BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL Name:

6.0 Biology Teacher: Period:

Labs Page Number

1) Scientific Method Penny Activity 3
2) Scientific Method and Collecting Data 4
3) Properties of Water 6
4) pH and Buffers 9
5) Catalase Enzyme 12
6) Polymerization and Slime 14
7) Testing Carbohydrates 16
8) Testing Macromolecules 18
9) Microscope Lab 19
10) Osmosis and Diffusion 23
11) Surface Area to Volume 25
12) Cell Membrane Bubble Lab 27
13) Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration 29
14) Yeast Fermentation 30
15) DNA Isolation 32
16) Human Traits 36
17) Blood Typing 39
18) Recombinant DNA 42
19) Gel Electrophoresis 44
20) Bird Beak 47
 Lab Reporting and Assessment
Laboratory Notebook:

 You are required have a marble composition book (any color) for lab work with your name and period
number labeled on the front cover.

 Designate the first two pages of the book (front and back of 1 page is fine) as a table of contents.
Complete the table of contents as you do the labs throughout the year. Number the pages of your
notebook in the top, right corner beginning with the table of contents page (page 1). Number the odd
numbered pages only (even numbered pages will be the back of each page). You may write on one or
both sides of the pages at your discretion. Be sure to include the page number that each lab starts in
your table of contents.

 All information entered into lab notebooks must be neat and logically organized.

 It is highly recommended that lab notebooks be completed in pencil.

Pre-Lab Requirement: Before coming to class on the day of a lab, you must read the entire experiment and
complete the following in your lab notebook:

 Title of Lab (Be sure to include in the table of contents as well)

 Date that the lab was performed

 Pre-Lab Score: __________ Post-Lab Score:___________

The score will be filled in by the teacher, but please have the labels and lines prepared.

 Objective(s): State the purpose(s) of the experiment.

 Procedure: Write, in a paragraph, a brief synopsis of the procedure conducted. Please note that this is
a summary of the procedure. Do not simply copy the procedure. The intention is to provide a big
picture understanding of the experiment. Do not include specific details.

 Data and Results: Data are measurements and observations recorded during an experiment and results
are calculations performed with these data. Prepare tables, in advance, for the recording of the
necessary data to be collected during the experiment and the results to be calculated. The data and
results sections may be combined into one table or separated at your discretion. Data and/or
observations are to be recorded throughout the experiment in these tables prepared in advance.

 Error Discussion Table: A table must be set up to discuss possible errors in the lab. The table should
have 3 columns with the following headings: Procedure Step, Possible Error, and Effect on Objective
(you should restate the objective here). The table must be completed before completing the lab. This
may be a part of the post-lab discussion.

Point of emphasis: The number one cause of laboratory accidents, mistakes, and misunderstandings of
experiments is not being prepared in advance. Therefore, the pre-lab requirement explained above is
mandatory. Students who do not have their lab notebooks on the day of the lab or have not completed these
requirements will not be permitted to do the experiment at that time and will not receive credit for the pre-lab
1
requirements. The lab will have to be made up at another time. The pre-lab requirements will still be in effect,
but points will not be awarded. This is a lab safety issue, so exceptions to this policy will not be made. Students
making up lab work after school due to absences will still be able to earn the credit for the pre-lab requirements.

Post-Lab Requirement: There will usually be some time at the conclusion of an experiment to begin the
following:

 Graph: (If applicable) Graphs must be done on graph paper and attention must be paid to neatness and
precision. Be sure to include a title and properly label the axes. Cut the graph paper down to size or
fold and attach it to the appropriate page in your lab notebook.

 Sample Calculations: Show the work for one of each calculation type. Solutions to calculations must
be included in the results section. This section is simply for showing work. There should not be any
important information in this section that does not appear in another section.

 Questions: Please use complete sentences when answering questions and properly number your
questions. Work must be shown for calculation based questions.

 Conclusion: State whether or not the objectives of the experiment were met. Support your conclusions
with details from the experiment. For example, if the objective of an experiment is to determine the
molar mass of an unknown, the determined molar mass must be stated in the conclusion. Also, it is
appropriate to mention sources of error in the conclusion except when there is a specific question
regarding error.

Lab Assessment

 Periodically, a lab test or quiz will be given which will assess all of the labs performed. Students will
sometimes be permitted to use their laboratory notebooks for these tests, but may not use the lab
handouts. Forgetting to bring your lab notebook on the day of the assessment does not excuse you
from taking the test.
 Lab notebooks will be checked at the beginning of each lab. At this time, notebooks will be checked for
completion and thoroughness of the pre-lab requirement of the current lab. The post-lab requirement due
date will vary for each lab.

2
Scientific Method Penny Activity Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Introduction: Surface tension refers to water's ability to "stick to itself". Surface tension can be measured and
observed by dropping water (drop by drop) onto a penny. The number of water drops that can fit on a penny
will surprise you.

The surface tension of water can be affected by substances that are added to water. In this lab, you will be
adding dish soap to water to determine its effect on the surface tension. You will be testing how many drops of
pure water can fit onto a penny and how many drops of soapy water can fit onto a penny.

All of the following should be put in your lab notebook:

1. Describe the objective of the lab.

2. Develop a hypothesis that answers how soap can affect the surface tension of water.
3. Develop a procedure for the lab.
4. Develop a data table to collect your data.

Procedure Overview:
1. Clean and rinse beakers and droppers well before starting the lab.

2. Initial observation: Observe surface tension by counting how many drops of water can fit on a penny. Don’t
count the one drop that made the water spill off the penny. Record your observations and the number of
drops of water on the penny.

