands (visible, infrared, microwave regions)
and combination of
different look angles
1. Multi-polarization Use of differently polarized microwave data.
2. Multi-discipline Experts from different disciplines collaborate

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3. Multi-enhancement Combination of multi-stage, multi-spectral, multi-sensor, multi-temporal,

and multi-polarization images to enhance interpretation capabilities for information extraction

Comparison of RS with other techniques

 Remote sensing offers many advantages over conventional approaches (Buiten and Clevers,
1993):
 RS instrumentation facilitates observation of the environment with EMR even outside the visible
part of the EM spectrum making the invisible as visible.
 RS produces measurable physical data. Hence, it is possible to acquire quantitative as well as
qualitative data about the earth's surface.
 RS gives position-bound thematic information connected with the parameters what, where, when
and how, allowing for improvement and completion of existing maps.
 RS offers flexible approaches in the form of a variety of RS observation techniques and digital
image processing (DIP) algorithms for optimum approach to information extraction.
 RS data can be reproduced at any time. Analogue and digital recorded imaged can be viewed at
leisure; they can be processed with instrumental equipment or with DIP systems and interpreted
and analyzed with the aid of prior knowledge, or in combination of RS and Geographical
Information System (GIS).
 In comparison with the human eye, RS instruments offer the possibility of selection, so as to view
objects in more detail and contrast, under a different angle of incidence and from various
distances.
 RS provides the unparalleled synoptic view of a region as whole.
 It provides area-wise information making the traditional way of point-wise sampling of the earth's
surface more selective.
 Allows for an image recording of large area in a short time. In addition, there is a high degree of
reality in comparison with the conventional methods of mapping.
 Data disclose processes on the earth's surface both with regard to an instantaneous reproduction
as well as change detection. Hence, RS can be considered dynamical/temporal.
 Satellite images may open up inaccessible regions
 RS as source of information may repeat, alter and improve the analysis of the images of the
observed objects can be stored and compared with more recent images at later time.

Typical RS assignment
A typical RS assignment consists of many linked steps for the successful interpretation and analysis.
These are given below (Buiten and Clevers, 1993):

 Knowledge of RS recording techniques

 Understanding of physical relationship and interactions between object and EMR
 Physical/mathematical modeling regarding the RS of the object concerned
 Geometric and positioning aspects: matching of images to one another; registration of images to
the geometry of a map projection, called geocoding;
 Preprocessing methods of acquired analogue or digital data: interactive digital image processing
and pattern recognition; contribution of private professional knowledge concerning the objects;
 Combination techniques with data from other sources: integration with GIS to update the GIS
database by means of the RS results.

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 SURVEYING II

PROBLEM SOLVED 3 UNITS

(UNIT 1, 2 & 3)
 Unit I
Triangulation

1) The probable error of direction measurement is 1.25 seconds. Compute the maximum value of
R if the maximum probable error desired is (a) 1 in 25,000 and (b) 1 in 10,000.
Solution:
(a) Since L is the probable error of a logarithm, it represents the logarithm of the ratio of the true
value and a value containing the probable error.
In this case, L = the sixth place in log (1  1/25000)
= the sixth place in log (1  0.00004)
From seven figure log table,
log (1 + 0.00004) = 0.0000173
The sixth place in the log = 17
Hence L =  17
L² = 289
Also d = 1.25
4
Now L² = 3 d²R

3 𝐿2 3 289
or Rmax = 4 = = 139
𝑑2 4 (1.25)2

(b) In this case, L = the sixth place in log (1  1/10000)

= the sixth place in log (1  0.0001)
 =  43… (since log 1.0001 = 0.0000434)
 L² = 1849 d = 1.25 d² = 1.5625
3 𝐿2 3 1869
 Rmax = 4 = = 888
𝑑2 4 1.5625
 𝐷−𝐶
2) Compute the value of C and for the various nets shown in fig (a) to (d). The heavy lines are
𝐶
the bases of known length. Directions are not observed where lines are dotted.

Solution
(a) C = (n’- s’+ 1) + (n – 2s + 3)
where n= total number of lines = 13
s = total number of stations = 7
n’ = number of lines observed in both directions = 10
s’= number of occupied stations = 7
D = total directions observed – 2 = {(13 * 2) – 3} – 2 = 21
C = (10 – 7 + 1) + (13 – 14 + 3) = 4 + 2 = 6
𝐷−𝐶 21 − 6 15
= = = 0.714
𝐷 21 21

(b) n = 11
s=7
n’= 9
s’= 6
D = {(11 * 2) – 2} – 2 = 18
 C = (9 – 6 + 1) + (11 – 14 + 3) = 4
𝐷−𝐶 18 − 4
= = 0.778
𝐷 18

(c) n = 13
s=7
n’= 13
s’= 7
D = (13 * 2) – 2 = 24
C = (13 – 7 + 1) + (13 – 14 + 3) = 9
𝐷−𝐶 24 − 9
= = 0.625
𝐷 24

(d) n = 19
s = 10
n’= 19
s’= 10
D = (19 * 2) – 2 = 36
C = (19 – 10 + 1) + (19 – 20 + 3) = 12
𝐷−𝐶 36 − 12
= = 0.667
𝐷 36
3) The altitude of two proposed station A and B 130 km apart are respectively 220 m and 1160 m.
The altitude of the two points C and D on a profile between them are respectively 308 m and 632
m. The distance AC = 50 km and AD = 90 km. Determine whether A and B are intervisible and if
necessary find the minimum height of a scaffolding at B assuming A as the ground station.

Solution:
Let acedb be the visible horizon (level line) and a horizontal sight Ab1 through A meet the horizon
tangentially in e, Ao, Co, Do and Bo are the vertical lines through A, C, D and B respectively, O
being the centre of the earth.
The distance Ae to the visible horizon from station A of an altitude 220 m is given by

Tangent distance, Ae = 3.8553 √ℎ = 3.8553 √220 = 57.18 km

Let a, c, d and b be the points in which the vertical lines through A, C, D and B cuts the level line.
Now, AC = 50 km; AD = 90 km; and AB = 130 km
ce = Ae – AC = 57.18 – 50 = 7.18 km
ed = AD – Ae = 90 – 57.18 = 32.82 km
eb = AB – Ae = 130 – 57.18 = 72.82 km
Let c1, d1 and b1 be the points in which a horizontal line through A cut the vertical lines through
C, D and B respectively. The corresponding heights cc1, dd1, and bb1 are
cc1 = 0.06728 (ce)2 = 0.06728 ( 7.18)2 = 3.49 m
dd1 = 0.06728 (ed)2 = 0.06728 (32.82)2 = 72.47 m
bb1 = 0.06728 (eb)2 = 0.06728 (72.82)2 = 356.77 m
Now, Bb = Elev. of B = 1160 m
Bb1 = Bb – bb1 = 1160 – 356.77 = 803.23 m
From triangles Ac1c2, Ad1d2 and Ab1B
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝐴𝑐1
=
𝐵𝑏1 𝐴𝑏1
𝐴𝑐 50
c1c2 = Bb1 * 𝐴𝑏1 = 803.23 * 130 = 308.93 𝑚
1

𝑑1 𝑑2 𝐴𝑑1
=
𝐵𝑏1 𝐴𝑏1
𝐴𝑑 90
d1d2 = Bb1 * 𝐴𝑏1 = 803.23 * 130 = 556.08 𝑚
1

Elev. of line of sight at C = elev. of c2 = cc1 + c1c2 = 3.49 + 308.93 = 312.42 m

Elev. of line of sight at D = elev. of d2 = dd1 + d1d2 = 72.47 + 556.08 = 628.55 m
(Given) Elev. of C = 308 m and Elev. of D = 632 m
Thus, the line of sight clears the peak C but fails to clear the peak D,
d2D = 632 – 628.55 = 3.45 m
Now, Dd3 = 3 m (minimum)
Hence, d2d3 = d3D + d2D = 3 + 3.45 = 6.45 m
𝐴𝐵 130
Hence, Bb3 = d2d3 * = 6.45 * = 9.32 𝑚 ≈ 9.5 𝑚
𝐴𝑑2 90

Therefore, minimum height of scaffold at B + 9.5 m

4) The altitude of two proposed stations A and B, 100 km apart are respectively 420 km and 700
km. The intervening obstruction situated at C, 70 km from A has an elevation of 478 m. Ascertain
if A and B are intervisible, and if necessary, find by how much B should be raised so that the line
of sight must nowhere be less than 3m above the surface of the ground.

Solution:
Let aceb be the visible horizon and a horizontal sight Ab1 through A meet the horizon tangentially
in e.
The distance Ae to the visible horizon from station A of an altitude 420m is given by

Ae = 3.8553 √ℎ = 3.8553 √420 = 79.01 𝑘𝑚

Now, Ac = 70 km and AB = 100 km
ec = Ae – AC = 79.01 – 70 = 9.01 km
eb = AB – Ae = 100 – 79.01 = 20.99 km
The corresponding heights cc1 and bb1 are
cc1 = 0.06728 (ce)2 = 0.06728 (9.01)2 = 5.46 m
bb1 = 0.06728 (eb)2 = 0.06728 (20.99)2 = 29.64 m
Now, Bb = Elev. of B = 700 m
Therefore, Bb1 = Bb – bb1 = 700 – 29.64 = 670.36 m
From similar triangle Ac1c2 and Ab1B,
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝐴𝑐1
=
𝐵𝑏1 𝐴𝑏1
𝐴𝑐 70
c1c2 = Bb1 * 𝐴𝑏1 = 670.36 * 100 = 469.25 𝑚
1

Therefore elev. of line of sight at C = elev. of c2 = cc1 + c1c2 = 5.46 + 469.25 = 474.71 m
Elev. of C = 478 m
Hence the line of sight fails to clear the peak
c2c = 478- 474.71 = 3.29 m
Now, cc3 = 3m (minimum)
Therefore, c2c3 = c2c + cc3 = 3.29 + 3 = 6.29 m
𝐴𝐵 100
Hence, b3B = c2c3 * 𝐴𝑐 = 6.29 * = 8.99m
2 70

Signal – Phase correction

5) Observations were made from instrument station A to the signal at B. The sun makes an angle
of 60° with the line BA. Calculate the phase correction if (i) the observation was made on the
bright portion, and (ii) the observation was made on the bright line. The distance AB is 9460
metres. The diameter of the signal is 12 cm.
Solution:
(i) Observation made on the bright portion
The correction β is given by
1
206265 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼
β= 2
𝐷

Here α = 60°; r = 6 cm
D = 9460 m = 9460 × 102 cm
 1
206265 ×6× 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 (60)
β= 2
seconds
𝐷

β = 0.98 seconds
(ii) Observation made on the bright line
The correction β is given by
1
206265 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
β= 2
seconds
𝐷
1
206265 ×6×𝑐𝑜𝑠 (60)
β= 2
𝐷

β = 1.13 seconds

Baseline Corrections
6) A nominal distance of 30m was set out with a 30 m steel tape from a mark on the top of one beg
to a mark on the top of another, the tape being in catenary under a pull of 100 N and at a mean
temperature of 70° F. The top of one peg was 0.25 m below the top of the other. The top of the
higher peg was 460 m above mean sea level. Calculate the exact horizontal distance between the
marks on the two pegs and reduce it to mean sea level, if the tape was standardized at a temperature
of 60° F in catenary under a pull of (a) 80 N (b) 120 N (c) 100 N
Take radius of earth = 6370 km
Density of tape = 7.86 g/ cm3
Section of tape = 0 .08 sq. cm
Co- efficient of expansion= 6 × 10-6 per 1° F
Young’s modulus = 2 × 107 N/ cm2
Solution:
(i) Correction for standardization ….. nil
ℎ2 (0.25)2
(ii) Correction for slope = 2𝐿 = 2 × 30 = 0.0010 m (subtractive)
(iii) Temperature correction = Lα (Tm - T0 ) = 30 × 6 × 10-6 ( 70 – 60)
= 0.0018 m (additive)
(𝑃− 𝑃0 )𝐿
(iv) Tension correction = 𝐴𝐸

(100−80)×30
(a) When P0 = 80 N, tension correction = = 0.0004 m (additive)
0.08 ×2 × 107
 (100−120)×30
(b) When P0 = 120 N, tension correction = = 0.0004 m (subtractive)
0.08 ×2 × 107
(100−100)×30
(c) When P0 = 100 N, tension correction = = zero
0.08 ×2 × 107

𝐿 𝑊2
(v) Sag correction = 24 𝑃 2

Now mass of tape per metre run = (0.08 × 1 ×100) × (7.86 / 1000) kg = 0.06288 kg/m
∴ Weight of tape per metre run = 0.06288 × 9.81 = 0.6169 N/m
∴ Total weight of tape = 0.6169 × 30 = 18.51 N
(a) When P0 = 80 N
30 ×(18.51)2 30 ×(18.51)2
Sag correction = − = 0.0669 – 0.04283 = 0.02407
24 ×(80)2 24 ×(100)2
(additive)
(b) When P0 = 120 N

30 ×(18.51)2 30 ×(18.51)2
Sag correction = − = 0.02974 – 0.04283
24 ×(120)2 24 ×(100)2
= - 0.0131 m (i.e., subtractive)

(c) When P0 = 100 N

30 ×(18.51)2 30 ×(18.51)2
Sag collection = − =0
24 ×(100)2 24 ×(100)2

Final correction
(a) Total correction = -0.0010 + 0.0018 + 0.0004 + 0.02407 m = +0.02527 m
(b) Total correction = -0.0010 + 0.0018 - 0.0004 – 0.0131 m = - 0.0127 m
(c) Total correction = -0.0010 + 0.0018 + 0 + 0 m = + 0.0008 m
7) It is desired to find the weight of the tape by measuring its sag when suspended in catenary with
both ends level. If the tape is 20 m long and the sag amounts to 20.35 m at the mid span under a
tension of 100 N, what is the weight of the tape?
Solution:
𝑊 𝐿2
Cs= 8𝑃

But Cs = 20.35 cm (given)

8 𝑃 𝐶𝑠 8 ×100 ×20.35
w= = N/m = 0.407 N/m
𝐿2 20 ×20 ×100

Mass of tape = 0.407 / 9.81 = 0.0415 kg/m = 41.5 g/m.

