A New Audio Amplifier Circuit Design.

The first few circuits are shown using op-amps to make the
operation easier to understand, but there are some very
good reasons not to use op-amps in a practical version, as
explained in another article. Discrete component versions
have been built and tested, and are shown here and in a
later improved version.

The problem with class-B amplifier design is that we start with an

output stage in two halves, each with a non-linear response, which
we then add together to try to give a linear response, i.e. so that a
graph of output voltage vs. input voltage is a straight line.

The term "complementary symmetry" is often mentioned in

connection with class-B output stages, as if there were some
advantage in symmetry. Symmetrical responses of the two halves only guarantees that when added together
the resulting non-linearity is also symmetrical.

To achieve a linear response what we need are two non-linear responses which add up to give a straight line.
The simple solution to this problem is to start with a single half of the output stage with a conventional non-
linear response, and then subtract this response from a straight line to give the response needed for the other
half of the output stage.

To achieve this we can start with the well known circuit shown next:

Fig. 1

This circuit gives an output across its load equal to the difference between its inputs. This arrangement, with the
addition of a power transistor, is then used as the top half of the class-B circuit shown next:

Fig. 2

The top half of the output stage subtracts the output of the other half, V 3, from the input voltage V1, which gives
a voltage V2 - V0 equal to V1 - V3 across its output resistor. What we are in effect doing here is to subtract the
non-linear output, V3 of the bottom half from the undistorted input signal, V1 to obtain the required response for
the top half such that when we add the outputs of the two halves through the 1ohm output resistors the sum is
the required straight line response. Both halves are biased onto the linear parts of their characteristics in the
quiescent state by VBIAS, and so on negative half-cycles if the bottom half provides the entire output required
with no error, then the top half will not have any change in its output and will remain operating at constant
current and not be cut off as in a conventional class-B circuit. On positive half-cycles the bottom half will
eventually cut off, and then the top half provides the whole output current.

Some may recognise this description as being a form of 'feedforward error correction'. The top half corrects the
error from the bottom half, and remains linear at all times. The bottom half is required only to provide sufficient
negative output current to prevent the top half from cutting off in an attempt to correct the error. The output is
actually independant of V3 because the top half inverts this signal and adds it to the original via the 1ohm
resistors to give cancellation. The only non-linearity in the circuit therefore has no effect on the output across
the load. In reality of course there will not be exact cancellation, but the result is far better than conventional
class-B circuits.

The resistors at the input of the top op-amp are rather inconvenient if we want to use a discrete transistor
output stage. Such a stage may have a relatively low and non-linear input impedance, and the voltage drop
across these resistors could then cause significant errors. Fortunately there is a better arrangement which
avoids this problem, shown next:

Fig. 3
 Again, for clarity, the circuit is
shown with op-amps. As before
the top half inverts the output of
the bottom half and adds this to
the original to give cancellation
of the non-linearity. The
operation of this circuit was
confirmed by building a practical
example, which was used to obtain the distortion traces on the
previous page. If instead we make the top half identical to the
bottom half we obtain a more or less conventional class-B circuit,
and this is what was done to obtain the distortion traces for an
'unmodified' class-B circuit. The full circuit is shown later.

Fig. 4

This diagram shows how the currents vary in the two halves of the output stage with a sine-wave input signal.
The peak output current is IP and quiescent current I Q.

Next is the circuit diagram of the practical circuit. It is a low power version, with a maximum average sine wave
power output a little under 20watts. For simplicity an op-amp input stage is used.

Fig. 5
A switch is included which in one position, as shown in the diagram, gives the improved circuit, while in the
other position the amplifier becomes a fairly standard class-B circuit. A direct comparison is then possible. Initial
tests at 1kHz were unhelpful because there is sufficient negative feedback to reduce the distortion below the
noise level of the test equipment used for any quiescent current above 10mA, so the measurements were
repeated at 20kHz to give the distortion traces shown previously. An 8ohm load was used, and a 100mV 20kHz
sine wave input test signal. The 20kHz sine-wave harmonic distortion is of course not going to be audible, but
with a complex music signal components around 20kHz could produce intermodulation products further down
the frequency range which could then be audible, so high frequency linearity is still important.

