DESIGN OF TERRACE AND RETAINING WALL FOR WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCITON
Background
Bench terraces are effective soil conservation measures used on slope lands for crop
production, Many slope lands are brought into cultivation where land pressures are
high.Bench terraces were built without proper design, resulting in either high
construction and maintenance costs or limited use. The design is based on field
experience. It employs a step by step approach using basic. Based on this design, a
realistic estimate of construction cost and a land use plan can be easily produced.
Aim of the study

Bench terraces are one of the most effective measures to control erosion control and
crop production in steep terrain.
Terracing is an important practice to be adopted in dry land area. It aims at building slope
land with an angle less than 25 degrees into contour terrace. It is because slope land with
an angle of 10-25 degrees is susceptible to soil erosion due to large angle, steep slope,
frequent farming activities and high cultivation coefficient, particularly improper farming
practices. It has been found that farming activities on such slopes land have led to soil
erosion of 0.43 cm of soil layer and loss of 48 tons of surface soil per hectare per annum.
Changing such slope land into contour terrace plus other measures like small catchments
improvement and biological and agronomic practices would help improve production
conditions, prevent water and soil erosion and raises soil fertility, grain yield and
sustainable development.

Using farming practices like moisture retention mulched furrow, machine furrow drilling
and large furrow help to increase active soil layer, improve moisture retention capacity
and soil fertility, reduce soil evaporation and improve eco-system. Furrow drilling is
suitable for any slope land with annual rainfall over 400 mm or for terrace land. When it
is used for small-angle slope land and terrace land, machines or animals can be employed
to reduce labour intensity and speed up engineering progress.

Building water cisterns to collect rainfall as supplementary irrigation water for agriculture
is practicable in slope land and terrace land. In case of serious drought, such water could
be used for drip irrigation to increase soil moisture. Due to limited volume of water, such
technology is usually used together with other water-saving measures such as wet
sowing, plastic mulching, root-zone drip irrigation, hole irrigation with mulching so as to
enhance crop resistance to drought and enhance stable high yield. It is applicable to
places with annual rainfall less than 350 mm.

Data requirement

For terracing agricultural following data is required

i. Soil type data

ii. Daily, Monthly and annual Rainfall
iii. Wind
iv. Topography
v. orientation of selected area