8) A field tape, standarised at 18°C measured 100.0056 m. Determine the temperature at which it
will be exactly of the nominal length of 100 m.
Take α = 11.2 ×10-6 per °C
Solution:
Given δl = 0.0056 m ; To = 18°C
𝛿𝑙 0.0056
New standard temperature T0’ = T0  = 18 - 100×11.2×10−6 =18° - 5°
𝑙𝛼

T0’=13°C

9) A distance AB measures 96.245m on a slope. From a theodolite set at A, with instrument height
of 1.400 m, staff reading taken at B was 1.675m with a vertical angle of 4°30’40”. Determine the
horizontal length of the line AB. What will be the error if the effect were neglected?
Solution:
Given: h1 = 1.4m; h2 = 1.675m; α = 4°30’40”; l =96.245m
206265 ×(ℎ1−ℎ2)×cos 𝛼 206265 ×(1.675−1.4)×cos(4°30’40”)
δα” = = = -588” = -0°09’48”
𝑙 96.245

θ = α + δα = 4°30’40” -0°09’48” = 4°20’32”

Horizontal length L = l cos θ = 96.245 cos (4°20’32”) = 95.966m
If the effect were neglected, L = 96.245 cos (4°30’40”) = 95.947m
Error = 0.019m
10) a) Calculate the elongation at 400 m of a 1000 m mine shaft measuring tape hanging vertically
due to its own mass. The modulus of elasticity is 2×105 N/mm2, the mass of the tape is 0.075 kg/m
and the cross sectional area of the tape is 10.2 mm2. b) If the same tape is standardized as 1000.00m
at 175N tension, what is the true length of the shaft recorded as 999.126m?
Solution:
a) Taking M = 0,
𝑚𝑔𝑥 0.075 ×9.81 ×400 (2000−400)
Sx = (2𝑙 − 𝑥) = = 0.115m
2𝐴𝐸 2×10.2×2×105

b) Here x = 999.126, M = 0 and P0 = 175

𝑔𝑥 𝑚 𝑃0 9.81 ×999.126 0.075 175
S= [𝑀+ (2𝑙 − 𝑥) − ]= [0+ ( 2 × 1000 − 999.126) − ]
𝐴𝐸 2 𝑔 10.2 ×2×105 2 9.81

= 0.095m
 Satellite station: reduction to centre

11) From an eccentric station S, 12.25 metres to the west of the main station B, the following
angles were measured
BSC = 76° 25’ 32” ; CSA = 54° 32’ 20’’
The station S and C are to the opposite sides of the lines AB. Calculate the correct angle ABC if
the lengths AB and BC are 5286.5 and 4932.2
Solution: Fig (d)
Here  BSC =  = 76° 25’ 32’’
 CSA = θ =54° 32’ 20”
AB = c = 5286.5 m
BC = a = 4932.2 m
BS = d = 12.25 m
𝑑 sin(𝜃+𝛾)
β2 = × 206265 seconds
𝑐
 12.25 sin(54° 32’ 20”+76° 25’ 32’’ )
= × 206265 seconds
5286.5

= 360.92 seconds = 6’ 0” .92

𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾
β1 = × 206265 seconds
𝑎
12.25 sin(76° 25’ 32’’)
= × 206265 seconds
4932.2

= 497.98 seconds = 8’ 17” .98

Now the corrected angle ABC = θ + β1 - β2
= 54° 32’ 20” + 6’ 0” .92 – 8’ 17” .98
= 54° 30’ 2” .94
12) In measuring angles from a triangulation station B, it was found necessary to set the instrument
at a satellite station S, due south of the main station B and at a distance of 12.2 metres from it. The
line BS approximately bisects the exterior angle ABC. The angles ASB and BSC were observed
to be 30° 20’ 30” and 29° 45’ 5’ 6” respectively. When the station B was observed, the angles
CAB and ACB were observed to be 59° 18’ 26” and 60° 26’ 12” respectively. The side AC was
computed to be 4248.5 metres from the adjacent triangle. Determine the correct value of the angle
ABC.
Solution: fig. (d)
In triangle ABC, CAB = 59° 18’ 26”
ACB = 60° 26’ 12”
 ABC = 180° - (59° 18’ 26” + 60° 26’ 12”) = 60° 15’ 22” approximately
sin 𝐴𝐶𝐵 sin 60° 26’ 12”
∴ AB = AC sin 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 4248.5 sin 60° 15’ 22” = 4256.1 m
sin 𝐶𝐴𝐵 sin 59° 18’ 26”
and BC = AC = 4248.5 sin 60° 15’ 22” = 4207.7 m
sin 𝐴𝐵𝐶
sin 𝐴𝑆𝐵
Now from ∆ ABS, sin β1 = BS 𝐴𝐵

Since β1 is extremely small, we have

sin β1 sin 𝐴𝑆𝐵
β1 = = BS × 206265 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
sin 1" 𝐴𝐵
sin 30° 20’ 30”
= 12.2 × 206265 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 298.67 seconds = 4’ 58” .67
4256.1

Similarly, from ∆CBS,

sin 𝐵𝑆𝐶 sin 29° 45’ 5’ 6”
β2 = BS × 206265 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 12.2 × 206265 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐵𝐶 4207.7
 =296.78 seconds = 4’ 56” .78
Now the correct angle ABC = ASC + β1 + β2
= 30° 20’ 30” + 29° 45’ 6” + 4’ 58” .78 + = 4’ 56” .78
= 60° 15’ 31” .45

13) From the satellite station S, 5.8 metres from the main triangulation station A, the following
directions were observed:
A 0° 0’ 0”
B 132° 18’ 30”
C 232° 24’ 6”
D 296° 6’ 11”
The lengths AB, AC and AD were computed to be 3265.5 m, 4022.2 m and 3086.4 m
respectively
Determine the directions of AB, AC and AD.

Solution.
The correction to any direction is given by
𝑑 sin 𝜃
β= × 206265 seconds
𝐷

(a) For the line AB :

θ = angle reduced to the direction SA
= 132° 18’ 30”
 d = AS = 5.8 m
D = AB = 3265.5
5.8 sin 132° 18’ 30”
β= seconds
3265.5
= +270” .9 = 4’ 30” .9
∴ Direction of AB = direction of SB + β
= 132° 18’ 30” + 4’ 30” .9
=132° 23’ 0” .9
(b) For the line AC:
θ = angle reduced to the direction S
= 232° 24’ 6”
D = AC = 4022.2m
5.8 sin 232° 24’ 6”
β= seconds
4022.2
= - 235.7 seconds
= - 3’ 55” .7
∴ Direction of AC = direction of SC + β
= 232° 24’ 6” - 3’ 55” .7
=232° 20’4” .3
(c) For the line AD:
θ = angle reduced to the direction SA
= 296° 6’ 11”
D = AD = 3086.4m
5.8 sin 296° 6’ 11”
β= seconds
3086.4m
= - 348.1 seconds
= - 5’ 48” .1
∴ Direction of AD = direction of SD + β
= 296° 6’ 11” - 5’ 48” .1
=296° 0’ 22” .9

Trigonometric levelling
Single and Reciprocal observation
14) Correct the observed altitude for the height of signal, refraction and curvature from the
following data:
Observed altitude = + 2°48’39”
Height of instrument = 1.12 m
Height of signal = 4.87 m
Horizontal distance = 5112 m
Co-efficient of refraction = 0.07 m
R sin 1’’ = 30.88 m
Solution:
Given: α = + 2° 48’39” ; h = 1.12 m : s = 4.87 m
d =5112 m ; m = 0.07
𝑠−ℎ
The axis signal correction = = 𝑑 sin 1" seconds
4.87−1.12 3.75 ×206265 1
= 5112 sin 1" = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 sin 1" = )
5112 206265

= 151”.31 = 2’ 31”31 (subtractive)

𝑑 5122
The central angle = θ = 𝑅 sin 1" = 30.88 = 165”.54
𝜃
Curvature correction = 2 = 82”.77 (additive)

Refraction correction = r = mθ =0.07 × 165.54

= 11”.59 (subtractive)
𝜃
Total correction =2 - –r = 82”.77 - 151”31 -11.59

= -80”.13 = 1’20”.13 (subtractive)

Correct altitude = 2°48’39”- 1’20”13 = 2° 47’ 18”.87

15) Find the R.L of Q from the following observations:

Horizontal distance between P and Q = 9290 m
Angle of elevation from P and Q = 2° 06’18”
Height of signal at Q = 3.96 m
Height of instrument at P = 1.25 m
Co-efficient of refraction = 0.07
R sin 1” = 30.88 m
R.L. of P =396.58 m
Solution:
Given: d = 9290 m ; α = +2°06’18’ ; s = 3.96 m
h = 1.25 m ; R sin 1” =30.88 m ; m=0.07
𝑠−ℎ (3.96−1.25)
Axis signal correction = = 𝑑 sin 1" = seconds
9290 sin 1
 2.71 ×206265
= = 60”.17 (subtractive)
9290

𝛼1 = α - = 2° 06 18” – 60”.17 = 2° 05’17”.83

𝑑 9290
θ = 𝑅 sin 1" seconds = 30.88 = 300”.84 = 5’0”.84
𝜃
= 150”.42 = 2’30”.42
2

r = mθ = 0.07 × 300.84 = 21”.06

𝜃
𝑑 sin(𝛼1−𝑚𝜃+ )
2 9290 sin(2° 5′ 17".83−21".06 + 2'30".42)
H = cos(𝛼1−𝑚𝜃+𝜃) = cos(2°5′ 17".83 - 21".06+5’0”.84)

9290 sin 2°7′27".19

= = 344.59 m
cos 2° 9′57".61

R.L. of Q = R.L. of P + H =396.58 + 344.59 =741.17 m.

