Stationary flow of incompressible viscous fluid

Consider the flow of a viscous fluid enclosed between two parallel planes: the upper
plane is moving with a constant velocity relative to the other.

xz-is in the plane; the x-axis to be along the channel walls and the y-axis perpendicular
to the walls, with fluid layer of thickness L separates the plates.

y + δy Fviscous+ δF
U
δS
L
y
– Fviscous

1
 All the quantities depend only on y; the fluid velocity everywhere is in x-direction,
which follows from the symmetry of the problem.
For viscous fluid the boundary conditions on the plates
u x ( y = 0) = 0 u x ( y = L) = U
Assume that there is no pressure gradient in the flow and no a gravitational force.
Solution should be in the form u=(u,0,0), and for a steady flow thevelocity should be
independent of time with the x-component ux=ux(y).
The continuity equation is satisfied identically
∂u x ∂u y
∇⋅u = 0 ⇒ + =0 uy = 0 ∂u x / ∂x = 0
∂x ∂y
The Navier-Stokes equation for the incompressible fluid is

∂u ∂u x
1
+ ( u ⋅ ∇ ) u = − ∇P + ν∇ 2u ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ ) u x = η∇ 2 u x
∂t ρ ∂t

2
The left-hand side of the equation is zero since velocity is independent of time, and the
nonlinear term of substantive derivative is zero:
∂u x
(u ⋅ ∇ ) u x = u x =0
∂x
The Navier-Stokes equation is reduced to:

∂2u x u x = Ay + B
η∇ u x = η 2 = 0
2
∂y

The coefficients A and B are determined from the boundary conditions.

Substituting the obtained solution into the boundary conditions we obtain

u x ( y = 0) = A0 + B = 0 u x ( y = L) = AL + B = U A = U/L

u x = Uy / L

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 The Poiseuille flow
Consider a viscous flow between two parallel planes separated by a fluid layer of a
thickness 2R.
The x-axis directed along the channel walls and the y-axis perpendicular to the walls with
the origin y=0 in the centre of the channel.
All quantities depend only on y, and the fluid velocity is everywhere in the x-direction.
Solution is looked in the form u=(u,0,0) with the x-coordinate of the velocity u=u(y).
The continuity equation then satisfied identically
∂u x ∂u y
∇⋅u = 0 ⇒ + =0
∂x ∂y
The Navier-Stokes equation

∂P ∂2u x ∂P
0=− +η 2 0=−
∂x ∂y ∂y

4
The second of equations means that the pressure is independent of y-coordinates, i.e. it is
constant across the depth of the fluid between the planes, so that P=P(x).
The first term in the first equation depends only on x, while the second is a function of y
only. This is possible only if both terms are constant, which implies the constant pressure
gradient
P1 − P2 P1 − P2
dP / dx = ≡ Π = const P = P1 − x
L L
The equation for the flow velocity becomes
∂2u x Π 2
η = −Π ux = − y + Ay + B
∂y 2 2η

Substituting this solution into the boundary conditions at the walls: ux=0, at y=±R, we have

Π 2 Π 2
− R + AR + B = 0 − R − AR + B = 0
2η 2η

Π 2
From here: A=0, B= R
2η

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 Π P − P2 2
ux =
2η
( )
R 2 − y2 = 1
2Lη
(
R − y2 )
The velocity for the Poiseuille flow varies parabolically across the fluid, reaching its
maximum value in the middle of the channel axis, at y=0:

P1 − P2 2
u max = R
2ηL

y
R
P1 P2

–R

L
6
For the velocity averaged over the channel width we obtain
R 2 dP R 2 P1 − P2
u=− =−
3η dx 3η L
⎛ du ⎞ dP
The tangential friction force acting on one of the plane wall is σ xy = η ⎜ ⎟ = − R
⎝ dy ⎠ y = 0 dx
The flow velocity increases if:
1) pressure gradient increases;
2) the channel becomes wider
3) the fluid is less viscous (for smaller viscosity).
The mass flux through the channel per unit length in x-direction
R
ρΠ R 2 P1 − P2
J / L x = ∫ ρu x dy = ∫
2η − R
( R 2
− y 2
)dy =
3 ηL
ρ R 3

−R

The mass flux increases linearly with pressure gradient, while the dependence of the mass
flux on the channel width is much stronger

J ∝ R3
7
The obtained solutions give an exact stationary solution to the Navier-Stokes equation for
a stationary flow of viscous fluid in a channel.
The dimensionless parameter which charcterized the problem - the Reynolds number and
the ratio of the tube length to the characteristic tube width. For an infinitely long tube, the
Reynolds number remains the only dimensionless parameter of the flow.