Area under consideration

Kotli Area of AJK

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STATION- - MUZAFFARABAD
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RRR= MONTHLYTOTAL RAIN(MM)[-1=TRACE] [ -100 Means data not available ]
===============================================================================================
YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC AN.TOTAL
===============================================================================================
1955 32.0 8.9 223.8 109.7 99.8 5.8 251.5 716.3 151.4 18.3 4.1 58.9 1680.5
1956 91.7 83.6 232.2 114.8 14.2 123.4 446.8 436.4 38.6 49.0 3.6 99.3 1733.6
1957 216.4 102.1 174.0 210.3 121.9 78.5 94.0 152.7 27.7 176.5 132.1 109.0 1595.2
1958 86.6 43.9 178.8 53.6 37.3 35.1 186.7 376.4 169.9 36.6 25.1 245.6 1475.6
1959 110.7 250.7 121.7 121.2 108.2 28.7 414.8 405.6 255.0 30.0 117.6 53.8 2018.0
1960 85.1 18.3 186.9 72.6 51.6 52.1 345.4 366.3 38.6 16.3 15.5 68.6 1317.3
1961 171.2 84.8 68.1 175.5 63.8 77.5 431.8 162.1 323.6 61.0 105.4 37.8 1762.6
1962 25.1 89.2 117.1 102.9 51.8 49.0 270.8 208.5 50.5 8.1 21.3 99.3 1093.6
1963 0.0 106.2 181.4 137.9 119.6 34.0 227.1 430.3 93.7 12.4 112.8 49.3 1504.7
1964 239.8 71.1 90.9 128.5 69.3 66.8 495.3 215.6 244.3 0.3 4.6 91.2 1717.7
1965 74.7 244.9 131.8 306.1 103.1 55.9 231.1 161.0 26.2 28.2 15.2 27.7 1405.9
1966 1.0 197.9 177.8 160.3 109.0 109.2 282.7 286.3 71.4 253.0 0.0 71.1 1719.7
1967 34.3 190.8 196.3 156.7 74.2 18.5 225.3 215.6 167.6 51.6 10.7 178.3 1519.9
1968 119.4 104.4 95.5 69.3 85.6 97.8 374.1 259.1 0.0 77.7 68.3 103.6 1454.8
1969 48.3 185.9 147.6 77.5 92.7 18.3 219.5 314.7 40.9 179.6 18.5 0.0 1343.5
1970 88.6 106.2 113.3 28.7 32.3 87.1 192.5 379.0 264.9 69.1 0.0 22.4 1384.1
1971 20.3 182.4 6.3 94.5 81.0 380.2 260.4 204.5 39.1 3.0 20.3 37.8 1329.8
1972 115.6 83.3 158.0 110.2 41.1 91.4 172.5 203.5 58.9 81.0 62.5 92.5 1270.5
1973 139.4 115.1 124.0 69.3 49.5 91.7 231.4 369.8 79.2 56.4 4.6 43.2 1373.6
1974 116.2 124.2 61.7 30.2 64.2 102.3 320.5 238.5 63.8 3.8 0.0 72.3 1197.7
1975 53.6 122.7 111.3 82.5 54.1 69.0 198.5 314.9 313.7 0.0 29.2 16.5 1366.0
1976 252.5 293.4 481.6 95.3 42.2 156.7 366.7 261.8 54.3 55.9 0.0 17.3 2077.7
1977 199.1 25.5 34.4 117.6 142.3 219.2 721.0 231.8 103.0 85.4 17.6 69.9 1966.8
1978 132.3 98.3 172.3 84.6 51.6 265.9 465.6 272.2 116.6 8.4 82.4 2.5 1752.7
1979 85.1 97.2 157.4 132.3 109.9 53.2 318.8 122.7 154.9 9.5 62.8 34.2 1338.0
1980 98.4 179.8 183.2 28.6 53.4 145.7 176.0 198.3 64.2 42.4 24.9 23.5 1218.4
1981 80.9 122.0 216.4 181.3 118.8 19.4 576.8 212.1 103.0 30.6 3.5 0.1 1664.9
1982 145.2 155.5 154.6 87.9 95.2 64.7 260.0 248.3 24.9 43.0 69.5 109.8 1458.6
1983 106.9 51.9 266.6 198.7 72.5 91.5 197.7 208.9 52.1 27.5 13.0 24.9 1312.2
1984 10.2 135.8 125.1 181.8 25.0 180.5 142.2 253.1 148.4 2.0 61.9 65.2 1331.2
1985 109.1 26.3 74.4 65.1 59.2 89.9 361.3 222.4 83.3 49.1 25.7 210.5 1376.3
1986 25.4 199.7 251.5 3.6 89.7 104.1 222.1 371.9 114.0 87.4 176.1 198.9 1844.4
1987 13.5 231.0 217.0 204.5 241.5 86.3 362.1 212.3 90.8 -100.0 0.0 -100.0 1659.0
1988 -100.0 -100.0 -100.0 40.0 19.2 122.5 702.5 178.0 98.8 19.9 4.1 120.8 1305.8
1989 67.2 90.1 190.7 97.9 142.6 89.1 640.8 168.4 48.7 66.2 24.4 80.6 1706.7
1990 145.2 189.4 231.0 85.0 19.1 61.8 181.2 351.6 146.6 67.8 23.8 327.7 1830.2
1991 80.9 226.1 223.5 187.8 96.3 97.2 259.4 161.3 218.1 5.4 1.1 41.8 1598.9
1992 273.8 99.0 236.0 99.3 85.9 29.5 230.5 207.5 335.2 37.9 97.8 82.9 1815.3
1993 149.9 268.9 534.7 47.6 74.8 80.5 369.2 59.8 127.7 3.1 52.6 1.8 1770.6
1994 105.0 149.2 124.8 164.8 61.1 168.0 555.8 160.9 18.3 78.7 1.5 215.9 1804.0
1995 20.3 123.6 162.4 144.3 53.5 40.7 518.6 183.5 23.8 41.0 66.0 68.1 1445.8
1996 106.1 125.6 264.6 110.8 93.2 174.0 348.8 162.4 36.9 94.0 -1.0 29.5 1545.9
This study concentrates on the design of two major types of bench terraces:
1. Level Bench Terraces for dry land environment and
2. Reverse Sloped Terraces for humid regions.
Components of Bench Terrace
The bench terrace essentially consists of the four components namely, (i) riser, (ii
outlet channel, (iii) platform and (iv) shoulder bund. Figure below shows the
components of a bench terrace. The riser is a vertical wall at the upstream end of the
strip of land converted to bench terrace. The outlet channel can be located either at
the upstream or at the downstream end depending upon the rainfall and soil
conditions. Platform is the level or nearly level strip obtained by terracing and crop
is grown in this zone. Shoulder bund helps to retain the rainfall in the terraced
area.

Components of a Bench Terrace. (Source: Mal, 1995)

Types of Bench Terraces

Depending upon slopes, bench terraces are classified as (i) level bench terrace, (ii)
outward sloping bench terrace and (iii) inward sloping bench terrace.
Level Bench Terrace: Level bench terrace is suitable for a very mi1d slope such as
1% to facilitate paddy cultivation. The level type is suitable in area with medium
rainfall and permeable soils.
Outward Sloping Bench Terrace: Suitable for low rainfall or shallow soil depth
areas. The steep slope is converted to a mild slope to reduce soil erosion, conserve
soil moisture and grow crops other than transplanted paddy.
Inward Sloping Bench Terrace: it is suitable for high rainfall areas with steep
slopes. A drain on the inner side is provided with a suitable grade along the length
to convey the excess water to one side. Vegetated waterway is used to dispose of the
water from such drains.

