High Way Manual Shoaib

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Layout of Highway & Traffic Engineering Lab.................................................................... 1
LIST OF LABORATORY APPARATUS ............................................................................ 2

Core Cutter Apparatus .................................................................................................................... 2
Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine ........................................................................................... 2
Ductility Testing Machine ..................................................................................................... 3
Open Cup Flash & Fire Point Apparatus.......................................................................................... 3
Marshal Stability Apparatus ............................................................................................................ 4
Penetrometer.................................................................................................................................. 5
Pycnometer ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Asphalt Centrifuge Extractor ........................................................................................................... 5
Flakiness & Elongation Index Apparatus ......................................................................................... 6
Screen Shaker.................................................................................................................................. 6
Sieve Shaker .................................................................................................................................... 7
Water Bath ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Sample splitter ................................................................................................................................ 8
COMMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 8
Determination of the flakiness and elongation index for the given aggregate sample. ..... 9
Code: ...................................................................................................................................... 9
Scope & significance: ............................................................................................................ 9
Related Theory: ...................................................................................................................... 9
Shapes of Particles: ......................................................................................................................... 9
Preferred use of each shape: ........................................................................................................ 10
Apparatuse: .......................................................................................................................... 10
Flaky: ................................................................................................................................... 11
Flakiness index: ................................................................................................................... 11
Elongated particles: .............................................................................................................. 11
Elongation index: ................................................................................................................. 11
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 11
Precautions: .......................................................................................................................... 12
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS ........................................................................ 12
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 14
Standard test method for resistance to degradation of coarse aggregates by abrasion and
impact in Los Angeles abrasion machine............................................................................. 15
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 15
Scope & Significance:.......................................................................................................... 15
Notes: ................................................................................................................................... 15
Related theory: ..................................................................................................................... 16
Abrasion: ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Pounding action: ........................................................................................................................... 16
Los Angeles abrasion value: .......................................................................................................... 16
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 16
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 17
Notes: ................................................................................................................................... 17
Grading of test sample (Los Angeles abrasion test): ........................................................... 19
Observations & Calculations: .............................................................................................. 18
COMMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 20
Determination of Angularity Number for the Given Aggregate Sample.......................... 21
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 21
Objectives: ........................................................................................................................... 21
Related Theory: .................................................................................................................... 21
Shapes Of Particles:....................................................................................................................... 21
Angularity: ..................................................................................................................................... 22
Angularity Number:....................................................................................................................... 22
Significance: ........................................................................................................................ 22
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 22
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 23
Calculation & Results: ......................................................................................................... 23
Method – 1.................................................................................................................................... 23
Method – 2.................................................................................................................................... 23
Notes: ............................................................................................................................................ 24
Computations & Results: ..................................................................................................... 24
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 24
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) and Water Absorption Test for Aggregates. ........... 25
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 25
Related Theory: .................................................................................................................... 25
Specific Gravity:............................................................................................................................. 25
Water Absorption: ........................................................................................................................ 25
Coarse Aggregates: ....................................................................................................................... 25
Fine Aggregates:............................................................................................................................ 25
Saturated Surface Dry (S.S.D.) Condition: ..................................................................................... 26
Oven Dried Specific Gravity: ......................................................................................................... 26
Saturated Surface Dry (S.S.D) Specific Gravity: ............................................................................. 26
Apparent Specific Gravity: ............................................................................................................ 26
Types Of Crush Available In Pakistan: ............................................................................... 26
Sargodha Crush ............................................................................................................................. 26
Margalla Crush..................................................................................................................... 26
SakhiSarwar Crush............................................................................................................... 26
Significance: ........................................................................................................................ 27
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 27
Sample: ................................................................................................................................ 28
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 28
Observations: ....................................................................................................................... 28
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 29
Penetration Test on Bituminous Materials. ......................................................................... 29
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 29
Penetration: .......................................................................................................................... 29
Grades of Bitumen: .............................................................................................................. 29
Scope: ................................................................................................................................... 30
Specifications: ...................................................................................................................... 30
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 30
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 31
Test Specifications: .............................................................................................................. 31
Report:.................................................................................................................................. 31
Calculation and Observation: ............................................................................................... 32
Precautions ........................................................................................................................... 32
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 33
Specific Gravity Test on Bituminous Materials. ................................................................. 33
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 33
Specific Gravity: .................................................................................................................. 33
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 34
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 34
Preparation of Sample: ......................................................................................................... 34
Calculations: ........................................................................................................................ 35
Observations & Results: ...................................................................................................... 36
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 36
TO FIND THE Softening Point of Bitumen BY RING AND BALL APPARATUS ....... 36
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 36
Softening Point: ................................................................................................................... 36
Apparatus ............................................................................................................................. 37
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 38
A) - For Materials Having Softening Points 80°C Or Below ......................................................... 38
B) - For Materials Having Softening Points Above 80°C: ............................................................. 39
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 39
Flash And Fire Point Test For Asphalt By Cleveland Open Cup ..................................... 39
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 39
Related Theory: .................................................................................................................... 40
Flash Point: .................................................................................................................................... 40
Fire Point: ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Asphalt Cement (AC): ......................................................................................................... 41
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 41
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 41
Precautions: .......................................................................................................................... 42
Calculations and Report: ...................................................................................................... 42
Flash Point of Different Grades of Asphalt: ........................................................................ 43
Viscosity Grades: ................................................................................................................. 43
COMMENTS: ...................................................................................................................... 43
To Perform Ductility Test on bitumen ................................................................................. 43
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 43
Related Theory: .................................................................................................................... 44
Ductility: ........................................................................................................................................ 44
Importance of Ductility: ....................................................................................................... 44
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 45
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 45
Testing: ................................................................................................................................ 46
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 47
Measuring Surface Frictional Properties Using British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester.
47
Scope and Significance: ....................................................................................................... 48

Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 48
parts .............................................................................................................................................. 48
Accessories .................................................................................................................................... 48
pREPARATION OF APPARATUS:................................................................................... 49
RELATED THEORY SKID RESISTANCE: ..................................................................... 50
SKIDDING:...................................................................................................................................... 50
SLIPPING: ....................................................................................................................................... 50
MEASUREMENT OF TEXTURE DEPTH: ........................................................................................... 50
FACTORS AFFECTING SKIDDING RESISTANCE: .............................................................................. 51
PROCEDURE:..................................................................................................................... 51
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS ........................................................................... 52
TEXTURE DEPTH S ......................................................................................................................... 52
BRITISH PENDULUM NUMBER: ..................................................................................................... 52
COMMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 52
TO PERFORM Marshall Mix Design TO FIND OUT OPTIMUM BINDER CONTENT
53
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 53
Introduction: ......................................................................................................................... 53
Outline of Method: ............................................................................................................... 53
Selection and Combination of Aggregates: ......................................................................... 53
Mineral Aggregate And Mix Composition: ......................................................................... 54
Sieve Analysis Of Aggregates (Percentage Used For Experiment)..................................... 54
Design Bitumen Content: ..................................................................................................... 56
Preparation Of Test Specimens:........................................................................................... 56
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 57
Test Procedure: .................................................................................................................... 57
Marshall Stability Value: ..................................................................................................... 57
Flow Value: .......................................................................................................................... 58
Computations: ...................................................................................................................... 58
Percentage Air Voids, Va: ................................................................................................... 58
Percentage Of Voids In Mineral Aggregates, Vma: ............................................................ 59
Percentage Of Voids Filled With Bitumen, VFB: ............................................................... 59
Observations And Calculations: .......................................................................................... 59
Comments ............................................................................................................................ 59
Design of Flexible Pavement by Group Index Method....................................................... 60
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 60
Related Theory ..................................................................................................................... 61
Sieve Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 61
Atterberg Limits ................................................................................................................... 62
Shrinkage limit ..................................................................................................................... 62
Plastic limit .......................................................................................................................... 62
Liquid limit .......................................................................................................................... 62
Plasticity index ..................................................................................................................... 63
Liquidity index ..................................................................................................................... 63
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL ............................................................................ 63
AASHTO Classification Chart ............................................................................................ 64
Coarse Grained Soils............................................................................................................ 65
Fine Grained Soil ................................................................................................................. 65
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS ...................................................................... 66
Results from Sieve Analysis ................................................................................................ 67
%age of Various Fractions ................................................................................................... 67
Liquid Limit ......................................................................................................................... 67
Plastic Limit ......................................................................................................................... 68
Design of Thickness of various Layers of Flexible pavement ............................................. 69
With Sub-base ...................................................................................................................... 69
Comments ............................................................................................................................ 69
comments ............................................................................................................................. 70
Design of flexible pavement by California bearing ratio method...................................... 71
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 71
Objectives: ........................................................................................................................... 71
Need and Scope: .................................................................................................................. 71
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 71
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 71
Definition of CBR ................................................................................................................ 71
CBR Test Procedure 1: ........................................................................................................ 72
CBR Test Procedure 2: ........................................................................................................ 73
Undisturbed specimen .................................................................................................................. 73
Dynamic Compaction .................................................................................................................... 73
Static compaction ......................................................................................................................... 73
Procedure for Penetration Test............................................................................................. 74
Observation and Recording.................................................................................................. 75
For Dynamic Compaction .................................................................................................... 75
For static compaction ........................................................................................................... 75
For penetration Test ............................................................................................................. 75
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 76
Standard test method for use of dynamic cone penetrometer in shallow pavement
applications ............................................................................................................................. 77
Scope: ................................................................................................................................... 77
Significance and Use: .......................................................................................................... 77
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 77
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 78
Testing a Surface Layer: ...................................................................................................... 78
Testing Below a Bound Layer: ............................................................................................ 78
Testing Sequence: ................................................................................................................ 79
 Dropping the Hammer .................................................................................................. 79
 Depth of Penetration ..................................................................................................... 79
 Refusal: ......................................................................................................................... 79
 Extraction ...................................................................................................................... 79
Data Recording: ................................................................................................................... 79
Calculations and Interpretation of Results: .......................................................................... 79
Comments ............................................................................................................................ 81
TABLE OF FIGURE
Figure 1 (Core Cutter Apparatus) .............................................................................................. 2
Figure 2 (Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine)................................................................... 3
Figure 3 (Ductility Testing Machine) ........................................................................................ 3
Figure 4 (Open Cup Flash & Fire Point Apparatus) .................................................................. 4
Figure 5 (Marshal Stability Apparatus) ..................................................................................... 4
Figure 6 (Penetrometer) ............................................................................................................. 5
Figure 7 (Pycnometer) ............................................................................................................... 5
Figure 8 (Asphalt Centrifuge Extractor) .................................................................................... 6
Figure 9 (Flakiness & Elongation Index Apparatus) ................................................................. 6
Figure 10 (Screen Shaker) ......................................................................................................... 7
Figure 11 (Sieve Shaker) ........................................................................................................... 7
Figure 12 (Water Bath) .............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 13 (Sample Splitter)........................................................................................................ 8
Figure 14 : (Rounded Aggregates)........................................................................................... 10
Figure 15 : (Angular Shape) .................................................................................................... 10
Figure 16 :Flaky & Elongated) ................................................................................................ 10
Figure 17 (Flaky & Elongation Index Gauge) ......................................................................... 11
Figure 18 : Los Angeles Abrasion Apparatus) ........................................................................ 16
Figure 19 (Sieves) .................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 20 (Types Of Crush) ..................................................................................................... 26
Figure 21 (Apparatus) .............................................................................................................. 38
Figure 22 (Briquet Apparatus) ................................................................................................. 45
Figure 23 : British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester. ............................................................ 49
Figure 24 : Skid Resistance ..................................................................................................... 50
Figure 25 (Plastic Limit) .......................................................................................................... 62
Figure 26 (Casagrande) ............................................................................................................ 63
Figure 27 (Layers Of Flexible Pavement) ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 28(Mould) ..................................................................................................................... 71
Figure 29 : Dynamic Cone Penetrometer ................................................................................ 78
HIGHWAY & TRAFFIC ENGINEERING LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT NO 1
LAYOUT OF HIGHWAY & TRAFFIC ENGINEERING LAB
2018 1
LIST OF LABORATORY APPARATUS
CORE CUTTER APPARATUS
To cut/drill sample cores from flexible of rigid pavements mainly for test sample extraction
purposes. It uses diamond bits to cut through the structure and collect sample cores in core
barrel. The apparatus includes drilling equipment, core barrel, core retrieval tool & compaction.
FIGURE 1 (CORE CUTTER APPARATUS)
LOS ANGELES ABRASION TESTING MACHINE
The Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test (Figure 1) is a common test method used to indicate
aggregate toughness and abrasion characteristics. The machine consists of a rolled steel drum
having an inside dia. of 711 mm and internal length 508 mm. The drum is rotated by a speed
reducer driven by an electric motor at a speed of between 31 and 33 r.p.m.
2018 2
FIGURE 2 (LOS ANGELES ABRASION TESTING MACHINE)
DUCTILITY TESTING MACHINE
The device is used for determining the ductility of bituminous materials by measuring the
elongation of briquette mold with molten bitumen in it. It is designed for testing 3 specimens
simultaneously. Internal tank is made of stainless steel. The Internal tank is made of stainless
steel. The bath is fitted with an immersion heater in order to obtain (in normal conditions), the
25°C test temperature.
FIGURE 3 (DUCTILITY TESTING MACHINE)
OPEN CUP FLASH & FIRE POINT APPARATUS
Measuring a flash point using an open cup method is, as the name suggests, conducted in a
vessel which is exposed to the air outside. The temperature of the substance is gradually raised
2018 3
and an ignition source is passed over the top of it, until it reaches a point at which it “flashes”
and ignites.
FIGURE 4 (OPEN CUP FLASH & FIRE POINT APPARATUS)
MARSHAL STABILITY APPARATUS
The test is applicable to hot mix designs using bitumen and aggregates up to a maximum size
of 25mm. In this method, the resistance to plastic deformation of cylindrical specimen of
bituminous mixture is measured when the same is loaded at periphery at 5 cm per min. This
test procedure is used in designing and evaluating bituminous paving mixes.
FIGURE 5 (MARSHAL STABILITY APPARATUS)
2018 4
PENETROMETER
An instrument used for determining the consistency or hardness of a substance by measuring