16) The following reciprocal observations were made from two points P and Q:
Horizontal distance between P and Q =6996 m
Angle of elevation of P at Q = 1° 56’10”
Angle of depression of P at Q =1° 56’52”
Height of signal at P =4.07 m
Height of signal at Q = 3.87 m
Height of instrument at P = 1.27 m
Height of instrument at Q = 1.48 m
Find the difference in level between P and Q and the refraction correction. Take R sin 1”
= 30.88 m.
Solution:
Given : d=6996 m ; =1°56’10” ; β= - 1° 56’52”
ℎ1 =1.27 m ; ℎ2= 1.48 m ; 𝑠1 = 4.07 m ; 𝑠2 =3.87 m
𝑠2 − ℎ1 (3.87−1.27) 2.59 ×206265
Axis signal correction at P = 1= = =
𝑑 sin 1" 6996 sin 1" 6996

= 76”.66 = 1’16”.66 (subtractive)

𝑠1−ℎ
2 4.07−1.48 2.59 ×206265
Axis signal correction at Q= 2 =𝑑 sin 1" =6996 sin 1" = 6996
 = 76”.36 = 1’16”.36 (additive)
𝑑 6996
Central angle θ = 𝑅 sin 1" = 30.88 = 3’46”.55 = 226”.55
𝜃
= 1’53”.28
2

Now, α1 = α - 𝛿1 = 1°56’10” – 1’16”.66 = 1”54’53”.44

β1 = β + 𝛿2 =1°56’52” + 1’ 16”.36 = 1°58’08”.36
𝛽1 + α1 1
= 2(1°58’08”.36 + 1°54’53”.34) = 1°56’30”.85
2

Therfore,
𝛽1 + α1 𝜃
+ 2 = 1°56’30”.85 +1’53”.28 = 1°58’24”.13
2
𝛽1 − α1 1
= 2(1°58’08”.36 - 1°54’53”.34) = 1’ 37”.51
2
𝛽 + α1
𝑑 sin( 1 ) 6996 sin 1°56’30”.85
2
H= 𝛽 + α1 𝜃 = = 237.21 m
cos( 1 + ) cos 1°58’24”.13
2 2

𝜃 𝛽1 − α1
r=2- = 1’53”.28 - 1’ 37”.51 = 15”.77
2
𝑟 15".77
Coefficient of refraction = m = 𝜃 = 226".55 = 0.0696

17) The following reciprocal observations were made from two points P and Q:
Horizontal distance between P and Q = 33128 m
Angle of depression of Q at P = 6’20”
Angle of depression of P at Q = 8’10”
Height of signal at P = 4.87 m
Height of signal at Q = 4.07 m
Height of the instrument at P = 1.27 m
Height of the instrument at Q = 1.34 m
Calculate: (a) The R.L. of Q, if that of P is 1248.65 m. (b) The average co-efficient of refraction
at the time of observations. Take R sin 1” = 30.88 m.
Solution:
Given:
d = 33128m; = -6’20”; β = - 8’10”; s1 = 4.87m; s2 = 4.07m; h1 = 1.27m; h2 = 1.34m
𝑠2−ℎ
1 4.07−1.27 2.8 ×206265
Axis signal correction at P= 1 =𝑑 sin 1" = 33128 sin 1" = = 17". 43 (𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜
33128
𝑠1−ℎ 4.87−1.34 3.53 ×206265
Axis signal correction at Q= 2
2
=𝑑 sin 1" = 33128 sin 1" = = 21". 98 (𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 β)
33128

α1 = α + 𝛿1 = 6’20” + 17". 43 = 6’37”.43(depression)

β1 = β + 𝛿2 = 8’10” + 21". 98 = 8’31”.98 (depression)
𝛽1 − α1 1
= 2 (8’31”.98 - 6’37”.43) = 57”.27
2
𝛽1 + α1 1
= (8’31”.98 + 6’37”.43) = 7’34”.71
2 2
𝑑 33128
Central angle θ = 𝑅 sin 1" = = 1072". 8 = 17′52". 8
30.88
𝜃
= 8’56”.4
2

𝜃 𝛽1 + α1
r=2- = 8’56”.4 - 7’34”.71 = 1’21”.69 = 81”.69
2
𝑟 81.69
Coefficient of refraction = m = 𝜃 = 1072.8 = 0.0762
𝛽 − α1
𝑑 sin( 1 ) 33128 sin 57”.27
2
H= 𝛽 − α1 𝜃 = cos(57”.27− 8’56”.4) = 9.2m
cos( 1 + )
2 2

RL of Q = RL of P + H = 1248.65 + 9.2 = 1257.85m

18) In a trigonometrical measurement of the difference in level of two stations P and Q, 10480 m
apart, the following data were obtained.
Instrument at P, angle of elevation of Q = 0’15”
Instrument at Q, angle of depression of P = 3’ 33”
Height of instrument at P = 1.42 m.
Height of instrument at Q = 1.45 m.
Height of signal at P = 3.95 m.
Height of signal at Q = 3.92 m.
Find the difference in level between P and Q and the curvature and refraction correction. Take R
sin 1” = 30.38m.
Solution:
Given: d = 10480m; = +0’15”; β = - 3’33”; s1 = 3.95m; s2 = 3.92m; h1 = 1.42m; h2 = 1.45m
𝑠2−ℎ 1 3.92−1.42
Axis signal correction at P= 1 =𝑑 sin 1" = 10480 sin 1" = 49". 30 (𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜
𝑠1−ℎ 3.95−1.45
Axis signal correction at Q= 2
2
=𝑑 sin 1" = 10480 sin 1" = 49". 30 (𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 β)

α1 = α − 𝛿1 = 0’15” - 49". 30 = 34”.30 (depression)

β1 = −(β + 𝛿2) = - (3’33”+ 49". 30 )= 4’22”.30 (depression)
𝑑 10480
Central angle θ = 𝑅 sin 1" = = 339.38 = 5'39. 38
30.80

𝜃
= 2’49”.69
2

𝛽1 − α1 1
= 2 (4’22”.30 + 34”.30) = 1’54”
2
𝛽1 + α1 1
= (4’22”.30 - 34”.30) = 2’28”.3
2 2
𝜃 𝛽1 + α1
r=2- = 2’49”.69 - 2’28”.3 = 21”.39
2
𝛽 − α1
𝑑 sin( 1 ) 10480 sin( 1’54”)
2
H= 𝛽1 − α1 𝜃 = = 5.792m
cos( + ) cos( 1’54”+2’49”.69)
2 2
 Unit – II
1) Calculate the ordinates at 10 metres distance for a circular curve having a long chord of 80
metres and a versed sine of 4 metres.
Solution:

𝐿
The versed sine is given by O0 = R- √𝑅 2 − (2)2

4 = R- √𝑅 2 − (40)2 or 𝑅 2 −(40)2 = (R – 4)2 = R2 + 16 – 8R

1616
R= = 202 𝑚
8

(R - O0) = 202 – 4 = 198 m

The ordinates are calculated using, Ox = √𝑅 2 − 𝑥 2 - (R - O0)

O10 = √2022 − 102 − 198 = 3.75 𝑚

O20 = √2022 − 202 − 198 = 3.01 𝑚

O30 = √2022 − 302 − 198 = 1.76 𝑚

O40 = √2022 − 402 − 198 = 0 𝑚

2) Determine the offsets to be set out at ½ chain interval along the tangents to locate a 16 chain
curve, the length of each chain length being 20 m.
Solution:
a) Radial offsets

Ox = √𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2 - R

O0.5 = √162 + 0.52 – 16 = 0.0078 chain = 0.16 m

O1 = √162 + 12 – 16 = 0.031 chain = 0.62 m

O1.5 = √162 + 1.52 – 16 = 0.0702 chain = 1.4 m

O2 = √162 + 22 – 16 = 0.1245 chain = 2.49 m

O2.5 = √162 + 2.52 – 16 = 0.1941 chain = 3.88m

O3 = √162 + 32 – 16 = 0.2788 chain = 5.88 m

b) Perpendicular offsets

Ox = R - √𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2

O0.5 =16 - √162 + 0.52 = 0.0078 chain = 0.16 m

O1 =16 - √162 + 12 = 0.0311 chain = 0.62 m

O1.5 =16 - √162 + 1.52 = 0.0704 chain = 1.41 m

O2 =16 - √162 + 22 = 0.1255 chain = 2.51 m

O2.5 =16 - √162 + 2.52 = 0.1965 chain = 3.93 m

O3 =16 - √162 + 32 = 0.284 chain = 5.68 m

c) By approximate method
𝑥2
Ox = 2𝑅

0.52
O0.5 = = 0.0078 chain = 0.15 m
32

12
O1 = 32 = 0.0312 chain = 0.62 m

1.52
O1.5 = = 0.0704 chain = 1.41 m
32

22
O2 = 32 = 0.125 chain = 2.50 m

2.52
O2.5 = = 0.1953 chain = 3.91 m
32

32
O3 = 32 = 0.281 chain = 5.62 m

3) Two tangents intersect at chainage 59+60, deflection angle being 50°30’. Calculate the
necessary data for setting out a curve of 15 chains radius to connect the two tangents if it is intended
to set out the curve by offsets from chords. Take peg interval equal to 100 links, length of the chain
being equal to 20 metres (100 links).
Solution:
∆
Tangent length, T = R tan 2 = 15 tan 25° 15’ = 7.074 chains = 141.48 m
𝜋𝑅∆ 𝜋 ×15 × 50°30’
Length of the curve, l = = = 13.221 chains = 264.42 m
180° 180°
 Chains Links Metres
Chainage of PI = 59 + 60.0 = 1192.00
Deduct tangent length = 7 + 07.4 = 141.48
(T)
Chainage of PC = 52 + 52.6 = 1050.52
Add length of curve = 13 + 22.1 = 264.42
(l)
Chainage of PT = 65 + 74.7 =1314.94

The chainage of each peg will be multiple of 20 metres

Length of first sub-chord, c = 1060 – 1050.52 = 9.48 m
or c = (53+00) – (52+52.6) = 47.4 links = 9,48 m
Length of last sub-chord, c’ = 1314.94 – 1300 = 14.94 m
or c’ = (65+74.7) – (65+00) = 74.7 links = 14.94 m
1300−1060
Number of full chords = = 12, 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 20 𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
20

Total number of chords = 1+ 12+ 1 = 14

𝑐2 9.482
Length of first offset O1 = 2𝑅 = 2 ×300 = 0.15 m

where R =15 chains = 15 × 20 m = 300 m

𝐶 20
Length of second offset O2 = 2𝑅 (𝑐 + 𝐶) = (9.48 + 20) = 0.98𝑚
2 ×300

𝐶2 202
O3, O4 =….. O12 = = 300 = 1.33 m
𝑅
𝐶′ 14.94
Last offset, On = (𝑐′ + 𝐶) = (14.94 + 20) = 0.87𝑚
2𝑅 2 ×300

4) Calculate the necessary data for setting out the curve of previous problem if it is intended to set
out the curve by Rankine’s method of tangential angles. If the theodolite has a least count 20”,
tabulate the actual readings of deflection angles to be set out.
Solution:
From the previous problem
c = 9.48 m
c’= 14.94 m
C = 20 m
 𝐶
The tangential angle = 1718.9 𝑅 𝑚𝑖𝑛

where R = 15 × 20 = 300 ,
9.48
1 for the first chord = 1718.9 = 54′19"
300
20
2 3……. 13 = = 1718.9 300 =1° 25′35"

The deflection angles for various chords are as follows:

Deflection angle Theodolite angle

° ’ ” ° ’ ”
Δ1 = 1 = 00 54 19.0 00 54 20
Δ2 = Δ1+ = 02 48 54.6 0249 49 00
Δ3 = Δ2+ = 04 43 30.2 04 43 40
Δ4 = Δ3+ = 06 38 5.8 06 38 00
Δ5 = Δ4+ = 08 32 41.4 08 32 40
Δ6 = Δ5+ = 10 27 17.0 10 27 20
Δ7 = Δ6+ = 12 21 52.6 12 22 00
Δ8 = Δ7+ = 14 16 28.2 14 16 20
Δ9 = Δ8+ = 16 11 3.8 16 11 00
Δ10 = Δ9+ = 18 05 39.4 18 05 40
Δ11 = Δ10+ = 20 00 15.0 20 00 20
Δ12 = Δ11+ = 21 54 50.6 21 55 00
Δ13 = Δ12+ = 23 49 26.2 23 49 20
Δ14 = Δ13+ 14 = 25 15 1.2 25 15 00

5) Two straights AB and BC are intersected by a line D1D2. The angles BD1D2 and BD2D1are
40°30’ and 36°24’ respectively. The radius of the first arc is 600 metres and that of the second arc
is 800 metres. If the chainage of the intersection point B is 8248.1 metres, find the chainage of the
tangent points and the point of compound curvature.
Solution:
∟BD1D2 = Δ1 = 40°30’

∟BD2D1 = Δ2 = 36°24’

Δ = Δ1 + Δ2 = 40°30’ + 36°24’ = 76°54’

For the first branch, the central angle = Δ1 = 40°30’

∆1
ts = T1D1 = D1D = Rs tan = 600 tan 20°15’ = 221.4 m
2

For the second branch, the central angle = Δ2 = 36°24’

∆2
tL = T2D2 = D2D = RL tan = 800 tan 18°12’ = 263 m
2

D1D2 = D1D + D2D = 221.4 + 263 = 484.4 m

From triangle BD1D2,

𝐵𝐷1 𝐷1𝐷2
=
sin ∆2 sin ∆
sin ∆2 sin 36°24’
BD1 = D1D2 = 484.4 sin 76°54’ = 295.1 m
sin ∆
𝜋 𝑅𝑠 ∆1 𝜋 ×600 × 40°30’
Length of the first arc = l1 = = = 424.1 m
180° 180°