3. Test your hypothesis by comparing the number of drops of tap water that can fit on a penny to the number
of drops of soapy water that can fit on a penny.

4. Because water drops may vary depending on how well you drop the water, it is best to run many trials and
take an average. Run at least three trials.

Post- Lab Analysis:

1. Why were many trials taken and averaged?

2. In this experiment, what was your control group?

3. Identify the independent variable in the experiment.

4. Identify the dependent variable in the experiment.

5. Identify constants in the lab.

6. The question in this lab was "How does soap affect the surface tension of water?" How would you answer
this question after completing this activity?

7. Error Analysis: What are three possible errors that could have occurred in the lab and HOW do they affect
the objective of the lab.

3
Scientific Method and Collecting Data Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

The Effects of Exercise on Cellular Respiration

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Chemical indicators change colors as the pH of the solution changes. Bromothymol blue is a chemical indicator
that is yellow in acidic solutions and blue in basic and neutral solutions. When carbon dioxide (CO2) is
dissolved in water, it creates carbonic acid (H2CO3), which has a pH ~5.7. This reaction occurs in rainwater
absorbs carbon dioxide.

Cellular respiration (see chemical reaction below) is a chemical reaction that occurs in your cells to create
energy (ATP). When you are exercising your muscle cells are creating ATP to contract. Cellular respiration
requires oxygen (which is breathed in) and creates carbon dioxide (which is breathed out).

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6H2O + 6CO2 + 36 ATP

One of the products of cellular respiration is carbon dioxide. As cells produce CO2 in cellular respiration, it is
carried by our blood cells to our lungs where it is exhaled. You can measure the rate your cells carry out
cellular respiration by measuring how quickly you produce CO2. You will first determine your resting rate of
cellular respiration, and then you will determine your rate after exercise.

PRELAB:
1. Describe the purpose of the lab?
2. Develop a hypothesis – how will exercise affect the rate of cellular respiration.
3. Write an abbreviated procedure.
4. Create data tables to record the information in the procedure.

MATERIALS:
 Stopwatch  Bromothymol blue solution  Graduated cylinder
 Drinking straw  2 – 250 mL beakers  Safety goggles

PROCEDURE:

Part A: Resting (no exercise)

Measuring Carbon Dioxide Production:
1. Fill the beaker with 40 mL distilled water and 10 mL bromothymol blue solution.
2. Assign one person to be the timer and one person to perform the experiment.
3. When the timer says “start”, the experimenter will exhale through the straw into the bromothymol blue
solution until the color changes from blue to yellow. DO NOT INHALE THE SOLUTION! EXHALE
FROM YOUR LUNGS!
4. Your partner will stop the time as soon as the color changes.
5. Record the time it took for the color change to occur.
Measuring Breathing Rate:
1. Count the number of breaths (1 breath = inhale + exhale) you take in 1 minute.
2. Record this in your data table
Measuring Heart Rate:
1. While you calculate your breathing rate, have your partner take your pulse.
2. Count the number of beats in 30 seconds and multiply that number by 2.
3. Record this in your data table
4
PART B: Increased Muscle Activity (Exercise)
1. Rinse out the beaker, and refill with 40 mL of distilled water and 10 mL of bromothymol blue solution.
Now have the experimenter do exercise (jumping jacks, running in place - note which in your lab
journal) for 1 minute. You should feel winded when you are finished! Note: catching your breath
before you start to exhale defeats the purpose.
2. Using the same straw, exhale into the solution the same way as in step #3 Part A.
3. Record how long it takes for the solution to change color.
4. Quickly calculate your breathing and heart rates as you did before. Record this in your data table.

5. If time permits, repeat steps 1-4 in Part B, but for 2 continuous minutes.

6. Clean up - throw out straws, clean beakers with soap and water, wipe down lab tables, wash your hands.
No straws or paper towels should be left in the sink. Make sure clean beakers get placed back into the
lab drawers.

ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION

Answer the questions below using background information in the lab, as well as your lab data. Answer the
questions in complete sentences in your lab notebook.

1. Make a graph of your results. Determine if the graph should be a line graph or a bar graph. Carefully
decide which variable belong on the X-axis and Y-axis. Be consistent with numbering the axes and the
number of blocks between the increments. Remember to label the axes and provide a title for your
graph.
2. Using your GRAPH, predict the time of color change if the experimenter did exercise for 2 minutes.
3. Explain WHY the color change occurred in the bromothymol solution.
4. Compare the time it took the bromothymol blue solution to change color before exercise and after
exercise. Explain WHY there was a difference including the data.
5. What can you conclude about the effect of exercise on the amount of carbon dioxide that is present in
your exhaled breath? Why is this so?
6. What can you conclude about the effect of exercise on breathing rate and heart rate? Why is this so?
7. Explain why it is so important to exhale completely when doing exercise?
8. State whether your hypothesis was correct or incorrect and why. In doing so, discuss what you think is
going on in the muscles of the body as muscle activity is increased. Address the need to get oxygen to
the muscles and get rid of carbon dioxide, as well as how the muscles cells get the energy needed to
continue contracting.

5
Properties of Water Lab Name: ______________________________
6.0 Biology Date: __________________ Period: ______

Prelab:

1) Write an objective for the entire lab (not for each activity).
2) Write a procedure summary for activity #1-5.
3) Create data tables for each activity. You can combine activity #1-4 in one table and activity #5 and #6
should be separate tables. Activities 1-4 are qualitative observations; activities 5-6 are quantitative.
a. Data Tables should not follow each procedure step.
b. Procedure and Data Tables should be separate.