the depth or rate of penetration of a rod or needle driven into it by a known force.
A penetrometer is a device to test the strength of a material.
FIGURE 6 (PENETROMETER)
PYCNOMETER
The pycnometer is a flask with a close-fitting ground glass stopper with a fine hole through it,
so that a given volume can be accurately obtained.
FIGURE 7 (PYCNOMETER)
ASPHALT CENTRIFUGE EXTRACTOR
Centrifuge Extractors are used for quantitative determination of bitumen content in paving
mixtures. These units require a relatively short processing time, which includes weighing the
asphalt sample, heating the sample slightly until it starts crumbling, cooling the sample, placing
it in the centrifuge extractor's rotor bowl and then adding solvent.
2018 5
FIGURE 8 (ASPHALT CENTRIFUGE EXTRACTOR)
FLAKINESS & ELONGATION INDEX APPARATUS
The Flakiness and Elongation Index Test Gauges is used to estimate the applicability of coarse
aggregate used in the cement and concrete mixture, it can determine the percentage of the
aggregate that over than 4.75mm size (needle or flake). Aggregates which are flaky and/or
elongated will often lower the workability of a concrete mix and may also affect long term
durability. In bituminous mixtures, this apparatus can test the thickness and length thus to check
flakiness and elongation index of the aggregate respectively.
FIGURE 9 (FLAKINESS & ELONGATION INDEX APPARATUS)
SCREEN SHAKER
A screening machine consist of a drive that induces vibration, a screen media that causes
particle separation, and a deck which holds the screen media and the drive and is the mode of
transport for the vibration. It is used for aggregate separating it into multiple grades by particle
size.
2018 6
FIGURE 10 (SCREEN SHAKER)
SIEVE SHAKER
A sieve shaker is a machine designed to hold and agitate a stack of sieves for the purpose of
separating a soil or other granular material sample into its component particles by size. The
stack of sieves is composed of sieves of different sizes.
FIGURE 11 (SIEVE SHAKER)
WATER BATH
A container of water heated to a given temperature, used for heating substances placed in
smaller containers.
2018 7
FIGURE 12 (WATER BATH)
SAMPLE SPLITTER
Sample Splitter is the most universally used sampling device for preparing representative splits
of dry, free-flowing granular product. The technique is rapid and the equipment is economical.
FIGURE 13 (SAMPLE SPLITTER)
COMMENTS
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2018 8
EXPERIMENT NO 2
DETERMINATION OF THE FLAKINESS AND
ELONGATION INDEX FOR THE GIVEN AGGREGATE
SAMPLE.
CODE: BS-812
SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE:
This test is used to determine the particle shape of the aggregate and each particle shape being
preferred under specific conditions.
The significance of flakiness & elongation index is as follows;
The degree of packing of the particles of one size depends upon their shape.
i. Due to high surface area to volume ratio, the flaky and elongated particles lower the
workability of concrete mixes.
ii. Flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable for base coarse construction
as they may cause weakness with possibilities of braking down under heavy loads.
iii. BS-1241 specifies a Flakiness index not exceeding 30% irrespective of the aggregate
size.
iv. Maximum permitted Elongated index is 35, 40 or 45% for aggregate sizes ½’’ – 2’’,
1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’
v. Both Flakiness and Elongation tests are not applicable to sizes smaller then 6.3mm i.e.
¼’’ sieve.
RELATED THEORY:
SHAPES OF PARTICLES:
i. Rounded (river gravel)

ii. Flaky (laminated rock)
iii. Elongated
iv. Angular( crushed rock)
2018 9
PREFERRED USE OF EACH SHAPE:
Rounded aggregates are preferred in concrete roads (rigid pavements) as the workability of
concrete increases due to the less friction between the surfaces.
FIGURE 14 : (ROUNDED
AGGREGATES)
Angular shape of the particles is desirable in granular base course (flexible pavement) due to
better interlocking and increased stability.
FIGURE 15 : (ANGULAR SHAPE)
Flaky and Elongated particles are considered as a source of weakness.
FIGURE 16 :FLAKY & ELONGATED)
APPARATUSE:
i. Thickness/Flakiness Index Gauge

ii. Length/Elongation Index Gauge
iii. Aggregate sample to be tested
2018 10
FIGURE 17 (FLAKY & ELONGATION INDEX GAUGE)
FLAKY:
 A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is than 0.6 times the mean
size.
 These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to the other two
dimensions.
 Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are greater than 30%
then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.
FLAKINESS INDEX:
It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample.
ELONGATED PARTICLES:
These are the particles having length considerably larger than the other two dimensions and it
is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean size.Limit of elongated particles
in the mixes is 45%. Thus, if the elongated particles are greater than 45%, then the aggregate
is considered undesirable for the intended use.
ELONGATION INDEX:
It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The Elongated index is

calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as percentage of total weight of the
sample.
PROCEDURE:
 Perform the sieve analysis on the given aggregate sample/
2018 11
 The aggregates are then arranged in the into a number of closely limited particle size
groups -stored on the test sieves into a number of closely limited particle size groups –
2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’
 Each group (fraction) is weighed and tested for thickness on appropriate opening of the
thickness gauge by passing each particle through slot of specified thickness along least
dimension.
 The weight of particles passing the thickness gauge is recorded for each fraction. This
is the weight of flaky particles.
 The flakiness index is calculated by expressing the weight of flaky particles as a
percentage of total weight of the sample.
PRECAUTIONS:
 While sieving, care must be taken that the particles that are chocked in the sieve must
not be forced down into the next sieve. Such particles should be pushed back into the
same sieve.
 While placing different fractions on the table, place them some distance apart so that
no two fractions may get mixed.
 Be careful while selecting the opening of the flakiness and elongation gauges for any
particular fraction.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
SEIVE ANALYSIS
Sample weight = g
Sieve size Sieve size Weight Percentage Cumulative Percentage

Passing Retained Retained Retained (%) Weight passing
(gm) Retained (%) (%)
(inch) (inch)
2.5 2
2 1.5
1.5 1
2018 12
1 3/4
3/4 1/2
1/2 3/8
3/8 1/4
∑=
CALCULATIONS FOR FLAKY PARTICLES:
Sieve size Sieve size Weight Percentage Weight of Individual Weighted

Passing Retained Retained Retained Flaky Flakiness Flakiness
(gm) (%) particles Index (%) Index (%)
(inch) (inch)
(gm)
2.5 2
2 1.5
1.5 1
1 3/4
3/4 1/2
1/2 3/8
3/8 1/4
∑= ∑=
2018 13
CALCULATIONS FOR ELONGATED PARTICLES:
Sieve size Sieve size Weight Percentage Weight of Individual Weighted

Passing Retained Retained Retained Elongated Elongated Elongated
(inch) (inch) (gm) (%) particles Index (%) Index (%)
(gm)
2.5 2
2 1.5
1.5 1
1 3/4
3/4 1/2
1/2 3/8
∑= ∑=
COMMENTS:
___________________________________________________________________________
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2018 14
EXPERIMENT NO 3
STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR RESISTANCE TO
DEGRADATION OF COARSE AGGREGATES BY ABRASION
AND IMPACT IN LOS ANGELES ABRASION MACHINE.
CODE: ASTM-C-131, AASHTO-T-96
Los Angeles abrasion test is a common test used to indicate aggregate toughness and abrasion
characteristics.
 This test is used to assess the hardness of the aggregate used in road construction. The
road aggregate is subjected to wearing action by the moving traffic and therefore
resistance to wear or hardness is an essential property of the aggregate. The aggregate
should be hard enough to resist abrasion due to traffic.
 Los Angeles Abrasion test is used to find out the percentage wear due to relative
rubbing action between aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charges. Pounding
action of these balls also exists while conducting the test. The test is considered more
dependable as rubbing and pounding action simulate field conditions.
 AASHTO T 96, recommendations are that Base Course has a percent wear of 40% or
less. For Sub-base Course the requirement is 50% or less. And for wearing surface it is
30%.
NOTES:
 Larger the LAA value, softer will be the aggregate and vice versa.
 If we have two samples to be used in the wearing surface having LAA value of 0% &
10%, then we should use the one having LAA value of 10% (note this is true only for
wearing surface and the opposite is true for sub-grade, sub-base and base coarse). This
is because, even though 0% will provide a good hard surface but its coefficient of
friction will be too high and it will severely damage the tires.
 If two different samples are obtained from the same source, then the results of the LAA
value will be same for both of the samples because LAA value is a material property.
2018 15
RELATED THEORY:
ABRASION:
It is defined as the, “resistance of a material against wear, scratching or degradation.” OR

abrasion means “breaking of surface”
POUNDING ACTION:
Pounding means impact. Striking action of an object on a surface for a short instant of time is
called the pounding effect.
LOS ANGELES ABRASION VALUE:
It is an indicative of the abrasion strength of the aggregates. It can be computed by using the
relationship;
Orignal Weight  Final Weight

Los Angeles Abrasion Value   100
Orignal Weight
Where,
Final weight = Weight retained on sieve #12
APPARATUS:
Angeles Abrasion machine – consists of a hollow steel cylinder closed at both ends, having
inside diameter of 28’’ and inside length of 20’’. The cylinder is mounted on stub shafts in such
a way that it rotates about horizontal axis at 30-33 rpm.
FIGURE 18 : LOS ANGELES ABRASION

APPARATUS)
2018 16
Sieve is an opening in the cylinder with a dust tight cover is provided for the introduction of
test sample. A steel shelf extending full length of the cylinder and projecting 3.5’’ inward is
mounted on interior surface of the cylinder.
FIGURE 19 (SIEVES)
Abrasive charges (consisting of steel spheres 1 27/32’’ in diameter.