𝜋 𝑅𝐿 ∆2 𝜋 ×800 × 36°24’
Length of the second arc = l2 = = = 508.2 m
180° 180°

Ts = BD1 + T1D1 = 295.1 + 221.4 = 516.5 m

Chainage of PI = 8248.1 m
 Subtract Ts = 516.5
Chainage of T1 = 7731.6 m
Add length l1 = 424.1 m
Chainage of PCC = 8155.7 m
Add length l2 = 508.2 m
Chainage of T2 = 8663.9 m

6) The following data refer to a compound circular curve which bears to the right:
Total deflection angle 93°
Degree of first curve 4°
Degree of second curve 5°
Point of intersection at 45+61 (20 m unit)
Determine in 20 metre units the running distance of the tangent points and the point of compound
curvature, given that the latter point is 6+24 from the point of intersection at back angle of 290°36’
from the first tangent.
Solution:

Let R1 = Radius corresponding to 4° curve

R2 = Radius corresponding to 5° curve
 1146
R= 𝐷
1146
R1 = = 286.5 𝑚
4
1146
R2 = = 229.2 m
5

BD = 6+24 in 20 m units = 6.24 × 20 = 124.8 m

∟T1BD (external) = 290°36’
∟T1BD (internal) = 360° - 290°36’ = 69°24’
From triangle T1BD,
sin 𝐵𝑇1𝐷 sin 𝑇1𝐵𝐷
=
𝐵𝐷 𝑇1𝐷
∆1
But ∟BT1D = 2
∆1 ∆1
and T1D = 2R1 sin = 573 sin
2 2
∆1
sin sin 69°24’
2
Hence 124.8 = ∆1
573 sin
2

∆1 2 124.8
or (sin ) = 573 × sin 69°24’
2
∆1 124.8
or sin = ( 573 × sin 69°24’)1/2
2
∆1
From which, = 26°50’ or ∆1 = 53°40’
2

∆2 = ∆ − ∆1 = 93° - 53°40’ = 39°20’

∆1
t1 = T1D1 = R1 tan = 286.5 tan 26°50’ = 144.9 m
2
∆2
t2 = T2D2 = R2 tan = 229.2 tan 19°40’ = 81.9 m
2
sin ∆2 sin 39°20’
T1 = T1B = t1 + (t1 + t2) = 144.9 + (144.9 + 81.9) = 288.9 m
sin ∆ sin 93°
∆1 53°40’
Length of first arc = l1 = 𝐷1 × 20 = × 20 = 268.3 m
4°
∆2 39°20’
Length of second arc = l2 = 𝐷2 × 20 = × 20 = 157.3 m
4°

Chainage of PI = 912.2 m = 45 + 610 (in 20 m units)

Subtract T1 = 288.9 = 14 + 445
Chainage of PC = 623.3 m = 31.165
 Add l1 = 268.3 = 13.415
Chainage of PCC = 891.6 = 44.580
Add l2 = 157.3 = 7.865
Chainage of PT = 1048.9 = 52.445

7) A compound curve is to consist of an arc of 36 chains followed by one of 48 chains radius and
is to connect two straights which yield a deflection angle of 84°30’. At the intersection points the
chainage, if continued along the first tangent, would be 86+48 and starting point of the curve is
selected at chainage 47+50. Calculate the chainage at the point of junction of the two branches and
the end of the curve.
Solution:

Here Rs, RL, Δ and Ts are given. In order to calculate the chainages of various points, we will
have to first determine Δ1 and Δ2.
Ts = 86.48 – 47.50 = 38.98 chains
As in fig. prolong the shorter arc to a point D’ so that its central angle is equal to Δ = 84°30’. The
tangent D’B’ will then be parallel to initial tangent BT2. Draw BP perpendicular to B’D’.
Then T2Q = BP = BB’sin Δ
= (T1B – T1B’) sin Δ = (Ts – Rs tan ½ Δ) sin Δ
 = (38.98 – 36 tan 42°15’) sin 84°30’ = 6.26 chains
O2S = O2T2 – T2Q – QS = RL – T2Q – Rs
= 48 – 6.26 – 36 = 5.74 chains
𝑂2 𝑆 5.74
cos Δ2 = 𝑅 =
𝐿 − 𝑅𝑆 48−36

Δ2 = 61°24’
Δ1 = 84°30’ - 61°24’ = 23°6’
𝜋 𝑅𝑠 ∆1 𝜋 ×36 × 23°6’
Length of the first arc = l1 = = = 14.52 chains
180° 180°
𝜋 𝑅𝐿 ∆2 𝜋 ×48 × 61°24’
Length of the second arc = l2 = = = 51.44 chains
180° 180°

Chainage of PC = 47.50 chains

Add length of the first arc = 14.50

Chainage of PCC = 62.02
Add length of the second arc = 51.44
Chainage of end of curve = 113.46
8) A compound curve is to connect two straights having a deflection angle of 90°. As determined
from the plan, the lengths of the two tangents are 350 metres and 400 metres respectively. Calculate
the length of the two arcs if the radius of the first curve is be 300 metres.
Solution:
Given: Ts = 350 m
TL = 400 m
Δ = 90°
Rs = 300 m
Required to find Δ1, Δ2 and RL
T1B’= B’D’ = Rs tan ½ Δ = 300 tan 45° = 300 m
T2Q = BP = (Ts – Rs tan ½ Δ) sin Δ = (350 – 300 tan 45°) sin 90° = 50 m
B’P = BB’cos 90° = 0
O1S = QD’= QP+PB’- B’D’ = TL + 0 – 300 = 400 – 300 = 100 m
𝑇2 𝑄 𝐵𝑃 50
tan ½ Δ2 = = 𝑄𝐷′ = = 0.5
𝑄𝐷 100

½ Δ2 = 26°34’
Δ2 = 53°8’
Δ1 = Δ – Δ2 = 90° - 53°8’ = 36°52’
𝑂 𝑆
Also, RL – Rs = sin1∆
2

𝑂 𝑆 100
RL = Rs + sin1∆ = 300 + sin 53°8’ = 425 m
2

𝜋 𝑅𝑠 ∆1 𝜋 ×300 × 36°52’
Length of the first arc = = = 193.1 m
180° 180°
𝜋 𝑅𝐿 ∆2 𝜋 ×425 × 53°8’
Length of the second arc = = = 394.2 m
180° 180°

9) A parabolic vertical curve is to be set out connecting two uniform grades of +0.8% and -0.9%.
The chainage and reduced level of point of intersection are 1664 metres and 238.755 m
respectively. The rate of change of grades is 0.05% per chain of 20 m. Calculate the reduced levels
of the various station pegs
Solution:
Total change of grade = g1 – g2 = (+0.8) – (-0.9) = +1.7%
Rate of change of grade, r = 0.05% per chain
1.7
Length of the vertical curve = 0.05 = 34 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠

Length of curve of either side of the apex = 17 chains = 340m

Chainge of the point of intersection = 1664 m
Chainage of the first tangent point = 1664 – 340 = 1324 m
Chainage of the second tangent point = 1664 + 340 = 2004 m
RL of point of intersection (A) = 238.755 m
𝑔 1 0.8
e1 per chord length of 20 m = 100 × 20 = + 5
17 ×0.8
RL of the beginning (O) of the curve = 238.755 – 17e1 = 238.755 - = 236.035 m
5
𝑔 2 0.9
e2 per chord length of 20 m = 100 × 20 = − 𝑚
5
17 ×0.9
RL of the end (B) of the curve = 238.755 + 17e2 = 238.755 - = 235.695 m
5

RL of E = ½ (RL of O + RL of B) = ½ (236.035 + 235.695) = 235.865

Since F is midway between A and E,
RL of vertex F = ½ (RL of A + RL of E) = ½ (238.755 + 235.865) = 237.310 m
Difference in elevation between A and F = 238.755 - 237.310 = 1.445m
The tangent correction at any point is calculated from the expression
h = k/N2 or h = N2/200
For the first station having chainage = 1344 m and N = 1
h1 = 1/200 = 0.005 m
Tangent elevation of first point = RL of O + e1 = 236.195 + 0.16 = 236.195
RL of first station on the curve = Tangent elevation – Tangent correction
= 236.195 – 0.005 = 236.190 m
Similarly, for the second station having chainage = 1364 and N = 2
(2)2
h2 = = 0.02 𝑚
200

Tangent elevation on second point = RL of O + 2e1 = 236.035 + 0.32 = 236.355

RL of second station of the curve = 236.355 – 0.02 = 236.335 m
The elevation of other points can similarly be calculated and tabulated as below:
Station Chainage Tangent Tangent Curve Remarks
elevation correction elevation
(-ve)
0 1324 236.035 0.000 236.035 Beginning of the curve
1 1344 236.195 0.005 236.190
2 1364 236.335 0.020 236.335
3 1384 236.515 0.045 236.470
4 1404 236.675 0.080 236.595
5 1424 236.835 0.125 236.710
6 1444 236.995 0.180 236.815
7 1464 237.155 0.245 236.910
8 1484 237.315 0.320 236.995
9 1504 237.475 0.405 237.070
10 1524 237.635 0.500 237.135
11 1544 237.795 0.605 237.190
12 1564 237.955 0.720 237.235
13 1584 238.115 0.845 237.270
14 1604 238.275 0.980 237.295
15 1624 238.435 1.125 237.310
16 1644 238.595 1.280 237.315 Highest point (Apex A of the curve)
17 1664 238.755 1.445 237.310
18 1684 238.915 1.620 237.295
19 1704 239.075 1.805 237.270
 20 1724 239.235 2.000 237.235
21 1744 239.395 2.205 237.190
22 1764 239.555 2.420 237.135
23 1784 239.715 2.645 237.070
24 1804 239.875 2.880 237.995
25 1824 240.035 3.125 237.910
26 1844 240.195 3.380 237.815
27 1864 240.355 3.645 237.710
28 1884 240.515 3.920 237.595
29 1904 240.675 4.205 237.470
30 1924 240.835 4.500 237.335
31 1944 240.995 4.805 237.190
32 1964 241.155 5.120 236.035
33 1984 241.315 5.445 235.870
34 2004 241.475 5.780 235.695 End of the curve

10) A -1.0 percent grade meets a +2.0 percent grade at station 470 of elevation 328.605 metres. A
vertical curve of length 120 metres is to be used. The pegs are to be fixed at 10 metres interval.
Calculate the elevation of the points on the curve by a) tangent corrections and b) by chord
gradients. If the pegs are to be driven with their tops at the formation of the curve, calculate the
staff readings required, given that height of collimation is 330.890
Solution:
a) Tangent correction
Total number of stations in 10 m unit = 120/10 = 12
Number of stations to each side of apex, n = 6
𝑔 1 1.0
Change of elevation of first tangent per chord length of 10 m, e1 = 100 × 10 = − 100 × 10 = 0.1m
2 𝑔 2.0
Change of elevation of second tangent per chord length of 10 m, e2 = 100 × 10 = + 100 × 10

= 0.2m

Elevation of point of intersection = 328.605 m

Elevation of the beginning of curve = 328.605 - n e1 = 328.605 – (6) (-0.10) = 329.205 m
Elevation of the end of curve = 328.605 + n e2 = 328.605 + (6) (0.20) = 329.805 m
The tangent correction with respect to the first tangent is given by, h = kN2
e1−e2 (−0.1)−(0.2)
where k = = = -1/80
4𝑛 4×6
Hence h = N2/80
Since the sign of k is negative, h will be additive to the tangent elevations to get the elevations on
the curve.
For the first point, tangent elevation = elevation of the beginning of the curve + e1 = 329.205 -0.1
= 329.105

Tangent correction = 1/80 = 0.0125 m ≈ 0.01 m

Elevation of first point = 329.105 + 0.01 = 329.115m
Similarly, for the second point, tangent elevation = 329.205 -0.2 = 329.005
(2)2
Tangent correction = = 0.05 m
80