Activity #1 - THE FLOATING PAPER CLIP

Property of water: Surface Tension
Materials: paper clip, forceps, Petri dish, and dish soap
1. Fill a Petri dish nearly to the top with water.
2. Holding a paper clip between your fingers above the Petri dish, drop it into the dish. What happened to the
paper clip?
3. Fish out the paper clip from the Petri dish. Using forceps, get a paper clip to rest on the surface of the water
in such a way that it will not sink. If you do not succeed at first that is OK. Keep trying!
4. While the paper clip is floating in your Petri dish, using your eye dropper add a drop of mild detergent to the
paper clip in the Petri dish. What happened to the paper clip?
5. Clean the Petri dish and eye dropper so that there is no detergent remaining.

Activity #2 - WAX PAPER AND GLASS SLIDE

Properties of water: Adhesion and Cohesion
Materials: Dropper, 1 piece of wax paper, 1 glass plate, stir rod, a beaker
1. Fill your beaker halfway with water.
2. Using your dropper, each person should add several drops of water (2 separate areas) onto the surface of the
wax paper. Record your initial observation.
3. Take your stir rod and try to push the water droplets together and record your 2nd observation.
4. Repeat steps 3-5 on the glass plate instead of wax paper. Record observations.
5. Clean up by throwing the wax paper in the trash.

Activity #3 - WATER IN A TUBE

Properties of water: Capillary action, Adhesion, and Cohesion
Materials: Petri dish, capillary tube, a beaker, food coloring
1. Fill beaker halfway with water and add 4 drops of food coloring.
2. Fill the bottom of your Petri dish with the water from your beaker.
3. Place the capillary tube (thin glass tube) in the colored water and observe the water level in the tube.
Describe what happened in the capillary tube while in Petri dish.
4. Remove the glass tube from the Petri dish. Describe what happened in capillary tube after tube it was
removed from colored water.
5. Clean up based on teacher’s instructions.

6
Activity #4 - THE MAGNETS
Property of water: Polarity and Hydrogen Bonding
Materials: magnets
1. Move the magnets around each other.
2. Notice the orientation they are in when they are attracted to each other.
3. Notice what happens when you put two magnets with the same ends together.

Activity #5 – PHASE CHANGE OF WATER

Property of water: Hydrogen Bonding
Materials: 150-mL beaker, ice, thermometer, hot plate, timer, ring stand, thermometer clamp
1. Safety goggles and lab apron are required.
2. Fill a 150 ml beaker with 2 ice cubes and 25 mL of water.
3. Insert a thermometer into the beaker. Wait 1-2 minutes. Be sure to hold the thermometer so that it does not
touch the sides or the bottom of the beaker when taking the temperature.
4. When the thermometer reaches its lowest reading, record the temperature at time 0. Read and record the
temperature every minute.
5. Place the beaker on the heat source. Attach the thermometer to a thermometer clamp attached to a ring
stand. Position the thermometer in the clamp so that the bulb of the thermometer does not touch the bottom
or sides of the beaker. Stir the solution gently throughout the experiment using a glass stir rod.
6. Turn on your heat source to 6-7.
Do not put the beaker on the heat source yet. Do not touch the hot plate. Use beaker tongs or hot
pads to handle hot glassware and/or metal.
7. Once all of the ice has melted, turn the hot plate to HIGH.
8. Continue to collect temperature measurements every minute until the water has been boiling for at least 3
minutes after the water reaches a full, rolling boil.
9. Remember to continue stirring throughout the experiment.
10. Record the time in your data table when the…
o ice is entirely melted
o water begins to boil

Activity #6: COMPARING WATER TO ALCOHOL. – Teacher Demo

Property of water: High Heat Capacity (Specific Heat) and Heat of Vaporization

Temperature
Temperature Temperature
Boiling point Time to Boil (C) after
(C) (C)
(C) (minutes) cooling
before hot plate after 1 minute
2 minutes
WATER

ALCOHOL

7
 Properties of Water Lab Questions

Activity #1 - THE FLOATING PAPER CLIP

1. What property of water allows a paper clip to rest on its surface?
2. Explain why the paper clip dipped in detergent sank to the bottom of the Petri dish?

Activity #2 - WAX PAPER AND GLASS SLIDE

3. Why is water considered a polar molecule?
4. Based on your observations, wax paper is (circle one) polar / nonpolar.
5. Why did the water take on a dome shape, and not a flat one when on the wax paper?

Activity #3 - WATER IN A TUBE

6. In a plant, cohesion and adhesion help the plant by allowing water to travel upwards (away from the roots)
to deliver water to all parts of the plant. What evidence of adhesion and cohesion did you see with the
capillary tube?
7. What property of water allows the water to remain in the tube even after it was removed from the Petri dish?

Activity #4 - THE MAGNETS

8. Draw a water molecule. Include the partial charges of each atom.
9. What happens when you put two magnets with the same ends together?
10. Notice the orientation that the magnets are in when they are attracted to each other. How is this related to
the water molecules?

Activity #5 – PHASE CHANGE OF WATER

11. Graph your data. Remember to determine the independent and the dependent variable. Be sure to use at
least 75% of the graph paper.
12. According to your graph, did the temperature of the water/ice mixture increase while the ice was melting?
13. According to your graph, what happened to the temperature of the water between the time the ice melted
and the water boiled?
14. According to your graph, what change occurred in temperature after the water began to boil?
15. Before the temperature began its steady rise, for what was the added heat energy being used?
16. During the time of steadily increasing temperature, what change in energy occurred because of the added
heat?
17. During the last three minutes, what changes occurred because of the added heat?
18. Which phase change requires the most added heat energy and why?