Sieves confirming to ASTM Standards.
Balance
PROCEDURE:
 The sample taken should be representative and confirming to any of the grading given
in the table.
 The sample is placed in the cylinder along with the abrasive charges and the machine
is rotated for the required number of revolutions (500 – 1000).
 After the required number of revolutions, material is discharged from the machine and
sieved through #12 US sieve.
 Wash the material coarser than #12 sieves, oven dry and weigh. Then compute the LAA
value
Orignal Weight
Where,
Final weight = Weight retained on sieve #12
NOTES:
 If a large rock piece is provided for the test, first of all crush it then sieve it and then
proceed in the same manner.
2018 17
 If the amount of aggregate collected in the lower sieves is less than the required amount,
then crush the aggregate in the higher sieves to get the required quantity in the lower
sieves.
 If the amount of aggregate collected in the top sieves is less than the required amount,
then sieve more aggregate in order to collect enough quantity of aggregate.
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
Grading used for the test =

Number of abrasive charges used =
Original weight of the sample, W1 (gm.) =
Final weight after test (retained on sieve #12), W2 (gm.)=

Orignal Weight
LLA =
TABLE 1 (TYPES OF PAVEMENT)
Type of Pavement LLA%

SR.NO
1 Water bound macadam sub base course 60
2 WBM base course with bituminous surfacing 50
3 Bituminous bound macadam 50
4 WBM surfacing course 40
5 Bituminous penetration macadam 40
Bituminous surface dressing, cement concrete

6 35
surface course
2018 18
GRADING OF TEST SAMPLE (LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST):
Sieve sizes Weight & grading of test sample (gm.)
Passing Retained A B C D 1 2 3
2500±5
3 in 2 ½ in - - - - - -
0
2500±5
2 ½ in 2 in - - - - - -
0
5000±5 5000±5
2 in 1 ½ in - - - - -
0 0
1250 5000±5
1 ½ in 1 in - - - - 5000±25
±20 0
1250
1 in ¾ in - - - - - 5000±25
±20
1250 2500±1
¾ in ½ in - - - - -
±10 0
1250 2500±1
½ in 3/8 in - - - - -
±10 0
2500±1
3/8 in ¼ in - - - - - -
0
2500±1
¼ in #4 - - - - - -
0
5000±1
#4 #8 - - - - - -
0
5000 5000±1 5000±1 5000±1 10000± 10000±

10000±50
Total weight required ±10 0 0 0 100 75
2018 19
Abrasive Charges No. of Revolutions Number of Spheres Weight of Charges (gm.)
A 12 5000±25
B 11 4584±25
500
C 8 3330±20
D 6 2500±25
1 12 5000±25
2 1000 12 5000±25
3 12 5000±25
COMMENTS
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2018 20
EXPERIMENT NO 4
DETERMINATION OF ANGULARITY NUMBER FOR THE
GIVEN AGGREGATE SAMPLE.
CODE: ASTM-C-152
AASHTO-T-304
OBJECTIVES:
This test is also carried out for determining shape of the aggregates. Based upon shape the
aggregates may be classified as Rounded, Angular or Flaky. Angular particles possess well
defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planer faces and are commonly formed in
aggregates prepared by crushing of rocks.
Angularity in general is the absence of rounding of particles of an aggregate. This test is
performed to determine the angularity number i.e. the absence of roundedness or the degree of
angularity of the aggregate specimen.
RELATED THEORY:
SHAPES OF PARTICLES:
The Usual Shapes of the particles are;

 Rounded (River Gravel)
 Flaky (Laminated Rock)
 Elongated
 Angular (Crushed Rock)
2018 21
ANGULARITY:
It is the absence of roundness. An aggregate particle, which is more rounded, is less angular
and vice versa.
ANGULARITY NUMBER:
Angularity number of an aggregate is the amount (to the higher whole number) by which the
percentage of voids in it after compacting in a prescribed manner exceeds 33.
Where, “33” is the percentage of volume of voids, in a perfectly rounded aggregate. “67” is the
percentage of volume of solids in a perfectly rounded aggregate.
The value of angularity number generally lies between 0 & 11. In road construction angularity
number of 7 – 10 is generally preferred.
SIGNIFICANCE:
 The degree of packing of particles of single sized aggregate depends upon the angularity
of aggregate.
 The angularity of the aggregate can be estimated from the properties of voids in a
sample of aggregate compacted in a specified manner.
 The angularity number ranges from 0 for a highly rounded grave to about 11 for freshly
crushed angular aggregates.
 Higher the angularity number, more angular and less workable is the concrete mix.
 In cement concrete roads (rigid pavements) rounded aggregates are preferred because
of better workability and higher strength.
 In bituminous or water bound macadam construction (like flexible pavements), angular
aggregates with high angularity number are preferred because of high stability due to
better interlocking and friction.
 Higher the angularity number, more angular and less workable is the concrete mix.
 In road construction, angularity number of 7 -10 is generally preferred.
APPARATUS:
 A metal cylinder of about 3-liter capacity.

 Temping rod of circular cross-section, 16mm Φ, 60cm in length. Rounded at one end.
 A metal scoop.
2018 22
 A weighing balance.
PROCEDURE:
 This procedure is for aggregate size ¾ to No.4. If aggregate is coarser than ¾, a cylinder
of large capacity shall be required but amount of compactive effort or energy should be
proportional to the volume of the cylinder.
 10 Kg of the sample is taken for the test. The material should be oven dried. The
aggregate is compacted in three layers, each layer being given 100 blows using the
standard tamping rod at a rate of 2 blows/second by lifting the rod 5 cm above the
surface of the aggregate and then allowing it to fall freely. The blows are uniformly
distributed over the surface of the aggregate. After compacting the third layer, the
cylinder is filled to overflowing and excess material is removed off with temping rod
as a straight edge.
 The aggregate with cylinder is then weighed. Three separate determinations are made
and mean weight of the aggregate in the cylinder is calculated.
CALCULATION & RESULTS:
METHOD – 1
Add measured quantity of water in the compacted aggregate till all the voids are filled and
water appears to the surface. Volume of water added is approximately equal to the volume of
voids in the compacted aggregate.
Volume of Water Added

Angularity Number   100 33
Total Volume
METHOD – 2
100 W
Angularity Number  67 
CGs
Where,
W = mean weight of the aggregate filling cylinder.
2018 23
C = Weight/Volume of water that can completely fill the cylinder (= 3 liters = 3000 ml – in
our lab)
Gs = Specific Gravity of the aggregate.
NOTES:
Method – 1 determines the angularity number from the solids point of view.
Method – 2 determines the angularity number from the voids point of view.
COMPUTATIONS & RESULTS:
Specific Gravity Of The Aggregate 2.67

Total Volume Of The Cylinder
Cylinder Diameter 6”
Height Of Cylinder 12”
Weight Volume Of Angularity Number

Empty Cylinder + Water
Aggregate
Cylinder Aggregate Added Method # 1 Method # 2
(Kg)
Sr. #
(Kg) (Kg) (Ml)
COMMENTS:
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2018 24
EXPERIMENT NO 5
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (RELATIVE DENSITY) AND WATER
ABSORPTION TEST FOR AGGREGATES.
CODE: ASTM-D-127
AASHTO-T-85
RELATED THEORY:
SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
It is defined as ratio of weight of solid to the weight of an equal volume of gas free distilled
water (no dissolved air/impurities) at a stated temperature.
WATER ABSORPTION:
It is the ratio of weight of water absorbed to the weight of dry sample expressed as a percentage.
It will not include the amount of water adhering to the surface of the particles
COARSE AGGREGATES:
Any material which is retained on BS sieve #4 (ASTM sieve 4.75mm) is known as coarse
aggregate.
FINE AGGREGATES:
Any material which is passing BS sieve #4 (ASTM sieve 4.75mm) is known as fine aggregate.
2018 25
SATURATED SURFACE DRY (S.S.D.) CONDITION:
It is the condition related with the aggregate particles in which the permeable pores of the
aggregate particles are filled with water but without free water on the surface of the particles.
OVEN DRIED SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
It is the ratio of the oven dried density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled
water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
SATURATED SURFACE DRY (S.S.D) SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
It is the ratio of the saturated surface dry density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free
distilled water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
It is the ratio of the apparent density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled
water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
TYPES OF CRUSH AVAILABLE IN PAKISTAN:
SARGODHA CRUSH
Sargodha crush possess the following properties;

 Greenish/Dark gray in color
 High strength
 Usually elongated particles
MARGALLA CRUSH
Margalla crush possess the following properties;

 Light gray in color FIGURE 20 (TYPES OF CRUSH)
 Low in strength
SAKHISARWAR CRUSH
Sakhisarwar crush possess the following properties;

i. Whitish in color
2018 26
SIGNIFICANCE:
In this test method we will determine the relative density (i.e. specific gravity) and the water
absorption of the coarse aggregates.
 The knowledge of the specific gravity is important for the concrete technologist to
determine the properties of concrete made from such aggregates.
 It is used for the calculation of the volume occupied by the aggregates in various mixes
and generally it ranges from 2.5 to 3.
 The pores at the surface of the particles affect the bond between the aggregate and the
cement paste thus influences the concrete strength. Smaller the number of pores, higher
will be the specific gravity hence more will be the bond strength and more concrete
strength.
 Though higher specific gravity of aggregate is considered as an indication of its high
strength; it is not possible to judge the suitability on this basis alone without finding
other mechanical properties like aggregate abrasion value etc.
 Water absorption is a measure of porosity of aggregates and its resistance to frost action.
 Higher water absorption means more pores hence aggregate will be the considered as
weak.
 Water absorption value ranges from 0.1 – 2.0% for aggregate normally used in roads
surfaces.
 Aggregates with water absorption up to 4.0% are acceptable in base coarse.
APPARATUS:
 Balance 5 Kg capacity readable to 0.5g.