The distortion measuring equipment used a signal nulling technique in which the input signal is added to an
attenuated version of the inverted output signal to give nulling of the undistorted signal, leaving the distortion
alone visible. This avoids the need for a very low distortion test signal, and also avoids any phase distortion of
the distortion waveform observed. The equipment used is capable of measuring distortion components more
than 140dB below the signal level when used with a narrow bandwidth wave analyser, and actually compares
the voltage between the output terminals with that across the input terminals, to ensure any earth line
distortion effects are not missed. This method requires very precise adjustment of gain and phase to give
adequate nulling, but the results are worth the effort.

The distortion observed for the improved circuit was no better than the standard circuit at low quiescent current,
e.g. 6mA, but as the current is increased distortion falls to a minimum at 10mA for the standard circuit, and then
rises sharply again above this current. The modified circuit also falls to a low level at 10mA, but the big
difference is that increasing the current further reduces the distortion further, so that it rapidly fell below the
noise level, and remained low for any higher current. Precise setting of current is no longer needed. The
standard circuit was difficult to adjust for a precise minimum distortion, and soon drifted away from the
optimum setting as the amplifier warmed up in operation. The modified circuit actually has a poorer quiescent
current stability, and if set to 80mA when cold, it drifted up to 100mA after a few minutes, even with thermal
compensation included in the usual way with the BC184L transistor glued to the 2SB648A. A moderate drift
upwards is no problem in this case, because the distortion remains low.
 Fig. 6

There is a simple way to avoid the need for any

adjustment or compensation of quiescent current.
Looking again at Fig. 4 it can be seen that the minimum
current through the top half of the circuit is simply the
value of the quiescent current. This minimum can be
detected and used to control the biasing of the output
stage. An example of this sort of circuit is shown here. A
diode in series with the top power transistor limits the
voltage drop in the detection circuit, but at low currents
the parallel resistor determines the voltage, and this is
detected and compared to a reference voltage obtained
from a diode chain. A medium power pnp transistor
feeds a current into a large capacitor when the quiescent
current falls below the required level, and the smoothed
voltage across this capacitor controls a current source
which determines the bias voltage of the output stage.
Using this sort of circuit it should be possible to reduce
the output resistors to improve maximum power output
into low impedance loads.

In practice I don't believe this added complexity to be

necessary. The relatively poor quiescent current stability
compared to a standard output stage with the same
value resistors is not really a problem because an exact value of IQ is not now needed. Standard circuits with
resistors as low as 0.1 ohm are not unusual. There seems no good reason why the improved design should not
have equally small values. If IQ varies by even +/- 50% this need not affect performance, but of course such a
change in the standard circuit would cause high crossover distortion. For the present low power example the 1
ohm resistors are no problem unless you want to drive a 2 ohm load in which case they should be reduced.

A final note on component values. The resistors used were all 1% tolerance metal film. It may be difficult to
obtain 1 ohm or 1/2 ohm resistors of 1% tolerance, and these resistors also need to be rated at 2 watts or more.
Those used in the prototype were actually parallel combinations of four 3R9 0.6watt 1% metal film. The exact
values of the two output resistors are not important, only their equality. The component values shown are
actually not theoretically correct for accurate nulling of distortion because the lower 1 ohm resistor is in parallel
with two 100 ohm resistors in series, and so more current is fed to the output via these resistors. A 200 ohm
resistor connected in parallel with the upper 1 ohm resistor would correct for this, but the error is less than the
tolerance of the components, so fairly unimportant. The inductor in the output circuit is to reduce the effect of
capacitive loads on loop stability. I used 17 turns, 8mm diameter and 15mm length.

The Burr-Brown OPA604 was chosen for its low specified distortion of 0.0003% at 1kHz, low open-loop output
impedance of 25R, maximum voltage rating of +/- 24V, and a 20MHz gain-bandwidth. In this circuit output
current is only taken in one direction, so the class-B output stage of the op-amp is of little importance.