Activity #6 - COMPARING WATER TO ALCOHOL

19. Which liquid changed temperatures the fastest?
20. Which liquid took longest to boil?
21. Explain what is meant by saying that water has a high heat capacity.

8
pH and Buffers Lab Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Prelab:

1) Read the instructions carefully and develop the OBJECTIVE of this experiment.
2) Describe or define the following:
a. Chemical and physical properties of an acid.
b. Chemical and physical properties of a base.
c. Buffer
3) Hypothesize: What will happen to the pH of a solution if the following happens…
a. Mix HCl with water? c. Mix HCl with a buffer?
b. Mix NaOH with water? d. Mix NaOH with a buffer?
4) Write a summary procedure for Part 1 and Part 2 of the lab.
5) Create data tables for Part 1 and Part 2 of the lab.

Part 1 - Introduction to pH
Indicators are special chemicals that can show whether a given substance is an acid, a base, or neither.
Indicators usually react with an acid or base to form a slightly different chemical with a different color. One
type of pH paper turns a different color at each of several pH values ranging from 1 to 11. In this investigation,
you will test a number of substances using litmus and pH paper.
Materials:
Well plates 6 Different Substances Forceps
Red Litmus Paper Blue Litmus Paper pH paper

Procedure:
1. Record the name of the substances in the data table. There will be six substances.
2. Put 3 drops of the substance in a well of the well plate.
Use the forceps when dipping the pH paper and the litmus paper in the substances.
3. Dip the Red and the Blue litmus paper in the substance and record the color change.
4. Use pH paper to determine the pH of each substance. Based on the color change you observe in the pH
paper, record the approximate pH of the substance.
5. Repeat steps 1-4 with the other substances.

Part 2 - Introduction to BUFFERS

Individual organisms must maintain a relatively stable internal environment. Both organisms and cells respond
to many environmental factors that otherwise would change their internal environment. One factor is the
relative concentration of hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions. Biochemical activities of living tissues
frequently affect the pH, yet life depends on maintaining the pH range that is normal for each tissue or system.

Testing pH of Water, Buffers and Biological Materials

How do organisms maintain the pH of their tissues within a normal range despite activities that tend to change the pH?
You can begin to answer that question by comparing the response of a nonbiological material and a biological material to
the addition of an acid and a base. The nonbiological material is tap water, and the biological material is one of several
substance derived from organisms – liver, potato, egg white and gelatin. Frequently in biological investigations, it is
difficult to study living tissue. Investigators have found that they can learn as much, and sometimes more, by
substituting a model for the real thing. A buffer solution (nonliving chemical solution) will be used as a model
to obtain data.
9
MATERIALS:
50 mL beaker 50 mL graduated cylinder Egg white solution Tap water
0.1 M HCl pH paper Potato homogenate
0.1 M NaOH pH 7 Buffer Gelatin

CAUTION: 0.1 M HCl (hydrochloric acid) and 0.1 M NaOH (sodium hydroxide) are irritants. Avoid
skin/eye contact; do NOT ingest. Notify teacher immediately. Flush spills and splash with water for 15
minutes; rinse mouth with water.

PROCEDURE:
TAP WATER
1. Pour 20 mL of tap water into a clean 50 mL beaker. Record the initial pH of the water. Place all used
pH paper on a paper towel that can be thrown away at the end of lab.
2. Add 0.1 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) one drop at a time, swirling to mix after each drop. Record the new
pH with a new strip of pH paper.
3. Continue to add in 3 drop increments and record the pH each time until 18 drops of HCl have been
added. Swirl to mix and be sure to use new pH paper each time.
4. Empty contents into sink. Clean and rinse the beaker thoroughly.
5. Pour 20 mL of tap water into the clean beaker. Record the initial pH of the water. Add 0.1M sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) drop by drop, swirling to mix after each drop. Record the new pH with a new strip of
pH paper.
6. Continue to add in 3 drop increments and record the pH each time until 18 drops of NaOH have been
added. Swirl to mix and be sure to use new pH paper each time.
7. Clean and rinse the beaker thoroughly.

BUFFER
8. Pour 20 mL buffer solution into the beaker. Record the initial pH of the buffer. Add HCl in 3 drop
increments. Record the pH after each addition of 3 drops. Once you reach 18 drops, you may discard
the solution.
9. Clean and rinse the beaker thoroughly.
10. Pour 20 mL of fresh buffer solution into the beaker. Record the initial pH of the buffer. Add NaOH in
3 drop increments. Record the pH after each addition of 3 drops. Once you reach 18 drops, you may
discard the solution.

BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL
11. Obtain 20 mL the biological material assigned to your group by your teacher. Take the initial pH of the
solution. Record the change in pH as you add 3 drop increments of HCl. Once you reach 18 drops,
discard the biological material (any liquid can go into the sink, but solid material should be thrown
away).
12. Clean and rinse beaker.
13. Obtain 20 mL of the same biological material. Take the initial pH of the solution. Record the change
in pH as you add 3 drop increments of NaOH. Once you reach 18 drops, discard the biological material
(any liquid can go into the sink, but solid material should be thrown away).
14. Clean all lab equipment and return materials to original location. Clean lab tables and wash your hands
thoroughly before leaving the lab.

10
ANALYSIS

Part 1 - Introduction to pH

1. Which substance had the highest concentration of H+ ions? Give evidence to support your answer.
2. Which substance is probably the strongest base? Give evidence to support your answer.
3. What does it mean if a substance is considered neutral? List any substances that had a neutral pH.
4. Use the data from the table to explain how red and blue litmus paper can be helpful in determining if a
substance is an acid or base?
5. Predict what would happen if you were to mix together an acid and a base? Explain your answer.