 Sample container in the form of a wire mesh bucket of capacity 4000 – 7000 cm3 and
not more than 6.3mm mesh.
 Suitable arrangement for suspending the container in water from center of the balance.
 A container for filling water and suspending the wire mesh bucket.
 Shallow tray and absorbent cloth.
 Thermostatically controlled oven.
2018 27
SAMPLE:
Take representative sample. Reject all material passing #4, weight of sample to be used for the
test would depend upon the nominal maximum size as given in table below.
Nominal (Mm) 12.5 19 25 37.5 50 63 75 90

Maximum
(In.) ½ ¾ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½
Size
Maximum Sample
Wt. 2 3 4 5 8 12 18 25
(Kg)
PROCEDURE:
 Thoroughly wash the aggregates to remove any dust. Oven dry and cool the aggregates
for 1 to 3 hours and then immerse in water for 24 hours.
 Remove the specimen from water and roll it in a large absorbent cloth until all visible
films of water are removed.
 Weight the specimen in saturated surface dry conditions.
 Place the saturated surface dry specimen in wire mesh bucket and weight it in water.
Shake the bucket to remove all entrapped air before weighing.
 Dry the sample to constant weight in oven, cool and weigh.
OBSERVATIONS:
Weight of oven dried aggregate in air (Kg) A=

Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air (Kg) B =
Weight of saturated aggregate in water (Kg) C=
Oven dried specific gravity Sd = A / (B – C) =

Saturated surface dry specific gravity Ss = B / (B – C) =
Water absorption, W.A. = [(B – A) / A] X 100 =
Apparent specific gravity = A / (A – C) =
2018 28
COMMENTS:
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EXPERIMENT NO 6
PENETRATION TEST ON BITUMINOUS MATERIALS.
CODE: ASTM -D-5
AASHTO-T-96
PENETRATION:
Consistency of a bituminous material expressed as the distance in tenths of a millimeter that a

standard needle vertically penetrates a sample of the material under known conditions of
loading, time, and temperature.
GRADES OF BITUMEN:
Bitumen is usually characterized in the following three types of grades;

 Viscosity grades
 Penetration grades
 Density grades
2018 29
SCOPE:
This test is used to determine the penetration grade of bitumen. The behavior of bituminous
materials varies significantly with change in temperature. It is therefore important to use the
appropriate grade of bitumen that is best suitable for the climatic conditions of the project area.
The penetration of bitumen is defined as the distance in tenths of millimeter that a standard
needle vertically penetrates in a sample of bitumen under known conditions of loading, time
and temperature. (A load of 100 grams applied for 5seconds at 25C is standardized for the
test) A small penetration value indicates that the bitumen is hard, while the high penetration
value indicates that the bitumen is soft.
SPECIFICATIONS:
AASHTO T 49 and ASTM D 5-97: Penetration of Bituminous Materials
APPARATUS:
 Penetrometer
 Container
TABLE2 (PENETRATION)
Diameter Internal Depth

Penetration
(mm) (mm)
200 55 35
200-350 55 70
 Water bath with at least 10 liter capacity.

 Heater
 Thermometer
 Specified needle
2018 30
 Transfer tray
PROCEDURE:
 Soften the bitumen by heating it up to 90C to bring it to pouring consistency. Stir the
bitumen while heating to avoid local overheating and to make it homogenous.
 Pour the bitumen into container to a level that when cooled to testing temperature, depth
of bitumen should be at least 10 mm more than the expected depth of penetration.
 Place the prepared sample at room temperature (15C - 30C) for one hour.
 Place the container below the needle of penetrometer and gradually lower the needle to
make a contact with the bitumen. Ensure that the needle is just in contact with the
sample and no penetration is affected.
 Release the needle. The needle will penetrate the sample under its own weight for 5
seconds and after that it will stop automatically. Note down the reading.
 Take at least three readings.
 At least two samples should be tested for grade determination.
TEST SPECIFICATIONS:
A load of 100 grams applied for 5seconds at 25C is standardized for the test. Other test
conditions are given in the table.
TABLE 3 (TEST CONDITION)
Temperature Load Time

(oC) (gm.) (sec)
0 200 60
4 200 60
45 50 5
46.1 50 5
REPORT:
Report to nearest whole unit the average of three penetrations whose values do not differ by
more than the following:
2018 31
Penetration 0 To 49 50 To 149 150 To 249 250 To 500

Maximum Difference
Between Highest And 2 4 12 20
Lowest Penetration.
CALCULATION AND OBSERVATION:
Pouring Temperature = C
Period of Cooling in Room = hour
Room Temperature = C
Water Bath Temperature = C
Penetration In 10th Of (mm)

Grade
S No. Reading Reading Reading Average
1.
2.
PRECAUTIONS
 Overheating of bitumen should be avoided. Under no condition bitumen should be

heated to 60o C above the expected softening point.
 The sample is covered loosely against dust
 The weight of needle and spindle assembly should be accurate i.e, 100 ± 0.05 grams.
 Verticality of the needle should be ensured.
 Readings taken on a single sample should be at least 10 mm apart.
2018 32
COMMENTS:
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EXPERIMENT NO 07
SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST ON BITUMINOUS MATERIALS.
CODE: ASTM-D-1180
AASHTO-T-209
SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
The specific gravity of semi-solid bituminous material, asphalt cements, and soft tar pitches
shall be expressed as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the material at 25 °c to that of
an equal volume of water at the same temperature
2018 33
 Specific gravity of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently required as

an aid in classing binders for use in paving jobs.
 Bitumen weights sometimes have to be converted into volumes for asphalt concrete
mix design calculations for which a knowledge of specific gravity is essential.
 Specific gravity is also used in identifying the source of bitumen binder.
 Bitumen binder has specific gravity in the range of 0.97 to 1.02.
 In case bitumen contains mineral impurities the specific gravity will be higher. Thus it
is possible for a quantitative extraction of mineral impurity in bitumen.
APPARATUS:
 Pycnometer — glass, consisting of a cylindrical or conical vessel.

 Water bath, constant-temperature, capable of maintaining the temperature within 0.1
°c of the test temperature.
 Thermometers — calibrated liquid-in-glass, total immersion type, of suitable range.
 Balance — a balance conforming to the requirements of aashto.
 Distilled water — freshly boiled and cooled distilled water shall he used to fill the
pycnometer and the beaker
PROCEDURE:
PREPARATION OF SAMPLE:
 Heat the sample with care, stirring to prevent local overheating until the sample has
become sufficiently fluid to pour. While heating, keep in mind the following
considerations;
a) In no case should the temperature be raised to more than 56 °c above the expected
softening point for tar, or to more than 111°c above the expected softening point for
asphalt.
b) Do not heat for more than 30 minutes over a flame or hot plate or for more than 2 hours
in an oven, and avoid incorporating air bubbles in the sample.
 Thoroughly clean, dry, and weigh the pycnometer to the nearest 1 mg. Designate this
mass as ‘(a)’.
2018 34
 Then fill the beaker with freshly boiled distilled water, placing the stopper loosely in
the pycnometer. Place the pycnometer in the beaker and press the stopper firmly in
place. Return the beaker to the water bath, and allow the pycnometer to remaining the
water bath for a period of not less than 30 minutes. Remove the pycnometer,
immediately dry the top of the stopper with one stroke of a dry towel, then quickly dry
the remaining outside area of the pycnometer and weigh to the nearest 1 mg. Designate
the mass of the pycnometer plus water as ‘b’.
 Pour enough sample into the clean, dry, warmed pycnometer to fill it about three-
fourths of its capacity. Take precautions to keep the material from touching the sides of
the pycnometer above the final level, and to prevent the inclusion of air bubbles. Allow
the pycnometer and its contents to cool to ambient temperature for a period of not less
than 40 minutes, and weigh with, the stopper to the nearest 1 mg. designate the mass of
the pycnometer plus sample as ‘c’.
 Remove the beaker from the water bath. Fill the pycnometer containing the asphalt with
freshly boiled distilled water, placing the stopper loosely in the pycnometer. Do not
allow any air bubbles to remain in the pycnometer. Place the pycnometer in the beaker
and press the stopper firmly in place. Return the beaker to the water bath. Allow the
pycnometer to remain in the water bath for a period of not less than 30 minutes. Remove
the pycnometer from the bath. Dry and weigh using the same technique and timing as
that employed in # 2. Designate this mass of pycnometer plus sample plus water as‘d’.
CALCULATIONS:
Calculate the specific gravity to the nearest third decimal as follows:
(C  A )
Specific Gravity 
[(B  A )  (D  C)]
Where,
A = mass of Pycnometer (+ stopper)

B = mass of Pycnometer filled with water.
C = mass of Pycnometer partially filled with asphalt, and
2018 35
D = mass of Pycnometer + asphalt + water
OBSERVATIONS & RESULTS:
Weights
Pycnomet
Pycnometer er +
Pycnometer, Pycnometer
Group
+ Asphalt, Water +
(A) + Water, (B) (C  A)
Specific Gravity 
(C) Asphalt, [( B  A)  ( D  C )]
(D)
(gm) (gm) (gm) (gm)
1
COMMENTS:
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EXPERIMENT NO 08
TO FIND THE SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN BY RING
AND BALL APPARATUS
CODE: ASTM-D-36
AASHTO-T-53
SOFTENING POINT:
The softening point is defined as the mean of the temperatures at which the bitumen disks
soften and sag downwards a distance of 25 mm under the weight of a steel ball.
2018 36
 This method is useful in determining the consistency of bitumen as one element in

establishing the uniformity of shipments or sources of supply.
 Softening point is the temperature at which the bituminous binders have an equal
viscosity (i.e. the consistency of all the grades will be same at the softening point e.g.
if two samples have softening points of 40 °c and 80 °c respectively, both will have the
same consistency at their softening point.).
 The test gives an idea of the temperature at which the bituminous materials attain a
certain viscosity.
 Bitumen with higher softening point may be preferred in warmer places.
 Softening point should be higher than the hottest day temperature, which is anticipated
in that area otherwise bitumen may sufficiently soften and result in bleeding and
development of ruts.
APPARATUS
 Ring — A brass shouldered ring.