Elevation of second point = 329.005+0.05 = 329.055m

The values for other points along with the required staff reading are tabulated below:
Station Chainage Tangent Tangent Curve Ht. of Staff Remarks
elevation correction elevation collimation reading
(+ve)
0 410 329.205 0 329.205 330.890 1.685 Beginning of curve
1 420 329.105 0.010 329.115 1.775
2 430 329.005 0.050 329.055 1.835
3 440 328.905 0.115 329.020 1.870
4 450 328.805 0.200 329.005 1.885
5 460 328.705 0.315 329.020 1.870
6 470 328.605 0.450 329.055 1.835 Vertex of curve
7 480 328.505 0.615 329.120 1.770
8 490 328.405 0.800 329.205 1.685
9 500 328.305 1.015 329.320 1.570
10 510 328.205 1.250 329.455 1.435
11 520 328.205 1.515 329.620 1.270
B 530 328.005 1.800 329.805 1.085 End of curve

b) Chords gradients
The chord gradient for any point is given by
Nth chord gradient = e1 – (2N – 1) k
Here, e1 = -0.1, k = -1/80
(1) For the first point, chord gradient = -0.1-(2-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (1/80) = - 0.09
Elevation of first point = elevation of O + chord gradient = 329.205 - 0.09 = 329.115
(2) For the second point, chord gradient = -0.1-(4-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (3/80) = - 0.06
Elevation of second point = 329.115 - 0.06 = 329.055
(3) For the third point, chord gradient = -0.1-(6-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (5/80) = - 0.04
Elevation of third point = 329.055 - 0.04 = 329.015
(4) For the fourth point, chord gradient = -0.1-(8-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (7/80) = - 0.01
Elevation of fourth point = 329.015 - 0.01 = 329.005
(5) For the fifth point, chord gradient = -0.1-(10-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (9/80) = +0.015
Elevation of fifth point = 329.005 + 0.015 = 329.020
(6) For the sixth point, chord gradient = -0.1-(12-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (11/80) = + 0.035
Elevation of sixth point = 329.020 + 0.035 = 329.055
(7) For the seventh point, chord gradient = -0.1-(14-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (13/80) = +0.065
Elevation of seventh point = 329. 055 +0.065 = 329.120
(8) For the eight point, chord gradient = -0.1-(16-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (15/80) = +0.085
Elevation of eight point = 329. 120 + 0.085 = 329.205
(9) For the ninth point, chord gradient = -0.1-(18-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (17/80) = + 0.115
Elevation of ninth point = 329.205 + 0.115 = 329.320
(10) For the tenth point, chord gradient = -0.1-(20-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (19/80) = + 0.135
Elevation of tenth point = 329.205 + 0.135 = 329. 455
(11) For the eleventh point, chord gradient = -0.1-(22-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (21/80) = + 0.165
Elevation of eleventh point = 329.320 + 0.165 = 329.620
(12) For the point B, chord gradient = -0.1-(24-1) (-1/80) = -0.1 + (23/80) = + 0.185
Elevation of B = 329.205 + 0.185 = 329.805
 UNIT III
PRINCIPLES OF LEAST SQUARES
1) The following are the observed values of an angle:
Angle weight
40° 20’20” 2
40° 20’18” 2
40° 20’19” 3
Find: a) p.e. of single observation of unit weight
b) p.e. of weighted arithmetic mean
c) p.e. of single observation of weight 3
Solution:
Value weight Value × weight v v2 wv2

20” 2 40” +1 1 2

18” 2 36” -1 1 2

19” 3 57” 0 0 0

∑w = 7 Weighted mean = 19” ∑ wv2 = 4

Weighted arithmetic mean of the seconds reading of the observed angles

(20× 2) + (18"×2)+(19"×3)
= = 19"
(2+2+3)

v1 = 20”- 19” = 1” ; v2 = 18”- 19” = -1” ; v3 = 19”-19”= 0

∑ 𝑤𝑉 2
a) p.e of single observation of unit weight = Es = ± 0.6745 √
𝑛−1

4
= ± 0.6745 √ = ±0.95
3−1

∑ 𝑤𝑣 2
b) p.e. of weighted arithmetic mean = ±0.6754 √∑
𝑤 (𝑛−1)
 4
= ±0.6754 √ = ±0.36
7 ×2

𝐸𝑠 9
c) p.e. of single observation of weight 3 = = = 0.55
√𝑤 √3

2) The following are the three angles β and γ observed at a station P closing the horizon along
with their probable errors of measurement. Determine their corrected value.

78°12’12” ±2"

β = 136°48’30” ±4”

γ = 144°59’08” ±5”

Solution:

Sum of the three angles = 359°59’50”

Discrepancy = 10”

Let c1, c2 and c3 β and γ respectively.

c1 : c2 : c3 = 22 : 42 : 52 = 4 : 16 : 25 …….. (1)
c1 + c2 + c3 = 10” ………… (2)
16 25
c2 = 𝑐1 = 4c1 and c3 = 𝑐1
4 4

substitute the values of c2 and c3 in (2)

16 25
c1 + 𝑐1+ 𝑐1 = 10”
4 4
4
or c1 = 10 × 25 = 0”. 89
25
c2 = 4c1 = 3”.56 c3 = 𝑐1 = 5”.55
4

hence the corrected angles are

+0". 89 = 78°12’12”.89
β = 136°48’30”+3”.56 = 136°48’33”.56

γ = 144°59’08”+5”.55 = 144°59’13”.55

Sum of the three angles = 360°00’00”.00

3) An angle A was measured by different persons and the following are the values:

Angle Number of measurements

65°30’10” 2
65°29’50” 3
65°30’00” 3
65°30’20” 4
65°30’10” 5
Find the most probable value of the angle
Solution:

The most probable value of an angle is equal to its weighted arithmetic mean

65°30’10” × 2 = 131°00’20”

65°29’50” × 3 = 196°29’30”

65°30’00” × 3 = 196°30’00”

65°30’20” × 4 = 262°01’20”

65°30’10” × 5 = 196°30’30”

Sum = 982°31’40”

∑Weight = 2+3+3+4+5 = 15
982°31’40”
Weighted arithmetic mean = = 65°30′6". 67
15

NORMAL EQUATIONS
4) Find the most probable value of the angle A from the following observation equation:

A = 30°28’40”; 3A = 91°25’55”; 4A = 121°54’30”

Solution:

There is only one unknown and all the observations are of equal weight. The coefficients
of A in the three equations are 1, 3 and 4. Hence multiply these equations by 1, 3 and 4
respectively and add the resulting equations to get the normal equation for A.

A = 30°28’40

9A = 274°17’45”
 16A = 487°38’00”

Sum 26A = 792°24’25”

A = 30°28’37”.9

5) Find the most probable value of the angle A from the following observation equation:

A = 30°28’40” weight 2

3A = 91°25’55” weight 3

Solution:

There is only one unknown. However the observations are of unequal weight. The
normal equation can be formed by multiplying each of the two observation equations by
the corresponding weight and coefficient of A and adding them.

Thus in the first equation, coefficient of A is 1 and weight of observation is 2. Hence

multiply it by 2. Similarly in the second equation the coefficient of A is 3 and the weight
of observation is 3, hence multiply it by 9.

2A = 60°57’20”

27A = 822°53’15”

Sum 29A = 883°50’35”

A = 30°28’38”.5

6) Find the most probable values of the angles A and B from the following observations
at a station O:

A = 9°48’36”.6 weight 2 …..(1)

B = 54°37’48”.3 weight 3 …..(2)

A+B = 104°26’28”.5 weight 4 ….(3)

Solution:

There are two unknowns A and B and both are independent of each other, and there will
be two normal equations.

To find the normal equation for A multiply equation (1) by 2, equation (2) by 0 since there
is no A and equation (3) by 4.
 2A = 99°37’13”.2

4A+4B = 417°45’54”.0

Sum 6A+4B = 517°23’07”.2 ………… (4) [Normal eqn for A]

Similarly, to find the normal equation for B multiply equation (1) by 0 since there is no B,
equation (2) by 3 and equation (3) by 4.

3B = 163°53’24”.9

4A+4B = 417°45’54”.0

Sum 4A+7B = 581°39’18”.9 ………. (5) [Normal eqn for B]

Hence solve eqn (4) and (5) to get A and B

A = 49°48’38”.3

B = 54°37’49”.3

7) The following are mean values observed in the measurement of three angles
γ at one station:

°42’46”.2 weight 4

134°36’32”.6 weight 3

β+ γ = 185°35’24”.8 weight 2

γ = 262°18’10”.4 weight 1

Calculate the most probable value of each angle

Solution:

To form the normal equation for unknown, multiply each eqn by the coefficient of that
unknown and also by the weight of the equation and take the sum of the resulting eqns.

306°51’04”.8

403°49’37”.8

γ= 262°18’10”.4

γ = 972°58’53”.0 ………. (1)

Normal eqn for β

2β+2γ = 371°10’49”.6

= 262°18’10”.4

3γ = 1037°18’37”.8…………. (2)

Normal eqn for γ

2β+2γ = 371°10’49”.6

3γ = 633°29’00”.0 …………. (3)

By solving eqns (1), (2) and (3)

β = 57°53’46”

γ = 127°41’38”.26

ALTERNATIVE METHOD OF DIFFERENCES

8) The following observations of three angles A, B and C were taken at one station

A = 75°32’46”.3 weight 3

B = 55°09’53”.2 weight 2

C = 108° 09’28”.8 weight 2

A+B = 130°42’41”.6 weight 2

B+C = 163°19’22”.5 weight 1

A+B+C = 238°52’9”.8 weight 1

Determine the most probable value of each angle.

Solution:

Let k1, k2 and k3 be the most probable correction to A, B and C.

A = 75°32’46”.3 + k1 ………. (1)

B = 55°09’53”.2 + k2 ………. (2)

 C = 108° 09’28”.8 + k3 ………. (3)

A+B = 130°42’41”.6 + k1 + k2 ………. (4)

B+C = 163°19’22”.5 + k2 + k3 ………. (5)

A+B+C = 238°52’9”.8 + k1 + k2 + k3 ………. (6)

Subtracting these eqns from the corresponding observation eqns, we get

k1 = 0 weight 3

k2 = 0 weight 2

k3 = 0 weight 2

k1 + k2 = 2”.1 weight 2

k2 + k3 = 0”.5 weight 1

k1 + k2 + k3 = 1”.5 weight 1

Normal eqn of k1

3k1 = 0

2k1 + 2k2 = 4.2

k1 + k2 + k3 = 1.5

Sum 6k1 + 3k2 + k3 = 5.7 …….. (7)

Normal eqn of k2

2k2 = 0

2k1 + 2k2 = 4.2

k2 + k3 = 0.5

k1 + k2 + k3 = 1.5

Sum 3k1 + 6k2 + 2k3 = 6.2 ………..(8)

Normal eqn of k3

2k3 = 0

k2 + k3 = 0.5

k1 + k2 + k3 = 1.5

Sum k1 + 2k2 + 4k3 = 2 ……. (9)

By solving eqn (7), (8) and (9), we get

k1 =0”.58

k2 = 0”.75

k3 = -0”.02

Hence the most probable values of A, B and C are

A = 75°32’46”.3 + 0”.58 = 75°32’46”.88

B = 55°09’53”.2 + 0”.75 = 55°09’53”.95

C = 108°09’28”.8 - 0”.02 =108° 09’28”.78

9) The following are the observed values of A, B and C at a station, the angles being
subject to the condition that A+B=C:

A = 30°12’28”.2

B = 35°48’12”.6

C = 66°0’44”.4

Find the most probable values of A, B and C.

Solution:

A+B = 66°0’44”.4 (Condition given)

Hence the three observation eqns are:

A = 30°12’28”.2 ……. (1)

B = 35°48’12”.6 ……. (2)

A+B = 66°0’44”.4 ……. (3)

Normal eqn for A

A = 30°12’28”.2

A+B = 66°0’44”.4

Sum 2A+B = 96°13’12”.6 ………(4)

Normal eqn for B

B = 35°48’12”.6
 A+B = 66°0’44”.4

Sum A+2B = 101°48’57”.0 ………(5)

By solving eqn (4) and (5), we get

A = 30°12’29”.4

B = 35°48’13”.8

C = 66°00’43”.2

10) Find the most probable values of angles A, B and C of triangle ABC from the following
observation equations:
A = 68°12’36”

B = 53°46’12”

C = 58°01’16”

Solution:

The condition is A+B+C = 180°

From which C = 180°– (A+B) = 58°01’16”

A+B = 180°– 58°01’16” = 121°58’44”

Hence new observation equations are
A = 68°12’36”

B = 53°46’12”

A+B =121°58’44”
Normal eqn for A
A = 68°12’36”

A+B =121°58’44”

Sum, 2A+B = 190°11’20”……. (1)

Normal eqn for B
B = 53°46’12”
A+B =121°58’44”
Sum, A+2B = 175°44’56” ……. (2)

By solving eqn (1) and (2), we get

A = 68°12’34”.7

B = 53°46’10”.6

C = 180°– (A+B) = 180°– (68°12’34”.7+53°46’10”.6) = 58°1’14”.7

11) The angles of a triangle ABC were recorded as follows:

A = 77°14’20” weight 4

B = 49°40’35” weight 3

C = 53°04’52” weight 2

Give the corrected values of the angles.