Part 2 - Introduction to BUFFERS

Make a graph (on graph paper) of the changes in pH in tap water versus the number of drops of acid and base
solutions added. Plot two lines - a solid line for changes with acid and a dashed line for changes with base.
 On the same graph, graph the results for your biological material. Use different colored solid (with acid)
and dashed lines (with base) to represent changes in pH for the samples.
 On the same graph used for tap water and the biological material, graph the reaction of the buffer
solution. Use a different colored solid (with acid) and dashed line (with base) for clarity.

1. Summarize the effects of HCl and NaOH on tap water.

2. What was the total pH change after 18 drops of HCl added to the biological material?
3. What was the total pH change after 18 drops of NaOH was added to the biological material?
4. How do these data compare with the changes in tap water?
5. How do biological materials respond to changes in pH?
6. How does the buffer system respond to HCl and NaOH? With respect to changes in pH, is the response of
the buffer system more like that of water or of the biological material?
7. Would buffers aid or hinder the maintenance of a stable internal environment in a changing external
environment?

11
Catalase Enzyme Lab Name: ____________________________________
6.0 Biology Date: ____________________ Period: _____

PRELAB:

1. Write the objective of the experiment.

2. Write a procedure summary. You may include diagrams/drawings.
3. Create data tables for Procedure A and B.
4. Answer the following questions:
a. What is a catalyst?
b. Catalysts increase / decrease the rate of the reaction without being used up. Explain.
c. What is a substrate?
d. Identify three factors that affect/influence enzyme activity.
e. In your lab notebook, rewrite the equation and identify the reactants, the products and the enzyme in
the reaction by writing R, P or E over the substances in the reaction.

2 H 2O2 
catalase
2 H 2O  O2

Introduction to catalase and hydrogen peroxide: Some cells in your body can produce hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) to help fight infections. Hydrogen peroxide is one of many chemicals that can help cells at low levels
and harm them at high levels. The level of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in a cell must be controlled. Hydrogen
peroxide can break down into water (H2O) and oxygen gas (O2). An enzyme called CATALASE helps speed
up this reaction. Catalase is a biological (organic) catalyst. Hydrogen peroxide is the substrate for catalase.
2 H 2O2 
catalase
2 H 2O  O2

The schematic model below shows how an enzyme like catalase works to break down a molecule like hydrogen
peroxide into smaller molecules. Label the following: Catalase, H2O2, H2O, and O2

12
PROCEDURE:

A. What is the effect of pH on Catalase Activity?

1. Add approximately 2 mL of hydrogen peroxide to each of 5 clean test tubes.

Tube 1 – add 4 drops of HCl

Tube 2 – 1 drop of HCl and 3 drops of water
Tube 3 – 4 drops of water
Tube 4 – 1 drop of NaOH / 3 drops of water
Tube 5 – add 4 drops of NaOH

2. Record the pH of each test tube by using the pH paper. Do not drop pH paper into the test tube!
3. Now add a piece of liver to each of the test tubes and record how much of a reaction is occurring. Try to do
it all at the same time, so you can easily compare. Rate the reaction on a scale of 0 to 5 where 0 is no
reaction and 5 is an extreme reaction.
4. Clean test tubes. Do not put liver in the sink. Be sure to throw ALL solids away in the trash can.

B. What is the effect of temperature on Catalase Activity?

1. Put a small piece of liver into the bottom of a clean test tube (test tube 1) and cover it with a small amount
of water. Place this test tube into a boiling water bath for 5 minutes.
a. After five minutes, remove the test tube from the boiling water bath.
b. Allow it cool in the test tube rack for 4 minutes.
c. Drain the water from the test tube (not the liver).
d. Add 2 mL of hydrogen peroxide.
e. Observe the reaction and rate level of activity.
2. While test tube 1 is in the boiling water bath, put a small piece of liver into 2 clean test tubes (test tube 2 &
test tube 3). Put 2 mL hydrogen peroxide into 2 other test tubes (test tube 4 & test tube 5).
a. Put one test tube of liver (test tube 2) & one of hydrogen peroxide (test tube 4) in an ice bath for 3
minutes.
b. Place the other set (test tube 3 & test tube 5) in a warm water bath (not boiling) for 3 minutes.
c. After three minutes, pour the hydrogen peroxide from test tube 4 into test tube 2. Observe the
reaction and rate level of activity.
d. Pour the hydrogen peroxide from test tube 5 into test tube 3. Observe the reaction and rate level of
activity.

Observations and Analysis Questions:

1. What effect does boiling have on an enzyme?

2. What happens to an enzyme (protein) that has lost its active conformation?
3. Hydrogen peroxide can undergo the chemical reaction WITHOUT the use of catalase. All it needs is a little
bit of energy to proceed to product. This process will just occur at a slower rate than with the catalase
present. Explain why companies that make hydrogen peroxide need to store the solution in the dark bottle.
4. Under which conditions (pH and temperature) does the catalase enzyme work the best? (Examine your
data from Part A and B to answer the question.)
5. List 2 errors that could have occurred in the lab. Do not use human error as a source of error. Be specific
and describe how it could affect the objective of the lab.

13
Polymerization and Slime Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Polymerization is an important part of your life. Polymers are long chains of the same molecule. Not only are
the organic molecules you consume polymers, but many of the products you use every day are made from
monomers linked together to form polymers. Today you will make your own polymer. Slime is a special kind
of polymer. The slime you are making is special because it has the properties of both a solid and a liquid.