 Ball— A steel ball, 9.53 mm (3/8”) in diameter, weighing between 3.45 and3.55 grams.
 Ball Centering Guide — A guide for centering the ball and made of brass
 Ring Holder — the rings shall be supported on a brass ring holder.
 Brass Pouring Plate — A flat, smooth brass plate approximately 75 by 50 mm that has
been treated to prevent the bituminous material from adhering to it. A suitable treatment
is to coat the plate just before use with a thin layer of a mixture of glycerin and dextrin,
talc, or china clay.
 Bath
 Thermometers — having a range from -2 to +80°C. .
2018 37
FIGURE 21 (APPARATUS)
PROCEDURE:
A) - FOR MATERIALS HAVING SOFTENING POINTS 80°C OR BELOW
 Assemble the apparatus with the rings, ASTM thermometer 15 °c or i5 °f, and ball
centering guides in position and fill the bath with freshly boiled water to a depth of not
less than 102mm and not more than 108mm.
 Maintain the bath temperature at 5 ± 1°c for 15 min, placing the test container in ice
water if necessary. Using forceps, place a ball, previously adjusted to the bath
temperature, in each ball-centering guide.
 Apply heat in such a manner that the temperature of the liquid is raised 5°c/min. Avoid
the effect of drafts, using shields if necessary. (Rigid adherence to the prescribed rate
of heating is absolutely essential for reproducibility of results. Either a gas burner or
electric heater may be used; however, the latter must be of the low-lag, variable output
type to maintain the necessary rate of heating.)
 The rate of rise of temperature shall be uniform and shall not be averaged over the
period of the test. The maximum permissible variation of any 1-mm period after the
first 3 mm shall be ± 0.5°c. Reject all tests in which the rate of rise does not fall within
these limits.
 Record for each ring and ball the temperature shown by the thermometer at the instant
the specimen surrounding the ball touches the bottom plate. Make no correction for the
emergent stem of the thermometer. If the difference between the values obtained in the
duplicate determinations exceeds 1°c repeat the test.
2018 38
B) - FOR MATERIALS HAVING SOFTENING POINTS ABOVE 80°C:
Follow the same procedure as described above, except use USP glycerin instead of water and
use ASTM thermometer l6°c or 16°f. The starting temperature of the glycerin bath shall be
32°c.
Softening Point Mean

Sr. #
(°C) (°C)
1
COMMENTS:
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EXPERIMENT NO 09
FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST FOR ASPHALT BY
CLEVELAND OPEN CUP
CODE: ASTM-D-92
AASHTO-T-48
2018 39
RELATED THEORY:
FLASH POINT:
Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm
Hg), at which application of a test flame causes the vapor of a specimen to ignite under
specified conditions of test.
The material is deemed to have flashed when a large flame appears and instantaneously
propagates itself over the surface of the specimen.
Note: Occasionally, particularly near the actual flash point, the application of test flame will
cause the blue halo or an enlarged flame; this is not a flash and should be ignored.
FIRE POINT:
It is the lowest temperature at which a specimen will sustain burning for 5 seconds.A flammable
material is the one, which form flames, but does not sustain fire while a combustible material
is the one, which sustains fire/burning.
 Flash point measures the tendency of the sample to form a flammable mixture with air
under controlled laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of properties that
must be considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of a material.
 Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to differentiate between
‘‘flammable’’ and ‘‘combustible’’ materials.
 Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable
materials in a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable material.
 Fire point measures the characteristics of the sample to support combustion.
 Bituminous materials give rise to volatiles at high temperature, as they are basically the
hydrocarbons. These volatiles catch fire causing a flash, which is very hazardous.
 During construction of bituminous pavements, the engineer may restrict the mixing or
application temperatures well within the limits. The test therefore gives indication of
critical temperature at and above which suitable precautions should be taken to
eliminate fire hazards during use of asphalts. In other words heating should be limited
to a temperature well below the flash point.
2018 40
ASPHALT CEMENT (AC):
Asphalt Cement shall be oil asphalt or a mixture of refined liquid asphalt and refined solid
asphalt, prepared from crude asphaltic petroleum. It shall be free from admixture with any
residues obtained by the artificial distillation of coal, coal tar or paraffin and shall be
homogeneous and free from water.
Temperature Condition * Asphalt Grade

Cold, mean annual air temperature AC-10
< 7 °C (45 °F) AR-4000
80 / 100 pen
Warm, mean annual air temperature between AC-20
7 °C (45 °F) and AR-8000
24 °C (75 °F) 60 / 70 pen
Hot, mean annual air temperature AC-40
> 24 °C (75 °F) AR-8000
40 / 50 pen
APPARATUS:
Cleveland Cup Apparatus: It consists of test cup, heating plate, test flame applicator, heater,
and thermometer support and heating plate support.
PROCEDURE:
 Fill the cup; at any convenient temperature not exceeding 100 °C or above the softening
point; so that the top of the meniscus is at the filling line.
 Remove the excess sample using a pipette or other suitable device; however, if there is
sample on the outside of the apparatus, empty, clean, and refill it. Destroy any air
bubbles on the surface of the sample.
 Lit the test flame and adjust it to a diameter of 3.8 to 5.4 mm.
 Apply heat initially so that the rate of temperature rise of the sample is 14 to 17 °C per
minute. When the sample temperature is approximately 56 °C below the anticipated
2018 41
flash point, decrease the heat so that the rate of temperature rise for 28°C before the
flash point is 5 to 6°C per minute.
 Starting at least 28 °C below the flash point, apply the test flame when the temperature
read on the thermometer reaches each successive 2 °C mark. Pass the test flame across
the center of the cup, at right angles to the diameter, which passes through the
thermometer. With a smooth, continuous motion apply the flame either in a straight line
or along the circumference of a circle having a radius of at least 150 mm. The center of
the test flame must move in a plane not more than 2.5 mm above the plane of the upper
edge of the cup passing in one direction first, then in the opposite direction the next
lime. The time consumed in passing the test flame across the cup shall be about one
second (1 s.). During the last 17 °C rise in temperature prior to the flash point, care
must be taken to avoid disturbing the vapors in the test cup by careless movements or
bathing near the cup.
 Record as the observed flash point the temperature read on the thermometer when a
flash appears at any point on the surface of the material, but does not confuse the true
flash with the bluish halo that sometimes surrounds the test flame.
 To determine the fire point, continue heating so that the sample temperature increases
at a rate of 5 to 6 °C. Continue the application of the test flame at 2°C intervals until
the oil ignites and continues to burn for at least 5 second. Record the temperature at the
point as the fire point of the oil.
PRECAUTIONS:
 Do not breathe close to the apparatus as the fumes are injurious to health.
 Turn the fans off so that the fumes can be accumulated over the cup.
 Tip of the thermometer should not touch the bottom or sides of the cup.
 The operator must exercise and take appropriate safety precautions during the initial
application of the test flame, since samples containing low flash material may give an
abnormally strong flash when the test flame is first applied.
CALCULATIONS AND REPORT:
Observe and record the barometric pressure at the time of the test. When the pressure differs
from 760 mm Hg, correct the flash or fire point, or both, by means of the following equations:
Corrected flash or fire point, or both = C + 0.03 (760 — P)
2018 42
Where:
C = observed flash or fire point, or both, to the nearest 2 °C, and
P = Barometric pressure, mm Hg.
Record the corrected flash or fire joint value, or both, to the nearest 5 °C or 2°C.
FLASH POINT OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF ASPHALT:
VISCOSITY GRADES:
Property AC – 2.5 AC – 5 AC – 10 AC – 20 AC – 40
Flash Point
163 177 219 232 232
COC, °C min.
Note: AC – 10 is most commonly used in Pakistan.
Flash Point =
Fire Point =
COMMENTS
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EXPERIMENT NO 10
TO PERFORM DUCTILITY TEST ON BITUMEN
CODE: ASTM-D-113
AASHTO-T-51
2018 43
RELATED THEORY:
DUCTILITY:
The ductility of a bituminous material is defined as the distance in centimeters, to which it will
elongate before breaking when two ends of a briquette specimen of the material, are pulled
apart at a specified speed and a specified temperature.
Unless otherwise specified, the test shall be made at a temperature of 25 ± 0.5 °C and with a
speed of 5 cm/min± 5.0 %. At other temperatures the speed should be specified.
Ductility of asphalt depends upon the grade of asphalt, pouring temperature, dimensions of
briquette, test temperature, rate of pull and levelling of mold.
IMPORTANCE OF DUCTILITY:
The ductility of a bitumen specimen tells us about

 Tensile strength of bitumen
 Grade of sample (ductility grade)
 This test method provides measure of tensile properties of bituminous materials and
may be used to measure ductility for specification requirements.
 Bituminous materials used in pavement construction should possess sufficient ductility
otherwise the pavement would crack due to temperature or traffic stresses and may
render the pavement pervious and damage the pavement structure.
 The ductility value varies from 5 to over 100 cm’s.
 Several agencies have specified minimum ductility values for various types of bitumen
pavements. However, a ductility of 100 cm’s is specified generally for bituminous
construction.
 Roads expand at daytime while they contract at night. So, if the bitumen is not
adequately ductile cracking will occur.
 More than one grade may be used in the same project. For example; we may use grade
80/100 on the main traffic lane and lower grades on the arteries.
2018 44
APPARATUS:
Mold — the mold is made of brass, the ends being

known as clips, and the middle parts asides of the
mold.
Water Bath — the water bath shall be maintained FIGURE 22 (BRIQUET APPARATUS)
at the specified test temperature, varying not more than 0.1 °C from this temperature. The
volume of water shall be not less than 10liters, and the specimen shall be immersed to a depth
of not less than 10 cm and shall be supported on a perforated shelf not less than 5 cm from the
bottom of the bath.
Testing Machine — For pulling the briquet of bituminous material apart, any apparatus may
be used which is so constructed that the specimen will continuously immersed in water, while
the two clips are pulled apart at a uniform speed, as specified, without undue vibration.
Thermometer — A thermometer having a range -8 to 32 °C (18 - 89 °F)
PROCEDURE:
 Assemble the mold on a brass plate. Thoroughly coat the surface of the plate and interior
surfaces of the sides of the mold with a thin layer of a mixture of glycerin and china
clay to prevent the material under test from sticking.
 The plate upon which the mold is placed shall be perfectly flat and level so that the
bottom surface of the mold will be in contact throughout.
 Carefully heat the sample to prevent local overheating until it has become sufficiently
fluid to pour.
 Strain the molten sample through a # 50 sieve. After a thorough stirring, pour it into the
mold. In filling the mold, take care not to disarrange the parts and thus distort the
briquet.
 Infilling, pour the material in a thin stream hack and forth from end to end of the mold
until the mold is more than level full.
2018 45
 Let the mold containing the material cool to room temperature for a period of from 30
to 40 minutes and then place it in the water bath maintained at the specified temperature
of test for 30 minutes; then cut off the excess bitumen with a hot straight edged knife
or spatula to make the mold just level full.
 Place the brass plate and mold, with briquet specimen, in water bath and keep at the
specified temperature for a period of from 85 to 95 minutes. Then remove the briquet
from the plate, detach the sidepieces, and immediately test the briquet.
TESTING:
Attach the rings at each end of the clips to the pin or hooks in the testing machine and pull the
two clips apart at a uniform speed specified until the briquet ruptures.
Measure the distance in centimeters through which the clips have been pulled to produce
rupture. While the test is being made, the water in the tank of the testing machine shall cover
the specimen both above and below it by at least 2.5 cm and shall be kept continuously at the
temperature specified.
If the bituminous material comes in contact with the surface of the water or the bottom of the
bath, the test shall not be considered normal. Adjust the specific gravity of the bath by the
addition of either methyl alcohol or sodium chloride so that the bituminous material neither
comes to the surface of the water, nor touches the bottom of the bath at any time during the
test.
Sr. # DESCRIPTION RESULT