Solution:

The condition is A+B+C = 180°

From which C = 180°– (A+B) = 53°04’52”

A+B = 180°– 53°04’52” = 126°55’8”

Hence new observation equations are
A = 77°14’20” (weight 4)

B = 49°40’35” (weight 3)

A+B =126°55’8” (weight 2)

Normal eqn for A
4A = 308°57’20”

2A+2B =253°50’16”

Sum, 6A+2B = 562°47’36”……. (1)

Normal eqn for B
3B = 149°01’45”

2A+2B =253°50’16”

Sum, 2A+5B = 402°52’01”……… (2)

By solving eqn (1) and (2), we get

A = 77°14’23”

B = 49°40’39”

C = 180°– (A+B) = 180°– (77°14’23”+ 49°40’39”) = 3°4’58”

12) The following angles were measured at a station O so as to close the horizon:

∟AOB = 83°42’28”.75 weight 3

∟BOC = 102°15’43”.26 weight 2

∟COD = 94°38’27”.22 weight 4

∟DOA = 79°23’23”.77 weight 2

Adjust the angles.

Solution:

The condition equation is ∟AOB+∟BOC+∟COD+∟DOA = 360°

∟DOA = 360° - (∟AOB+∟BOC+∟COD)

79°23’23”.77 = 360° - (∟AOB+∟BOC+∟COD)

∟AOB+∟BOC+∟COD = 360° - 79°23’23”.77 = 280°36’36”.23

Hence the observation equations are:

∟AOB = 83°42’28”.75 weight 3 ……….(1)

∟BOC = 102°15’43”.26 weight 2 ……….(2)

∟COD = 94°38’27”.22 weight 4 ……….(3)

∟AOB+∟BOC+∟COD = 280°36’36”.23 weight 2 ……….(4)

Let k1, k2 and k3 be the corrections to be assumed values of ∟AOB, ∟BOC and ∟COD

∟AOB = 83°42’28”.75 + k1

∟BOC = 102°15’43”.26 + k2

∟COD = 94°38’27”.22 + k3

∟AOB+∟BOC+∟COD = 280°36’36”.23+ k1 + k2 + k3

Subtracting the above eqns from the corresponding observation eqns, we get
 k1 = 0 weight 3

k2 = 0 weight 2

k3 = 0 weight 4

k1 + k2 + k3 = -3’ weight 2

Normal eqn for k1

3k1 = 0

2k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 = -6’

Sum, 5k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 = -6’ …….(5)

Normal eqn for k2

2k2 = 0

2k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 = -6’

Sum, 2k1 + 4k2 + 2k3 = -6’ …….(6)

Normal eqn for k3

4k3 = 0

2k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 = -6’

Sum, 2k1 + 4k2 + 6k3 = -6’ …….(7)

By solving eqns (5), (6) and (7), we get

k1 = -0”.63

k2 = -0”.95

k3 = -0”.47

Hence the most probable values of the angles are:

∟AOB = 83°42’28”.75 - 0”.63 = 83°42’28”.12

∟BOC = 102°15’43”.26 - 0”.95 = 102°15’42”.31

∟COD = 94°38’27”.22 - 0”.47 = 94°38’26”.75

∟DOA = 79°23’23”.77 - 0”.63 - 0”.95 - 0”.47 = 79°23’23”.82

 METHOD OF CORRELATES
13) Find the most probable values by method of correlates of angles A, B and C of triangle ABC
from the following observation equations:
A = 68°12’36”

B = 53°46’12”

C = 58°01’16”

Solution:

The condition is A+B+C = 180°

Now, A+B+C = 180°00’04”

Hence E = 180° - (A+B+C) = -4” = total correction

Let e1, e2 and e3 be the corrections to the angles A, B and C
Hence, e1 + e2 + e3 = -4” ………(1)
From the least squares condition, Ʃ we2 = 0
Since all the observations are of equal weights, we have
e12 + e22 + e32 = 0 ……..(2)
Differentiating (1) and (2), we get
δe1 + δe2 + δe3 = 0 ………(3)
and e1 δe1+ e2 δe2 + e3 δe3 = 0 …….(4)
Multiplying eqn (3) by – λ and adding it to (4), we get
– λ δe1 – λ δe2 – λ δe3 = 0
e1 δe1+ e2 δe2 + e3 δe3 = 0
∴ δe1(– λ+e1)+δe2(– λ+e2)+δe3(– λ+e3)=0 …… (5)

Since the coefficient of δe1, δe2 and δe3 must vanish independently, we have
λ = e1 = e2 = e3 ……. (6)
Substituting these values of e1, e2 and e3 in (1), we get
λ+ λ+ λ = -4 or λ = -(4/3) = -1”.33 = e1 = e2 = e3
14) Solve the angles of a triangle ABC were recorded as follows:
A= 77º14’20” weight 4
B= 49º40’35” weight 3
C= 53º04’52” weight 2
Give the corrected values of the angles by method of correlates.
Solution:
The observed angles are:
A= 77º14’20” wt. 4
B= 49º40’35” wt. 3
C=53º04’52” wt. 2
Sum, A+B+C= 179º59’47”
Hence total correction to be applied E = 180º - (179º59’47”) = + 13”
Let e1, e2 and e3 be the corrections
e1 + e2 + e3 = + 13” ……….(1)
From the least square condition, Ʃ we2 = a minimum
Therefore;
4e12 + 3e22 + 2e32 = a minimum ……….(2)
Differentiating (1) and (2), we get
δe1 + δe2 + δe3 = 0 ……….(3)
and 4 e1 δe1+ 3 e2 δe2 + 2 e3 δe3 = 0 ……..(4)
Multiplying (3) by – λ and adding it to (4), we get
δe1 (4e1 – λ) + δe2 (3e2 – λ) + δe3 (2e3 – λ) = 0 ……….(5)
Since the coefficients of δe1, δe2, δe3 must vanish independently, we have
4 e1 – λ = 0 or e1= λ / 4
3 e2 – λ = 0 or e2 = λ /3
2 e3 – λ = 0 or e3 =λ /2
Substituting these values of e1, e2 and e3 in (1), we get
λ λ λ
+ 3 + 2 = 13” or λ (13 / 12) = 13”
4
 or λ = +12” and e1 = (λ /4) = 12 /4 = + 3”
e2 = (λ /3) = 12 /3 = + 4” and e3 = (λ /2) = 12 /2 = + 6”
Hence the corrected angles are
A= 77º 14’20” + 3” = 77º 14’ 23”
B= 49º 40’ 35”+ 4” = 49º 40’ 39”
C= 53º 4’ 52” + 6” = 53º 4’ 58”

15) The following angles were measured at a station O so as to close the horizon:

∟AOB = 83°42’28”.75 weight 3

∟BOC = 102°15’43”.26 weight 2

∟COD = 94°38’27”.22 weight 4

∟DOA = 79°23’23”.77 weight 2

Adjust the angles by method of correlates.

Solution:

∟AOB = 83°42’28”.75 weight 3

∟BOC = 102°15’43”.26 weight 2

∟COD = 94°38’27”.22 weight 4

∟DOA = 79°23’23”.77 weight 2

Sum = 360°00’03’.00

Hence, the total correction E = 360° -360°00’03’.00 = -3”

Let e1, e2 , e3 and e4 be the corrections to the four angles
e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 = - 3” ……….(1)
From the least square condition, Ʃ we2 = a minimum
Therefore;
3e12 + 2e22 + 4e32 + 2e42 = a minimum ……….(2)
Differentiating (1) and (2), we get
δe1 + δe2 + δe3 + δe4 = 0 ……….(3)
and 3 e1 δe1+ 2 e2 δe2 + 4 e3 δ3 + 2 e4 δe4 = 0 ……..(4)
 Multiplying (3) by – λ and adding it to (4), we get
δe1 (3e1 – λ) + δe2 (2e2 – λ) + δe3 (4e3 – λ) + δe4 (2e4 – λ) = 0 ……….(5)
Since the coefficients of δe1, δe2, δe3 and δe4 must vanish independently, we have
3 e1 – λ = 0 or e1= λ /3
2 e2 – λ = 0 or e2 = λ /2
4 e3 – λ = 0 or e3 =λ /4
2 e4 – λ = 0 or e4 = λ /2
Substituting these values of e1, e2, e3 and e4 in (1), we get
λ λ λ λ −3 ×12
+ + + = -3” or λ (19 / 12) = -3” or λ=
3 2 4 2 19
−1 3 ×12
e1 = × = -0”.63
3 19
−1 3 ×12
e2 = × = -0”.95
2 19
−1 3 ×12
e3 = × = -0”.47
4 19
−1 3 ×12
e4 = × = -0”.95
2 19

Hence the corrected angles are

∟AOB = 83°42’28”.75 - 0”.63 = 83°42’28”.12

∟BOC = 102°15’43”.26 - 0”.95 = 102°15’42”.31

∟COD = 94°38’27”.22 - 0”.47 = 94°38’26”.75

∟DOA = 79°23’23”.77 - 0”.95 = 79°23’23”.82

16) The following round of angles was observed from central station to the surrounding stations
of a triangulation survey:
A = 93°43’22” weight 3

B = 74°32’39” weight 2

C = 101°13’44”weight 2

D = 90°29’50” weight 3

In addition one angle ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝐴 + 𝐵 was measured separately as combined angle with a mean value of
168°16’06” (wt 2)
Determine the most probable values of the angles A, B, C and D.

Solution:

A+B+C+D = 359°59’35”

Total correction E = 360° - 359°59’35” = 25”

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Similarly, (𝐴 + 𝐵 ) = (A+B)
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Hence correction E = (A+B) - (𝐴 + 𝐵 ) = 168°16’01” - 168°16’06” = -5”
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Let e1, e2 , e3, e4, and e5 be the corrections to the A, B, C, D and (𝐴 + 𝐵)
e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 + e5 = +25” ……….(1a)
e5 - e1 - e2 = -5” ……….(1b)
From the least square condition, Ʃ we2 = a minimum
Therefore;
3e12 + 2e22 + 2e32 + 3e42 + 2e52 = a minimum ……….(2)
Differentiating (1a), (1b) and (2), we get
δe1 + δe2 + δe3 + δe4 = 0 ……….(3a)
δe5 - δe1 - δe2 = 0 ……….(3b)
and 3 e1 δe1 + 2 e2 δe2 + 2 e3 δ3 + 3 e4 δe4 + 2 e5 δe5 = 0 ……..(4)
Multiplying (3a) by – λ1, (3b) by – λ2 and adding it to (4), we get
δe1 (– λ1 + λ2 + 3e1) + δe2 (– λ1 + λ2 + 2e2) + δe3 (– λ1 + 2e3) + δe4 (– λ1 + 3e4)
+ δe5 (– λ2 + 2e5) = 0 ……….(5)
Since the coefficients of δe1, δe2, δe3, δe4 and δe5 must vanish independently, we have
λ1 λ2
– λ1 + λ2 + 3e1 = 0 or e1 = −
3 3
λ1 λ2
– λ1 + λ2 + 2e2 = 0 or e2 = −
2 2
λ1
–λ2 + 2e3 = 0 or e3 = 2
λ1
– λ1 + 3e4 = 0 or e4 = 3

λ2
–λ2 + 2e5 = 0 or e5 = 2

Substituting these values of e1, e2, e3, e4 and e5 and e4 in (1a) and (1b), we get
 λ1 λ2 λ1 λ2 λ1 λ1
− + − + + = 25 from (1a)
3 3 2 2 2 3
5 λ1 5 λ2 λ1 λ2
or − = 25 or − = 5 ….. (6)
3 6 3 6

λ2 λ1 λ2 λ1 λ2
and − + - + = -5 from (1b)
2 3 3 2 2
4 λ2 5 λ1
or - = -5 ….. (7)
3 6

Solving (6) and (7), we get

λ1 = 210/11
λ2 = 90/11
1 210 1 90
Hence e1 = × − × = 3". 64
3 11 3 11
1 210 1 90
e2 = 2 × − 2 × 11 = 5". 45
11
1 210
e3 = 2 × = 9". 55
11
1 210
e4 = 3 × = 6”.36
11
1 90
e5 = 2 × 11 = 4". 09

Hence the corrected angles are

A = 93°43’22” + 3". 64 = 93°43’25”.64

B = 74°32’39” + 5". 45 = 74°32’44”.45

C = 101°13’44”+ 9". 55 = 101°13’53”.55

D = 90°29’50”+ 6”.36 = 90°29’56”.36

17) A surveyor carried out levelling operations of a closed circuit ABCDA starting from
A and made the following observations:

B was 8.164 m above A, weight 2

C was 6.284 m above B, weight 2

D was 5.626 m above C, weight 3

and D was 19.964 m above A, weight 3

Determine the probable heights of B, C and D above A by method of correlates.

