6.

MATRIX DOMINATED PROPERTIES

The feeble resistance of the unidirectional composite to stresses transverse to the fibres is
due mainly to the relatively low strength of the matrix. This is especially so with polymer
matrices, where low moduli can also contribute to low properties. Furthermore, when the
fibre-matrix interface is weak, the interface can dominate the transverse properties. Other
properties are similarly sensitive to the matrix and the interface. In this chapter we
introduce the basic principles which underlie some of these properties. We do not include
fracture toughness here, although it is also very dependent on the matrix and interface; this
is discussed in Chapter 7. The interface itself is discussed in Chapter 8.
Our understanding of the processes governing these properties, and incidentally
fracture toughness and the interface, is incomplete at the time of writing. This is because
the shear failure processes in the matrices used for fibre composites are not fully
understood. This is particularly the case with polymers, and so the failure processes in the
polymers will be discussed first.
We also need to consider the real structure of the composite, taking into account the
fact that fibres are not normally perfectly straight or perfectly uniformly packed. These and
other structural anomalies are discussed in the second section, labelled Mesostructures. We
then go on to discuss particular properties, i.e. off-axis strength, shear strength
compressive strength and fatigue resistance. The relevant moduli are also discussed.
Because many more experimental results are available for reinforced polymers than
for reinforced metals and ceramics, this treatment concentrates on reinforced polymers.
Results for metals and for ceramics and cements will be found in Chapter 11.

6.1 Shear Failure Processes in the Matrix

The first sign of incipient failure in a ductile material is yielding. This appears to be
better understood than the termination of the process, when the sample breaks into two or
more pieces. Part of the reason for this is that fracture is more complex, there being at least
two modes, i.e ductile and brittle. Furthermore, simple compression is unlikely to lead to
breakage, except with a very brittle material. Under compression, yielding and shear flow
only, are normally observed; even glass can be permanently indented as a result of shearing
processes involved when a harder material, such as a diamond indentor, is pressed into the
surface.
174 Load Bearing Fibre Composites - Second Edition

6.1.1 Yielding
Simple tensile and shear stresses can cause yielding of metals and polymers.
However, the processes involved are quite different. Figs. 1.1 and 1.3 show tensile stress-
strain curves for two metals and two polymers. It was already noted (on p. 6) that the
elastic limit is at much higher strains for polymers than for metals. This has led to the use a
of different definition of yield point. For metals, the standard (North American) definition
of yielding is the 0.2% offset value. This is the stress at the point where the strain is 0.2%
higher than the elastic value. At higher strains (> 0.5% for the steel shown in Fig. 1.1),
permanent deformation occurs: see Fig. 1.2.

With polymers, permanent deformation does not occur until the deviation from
linearity is much greater than 0.2%. To clarify this issue we need to replot our stress-strain
curves so that non-uniform deformation and necking are taken into account. For this we
use the true stress, i.e. the load divided by the cross section in the necked region,
instead of the nominal stress, (load/initial cross section). When we plot versus
nominal strain (change in length/original length), a peak is not usually observed with
metals, as mentioned on p. 5, but a peak is often seen with polymers.
Fig. 6.1 shows a schematic true tensile stress-nominal strain curve for a typical
amorphous glassy polymer such as polycarbonate, with, below, the nominal stress. Two