1 Grade of Bitumen
2 Pouring Temperature
3 Test Temperature
4 Period of Cooling
a)- in Air
b)- in water bath – before trimming
c)- in water bath – after trimming
2018 46
COMMENTS:
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EXPERIMENT NO 11
MEASURING SURFACE FRICTIONAL PROPERTIES USING
BRITISH PENDULUM SKID RESISTANCE TESTER.
CODE: ASTM E303 – 93
2018 47
SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE:
Friction between vehicle and road surface plays a vital role in determining the
 Maximum operating speed and the distance required in safely stopping the vehicles.
 Road pavements are designed to provide reasonably high coefficient of friction but with
the movement of traffic, the aggregates in the wearing course of the road get polished
resulting in reduction of the frictional or skid resistance of the road. Skid Resistance
 British Pendulum Tester is used to measure the frictional resistance of road at sections
which appear to be potentially slippery and unsafe against skidding.
 British Pendulum Tester is used for field and laboratory tests.
APPARATUS:
PARTS
 Slider – Slider assembly consists of an aluminum backing plate to which a rubber strip
3’’ x 1’’ x ¼’’ is bonded.
 Leveling screws
 Scale
 Drag pointer
 Locking and control knobs
 Frictional rings
ACCESSORIES
 Contact path gauge – shall consist of a thin ruler suitably marked for measuring contact
path length between (4 7/8’’ and 5’’).
 Water container
 Surface thermometer and
 Brush
2018 48
FIGURE 23 : BRITISH PENDULUM SKID RESISTANCE TESTER.
PREPARATION OF APPARATUS:
 Leveling – apparatus is levelled using 3 levelling screws until the bubble is centered in
the spirit level.
Zero adjustment – raise the pendulum mechanism by loosening locking knob, till it swings
free of test surface. Tighten the knob. Place pendulum in release position and drag pointer
in horizontal position and drag pointer in horizontal position. Execute a free swing and note
the pointer reading. If reading is not zero; make adjustment by friction ring until pendulum
swing carries the pointer to zero. Skid Resistance
 Slide length adjustment – with pendulum hanging free, place spacer under adjusting
screw of lifting handle and allow pendulum to move slowly to the left until the edge of
the slider touches the surface. Place gauge beside slider and parallel to the direction of
swing to verify the length of contact path which should be between (4 7/8’’ and 5’’) on
flat surfaces as measured from trailing edge to trailing edge of the rubber slider. Place
pendulum in release position and rotate drag pointer counter clockwise until it comes
to original position. Inspect the road and choose the section to be tested. Set the
apparatus so that the slider swings in the direction of traffic.
2018 49
RELATED THEORY SKID RESISTANCE:
The British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester is an impact type pendulum used to measure the
energy loss when a rubber slider edge is propelled over a test surface. The values measured
represent the frictional properties and are expressed as BPN (British Pendulum Number)
FIGURE 24 : SKID RESISTANCE
SKIDDING:
In skidding phenomenon, the distance travelled by wheel on the road is more than the
circumferential movement. When brakes are applied, wheels get locked and still if the vehicle
moves ahead, longitudinal skidding is said to occur.
SLIPPING:
In slipping, the distance traveled by wheel on the road is less than the circumferential
movement. If the wheels of the vehicle are rotating but the vehicle is not moving forward, then
slipping is said to occur.
MEASUREMENT OF TEXTURE DEPTH:
It is also necessary to record the surface texture of the road surface tested. This is measured by
Sand Patch Method. A known volume of fine sand of uniform particle size is poured on the
road and spread to form a patch of a regular shape so that its area couldn’t be measured. Sand
2018 50
should be spread in such a manner that all “valleys” are filled to level of “peaks”. Then the
texture depth can be computed by using the formula;
TEXTURE DEPTH = VOLUME OF SAND / AREA OF PATCH
ROAD SURFACE TEXTURE TEXTURE DEPTH

Coarse/Open Texture ≥ 0.02”
Medium Texture 0.02” – 0.01”
Fine Texture ≤ 0.01”
More the texture depth, better is the road surface but a high value of texture depth also increases
the chances of severe injuries.
FACTORS AFFECTING SKIDDING RESISTANCE:
 Condition of Tires – Vehicles having smooth tires would have slightly lower skidding
resistance.
 Effect of Road Temperature – Skidding resistance of wet roads is higher in winter
than in summer. Skidding resistance of roads is at its lowest between April and
September. So roads with satisfactory values in winter may prove slippery during
summer.
 Effect of Water – Skidding resistance is lower on wet than on dry pavements.
 Type of aggregate – sand stones and granites are more resistant to polishing action
than limestone.
PROCEDURE:
 Apply sufficient water to cover the test area thoroughly. Execute one swing but don’t
record reading.
 Make four more swings, rewetting the test area each time and record the results. The
readings should not differ by more than 3 units. Skid Resistance
 Report the individual values as B.P.N. also note down the age, condition, texture and
location of test area.
2018 51
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS
Distance =
Weight =
Weight =
Empty weight =
TEXTURE DEPTH S
Group Dimensions of AREA Volume of Texture Depth

Patch (cm x cm) (mm2) Sand (ml = mm3) (mm) (inches)
1
BRITISH PENDULUM NUMBER:
Difference between readings should not be more than 3

 Reading BPN:
COMMENTS
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EXPERIMENT NO 12
2018 52
TO PERFORM MARSHALL MIX DESIGN TO FIND OUT

OPTIMUM BINDER CONTENT
CODE: ASTM-D-1559
INTRODUCTION:
The Marshall Method of mix design is intended both for laboratory design and field control of
bituminous hot-mix dense graded paving mixtures. Originally developed by Bruce Marshall of
the Mississippi State Highway Department, the US Army Corps of Engineers refined and added
certain features to Marshall’s approach and it was then subsequently formalized as ASTM D
1559 and AASHTO T245.
OUTLINE OF METHOD:
 It uses standard cylindrical test specimens (64 mm high and 102 mm in diameter). Two
principal features of Marshall Method of mix design are Density Void Analysis and
Stability Flow Test of compacted test specimen.
 Stability of test specimens is the maximum load resistance developed by standard test
specimen at 60°C in Newton.
 Flow value is the total movement or displacement occurring in the specimen between
no load and the point of maximum load during stability test in units of 0.25mm.
SELECTION AND COMBINATION OF AGGREGATES:
Selection of the aggregates to be used in a given paving mixture is a very important phase of
the design phase. In normal procedure, both coarse and fine aggregates available in the near
vicinity of the proposed work are sampled and carefully examined for compliance with the
individual specifications for these materials. In case no suitable single aggregate is available
then aggregates from several different sources may have to be blended to get the required
specified specimen. The proportions selected must be within the specification and far enough
from its extremes to provide room for the job mix tolerance so that when it is added or
subtracted the mixture will not be outside the original specification master range. Sieve
Analysis of the aggregates can most economically be used in this case as determined by
AASHTO methods of T27 and T37.
2018 53
MINERAL AGGREGATE AND MIX COMPOSITION:
Passing Sieve Designation Retained on Sieve Percent by weight

Designation
¾ in. (19.0 mm) ½ in. (12.5 mm) 0-6
½ in. (12.5 mm) 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) 9-40
3/8 in. (9.5 mm) No.4 (4.75 mm) 9-45
No.4 (4.75 mm) No. 10 (2.00 mm) 8-27
Total Coarse Aggregate No. 10 (2.00 mm) 50-65
No. 10 (2.00 mm) No. 40 (0.475 mm) 6-22
No. 40 (0.475 mm) No. 80 (0.177 mm) 8-27
No. 80 (0.177 mm) No. 200 (0.75 mm) 5-17
No. 200 (0.75 mm) ------ 5-8
Total fine aggregate & filler Passing No. 10 35-50
Total mineral aggregate ------ 100
Total Mix
Total mineral aggregate 92-95
Asphalt cement 5-8
Total mix 100
It is obvious that the fine aggregate and coarse aggregate only, in any combination, cannot meet
the requirements of the specifications for total mineral aggregate. So, mineral fillers must be
used in the mixture.
SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATES (PERCENTAGE USED FOR

EXPERIMENT)
2018 54
Retained on AGGREGATE TYPE

Passing Sieve
Sieve
Designation
Designation COARSE FINE
(Percentby MINERA
(Percent by AGGREGATE AGGREGATE
weight) L FILLER
weight) S S
¾in.(19.0 mm) ½in.(12.5 mm) 5 ---- ----
½in.(12.5 mm) 3/8in.(9.5mm) 32 ---- ----
3/8in.(9.5mm) No.4(4.75mm) 37 ---- ----
No.4(4.75mm) No.10(2.00mm) 22 7 ----
No.40(0.475mm
No.10(2.00mm) 4 28 ----
)
No.40(0.475mm No.80(0.177mm
---- 39 5
) )
No.80(0.177mm No.200(0.75mm
---- 24 30
) )
No.200(0.75mm
----- ---- 2 65
)
Total 100 100 100
For first trial, the amount of mineral filler is arbitrarily set at 8 percent. The total coarse
aggregate in the mix must be from 50 to 65 percent, and this figure is set as 52 percent. The
remaining 40 percent must be fine aggregate.
Calculations made using the indicated proportions in determining the sieve analysis of the
combined aggregates are as follows. A comparison of the figures in the last column of the table
with the requirements of the specification will show that this combination of aggregates meets
the stipulated requirements. This combination will therefore be judged satisfactory and no
additional trials are made here.
2018 55
DESIGN BITUMEN CONTENT:
When determining the design bitumen content for a particular blend or gradation of aggregates
by Marshall Method, a series of test specimens is prepared for a range of different bitumen
contents so that the test data curves show well-defined relationships.
Bitumen content can be estimated from following sources
 Experience
 Using filler-to-bitumen ratio guideline (ranges 06 to 1.2)
 Computational Formula
P = 0.035a + 0.045b + K c + F
Where
P = Approximate mix bitumen content, percentage by weight of total mix
a = Percentage of mineral aggregate retained on sieve No.10 in whole no.
b = Percentage of mineral aggregate passing sieve No.10 and retained on sieve No.200
c = Percentage of mineral aggregate passing sieve No.200
K = 0.15, 11-15% passing sieve No.200.
= 0.18, 6-10% passing sieve No.200
=0.20, 5% passing sieve No.200
F = 0 to 2%, based on the absorption of light and heavy aggregates. F = 0.7 incase no
data is available.
PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMENS:
 Separate the aggregate in desired fractions by dry sieving.