Solution:

Error of closure = (8.164 +6.284+5.626) - 19.964 = 0.11 m

Total correction = -0.11m

Let e1, e2, e3, and e4 be the corrections
e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 = -0.11 m ……….(1)
From the least square condition, Ʃ we2 = a minimum
Therefore; 2e12 + 2e22 + 3e32 + 3e42 = a minimum ……….(2)
Differentiating (1) and (2), we get
δe1 + δe2 + δe3 + δe4 = 0 ……….(3)
and 2e1 δe1 + 2 e2 δe2 + 3 e3 δ3 + 3 e4 δe4 = 0 ……..(4)
Multiplying (3) by – λ, and adding it to (4), we get
δe1 (2e1– λ) + δe2 (2e2– λ) + δe3 (3e3– λ) + δe4 (3e4– λ) = 0 ……….(5)
Since the coefficients of δe1, δe2, δe3, and δe4 must vanish independently, we have
2e1– λ = 0 or e1 = λ/2
2e2– λ = 0 or e2 = λ/2
3e3– λ = 0 or e3 = λ/3
3e4– λ = 0 or e4 = λ/3
Substituting the values of e1, e2, e3, and e4, in (1), we get
λ/2 + λ/2 + λ/3 + λ/3 = -0.11
−0.11 ×3
λ= = −0.066 𝑚
5

e1 = −0.066/2 = -0.033 m
e2 = −0.066/2 = -0.033 m
e3 = −0.066/3 = -0.022 m
e4 = −0.066/3 = -0.022 m
Hence the corrected levels are
B = 8.162 – 0.033 = 8.131 above A
C = 6.284 – 0.033 = 6.251 above B = 14.382 above A
D = 5.626 – 0.022 = 5.604 above C = 19.986 above A
18) Given the following equations
A = 42°36’28” wt 2
B = 28°12’42” wt 2
C = 65°25’16” wt 1
A+B = 70°49’14”wt 2
B+C = 93°37’55” wt 1
Find the most probable values of A, B and C
Solution:
Let k1, k2 and k3 be the most probable correction to A, B and C.

A = 42°36’28” + k1 ………………(1)

B = 28°12’42” + k2 ………………(2)

C = 65°25’16” + k3 ………………(3)

A+B = 70°49’14” + k1 + k2………………(4)

B+C = 93°37’55” + k2 + k3………………(5)

Substituting these in the corresponding observation eqns we get the following reduced
observation eqns

k1 = 0 wt 2

k2 = 0 wt 2

k3 = 0 wt 1

k1 + k2 = 4” wt 2

k2 + k3 = -3” wt 1

Normal eqn for k1

2k1 = 0

2k1 + 2k2 = 8”

Sum, 4k1 + 2k2 = 8” ……………..(6)

Normal eqn for k2

2k2 = 0

2k1 + 2k2 = 8”
 k2 + k3 = -3”

Sum, 2k1 + 5k2 + k3 = 5”………..(7)

Normal eqn for k3

k3 = 0

k2 + k3 = -3”

Sum, k2 + 2k3 = -3”………(8)

By solving k1, k2, and k3, we get

k1 = 1”.93

k2 = 0”.14

k3 = -1”.57
Hence the most probable values of the angles are
A = 42°36’28” + 1”.93 = 42°36’29”.93
B = 28°12’42” + 0”.14 = 28°12’42”.14
C = 65°25’16” -1”.57 = 65°25’14”.43
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK ANALYSIS
TWO MARKS
UNIT I
CONTROL SURVEYING
1. List the types of signals used in triangulation
 Daylight or nonluminous (opaque) signal
 Sun or luminous signal and
 Night signal
2. What is bench mark?
It is a fined reference point of known elevation.
 Great Trigonometric survey Bench mark
 Permanent Bench mark
 Arbitrary Bench mark
 Temporary Bench mark
3. Define signals. List the types of signals
A Signal any object such as a pole target erected at a station upon which a sight is taken by an
observer at another station.
 Daylight or nonluminous (opaque) signal
 Sun or luminous signal and
 Night signal
4. What are the factors to be considered for the selection of Baseline?
 The site should be fairly leveled or uniformly sloping or gently undulating.
 Should be free form obstructions throughout the entire length.
 Ground should be firmed and smooth.
5. Write the principle of triangulation?
In triangulation, the system consists of a number of inter-connected triangles in which
the length of only one line is called the base line and the angles of the triangle are
measured very precisely. Knowing the length of one side and the three angles, the
lengths of the other two sides of each triangle can be computed. The apex of the triangles
are known as the triangulation stations and the whole figure is called the triangulation
system or triangulation figure.
6. What is satellite station and reduction to centre?
In order to better visibility, objects such as church spires, flagpoles sometimes selected as the
Triangulation stations. The observations are taken from such a station, it is impossible to set up
an instrument over it. In such a case a subsidiary station known as satellite station or eccentric
station or false station is selected as near to the main station. The observations are taken to
other triangulation stations with the same precision as in the case of True stations. The
operation of applying the corrections due to the eccentricity is generally known as Reduction

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 to Centre.
7. What are the points are considered in selecting triangulation station?
 The triangulation stations should be intervisible.
 They should form well-shaped triangles.
 The stations should be easily accessible
 They should be so selected that the length of sight is neither too small nor too large.
8. What is the difference between theodolite and tachometer?
When a theodolite is fitted with an anallatic lens it is known as tachometer. Without the
anallatic lens, the instrument would be called a simple transit theodolite.

UNIT II
ENGINEERING SURVEY
1. How will you designate a curve?
The sharpness of a curve is designated either by its radius or by its degree of curvature.
2. Enlist the types of curves
The types are:
 Simple curve
 Circular curve
 Compound curve
 Reverse curve
 Transition curve
 Combined curve
3. What are the methods to calculate the length in transition curve?
 By adopting a definite rate of super elevation
 By considering arbitrary time rate of super elevation
 By considering rate of change of radial acceleration
4. What is tangent correction in vertical curve?
While constructing a vertical curve, cutting or banking has to be done to obtain the desired
shape. The height of cutting or banking is known as tangent correction.

5. What is called transition curve? Where it is used?

A curve of varying radius is known as a transition curve. It is provided in railway tracks at
either end of a circular curve.

6. Define the term setting out curves

The process of establishing the centre-line of the curve on the ground by means of pegs for
highway and railway project is known as setting out curves.

7. Why and where are transition curves provided?

A curve of varying radius is known as a transition curve. It is provided in railway tracks at
either end of a circular curve. It is provided to avoid overturning of the train,

8. What is a vertical curve? State an expression for calculating the length of a vertical curve
When two different gradients meet at a point along a road surface they form a sharp point at
the apex. This apex is smoothened for the movement of vehicles and such a curve is called
vertical curve.
Length of vertical curve = change of grade / rate of change of grade = (g1 –g2)/r

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 UNIT III
SURVEYING ADJUSTMENTS
1. Define true value of an observation
The true value of a quantity is the value which is absolutely free from errors. The true value of
a quantity is indeterminate since the true error is never known.
2. State the principle of least squares
According to the principle of least squares, the most probable value of an observed quantity
available from a given set of observations is the one for which the sum of the squares of the
residual errors is a minimum.
3. State the law of probability
The law of probability defines the occurrence of errors and can be expressed in the form of
equation which is used to compute the probable value or the probable precision of a quantity
4. What you mean by most probable curve?
From the law of probability the relative frequencies of errors of different extents can be
represented by a curve. The curve of error or probability curve forms the basis for the
mathematical derivation of theory of errors.
5. Write classification of errors
 Mistakes (or) gross Errors
 Systematic (or) Cumulative Errors
 Accidental (or) Random Errors
6. Define Most probable value
Most probable value is the one which has more chances of being true than any other. The most
probable value of a quantity is equal to the arithmetic mean if the observations are of equal
weights
7. Differentiate between true error and most probable error
True error: A true error is the difference b/w the true value of the quantity and its observed
value.
True value = True value – observed value
Most probable error: : It is defined as the quantity which added to and subtracted from the
most probable value, fixes the limit within which it is an even chance the true value of the
measured quantity must lie.
UNIT IV
ADVANCES IN SURVEYING
1. What are the types of total station?
 Mechanical
 Motorized
 Auto-lock
 Automatic
2. Mention the various factors that affect the accuracy of GPS observation
 Frequency
 Time
 Components
 Receivers

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 3. What are the three fundamental measurements in Total Station?
 Horizontal angle and distance
 Vertical angle and distance
 Slope distance
4. What is satellite ranging?
GPS receivers calculate distances as a function of the amount of time it takes for satellites’
signal to reach the ground. The signals broadcast by satellites are satellite ranging.
5. Define EDM
The Electronic distance measuring instrument measures slope distance between transmitter
and receiver by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different frequencies, and then
measuring the phase difference at the master station between the outgoing and the incoming
signals.
6. Define total station
This is an electronic instrument. In this instrument, all the parameters required to be observed
during surveying can be obtained. The value of observation gets displayed in a viewing panel.
The precision of this type of instrument varies in the order of 0.1" to 10".
7. What are the applications of GPS?
 Road and rail traffic monitoring;
 Aerial, seismic, and land surveying;
 Earthquake and tsunami detection and warning systems.
 Large structure monitoring
8. List out the uses of GPS in surveying
 Road and rail traffic monitoring;
 Aerial, seismic, and land surveying;

UNIT V
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
1. List the different types of platforms involved in Remote Sensing
 Air borne
 Space borne
2. What are the types of GIS date?
 Spatial data
 Non-spatial data
 Spatial to non-spatial data
3. What are the basic principles of Remote Sensing?
 Emission of electromagnetic radiation, or EMR
 Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth, interaction with the
atmosphere as well as absorption and scattering
 Interaction of EMR with the earth’s surface: absorption, reflection and emission
 Transmission of energy from the surface to the remote sensor
 Sensor/detector data output
 Data transmission, processing and analysis
4. Define spatial and non-spatial data
Spatial data are primarily defined as those which are directly or indirectly referenced to a
location on the surface of the earth. When a dataset cannot be related to a location on the

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 surface of the earth is referred as non-spatial date.
5. Define celestial sphere and Azimuth axis
Celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere oh which the observer is the centre and on which all
celestial objects are considered to lie.
Azimuth axis is the horizontal axis which passes through the centre of the earth.
6. What is geo-synchronous satellite?
An equatorial west to east satellite orbiting the earth at an altitude at which it makes one
revolution in 24 hours, synchronous with the earth’s rotation, hence it gives continuous
coverage over the same area day and night. These are mainly used for communication and
meteorological applications, for e.g. the INSAT satellites.
7. Write the components of GIS

Components of GIS
GIS consists of the following three components
Hardware Used to store, process and display
Software Used to control and perform operations
Expertise Human element required to drive system to meet
requirements

8. What is meant by Remote Sensing?

Remote sensing is defined as the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area,
or phenomenon through the analyses of data acquired by the sensor that is not in direct
contact with the target of investigation

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 CE T 46 SURVRYING II
UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK

UNIT I
CONTROL SURVEYING
TWO MARKS
1. List the types of signals used in triangulation (2017, NOV/DEC)
2. What is bench mark? (2017, NOV/DEC)
3. Define signals. List the types of signals (2017, MAY)
4. What are the factors to be considered for the selection of Baseline? (2017, MAY)
5. Write the principle of triangulation? (2016, APR/MAY)
6. What is satellite station and reduction to centre? (2016, APR/MAY)
7. What are the points are considered in selecting triangulation station? (2015, APR/MAY)
8. What is the difference between theodolite and tachometer? (2015, APR/MAY)
9. What is meant by traveler in boning rod? (2015, NOV)
10. List any four corrections that may be necessary when measuring the length of a baseline
(2015, NOV)

ELEVEN MARKS

1. a) List the criteria for selection of triangulation stations

b) How will you perform reciprocal observations that are used to eliminate the effect of
refraction? (2017, NOV/DEC)
2. What is a satellite station? How do you compute the true angle using satellite station?
(2017, NOV/DEC)
3. What is meant by triangulation? Describe classification of triangulation in detail (2016,
APR/MAY)
4. a) What are signals? Derive expressions for phase correction on cylindrical signals
b) A base line was measured by a steel tape 20m long standardized at 20°C with a pull of
10kg. Find the correction per tape length assuming
(i) Pull exerted is 15kg
(ii) Temperature at the time of measurement id 30°C
(iii)Weight of the tape id 1kg
(iv) Density of steel is 7.8 g/ cm3
(v) Young’s modulus = 2 × 106 kg/ cm2
(vi) Co- efficient of expansion= 1 × 10-5 per 1° C (2015, APR/MAY)