Only one prototype has been built, and the stabilisation circuit in Fig. 6 has not been tried at all, so I can give no
assurance that even using the same type of components the same performance will be achieved. The only
problem I would expect to encounter with different components is the stability margin of the feedback loop.
Some experimentation with the value of the 1p8 compensation capacitor may be necessary. The power
transistors used were just whatever I had available at the time I built the prototype, so they are unlikely to be
the best possible choice. If other types are tried the voltage, current and power ratings do of course need to be
adequate. The output 'triples' involve a feedback loop round three transistors, and this is potentially unstable.
Without detailed analysis my guess is that stability is more certain if the first two transistors of the triple are
fairly fast (Ft 100 to 200MHz) and the power output device relatively slow, e.g. 5MHz or less, so that this gives a
dominant phase lag. The excellent results obtained with what was just a first attempt, put together in a hurry,
suggests that component types are not highly critical. As always, good layout is important, avoiding large
current loops, particularly in the output stage, using single point earthing, and so on.

There is one problem with this particular circuit, which is that the voltage drop across the 100 ohm feedback
resistors in the output triples will become significant at high power levels, and may become sufficient to cut off
the upper half during high negative output currents. This depends on transistor current gains, load impedance
etc, and could be reduced by reducing the feedback resistors. In the low power version presented here the
effect is not too serious, but for a high power version a different output stage becomes desirable. I have several
possible designs, and one of these has now been included on this site.

If the 'less than 20W' power rating is not enough it is possible to keep the existing design by building two
amplifiers and making one non-inverting so that they can be used as a bridge amplifier. A power rating well over
50 watts should be obtainable by this means. A simple switching arrangement could enable a 20 watt per
channel stereo amplifier to become a mono bridge amplifier with higher power, giving the option of starting with
one low power stereo amplifier and later adding another to upgrade to two higher power bridge amplifiers.

22 Watt Audio Amplifier

The 22 watt amp is easy to build, and very inexpensive. The circuit can be used as a booster in a car audio
system, an amp for satellite speakers in a surround sound or home theater system, or as an amp for computer
speakers. The circuit is quite compact and uses only about 60 watts. The circuit is not mine, it came from
Popular Electronics.

Schematic

Parts

Part Total Description

Quantity
R1 1 39K 1/4 Watt Resistor
C1,C2 2 10uf 25V Electrolytic Capacitor
C3 1 100uf 25V Electrolytic Capacitor
C4 1 47uf 25V Electrolytic Capacitor
C5 1 0.1uf 25V Ceramic Capacitor
C6 1 2200uf 25V Electrolytic Capacitor
U1 1 TDA1554 Two Channel Audio Amp Chip
MISC 1 Heatsink For U1, Binding Posts (For Output), RCA Jacks (For Input),
Wire, Board

Notes

1. The circuit works best with 4 ohm speakers, but 8 ohm units will do.

2. The circuit dissipates roughly 28 watts of heat, so a good heatsink is necessary. The chip should run cool
enough to touch with the proper heatsink installed.

3. The circuit operates at 12 Volts at about 5 Amps at full volume. Lower volumes use less current, and therefore
produce less heat.

4. Printed circuit board is preferred, but universal solder or perf board will do. Keep lead length short.

Which Classes are Best for Your Intended Purpose

Those persons serious about their audio go to great lengths to purify whatever sound comes forth from their
speakers. They obsess over seemingly small details like cables, location, and even the quality of the electricity
feeding their equipment. Some of these obsessions have good reason, some don't.

One area gaining in importance to may audiophiles and those aspiring to be, is the concept of amplifier
operational class, and what that means to the musical reproduction sought by the listener. There are four
common classes of amplifier in the high-fidelity reproduction of audio:

1. Class A
2. Class B
3. Class AB
4. Class D

You may have seen these designations on equipment and not known exactly what was meant by them. Well,
we're going to go a ways to demystify the meanings of these classes.