 The aggregates are first dried to a constant weight at 105 to 110°C.
 Amount of each size fraction required to produce a batch that will give 63.5+1.27 mm
high compacted specimen is weighed in a separate pan for each test specimen. It is
about 1.2kg of dry aggregates.
 Prepare at least three specimens for each combination of aggregates and bitumen.
 Dry the aggregates to the required mixing temperature.
 Add heated aggregates in a mixing bowl and the required quantity of bitumen is added.
Mixing is carried out until all aggregate particles are fully coated with bitumen.
 Optimal viscosity of bitumen for compaction is between 2 Pa.s and 20 Pa.s. If viscosity
is too low, the mix will be excessively mobile resulting in pushing of the material in
2018 56
front of the roller, high viscosities will significantly reduce the workability of the mix
and little compaction will be achieved.
 Depending upon design traffic category (light, medium and heavy), the compacted mix
is expected to withstand 35, 50 and 75 blows respectively applied with compaction
hammer to each end of the specimen.
 After compaction, specimens are allowed to cool in air at room temperature until no
deformation results on removal from the mould.
APPARATUS:
 Sieves conforming to ASTM Standards

 Moulds
 Compaction Hammer
 Flow meter
 The Marshall Testing Machine, a compression testing machine.
TEST PROCEDURE:
In Marshall Method, each compacted test specimen is subjected to following tests and analysis
in the order listed.
 Bulk Specific Gravity Test
 Stability and Flow Test
 Density and Void Analysis
Bulk Specific Gravity Test is performed on freshly compacted specimens after they have
cooled to room temperature.
Then immerse the specimen in a water bath at 60°C for 30 to 40 minutes and perform Stability
and Flow Tests.
The Testing Machine will apply loads to test specimens through cylindrical segment testing
heads at a constant rate of vertical strain of 51mm per minute. Loading is applied until the
specimen failure occurs
MARSHALL STABILITY VALUE:
The force in Newton required producing failure of the test specimen. The applied testing load
is determined from calibrated proving ring.
2018 57
FLOW VALUE:
The magnitude of deformation of the specimen at the point of failure. The point of failure is
defined by the maximum load reading obtained.
All fractions of aggregates are heated to a temperature of 250°F. Bitumen of specified grade is
heated to a temperature of 350°F. Bitumen should not be heated for more than an hour. The
required quantity of aggregates and bitumen is mixed manually or electrically at a temperature
of 200 to 300°F. After mixing place it in a compaction mould and give 75 blows to the sample
on each side. The specimen is then immersed in water bath at a testing temperature of 60°C for
30 to 40 minutes. Then remove the specimen from water bath and place it on a base plate of
Marshall Loading Machine. The proving ring and flow gauge are adjusted to zero reading. The
base plate of machine moves upward at a rate of 2 inches per minute. The value of maximum
load and dial gauges are recorded and machine is reversed. The elapsed time for the test after
the removal of specimen is note.
COMPUTATIONS:
PERCENTAGE AIR VOIDS, VA:
Va =100 X ( Gmm – Gmb )

Gmm
Where, Va = air voids in compacted mixture as a percentage of total volume. Gmm =
maximum specific gravity of a paving mixture, Gmb = Bulk specific gravity of a compacted
mixture.
Gmm = 100
W1/G1+W2/G2+W3/G3+W4/G4
Where, W 1 = %age weight of coarse aggregates,
W 2 =%age weight of fine aggregates
W 3 = %age weight of mineral aggregates
W 4 = %age weight of bitumen,
G1 = Specific Gravity of coarse aggregates
G2 = Specific Gravity of fine aggregates
G3 = Specific Gravity of mineral aggregates,
G4 = Density of bitumen (g/cm3)
2018 58
PERCENTAGE OF VOIDS IN MINERAL AGGREGATES, VMA:
VMA = Vb + Va
Where, Va = %age of voids in aggregates, Vb = %age of voids in bitumen
Vb = Gmb X (W 4 / G 4)
PERCENTAGE OF VOIDS FILLED WITH BITUMEN, VFB:
VFB = ( Vb / VMA ) X 100
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
COMMENTS
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2018 59
EXPERIMENT NO 13
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BY GROUP INDEX
METHOD
INTRODUCTION
Group index is claimed to be an indirect measure of the thickness of sub-base required. The
thickness of base and wearing surface, on the other hand, is varied according to the volume of
commercial traffic expected. The higher the ‘Group Index’ of the sub-grade, the lower its
strength and the greater thickness of sub-base required.
Group index is based on classification tests of sub grade soil as explained below:
Group Index = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Where
a= That portion of percentage of sub-grade soil passing No. 200 sieve greater than 35 and not
exceeding 75, expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 40)
b= That portion of percentage of sub-grade soil passing No. 200 sieve greater than 15 and not
exceeding 55, expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 40)
c= That portion of the numerical liquid limit greater than 40 and not exceeding 60, expressed
as a positive whole number (0 to 20)
d= That portion of the numerical plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30,
expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 20)
2018 60
Design curves are based on the following assumptions with regard

to compaction and drainage Compaction of the sub-grade to be
not less than 95% of the maximum dry density obtained by
modified AASHTO test (AASHTO T-l80 or ASTM D1557)
Sub-grade to be sufficiently above the water-table to permit the
proper compaction of the grade prior to placing the base or sub-
base, and soil drainage or sufficient embankment height to be
provided where necessary to keep the water-table at least 3 to 4 ft
below the road face.
RELATED THEORY
SIEVE ANALYSIS
The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the soil tested. On
the basis of the shapes we can classify soils as:
 Uniformly Graded Soil
 Poorly Graded Soil
 Well Graded Soil
 Gap Graded Soil
To determine whether a material is uniformly graded or well graded, Hazen proposed the
following equation:
D60
Cu =
D10
Cu > 4 for well graded gravel
Cu > 6 for well graded sand
C < 4 for uniformly graded soil containing particles of the same size
There is another step in the procedure to determine the gradation of particles. This is based on
the term called the coefficient of curvature which is expressed as
D230
Cu =
D10 × D60
The soil is said to be well graded if Cc lies between 1 and 3 for gravels and sands.
2018 61
ATTERBERG LIMITS
Atterberg, a Swedish scientist, considered the consistency of soils in 1911, and proposed a
series of tests for defining the properties of cohesive soils. The Atterberg limits are a basic
measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending on the water content of the soil, it may
appear in four states:
 Solid State
 Semi-solid State
 Plastic State
 Liquid State
In each state the consistency and behavior of a soil is different and thus so are its engineering
properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the soil's
behavior. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and it can
distinguish between different types of silts and clays. These limits were created by Albert
Atterberg, a Swedish chemist. They were later refined by Arthur Casagrande.
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in
any more volume reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM International
D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid limit and the plastic
limit.
PLASTIC LIMIT
The plastic limit (PL) is the water content where soil starts
to exhibit plastic behavior. A thread of soil is at its plastic
limit when it is rolled to a diameter of 3 mm or begins to
crumble. To improve consistency, a 3 mm diameter rod is FIGURE 25 (PLASTIC LIMIT)
often used to gauge the thickness of the thread when
conducting the test.
LIQUID LIMIT
The liquid limit (LL) is the water content where a soil changes from plastic to liquid behavior.
The original liquid limit test of Atterberg's involved mixing a pat of clay in a little round-
2018 62
bottomed porcelain bowl of 10-12cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat of clay with
a spatula, and the bowl was then struck many times against the palm of one hand.
Casagrande subsequently standardized the apparatus and the
procedures to make the measurement more repeatable. Soil
is placed into the metal cup portion of the device and a
groove is made down its center with a standardized tool. The
cup is repeatedly dropped 10mm onto a hard rubber base
during which the groove closes up gradually as a result of
the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close for
13 mm (½ inch) is recorded. The moisture content at which FIGURE 26 (CASAGRANDE)
it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close is

defined as the liquid limit.
Another method for measuring the liquid limit is the Cone Penetrometer test. It is based on the
measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardized cone of specific mass. Despite the
universal prevalence of the Casagrande method, the cone penetrometer is often considered to
be a more consistent alternative because it minimizes the possibility of human variations when
carrying out the test.
PLASTICITY INDEX
The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size
of the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference
between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL-PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay,
those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0 tend to have little or no silt or
clay.
LIQUIDITY INDEX
The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the
limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content, plastic limit,
and plasticity index: LI = (W-PL) / (LL-PL) where W is the natural water content.
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
The AASHTO system classifies soils into seven primary groups, named A-1 through A-7,
based on their relative expected quality for road embankments, sub-grades, sub-bases, and
bases. Some of the groups are in turn divided into subgroups, such as A-1-a and A-1-b.
2018 63
Furthermore, a Group Index may be calculated to quantify a soil’s expected performance within
a group. To determine a soil’s classification in the AASHTO system, one first determines the
relative proportions of gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, and silt-clay.
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION CHART
Silt-Clay Materials (>35%

Granular Materials (35% or less passing the 0.075
General Classification passing the 0.075 mm
mm sieve)
sieve)
A-1 A-2 A-7
Group Classification A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5 A-
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
7-6
Sieve Analysis, % passing
2.00 mm (No. 10) 50 max … … … … … … … … … …

51
0.425 (No. 40) 30 max 50 max … … … … … … … …
min
10 35 35 35 36 36 36
0.075 (No. 200) 15 max 25 max 35 max 36 min
max max max max min min min
Characteristics of fraction
passing 0.425 mm (No.
40)
40 40 41 40 41 40
Liquid Limit … … 41 min 41 min
max max min max min max
10 11 11 10 10 11
Plasticity Index 6 max N.P. 10 max 11 min1
max min min max max min
Usual types of significant stone fragments, fine silty or clayey gravel and
silty soils clayey soils
constituent materials gravel and sand sand sand
General rating as a
excellent to good fair to poor
subgrade
Note: Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than the LL - 30.
Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL – 30
Unified Soil Classification System
2018 64
COARSE GRAINED SOILS
G Gravel
Primary
S Sand
W Well Graded
P Poorly Graded
Secondary
M Non-Plastic
C Plastic Fines
FINE GRAINED SOIL
M Silt
C Clay
Primary
O Organic
Pt Peat
L Low Plastic
Secondary
H Highly Plastic
A-Line = PI – 0.73 ( LL – 20 )
2018 65
Different States and Consistency of Soils with Atterberg Limits
Curve Showing transition stages from the liquid to the solid stages
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Sieve Analysis
Weight of Sample =
Sieve
Weight of Soil %age weight Cumulative %age
Sieve No. Size
Retained (gm) Retained %age retained Passing
(mm)
4 4.75
10 2
2018 66
40 0.425
100 0.15
200 0.075
Pan - - - -
W1 − W2
Loss in Weight after Sieving = × 100
W1
D60 = D30 = D10 =

Cc = Cu =
From the curve and calculation of CU and CC it is clear that soil is ---------------
RESULTS FROM SIEVE ANALYSIS
% age passing Sieve # 200 Value of a 0

Total weight retained after sieving Value of b 0
Loss in weight after sieving
%AGE OF VARIOUS FRACTIONS
Gravel Fine sand

Coarse sand Silt & clay
Medium sand - -
LIQUID LIMIT
(Soil fraction must be passing sieve # 40)
2018 67
Sample No. 1 2 3
Container No - - -
Weight of Empty Container = W1, gm
W1 + Weight of Wet Soil = W2, gm
W1 + Weight of dry Soil = W3, gm
Moisture Content, W = (W2-W3)/(W3-W1) X
100%
Number of Blows, N
N 0.121
Liquid Limit, LL by One Point Method =w (23)
Liquid Limit by Graphical Method =
Value of c =
PLASTIC LIMIT
(Soil fraction must be passing sieve # 40)

Sample No. 1 2 3
Container No - - -
Weight of Empty Container = W1, gm
W1 + Weight of Wet Soil = W2, gm
W1 + Weight of dry Soil = W3, gm
Moisture Content, W = (W2-W3)/(W3-W1) X
100%
Average Plastic Limit, PL%
Plasticity Index, PI = LL – PL = 4.18
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Value of d =
Group Index =
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION =
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION =
(Sand-Poorly graded with plastic fines)
DESIGN OF THICKNESS OF VARIOUS LAYERS OF FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT
WITH SUB-BASE
Thickness of Thickness of Total Thickness of Surface, Thickness of