1. This recipe is based on using a brand new 5 ounce bottle of Elmer’s Glue. Empty the entire bottle of
glue into a baggie. Fill the empty bottle with warm water and shake (okay, put the lid on first and then
shake). Pour the glue-water mixture into the baggie and seal it. Squish it to mix.
2. Go ahead… add a drop or two of food coloring.
3. Measure 75 mL of warm water and place in a beaker. Add a teaspoon of Borax powder to the water. Stir
the solution – don’t worry if all of the powder dissolves. This Borax solution is the secret linking agent
that causes the Elmer’s Glue molecules to turn into slime.
4. While squishing the glue in the baggie, slowly add a little of the Borax solution. Immediately you’ll feel
the long strands of molecules starting to connect. It’s time to abandon the spoon and use your hands to
do the serious mixing. Keep adding the Borax solution to the glue mixture (don’t stop mixing) until you
get a perfect batch of Elmer’s slime. You might like your slime more stringy while others like firm
slime. Hey, you’re the head slime mixologist – do it your way!
5. When you’re finished playing with your Elmer’s slime, seal it up in a zip-lock bag for safe keeping.

Read the Chem Matters Article, “The Science of Slime!”. Fill in the Anticipation Guide and then answer the
questions in your notebook:

Anticipation Guide: In the first column, write “A” or “D” indicating your agreement or disagreement with
each statement. As you read, compare your opinions with information from the article. In the space under each
statement, cite information from the article that supports or refutes your original ideas.

Me Text Statement

1. Isaac Newton observed that the viscosity of fluids is affected only by temperature.

2. Oil is more viscous than water.

3. Whacking a bottle of ketchup makes the ketchup more viscous.

4. Struggling in quicksand makes the quicksand more viscous.

5. All non-Newtonian fluids are synthetic.

6. Slime is a non-Newtonian fluid.

7. Silly Putty becomes more viscous if left to set on the table for a few minutes.

14
Questions:
1. What is meant by the viscosity of a fluid?
2. What does the phrase “slower than molasses in January” tell us about the viscosity of most fluids?
Explain.
3. What is meant by the term “non-Newtonian” fluid?
4. What are some examples of “shear stresses,” and how do Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids differ
when shear stresses are applied to them?
5. How do “shear-thinning” and “shear-thickening” fluids differ?
6. Explain how the behavior of Silly Putty demonstrates that it is a shear thickening fluid.

15
Testing Carbohydrates Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Pre-lab:
1. Write out the objective of the lab.
2. Answer all of the questions in the prelab.
3. Write the procedure summary.
4. Include ALL data tables for the lab.

Pre-Lab Questions:
1. Give an example and the formula of a monosaccharide.
2. Give an example and the formula of a disaccharide.
3. Give an example of a polysaccharide. What is the ratio of H:O?
4. Give an example of something that is not a carbohydrate. How do we know this is NOT a carbohydrate?

A chemical indicator is a special chemical that reacts specifically with another substance. The way in which we
know the indicator has reacted is a color change. Sometimes the color change is spontaneous, while other
times an input of energy is necessary. There are two ways to insert this energy - direct flame or hot water bath.
We are going to choose the latter for this lab.
5. There are two chemical indicators that help identify different forms of carbohydrates. If there are only two
types of chemical indicators, how do you think we will be able to identify the third type of carbohydrate?

Benedict’s solution (blue solution) and Iodine (reddish solution) are two indicators that will be used in this lab
to help determine the type of sugar(s) found in 5 unknown bottles. In the 1st part of the lab, you will determine
how the indicators work with the carbohydrates. In the 2nd part of the lab, you will use your new found
knowledge to determine the types of sugar(s) found in the 5 unknown bottles.
6. This lab is a very qualitative lab. Why do you think that we don’t need to be very accurate with our
measurements for this lab?

Procedure:
Materials: 1 bottle of iodine, 1 bottle of benedict’s solution, 6 test tubes, 2 large test tubes, test tube rack, test tube clamp
PART I: Indicators with known carbohydrates
1. Label all of your test tubes. Read through the procedure for labeling.
2. Fill a test tube with 3-4 mL of distilled water. This will be your height reference for all solutions in the lab.
3. Fill another test tube with distilled water to about the same height as the first test tube.
4. Fill 1 test tube with the monosaccharide – same height as the dI (distilled) water.
5. Fill another test tube with the disaccharide solution – same height as the dI water.
6. Fill a third test tube with the polysaccharide solution – same height as the dI water.
7. Add 4 drops of iodine to distilled water.
8. Add 4 drops of iodine to one test tube of each type of sugar solution.
9. Record your observations. Did a color change occur?

Put these questions in your post-lab section.

 The distilled water will be used as a comparison for the carbohydrate solutions. Why?
 Is this reaction with iodine spontaneous?
 Do you think you have figured out what type of carbohydrate iodine indicates? If so, what type?
 If iodine tests for (see above), what type of sugars does that leave Benedict’s to test for in this lab?

16
10. Clean and rinse the three test tubes containing the carbohydrates. Do not discard the dI water.
11. Fill the three test tubes with the carbohydrates following steps 3-5.
12. Add 15 drops of Benedict’s solution to distilled water.
13. Add 15 drops of Benedict’s solution to the other test tubes for each type of sugar solution. Record your
observations. Did a color change occur?

Put these questions in your post-lab section.

 What do you think is going to be needed at this point? (Because you probably were expecting
something to happen spontaneously….sorry, it doesn’t)
 Does this automatically mean that this reaction is endothermic? Why or why not?