ρu max R P1 − P2
Re = = ρR 3
η 2η2 L

Experiments show that for small and moderate values of the Reynolds number the flow in
a channel remains stationary and laminar.
As soon as the Reynolds number exceeds critical value the transition to a turbulent non-
stationary flow occurs. Experimentally measured critical Reynolds number is about 103.
The velocity distribution in a channel may be different from the Poiseuille formula even in
the case of a laminar flow if the channel length is finite.
Close to the ends of a channel the velocity distribution is determined by the boundary
conditions for the incoming flow

u x = const = J / 2ρRL x at x = 0

8
The fluid passes certain distance from the channel entry before the stationary velocity
profile will be settled. The length X needed to establish the Poiseuille flow is called the
entry length.

X
A general dependence for the entry length X/R=f(Re) follows form dimensional
considerations. Experiments show that the entry length increases linearly with the
pressure gradient. The entry length depends on the channel width and it is difficult to
observe the Poiseuille flow in wide tubes even if the flow is laminar.

X ∝ R4
9
 A stationary viscous flow in a cylindrical tube
Consider a viscous flow in a cylindrical tube of radius R and the length L (along the z-
axis) and pressure at the different ends of the tube is P1 and P2. The fluid velocity is along
the z-axis at all points, and is a function of x and y only. The equation of continuity is
satisfied identically, while the x and y components of the Navier-Stokes equation again
show the pressure is constant over the cross-section of the tube.

∂P / ∂x = ∂P / ∂y = 0

P1 P2

z
R

10
In cylindrical coordinates with the z-axis directed along the tube axis. The boundary
condition at the tube walls are: u=0.
Due to the symmetry of the flow, the velocity and pressure are stationary independent of the
angle coordinate. We look for the velocity in the form u=(0,0,u). The continuity equation is
satisfied identically
1 ∂ 1 ∂u θ ∂u z
∇⋅u = ( ru r ) + + =0
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
The Navier-Stokes equation
∂P 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂u z ⎞ ∂P
0=− +η ⎜r ⎟ 0=−
∂z r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ∂r

the pressure is constant over the cross-section of the tube and varies
P − P2 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂u z ⎞ = −Π
dP / dz = −Π = − 1 η ⎜r ⎟
L r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
Π 2
uz = − r + A ln r + B
4η

11
The second term is singular at r=0 which means that we must take A=0. The boundary
condition at the tube wall determines the other integration constant u z (r = R ) = 0

Π 2 Π
B=
4η
R uz =
4η
(
R 2 − r2 )
The velocity distribution is parabolic similar to the two-dimensional flow with the only
difference in the numerical coefficient. The maximal velocity is at the tube axis

P1 − P2 2
u max = R
4ηL
The mass of fluid passing per unit time through an annular element of the cross-sectional
area, and the total mass is

π P1 − P2
R
Q = 2π ∫ ρu z rdr = ρR 4
0
8 ηL

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The average velocity of the flow

J P1 − P2 2
u= = R
ρπR 2 8µL

The interesting feature of the Poiseuille flow in a cylindrical tube is very strong
dependence of the mass flux on the tube radius. For example, if we increase the
tube radius twice, then the mass flux increases 16 times.
Similar to the two-dimensional case the laminar Poiseuille flow in a cylindrical
tube holds only if the Reynolds number of the flow is small enough.