Traffic Intensity Surfacing Sub-base Base and Sub-base Base
(inch) (inch) (inch) (inch)
Light 1 0 6 5
Medium 2 0 9 7
Heavy 3 0 12 9
COMMENTS
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COMMENTS
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2018 70
EXPERIMENT NO 14
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BY CALIFORNIA
BEARING RATIO METHOD.
CODE: ASTM-D-1883
OBJECTIVES:
To determine the thickness of upper lying layers of subgrade using CBR method
NEED AND SCOPE:
Soil strata strength is determined insitu and in lab as well. CBR method is employed to
determine strength of soil. We need to design thickness to put in field.
APPARATUS:
 Modified Proctor moulds

 10lb rammer
 CBR mould, rammer
 CBR testing machine FIGURE 27(MOULD)
PROCEDURE:
 First of all, determine the OMC of the given soil by modified proctor test.
 Utilize modified dry density and optimum moisture content to fill the mould of CBR.
 Perform all the standard procedure for CBR to determine design CBR value.
 Correlate design CBR value with MR using following relation.
MR = 1500*CBR
 From the Graph between MR and ESALS, determine the thickness of upper lying layers.
DEFINITION OF CBR
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular
piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a
standard material. The California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR Test) is a penetration test developed
2018 71
by California State Highway Department (U.S.A.) for evaluating the bearing capacity of
subgrade soil for design of flexible pavement.
CBR TEST PROCEDURE 1:
 Normally 3 specimens each of about 7 kg must be compacted so that their compacted

densities range from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.
 Weigh of empty mould
 Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per layer)
 After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.
 Take sample for determination of moisture content.
 Weight of mould + compacted specimen.
 Place the mold in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step in case of
unsoakedCBR.
 Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process.
 After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell.
 Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain.
 Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of 10lb.
 Apply the load and note the penetration load values.
 Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (in) and find the
value of CBR.
 Draw the graph between the %age CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required
degree of compaction
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GRAPH 1 (MR VS ESAL)
CBR TEST PROCEDURE 2:
UNDISTURBED SPECIMEN
Attach the cutting edge to the mould and push it gently into the ground. Remove the soil from
the outside of the mould which is pushed in . When the mould is full of soil, remove it from
weighing the soil with the mould or by any field method near the spot.
Determine the density
Re-moulded specimen
Prepare the re-moulded specimen at Proctor maximum dry density or any other density at which
C.B.R> is required. Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture content or the field moisture
as required. The material used should pass 20 mm I.S. sieve but it should be retained on 4.75
mm I.S. sieve. Prepare the specimen either by dynamic compaction or by static compaction.
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
 Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water.
 Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the
base Place the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
 Compact the mix soil in the mould using either light compaction or heavy compaction.
For light compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 55
blows by the 2.6 kg rammer. For heavy compaction compact the soil in 5 layers, 56
blows to each layer by the 4.89 kg rammer.
 Remove the collar and trim off soil.
 Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc.
 Weigh the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry density.
 Put filter paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the perforated
base plate on to it.
STATIC COMPACTION
 Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give the desired
density when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould from the
expression.
W =desired dry density * (1+w) V
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Where W = Weight of the wet soil

w = desired water content
V = volume of the specimen in the mould = 2250 cm3 (as per the mould available in laboratory)
 Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and place it in the mould.
 Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of soil.
 Keep the mould assembly in static loading frame and compact by pressing the displacer
disc till the level of disc reaches the top of the mould.
 Keep the load for some time and then release the load. Remove the displacer disc.
 The test may be conducted for both soaked as well as unsoaked conditions.
 If the sample is to be soaked, in both cases of compaction, put a filter paper on the top
of the soil and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper.
 Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base material and
pavement expected in actual construction. Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm
construction. A minimum of two weights should be put.
 Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours.
Remove the mould from tank.
 Note the consolidation of the specimen.
PROCEDURE FOR PENETRATION TEST
 Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test machine.
(Fig.39).
 Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible load,
but in no case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample is
established.
 Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that the
penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.
 Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10
and 12.5 mm. Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a
penetration less than 12.5 mm.
 Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from the
top 3 cm layer and determine the moisture content.
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OBSERVATION AND RECORDING
FOR DYNAMIC COMPACTION
Optimum water content (%)

Weight of mould + compacted specimen g
Weight of empty mould g
Weight of compacted specimen g
Volume of specimen cm3
Bulk density g/cc
Dry density g/cc
FOR STATIC COMPACTION
Dry density g/cc

Moulding water content %
Wet weight of the compacted soil, (W)g
Period of soaking 96 hrs. (4days).
FOR PENETRATION TEST
Calibration factor of the proving ring 1 Div. = 1.176 kg

Surcharge weight used (kg) 2.0 kg per 6 cm construction
Water content after penetration test %
Least count of penetration dial 1 Div. = 0.01 mm
If the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards, apply correction by drawing a tangent to
the curve at the point of greatest slope and shift the origin (Fig. 40). Find and record the correct
load reading corresponding to each penetration.
C.B.R. = PT/PS 100
Where PT = Corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the load
penetration curve.
PS = Standard load for the same penetration taken from the table.
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CORRECTED
PENETRATION DIAL LOAD DIAL
LOAD
PENETRATION PROVING RING

READINGS LOAD (Kg) Kg
(mm) READING
COMMENTS:
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2018 76
EXPERIMENT NO 15
STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR USE OF DYNAMIC CONE
PENETROMETER IN SHALLOW PAVEMENT
APPLICATIONS
SCOPE:
This test method covers the measurement of penetration rate of cone penetrometer with an 8
kg hammer through undisturbed soil or compacted materials. Penetration rate may be related
to in-situ strength such as an estimated in-situ CBR.
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE:
 Determine in-situ strength of undisturbed soil and compacted materials.

 Dynamic cone penetrometer is held vertically and therefore is typically used in
horizontal construction applications such as pavements and floor slabs.
 Can be used to assess material properties down to a depth of 1000 mm .
APPARATUS:
 A 16 mm diameter steel drive rod

with a replaceable point or disposable
cone tip.(60 degrees and diameter of
20 mm at the base)
 8 kg hammer with a fixed dropped
height of 575 mm.
 Coupler assembly and Handl
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FIGURE 28 : DYNAMIC CONE PENETROMETER
PROCEDURE:
Before beginning the test, Check the DCP for fatigue damaged parts in particular the coupler
and handle and excessive wear of drive rod and replaceable point tip. The basic operation is
that operator holds the device in a vertical or plumb position and lifts and releases the hammer
from standard drop height. The recorder measures and records the total penetration for a given
number of blows or the penetration per blow.
TESTING A SURFACE LAYER:
The DCP is held vertically and tip seated such that the top of widest part of tip is flush with the
surface of material to be tested and initial reading is obtained from graduated drive rod or a
separate vertical scale. The distance is measured to nearest 1 mm some sliding reference
attachments allow the measuring rod to be marked at zero when tip is at zero point.
TESTING BELOW A BOUND LAYER:
A Rotary hammer drill is used to provide excess whole to the layer to be tested. Wet coring is
required so that fluid be removed immediately and DCP test be performed as soon as possible
no longer than 10 minutes after coring. Then DCP may be performed.
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TESTING SEQUENCE:
 DROPPING THE HAMMER- The DCP device is held vertically and operator
raises the hammer until it makes only light contact with handle then it is allowed to free
fall and impact the annual coupler assembly. The number of blows and corresponding
penetrations are recorded.
 DEPTH OF PENETRATION - For typical highway application, a penetration
less than 900 mm is used.
 REFUSAL:- Large aggregates or rocks strata can stop further penetration. If after
five blows the penetration is not more than 2 mm or the handle has deflected more than
75 mm from vertical position, the test shall be stopped. Select new test location atleast
300 mm far from the previous location.
 EXTRACTION- At completion, use extraction jack for replaceable point tip DCP
and for disposable cone DCP, hammer is striked upward into the handle to extract the
DCP.
DATA RECORDING:
CALCULATIONS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS:
CBR= 292/DCP1.12 (DCP in mm/blow)

CBR=292/ (DCP*25.4)1.12 (DCP in inch/blow)
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2018 80
COMMENTS
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2018 81

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Layout of Highway & Traffic Engineering Lab.................................................................... 1

LIST OF LABORATORY APPARATUS ............................................................................ 2

Scope and Significance: ....................................................................................................... 48

LIST OF LABORATORY APPARATUS

CORE CUTTER APPARATUS

FIGURE 1 (CORE CUTTER APPARATUS)

LOS ANGELES ABRASION TESTING MACHINE

FIGURE 2 (LOS ANGELES ABRASION TESTING MACHINE)

DUCTILITY TESTING MACHINE

FIGURE 3 (DUCTILITY TESTING MACHINE)

OPEN CUP FLASH & FIRE POINT APPARATUS

FIGURE 4 (OPEN CUP FLASH & FIRE POINT APPARATUS)

MARSHAL STABILITY APPARATUS

FIGURE 5 (MARSHAL STABILITY APPARATUS)

An instrument used for determining the consistency or hardness of a substance by measuring

ASPHALT CENTRIFUGE EXTRACTOR

FIGURE 8 (ASPHALT CENTRIFUGE EXTRACTOR)

FLAKINESS & ELONGATION INDEX APPARATUS

FIGURE 9 (FLAKINESS & ELONGATION INDEX APPARATUS)

FIGURE 10 (SCREEN SHAKER)

FIGURE 11 (SIEVE SHAKER)

FIGURE 12 (WATER BATH)

FIGURE 13 (SAMPLE SPLITTER)

SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE:

i. Rounded (river gravel)

PREFERRED USE OF EACH SHAPE:

FIGURE 15 : (ANGULAR SHAPE)

Flaky and Elongated particles are considered as a source of weakness.

FIGURE 16 :FLAKY & ELONGATED)

i. Thickness/Flakiness Index Gauge

FIGURE 17 (FLAKY & ELONGATION INDEX GAUGE)

It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample.

It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The Elongated index is

 Perform the sieve analysis on the given aggregate sample/

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Sieve size Sieve size Weight Percentage Cumulative Percentage

CALCULATIONS FOR FLAKY PARTICLES:

Sieve size Sieve size Weight Percentage Weight of Individual Weighted

CALCULATIONS FOR ELONGATED PARTICLES:

Sieve size Sieve size Weight Percentage Weight of Individual Weighted

CODE: ASTM-C-131, AASHTO-T-96

SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE:

It is defined as the, “resistance of a material against wear, scratching or degradation.” OR

LOS ANGELES ABRASION VALUE:

Orignal Weight  Final Weight

Final weight = Weight retained on sieve #12

FIGURE 18 : LOS ANGELES ABRASION

Abrasive charges (consisting of steel spheres 1 27/32’’ in diameter.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Grading used for the test =

Orignal Weight  Final Weight

TABLE 1 (TYPES OF PAVEMENT)

Type of Pavement LLA%

1 Water bound macadam sub base course 60

2 WBM base course with bituminous surfacing 50

3 Bituminous bound macadam 50

4 WBM surfacing course 40

5 Bituminous penetration macadam 40

Bituminous surface dressing, cement concrete

GRADING OF TEST SAMPLE (LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST):

Sieve sizes Weight & grading of test sample (gm.)

5000 5000±1 5000±1 5000±1 10000± 10000±

Abrasive Charges No. of Revolutions Number of Spheres Weight of Charges (gm.)