Some ground rules: we are going to be looking at these classes as they apply to solid-state amplifiers. While I
am a big proponent of vacuum tubes, (for our British readers, valves) we can skip most tube products for the
following reasons:

• Most tube amps are for home use (there are some mobile tube products but not many)
• Those suitable for audio reproduction operate strictly in Class A and some in Class AB at the least,
• Tube amps are rarely advertised with respect to the class of operation in which they perform

The transistor, on the other hand, is more prevalent and:

• Products containing them are more likely to be advertised as operating in one class or another,
confusing consumers and possibly leading to bad buying choices
• The transistor is considered by many to be one of the greatest inventions in modern history; it ranks
with the printing press and the telephone as one of man's great accomplishments
• Lastly, it is the key active component in practically all modern electronics, especially home and car
stereo.

Let's recap what transistors (and vacuum tubes) do when used as amplifiers in stereo equipment. Speech and
music can be represented by complex sinewaves. The object of an amplifier circuit is to increase the amplitude
(the peaks of the waveform) of a signal, that is they take a small signal's waveform, and make it bigger, while
maintaining the smaller signal's detail (this is called linearity).

How does a transistor do this? Well, technically, a transistor has three terminals. A current or voltage applied
through two terminals creates and controls a larger current or voltage produced through the third terminal. This
allows a small input from say, a line level source, to be amplified to power loudspeakers and create the sound
reaching your ears. Vacuum tubes are similar in that after the tube warms up, a signal is usually applied to the
"grid" of the tube and the resultant output of the same frequency is at a much higher amplitude.

The key question is "how well do these devices create these larger signals?"

Classes?? I Thought School Was Over

By classes of operation, we mean there are several broad types of amplifier that exist, each with a slightly
different operational profile, that impacts how it sounds to the ear of most listeners. Of course, some listeners
may disagree with how an amp is characterized sonically, but we are talking about general cases here.

Class A
This is the most linear of the classes, meaning the output signal is a truer representation of what was imputed.
Here are the characteristics of the class:

1. The output device (transistor) conducts electricity for the entire cycle of input signal. In other words,
they reproduce the entire waveform in its entirety.
2. These amps run hot, as the transistors in the power amp are on and running at full power all the time.
 3. There is no condition where the transistor(s) is/are turned off. That doesn't mean that the amplifier is
never or can never be turned off; it means the transistors doing the work inside the amplifier have a
constant flow of electricity through them. This constant signal is called "bias".
4. Class A is the most inefficient of all power amplifier designs, averaging only around 20.

Because of these factors, Class A amplifiers are very inefficient: for every watt of output power, they usually
waste at least 4-5 watts as heat. They are usually very large, heavy and because of the 4-5 watts of heat energy
released per watt of output, they run very hot, needing lots of ventilation (not at all ideal for a car, and rarely
acceptable in a home). All this is due to the amplifier constantly operating at full power. The upside is that these
amps are the most enjoyed of all amplifiers. These amps dig out musical detail, since the transistor reproduces
the entire audio waveform without ever cutting off. As a result the sound is cleaner and more linear; that is, it
contains much lower levels of distortion.

They are the most accurate of all amps available, but at significant cost to manufacture, because of tight
tolerances, and the additional components for cooling and heat regulation.

Class B
In this amp, the positive and negative halves of the signal are dealt with by different parts of the circuit. The
output devices continually switch on and off. Class B operation has the following characteristics:

1. The input signal has to be a lot larger in order to drive the transistor appropriately.
2. This is almost the opposite of Class A operation
3. There have to be at least two output devices with this type of amp. This output stage employs two
output devices so that each side amplifies each half of the waveform. [li Either both output devices are
never allowed to be on at the same time, or the bias (remember, that trickle of electricity?) for each
device is set so that current flow in one output device is zero when not presented with an input signal.
4. Each output device is on for exactly one half of a complete signal cycle.

These amps run cooler than Class A amps, but the sound quality is not as pure, as there is a lot of "crossover"
distortion, as one output device turns off and the other turns on over each signal cycle.

This type of amplifier design, or topology, gives us the term "push-pull," as this describes the tandem of output
devices that deliver the audio signal to your speakers: one device pushes the signal, the other pulls the signal.
They can be less expensive, because one can use two cheap output devices instead of one high-quality one in
the design.

As I mentioned before, the input signal has to be lot larger, meaning that from the amplifier input, it needs to be
"stepped up" in a gain stage, so that the signal will allow the output transistors to operate more efficiently within
their designed specifications. This means more circuitry in the path of your signal, degrading sound even before
it gets to the output stage.