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 5. a) What is a satellite station? Derive an expression for reducing the angles measured at
the satellite station to the true station
b) Two triangulation stations A and B have reduced levels of 90 m and 105 m
respectively. They are 50 km apart. Assuming the intervening ground have an uniform
elevation of 90m, calculate the minimum height of signal A so that the line of sight may
not pass nearer the ground than 4m. (2015, APR/MAY)
6. The altitude of two proposed triangulation station A and B 110 km apart are respectively
425 m and720 m. The altitude of the two points C and D on a profile between them are
respectively 478 m and 520 m. The distance AC = 70 km and AD = 90 km. Find the
minimum height of the signal required at B, so that the line of sight may not pass near to
the ground than 2 meters. (2017, MAY)
7. From an eccentric station S, 12.25 metres to the west of the main station B, the following
angles were measured  76° 25’ 32”,  54° 32’ 20’’
The station S and C are to the opposite sides of the lines AB. Calculate the correct angle
ABC if the lengths AB and BC are 5286.5 and 4932.2 (2017, MAY)
8. From the satellite station S, 5.8 metres from the main triangulation station A, the
following directions were observed: A = 0°0’0” B = 132°18’30” C = 232°24’6” D =
296°6’11”. The lengths AB, AC and AD were computed to be 3265.5 m, 4022.2 m and
3086.4 m respectively. Determine the directions of AB, AC and AD. (2016, APR/MAY)
9. in order to ascertain the elevation of the top (Q) of the signal on a hill, observations were
made from two instrument stations P and R at a horizontal distance 100m apart, the
station P and R being in the line with Q. The angles of elevation of Q at P and R were 28
42’and 18 6’ respectively. The staff reading upon the bench mark of elevation 287.28
were respectively 2.870 and 3.750 when the instrument was at P and at R, the telescope
being horizontal. Determine the elevation of the foot of the signal if the height of the
signal above its base is 3m. (2015, NOV)
10. Explain about the curvature and refraction correction in trigonometric leveling (2015,
NOV)

UNIT II
ENGINEERING SURVEY
TWO MARKS
1. How will you designate a curve? (2017, NOV/DEC)
2. Enlist the types of curves (2017, NOV/DEC)
3. What are the methods to calculate the length in transition curve? (2017, MAY)
4. What is tangent correction in vertical curve? (2017, MAY)
5. What is called transition curve? Where it is used? (2016, APR/MAY)
6. Define the term setting out curves (2016, APR/MAY)
7. Why and where are transition curves provided? (2015, APR/MAY)
8. What is a vertical curve? State an expression for calculating the length of a vertical curve
(2015, APR/MAY)
9. List any four functions of transition curve (2015, NOV)

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 10. Under what circumstances vertical curves are used? (2015, NOV)

ELEVEN MARKS

1. a) Explain in detail the long chord method of setting out a curve

b) What are the elements of a simple circular curve? (2017, NOV/DEC)
2. a) Describe in brief on the double theodolite method of setting out a curve
b) Explain the terms: (i) Mid-ordinate (ii) Tangent point (2017, NOV/DEC)
3. Explain the double theodolite method of setting out of simple curve. Draw the simple
curve and mark all the components (2016, APR/MAY)
4. Explain the different stages of route surveys for new highway project (2016, APR/MAY)
5. a) When the transition curve called as ideal transition curve? What are the other names?
Derive the intrinsic equation of this curve
b) A transition curve is required to be introduced between straight and circular curve of
radius 320m. Determine its length if
(i) The maximum super elevation is restricted to 0.1m for a gauge of 1m and
(ii) The super elevation of 4 cm is provided on the distance covered by the vehicle in
one second (2015, APR/MAY)
6. a) Derive the equation for vertical offset from the tangent by considering the geomantic
vertical curve and determine the constant K
b) A vertical curve has an upgrade of 2.5% followed by a down grade of 1%. The
recommended rate of change of grade 0.15% per chain of 20m. Calculate the length of
the vertical curve. (2015, APR/MAY)
7. Two tangents intersect at chainage 59+60, deflection angle being 56°25’. Calculate the
necessary data for setting out a curve of 15 chains radius to connect the two tangents if it
is intended to set out the curve by offsets from chords. Take peg interval equal to 100
links, length of the chain being equal to 20 metres (100 links). (2017, MAY)
8. The following data refer to a compound circular curve which bears to the right: Total
deflection angle 93°, Degree of first curve 4°, Degree of second curve 5°, Point of
intersection at 45+61 (20 m unit). Determine in 20 metre units the running distance of the
tangent points and the point of compound curvature, given that the latter point is 6+24
from the point of intersection at back angle of 290°36’ from the first tangent. (2017,
MAY)
9. A transition curve is required for a circular curve of 400m radius the gauge is 1.5m
between rail centre and maximum super-elevation restricted to 12 cm. The transition is to
be designed for a velocity such that no lateral pressure is imposed on the rails and the rate
of gain of the radial acceleration is 30 cm/s3. Calculate the required length of transition
curve and the design speed (2015, NOV)
10. a) Explain the process of setting out a vertical curve
b) List out the summit and sag curves with suitable sketches (2015, NOV)

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 UNIT III
SURVEY ADJUSTMENTS
TWO MARKS
1. Define true value of an observation (2017, NOV/DEC)
2. State the principle of least squares (2017, NOV/DEC)
3. Define the principles of least squares (2017, MAY)
4. State the law of probability (2017, MAY)
5. What you mean by most probable value? (2016, APR/MAY)
6. Write classification of errors (2016, APR/MAY)
7. Define Most probable value (2015, APR/MAY)
8. Differentiate between true error and most probable error (2015, APR/MAY)
9. State the different types of errors of measurement (2015, NOV)
10. What is meant by indirect observation? Give example (2015, NOV)

ELEVEN MARKS

1. a) The following observations were taken using a level; 2.235, 2.224, 2.237, 2.235, 2.239,
2.260, 2.255 and 2.245. Calculate the following
(i) probable error of single observation
(ii) probable error of mean (2017, NOV/DEC)
b) Explain the different sources and types of error
2. Explain the law of weights in surveying adjustments (2017, NOV/DEC)
3. a) Explain the laws of accidental errors
b) Find the corrected values of the angles of a triangle ABC were recorded as follows: A
= 77°14’20” weight 4, B = 49°40’35” weight 3, C = 53°04’52” weight 2 (2016,
APR/MAY)
4. What do you understand from the term triangulation adjustments? Explain the different
conditions and cases with neat sketches. (2016, APR/MAY)
5. a) Derive an expression for principle of least squares
b) A surveyor carried out levelling operations of a closed circuit ABCDA starting from A
and made the following observations:
B was 8.164 m above A with weight 2
C was 6.284 m above B with weight 2
D was 5.626 m above C with weight 3
D was 19.964 m above A with weight 3
Determine the probable heights of B, C and D above A by method of correlates. (2015,
APR/MAY)
6. a) Derive an expression for normal equation equal weights
b) The following observations of three angles A, B and C were taken at one station
A = 75°32’46”.3 weight 3, B = 55°09’53”.2 weight 2, C = 108° 09’28”.8 weight 2, A+B
= 130°42’41”.6 weight 2, B+C = 163°19’22”.5 weight 1, A+B+C = 238°52’9”.8 weight
1. Determine the most probable value of each angle. (2015, APR/MAY)

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 7. The following are mean values observed in the measurement of three angles A, B and C
at one station: A =76°42’46”.2 with weight 4, A+B = 134°36’32”.6 with weight 3, B+C =
185°35’24”.8 with weight 2, A+B+C = 262°18’10”.4 with weight 1. Calculate the most
probable value of each angle by normal equation. (2017, MAY)
8. The following angles were measured at a station O so as to close the horizon:
∟A = 83°42’28”.75 weight 3
∟B = 102°15’43”.26 weight 2
∟C = 94°38’27”.22 weight 4
∟D = 79°23’23”.77 weight 2
Adjust the angles by method of correlates (2015, NOV)
9.
along with their probable errors of measurement. Determine their corrected value.

β = 136°48’30” 4”
γ = 144°59’08” 5” (2015, NOV)
10. A surveyor carried out levelling operations of a closed circuit ABCDA starting from A
and made the following observations:
B was 8.164 m above A with weight 2
C was 6.284 m above B with weight 2
D was 5.626 m above C with weight 3
D was 19.964 m above A with weight 3
Determine the probable heights of B, C and D above A by method of correlates. (2017,
MAY)

UNIT IV
ADVANCES IN SURVEYING
TWO MARKS
1. What are the types of total station? (2017, NOV/DEC)
2. Mention the various factors that affect the accuracy of GPS observation (2017,
NOV/DEC)
3. What are the three fundamental measurements in Total Station? (2017, MAY)
4. What is satellite ranging? (2017, MAY)
5. Define EDM (2016, APR/MAY)
6. Define total station (2015, APR/MAY)
7. What are the applications of GPS? (2015, APR/MAY)
8. List out the uses of GPS in surveying (2016, APR/MAY)
9. What is the role of control segment in GPS (2015, NOV)
10. Define the term orbit errors (2015, NOV)

ELEVEN MARKS

1. a) What is an EDM? What is the principle of working of an EDM and how distance is
measured in EDM? (2017, NOV/DEC)

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 b) List the sources of error in total station (2017, NOV/DEC)
2. Explain in detail about the segments of Global Positioning System (GPS) (2017,
NOV/DEC)
3. Explain the working principles of a total station (2017, MAY)
4. Describe in detail the three segment in GPS (2017, MAY)
5. At a certain place in longitude 138° 45’ east, the star is observed east of the meridian at
6h 45m 1s PM, with a watch keeping local mean time. It was again observed at the same
altitude to the west of meridian at 8h 48m 43s PM. Find the error of the watch given
below. GST at GMN on that day is 9h 26m 12s; RA of the star is 17h 12m 48s. (2016,
APR/MAY)
6. Explain elaborately the three systems of coordinates by which the position of a heavenly
body can be specified(2016, APR/MAY)
7. Explain the properties and measuring principle of electromagnetic waves (2015,
APR/MAY)
8. Describe the control segments of Global Positioning System with neat sketches. (2015,
APR/MAY)
9. Explain about the working principle of Global Positioning System (2015, NOV)
10. State the different sources of errors in GPS and brief them (2015, NOV)

UNIT V
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
TWO MARKS
1. List the different types of platforms involved in Remote Sensing (2017, NOV/DEC)
2. What are the types of GIS date? (2017, NOV/DEC)
3. What are the basic principles of Remote Sensing? (2017, MAY)
4. Define spatial and non-spatial data (2017, MAY)
5. Define celestial sphere and Azimuth axis (2016, APR/MAY)
6. What is geo-synchronous satellite? (2016, APR/MAY)
7. Write the components of GIS (2015, APR/MAY)
8. What is meant by Remote Sensing? (2015, APR/MAY)
9. What are the uses of RS and GIS in engineering fields? (2015, NOV)
10. What are the uses of digital image processing? (2015, NOV)

ELEVEN MARKS

1. a) Discuss about the significance of electromagnetic spectrum in Remote sensing

b) Enlist the requirements of ideal remote sensing system (2017, NOV/DEC)
2. a) Explain the components of GIS
b) Explain the integration of spatial and non-spatial data in GIS (2017, NOV/DEC)
3. Explain the electromagnetic spectrum with a neat sketch (2017, MAY)
4. Explain the various components of GIS (2017, MAY)
5. Explain the types of EDM instruments in detail. (2016, APR/MAY)

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 6. What is meant by tilt distortion? Prove that in a tilted photograph, tilt distortion is radial
from isocentre. (2016, APR/MAY)
7. Explain about the two types of remote sensing observation platforms (2015, APR/MAY)
8. a) Describe various components of GIS
b) Describe the GIS applications in land use studies (2015, NOV)
9. a) Write a note on various stages of idealized remote sensing system
b) Define the following terms
(i) Sun synchronous satellites
(ii) Geo synchronous satellites
(iii) Electromagnetic spectrum (2015, NOV)
10. a) Briefly discuss the various types of data structures used in GIS
b) Explain the various components of GIS (2015, APR/MAY)

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