Design basics
1. Use simple arithmetic and a step-by-step approach to design.
2. The volumes of cut and fill are to be equal for minimizing construction cost.
3. Terraces according to the needs of farmers, crops, climate, and tools to be
used for farming.

METHADOLOGY
i. Keeping in view the rainfall conditions and soil texture, structure select
the type of terracing.
ii. Design the cross section of terracing by using following relationships
(i) Ramson,s method for determining spacing
V,I = ,3 (S/3+2)
Cox,s Method
V.I= (SX+Y) .3
Recommended methods for terracing
Outward Benching
Bench terraces are a series of level or virtually level strips running across the slope at vertical
intervals, supported by steep banks or risers. It is an engineering soil conservation practice. It is
also called bench terracing.

Suitability of this type of terraces is mainly for following conditions:

i. Humid tropical regions.
ii. Semi-arid regions – the out- ward-sloped benches are being good.
In humid tropical regions the reverse-sloped benches are preferred, while in semi-
arid regions the outward-sloped benches are found suitable.
The location and conditions for their use are mentioned as under:
i. On the slopes less than 36% (20 degrees).
ii. For mixed farming systems.
iii. For the farmers who have not finalized their long-term plan for using the land
Objectives:
Various objectives of this type of terraces are outlined as under:
i. To make compatibility of hilly topography with the mixed farming systems.
ii. To create scope for future land development, and flexibility in future land use.
iii. To protect sloping lands from soil erosion.
Design Specifications:
Its various design specifications are described as below:
i. Length and Width:
The length and width of convertible terrace can be up to 100 m and 3.5 m,
respectively.
ii. Gradients:
The requisite gradients are as below:
a. Horizontal grade 0.5 to 1% in humid regions, and level to 0.5% in arid and semi-
arid regions.
b. Reverse grade 5%.
c. Outward grade 3%.
iii. Riser Slope:
In case of manually constructed terraces the riser slope may be 0.75:1; and 1:1 in
machine constructed terraces.
iv. Vertical Interval:
It is normally same to the hillside ditches.
Layout:
It is done under following steps:
i. Use the same spacing and principle for staking as in case of hillside ditches.
ii. Set a base line; and start the staking by considering the space required for the
fruit/food trees. On gentle slope, the inclined distance or horizontal distance (centre-
to-centre) should be taken into consideration for staking.
iii. Determine the width of benches from the specification table of bench terraces.
Normally, 3.5 m wide benches on different slopes are used.
iv. If layout is started from the centre stakes of the terraces, then add top and bottom
stakes, which is the terrace width obtained from the specification table.
v. The trees, either planted in one or two rows, should not create the shade over the
terraces, where food crops are grown.
vi. If trees are of tall variety or the site is in narrow form then only one row of trees
should be staked. And where wider spacing and small trees are there, then two or
more rows can be staked.
Construction:
Its construction procedure is the same to the bench terraces. Since, the width of
terraces is 3.5m, therefore, they can be constructed either by hand or by a medium-
size machine. For draining the excess rainwater, an individual basin should also be
provided between plant spaces.
Retaining Wall Structures for terracing
Walls are commonly used to retain soil on sloping sites, water in a pond or bulk
products within a storage area. There are several limiting conditions which, if
exceeded, can lead to the failure of a retaining wall. Each must be addressed in
designing a wall.
1 Overturning - This occurs when the turning moment due to lateral forces exceeds
that due to the self-weight of the wall. The factor of safety against overturning should
be at least two.
2 Sliding - The wall will slide if the lateral thrust exceeds the frictional resistance
developed between the base of the wall and the soil. The factor of safety against
sliding should be about two.
3 Bearing on Ground - The normal pressure between the base of the wall and the
soil beneath can cause a bearing failure of the soil, if the ultimate bearing capacity
is exceeded. Usually the allowable bearing pressure will be one-third of the ultimate
value. Note that the pressure distribution across the base is not constant.
4 Bearing pressure
Rotational Slip - The wall and a large amount of the retained material rotate about
some point O. if the shear resistance developed along a circular arc is exceeded. The
analysis is too complex to include here.
5 Rotation
Wall Material Failure - The structure itself must be capable of withstanding the
internal stresses set up, that is, the stresses must not exceed allowable values. Factors
of safety used here depend on the material and the level of the designer's knowledge
in respect to the loads actually applied. Naturally, both shear and bending must be
considered, but the most critical condition is likely to be tension failure of the 'front'
facet
6 Joint failure in block work
Gravity walls and dams are dependent on the effect of gravity, largely from self-
weight of the wall itself, for stability. Other types of walls rely on a rigid base,
combined with a wall designed against bending to provide an adequate structure.