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 Dimensional analysis: The law of similarity
Consider a steady flow and suppose the fluid incompressible. The kinematic viscosity in the
Navier-Stokes equations is the only parameter, which characterizes the fluid. The unknown
functions, which have to be determined by solving the equations, are the velocity u and the
ratio of the pressure to the constant density. The flow depends, through the boundary
conditions, on the shape and dimensions of the body moving through the fluid and on its
velocity. Since the shape of the body is supposed given, its geometrical properties are
determined by one linear dimension, which we denote by L. Let the velocity of the main
stream is u. Any flow is specified by three parameters, ν, u, L having dimensions:

ν = [l]2 [t ]−1 = cm 2 sec −1 [u ] = [l][t ]−1 = cm ⋅ sec −1 [L] = [l] = cm

There is only one dimensionless quantity can be formed from these parameters -- the
Reynolds number:

uL ρuL
Re = =
ν η

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Let us introduce the scaled dimensionless variables
u′ = u / U 0 x′ = x / L0 t = tU 0 / L 0
′ P ′ = P / ρ U
0 0
2

The hydrodynamic equations in the new variables may be rewritten in the form,
which shows that Re is the only dimensionless parameter of the problem.

U0
∇′ ⋅ u′ = 0 ∇′ ⋅ u′ = 0
L0
U 02 ∂u′ U 02 U 02 µ U
( ) ( ) Re0 = ρ0 U 0 L0 / η0
2
+ u′ ⋅ ∇ ′ u′ = − ∇′P′ + 0 20 ∇′ u′
L0 ∂t ′ L0 L0 ρ0 L 0

∂u′ 1
+ ( u′ ⋅ ∇′ ) u′ = −∇′P′ + ( ∇ ′ ) 2 u′
∂t ′ Re0
Any dimensionless parameter can be written as a function of the Reynolds number.
Since the only dimensionless parameter is the Reynolds number the velocity
distribution obtained by solving the equations of incompressible flow is given by a
function having the form

u = U 0f (r / L; Re)

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For two different flows of the same type the velocities u/U0 are the same functions of the
ratio r/L if the Reynolds number is the same for each flow.
Flows, which can be obtained from one another by changing the unit of measurement of
coordinates and velocities, are similar. The law of similarity says that the flows of the
same type with the same Reynolds number are similar.
Let the flow is caused by the body of characteristic L1 with velocity U1 in a fluid with
density ρ1 and viscosity η1. The scaled variables become

u′′ = u / U1 x′′ = x / L1 t′′ = tU1 / L1 P′′ = P / ρ1U12

we obtain the same equations for the new variables with other value of the Reynolds
number Re1=ρ1U1L1/η1. Since the geometrical shapes of the original body are the same,
then the boundary conditions for the scaled equations of fluid dynamics are also the same,
and from the mathematical point of view two problems are completely identical, if
ρ0 U 0 L0 ρ1U1L1
Re0 = Re1 ⇒ =
η0 η1

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Suppose that we have found experimentally the following flow for the one model

u model = U(x,t )

Then the scaled flow of dimensional variables is described by the function

U(x / L1 ;tU1 / L1 )
1
u′ =
U1
for another model the flow will be given by the expression
U0 ⎛ L 0 U0L1 ⎞
u = U0 u′ = U⎜⎜ x; t ⎟⎟
U1 ⎝ L1 U1L 0 ⎠

If we know the drag force acting on the model F=Fmodel then the scaled force is given
by the expression F’=Fmodel/ ρ1U12L12 since the dimension of a force is equal to the
dimension of pressure multiplied by the dimension of a surface area. The real drag on
the body will be
ρ0 U 02 L20
F= Fmodel
ρ1U12 L21
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With account the gravity acceleration the scaled Navier-Stokes equation takes the form

∂u′ 1 1
+ ( u′ ⋅ ∇′ ) u′ = −∇′P′ + ( ∇′ )2 u′ + e′z
∂t ′ Re Fr
Here appeared a new nondimensional number Fr=U2/gL - the Froude number, which
shows the relative strength of the inertial force compared to the gravity force.
Two flows are mathematically identical only if both dimensionless numbers are equal: Re
and Fr, and the boundary conditions (the geometrical shapes of the objects) are the same.
Particularly, we cannot decrease the size of the experimental model in comparison with
the real object, unless we take another fluid to perform experiments with another density
and another viscosity coefficient.
Another dimensionless number is the Mach number, which is the ratio of velocity of a
flow to the sound speed. This number characterizes importance of compressibility of a
flow.
For shock waves it is always M>1. On the contrary, the condition of an incompressible
flow is M<<1.