14. Place your test tubes into the hot water bath – not boiling. Make sure you can identify which type of sugar is
in the test tube that is why they are labeled.
15. Once you see a color change occurring in one of the test tubes you can take them out of the hot water bath.
Please use the test tube clamps.

Put this question in your post-lab section.

 What did you conclude from this step?

Summary of Part I: Put these questions in your post-lab section.

 How do you determine if a substance is a monosaccharide?
 How do you determine if a substance is a disaccharide?
 How do you determine if a substance is a polysaccharide?

Part II: Identifying the unknowns

Now that you understand HOW the chemicals work and how much of the substances you need in order to
complete the task, you will NOT be given too many direct instructions to follow.

Task: What types of sugar(s) are found in each of the 5 unknown solutions.

Create an easy to read data table below which will organize your observations, results, and interpretations in
organized fashion. Use a straight edge to do this neatly.

Post Lab:
Complete all questions within the procedure. Answer the following questions:
 Suppose you were given an unknown and you receive a negative result for both the iodine test and
the Benedict’s solution test. What type of carbohydrate would you assume you had in the unknown?
 What is the problem with this assumption?

17
Testing Macromolecules Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Pre-lab:
1. Write out the objective of the lab.
2. Answer all of the questions in the prelab.
3. Write the procedure summary.
4. Include ALL data tables for the lab.

Pre-Lab Questions:
1. What elements are present in all macromolecules?
2. What elements are present in proteins not found in carbohydrates or lipids?
3. Biurets solution reacts with the peptide bonds in the polypeptide chains. A purple colored complex is
formed. What macromolecule has peptide bonds?
4. What are the monomers for lipids?

In the previous lab, we tested for carbohydrates using Benedict’s and Iodine solutions. For this lab, we will be
using Biuret Solution to test for proteins and Alcohol to test for lipids. You will be given unknown mixtures to
determine what macromolecules are contained in your samples.

Procedure:
Materials: Biuret solution, ethanol, iodine, Benedict’s solution, test tubes, test tube rack, test tube clamp, beaker

PART I: Indicators with known macromolecules

1. Label all of your test tubes. See procedure for labeling.
2. Fill a test tube with 3 mL of distilled water. This will be your height reference for all solutions in the lab.
3. Fill another test tube with distilled water to about the same height as the first test tube.
4. Fill 1 test tube with the gelatin – same height as the dI water.
5. Fill another test tube with albumin (egg white) – same height as the dI water.
6. Fill a third test tube with corn oil – same height as the dI water.
7. Add 5 drops of Biurets to the distilled water and to each test tube containing a sample. Record your
observations. Did a color change occur?
8. Clean and rinse the three test tubes. Do not discard the dI water.
9. Fill the three test tubes with the samples following steps 4-6.
10. Add ethanol to the distilled water and to the other samples. Heat alcohol-sample mixture in a hot water bath
until sample is transparent. If it does not turn transparent, add more alcohol.
11. Pour sample containing the alcohol into a test tube filled ¼ of the way with distilled water. Record your
observations.

Part II: Identifying the macromolecules in unknown solutions.

You will be testing the unknown solutions for carbohydrates, lipids and proteins using ALL of the indicators -
from the carbohydrate lab as well as this lab. Create an easy to read data table which will organize your
observations, results, and interpretations in an organized fashion.

Post Lab: Answer the following questions:

 Biurets test tests for what type of macromolecule?
 The alcohol tests for what type of macromolecule?
 What is your unknown number? What macromolecules were in your unknown?
18
Using a Compound Microscope Name
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Problem
What is the proper way to use a compound microscope and prepare a wet-mount slide?

Introduction
A microscope is a device that magnifies objects that are too small to be seen by the eye alone. A compound
microscope has three main parts that work together to bring a magnified image to your eye. A light source
illuminates the object being observed. A lens on the nosepiece magnifies the image of the object. A lens in the
eyepiece further enlarges the image and projects the image into your eye.

Thin glass plates, or slides, are used to observe biological specimens under a microscope. The slides are made
in one of two ways. A prepared slide is made by encasing a specimen in glass. This permanent slide can be
stored and viewed many times. A wet-mount slide is made by enclosing a drop of liquid containing the
specimen between the slide and a thin glass coverslip. This temporary slide is made to last only a short time—
usually one laboratory period.

The microscope you will use will be similar to the one shown in Figure 1. A microscope is a precision
instrument that requires careful handling. In this lab, you will learn how to use a compound microscope. You
will also learn how to prepare a wet-mount slide.

Figure 1 Parts of a microscope

19
Materials
• compound microscope • microscope slide • newspaper
• lens paper • dropper pipette • prepared slide
• coverslip • scissors • dissecting probe

Safety

To avoid damaging a microscope, follow the rules that are stated in this lab. Handle slides gently to avoid
breaking them and cutting yourself. Alert your teacher if you break a glass object. To avoid electrical shocks,
make sure that cords, plugs, and your hands are dry when using the light source. Use the scissors only as
instructed. Do not direct the points of the scissors toward yourself or others.

Pre-Lab Questions

1. Why is it important to keep a microscope at least 10 cm from the edge of the table?
2. Why are you allowed to use the coarse adjustment when you focus the low-power objective lens but not
when you focus the high-power objective lens?
3. How will the image of the letter e change when you switch from low power to high power?