Class AB
This is the compromise of the bunch. Class AB operation has some of the best advantages of both Class A and
Class B built-in. Its main benefits are sound quality comparable to that of Class A and efficiency similar to that of
Class B. Most modern amp designs employ this topology.

Its main characteristics are:

1. In fact, many Class AB amps operate in Class A at lower output levels, again giving the best of both
worlds
2. The output bias is set so that current flows in a specific output device for more than a half the signal
cycle but less than the entire cycle.
3. There is enough current flowing through each device to keep it operating so they respond instantly to
input voltage demands.
4. In the push-pull output stage, there is some overlap as each output device assists the other during the
short transition, or crossover period from the positive to the negative half of the signal.

There are many implementations of the Class AB design. A benefit is that the inherent non-linearity of Class B
designs is almost totally eliminated, while avoiding the heat-generating and wasteful inefficiencies of the Class A
design. And as stated before, at some output levels, Class AB amps operate in Class A. It is this combination of
good efficiency (around 50) with excellent linearity that makes class AB the most popular audio amplifier design.
There are quite a few excellent Class AB amps available. This is the design I recommended for most general-use
applications in home and car. Usually, parts choice rivals that of Class A amps, and dollar for dollar these are
some of the best values in stereo amplification. There can be some variation in design principle, but generally
these are well-designed amps since their function is very well-understood by audio designers.

Class D
These amplifiers are erroneously called "digital" amplifiers by the press and many audio "experts." Here's the
skinny on Class D:

1. While some Class D amps do run in true digital mode, using coherent binary data, most do not.
2. They are better termed "switching" amplifiers, because here the output devices are rapidly switched on
and off at least twice for each cycle.
3. Depending on their switching frequency, they may be "switched on" or "off" millions of times a second.
4. Class D operation is theoretically 100% efficient, but in practice, they are closer to 80-90% efficiency.
5. This efficiency gain is at the cost of high-fidelity.

Think of Class D amps as being similar to a switchable power supply, but with audio signals controlling, or
modulating, the switching action. To do this, you use a technology called Pulse Width Modulation (or PWM, a
technology found in many CD players).

According to experts, audio signals can be used to modulate a PWM system to create a high power audio
amplifier at fairly low voltages using very small components. Class D audio uses a fixed, high frequency signal
having pulses that vary in width based on input signal amplitude. So, for example, a deep bass note creates a
large pulse in the carrier signal. This can be translated into a musical signal by the on/off nature of the output
devices.

Class D amplifiers are generally used for non-high-fidelity, or subwoofer applications

There is a fifth (and, nominally, a sixth) class of amplifier, but they are rarely seen in practice in the consumer
market. One is the Class G and the other Class H. These are similar in design to Class AB topologies, but both
feature two power supplies that switch on or off, depending on the musical signal imputed. Using two power
supplies improves efficiency enough to allow significantly more power for a given size and weight. Class G is
becoming common for pro audio designs. Class H amps are designed to use the same topology as Class G, but it
provides just enough voltage for optimum operation of the output devices. Again, its an attempt to increase
efficiency, but at the expense of fidelity ultimately.

In summary:

• Class G and H amplifiers add complexity to the signal and degrade it because of the need for switching
depending on the input signal
• Class D amplifiers are models of efficiency, but with a loss of detail and fidelity
• Class B amplifiers generally introduce some crossover distortion, but move away from Class D, G, and
H's extreme non-linearity.
• Class AB amplifiers may introduce some crossover distortion, but they get closer to the ideal of Class A
for most of its operating regime.

They are indeed the best compromise of performance versus cost.

• Class A amplifiers introduce no crossover distortion and are the most desirable amps to own, but they
are expensive, run hot, and have to be very well-built.

Conclusion
The quest for high-fidelity, coupled with efficiency has driven amplifier design for decades. Electrical properties
of the available electronics and the never-bending laws of electrical behavior have created a multitude of
solutions for those trying to design high-powered, great-sounding, and efficient amps. Look for the best balance
of performance for the buck and let your ears be your guide and you'll choose the best products, regardless of
price and class.