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For the reference purpose the dimensions of different physical quantities expressed through
the basic values

[u ] = [ L ] [ t ]−1 [g ] = [du / dt ] = [ L] [ t ]−2 [σ] = [ Ω ] = [ t ]−1

[S] = [ L]2 [ V ] = [ L]3 [ρ] = [ m] [ L]−3 [ F] = [ mdu / dt ] = [ m] [ L] [ t ]−2

[ P ] = ⎡⎣ F / L2 ⎤⎦ = [ m ] [ L ]−1 [ t ]−2 [ mu ] = [ m ] [ L ] [ t ]−1

⎡⎣ mu 2 ⎤⎦ = [ m ] [ L ]2 [ t ]−2 [ρu ] = [ m] [ L]−2 [ t ]−1 ⎡⎣ρu 2 ⎤⎦ = [ m ] [ L ]−1 [ t ]−2

Dimension of other quantities can be found from hydrodynamic equations. For

example, consider Navier-Stokes equation and compare dimensions of different
terms in this equation:

[ρ∂u / ∂t ] = ⎡⎣µ∇ 2u ⎤⎦
[ ρ∂u / ∂t ]
[µ ] = = [m] [ L ]−1 [ t ]−1
⎡⎣∇ 2u ⎤⎦

19
The situation becomes especially interesting when there are no free dimensionless
parameters in a problem.
Consider the gravitational waves in deep water, kL>>1. In this case propagation of the
waves is independent of the depth L of the fluid, and the problem is characterized by three-
dimensional parameters, which are the fluid density, the gravitational acceleration and the
wave number of perturbations. It is impossible to form any dimensionless number from
these quantities characterizing the problem:
[ρ] = [ m] [ L]−3 [g ] = [ L ] [ t ]−2 [ k ] = [ L]−1
A combination of frequency dimension is only one

[ Ω ] = [ t ]−1 = [ g ] [ k ]
Then we may conclude that the dispersion relation. Ω = C gk

Exact solution to the problem gives C=1. If the water layer has a finite thickness , then
we can create one dimensionless number kL. In this case the general expression for the
dispersion relation becomes

Ω = gk f (kL)

20
Suppose that we have found experimentally, that the phase velocity is independent of the
wave-number for long wavelength perturbations kL<<1, then the dimensional analysis
gives

Ω / k = g / k f ( kL ) = C1 g / k ( kL )
1/ 2
Ω = C1k gL

Compare terms of the thermal conductivity transfer with mechanical energy transfer in
the equation of thermal conduction. Their ratio is dimensionless Pecle number

ρCP UL UL UL
Pe = = ∝ ∝ Re
κ χ ν

The Pecle number in gases is of the order of Reynolds number since the coefficient of
thermal conductivity and kinematic viscosity are very close for gaseous mixtures.

21
 Flow with small Reynolds numbers
Consider the Navier-Stokes equation for a small Reynolds numbers.
The Navier-Stokes equation for a steady flow of an incompressible fluid is
u 2 /L 1 η ηu / ρL2
( u ⋅ ∇ ) u = − ∇P + ( ∇ ) 2 u
ρ ρ
The first term is of the order of u2/L, and the viscosity term ηu/ρL2.
The ratio of these terms is the Reynolds number, therefore the term in the left-hand side
may be neglected if Re<<1 -- the Navier-Stokes equation for Re<<1 reduces to a linear
equation
∇P − η∆u = 0

This equation together with the equation of continuity, which in the case of
incompressible fluid is divu=0 determines the flow in the case of small Reynolds
numbers.
If we apply ∇× to this equation, we come to equations for velocity only

∆ (∇ × u) = 0

22
Classical example of application of these equations is uniform motion of a sphere in a
viscous fluid. Solution of this problem gives well-known Stocks formula for the drag
force on a sphere of radius R slowly moving in a fluid

F = 6πηRu

This expression can be obtained with accuracy of the numerical factor from dimensional
consideration, if we notice that density does not appear in the equation and therefore the
force must be expressed only in terms of η , u and R. The only combination with the
dimension of force, which can be formed from these quantities, is ηRu .

23