Procedure
Part A: Practice Using the Microscope
1. Collect a microscope and bring it to your workstation.
RULE 1: Always carry a microscope with both hands. Grasp the arm of the microscope with one hand, and
place your other hand under the base. Hold the microscope in an upright position so that the eyepiece
cannot fall out. Place the microscope at least 10 cm from the edge of your table or desk with the arm
facing you.
2. The magnification for a lens is etched on the side of the objective. In Figure 2, the lens has a 10 ×
magnification, which means that it will produce an image that is ten times the actual size of the object being
viewed. Find the magnification for each objective lens and record this data in the table. Then find and record
the magnification for the eyepiece. To find the total magnification under each power, multiply the objective
magnification by the eyepiece magnification. Record the results in the table.

Figure 2 Nosepiece with objective lens

Data Table
Objective Eyepiece Total
Objective Magnification
Magnification Magnification
Low power
Medium power

High power

20
3. Before you use a microscope, you should clean the objective lenses and the lens in the eyepiece.
RULE 2: To avoid scratching the lenses, always use lens paper to clean the lenses. Use a new piece of lens
paper for each lens because dust picked up from one lens could scratch the next lens. Never touch a lens
with your finger. Oils on your skin can attract dust that could scratch the lens.

4. Look at the microscope from the side. The low-power objective should be about 3 cm from the stage. Rotate
the nosepiece until you hear the high-power objective click into position. Note that the high-power objective
is longer than the low-power objective.
RULE 3: Always view the microscope from the side when you move an objective to avoid damaging the lens
or a slide.
5. Rotate the nosepiece until the low-power objective clicks into position. Find the coarse adjustment knob and
practice using it to raise and lower the nosepiece.
6. Plug in the cord attached to the light source. Look through the eyepiece. Practice using the diaphragm to
adjust the amount of light entering the microscope.
RULE 4: To avoid eyestrain, keep both eyes open while looking through the eyepiece.
7. Center a prepared slide over the opening in the stage. Hold the slide by its edges to avoid leaving
fingerprints that could distort the image. Use the stage clips to hold the slide in place. Make sure the low-
power objective is still in position. While you look from the side, use the coarse adjustment to move the
objective as close to the stage as possible without touching the stage.
8. Use both eyes to look through the eyepiece. Turn the coarse adjustment to move the low-power objective
away from the stage until the object comes into focus.
RULE 5: To avoid hitting a slide, never move an objective toward the stage while looking through the
eyepiece.
9. Use the fine adjustment to bring the object into sharp focus. You may need to adjust the diaphragm to see
the object clearly. Draw what you can see under low power in Figure 3 on the next page.
10. While you look from the side, rotate the high-power objective into position. Look through the eyepiece and
use the fine adjustment to bring the object into focus. Draw what you can see under high power in Figure 3.
RULE 6: Never use the coarse adjustment when you are using a high-power objective.
11. Move the low-power objective back into position. Remove the slide from the stage.
Draw what you see with the prepared slides under low power and high power

21
Part B: Prepare a Wet-Mount Slide
12. Look for the smallest lowercase letter e you can find in a newspaper. Cut out the letter and place it on the
center of a slide. Use a dropper pipette to place one drop of water on the letter, as shown in Figure 4.
13. Place a coverslip so that one edge touches the side of the drop at a 45º angle, as shown in Figure 4. Use a
dissecting probe to slowly lower the coverslip onto the paper. This slow movement should prevent air
bubbles from being trapped between the slide and the coverslip, which could distort the image.
Figure 4 How to prepare a wet-mount slide
14. If necessary, use a paper towel to dry the bottom of the slide. Center the slide
on the stage with the e right side up. Rotate the low-power objective into position
and bring the e into focus. Draw what you can see under low power in Figure 5.
15. As you look through the eyepiece, move the slide to the left. Notice the way
the image of the letter moves. Now move the slide to the right and notice the way
the image moves. Move the slide toward the arm and away from the arm and
observe how the image of the letter moves.
16. Rotate the high-power objective into position and focus the e. Draw what you
can see under high power in Figure 5.
Draw what you see with the wet-mount slides under low power and high
power

17. Take apart the wet mount. Discard the letter e.

18. If there are other samples to view, follow the same procedure for preparing a wet mount slide.
19. When finished with all samples, clean the slide and coverslip with soap and water. Carefully dry the slide
and coverslip with paper towels and return them to their boxes.
20. Rotate the low-power objective into position and use the coarse adjustment to place it as close to the stage
as possible without touching the stage. Carefully pick up the microscope and return it to its storage area.

Analyze and Conclude

1. The adjective compound means “made by the combination of two or more parts.” In a compound
microscope, which are the parts that are being combined, and why?
2. How is the image of an object seen through a high-power objective different from the image seen through a
low-power objective?
3. How did the position of the e appear to change when it was viewed through the microscope?
4. You observe an ant through the eyepiece of a microscope. The ant moves toward the bottom of the slide and
then it moves to the right. What do these observations tell you about the actual movement of the ant?
5. Why must scientists cut a thin slice from a biological specimen before they can view it under a microscope?

22
Osmosis and Diffusion Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

A. Osmosis – Vegetable Demo

1. Compare the vegetables in the three trays with regard to flexibility and pliability.
Tray A Tray B Tray C
Tap Water Salt Water Freshly Cut

2. List the trays in order from least flexible or pliable (bendable) to most pliable (bendable).

3. The cells of the vegetables in Tray ______ appear to have lost water.

4. The cells of the vegetables in Tray ______ appear to have gained water.

5. Draw a picture of a cell that has been placed in a hypotonic solution. What happens to cells placed in this
type of solution?

6. Draw a picture of a cell that has been placed in a hypertonic solution. What happens to cells placed in this
type of solution?

7. Draw a picture of a cell that has been placed in an isotonic solution. What happens to cells placed in this
type of solution?

8. Identify the three trays using the following terms: isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic.
Tray A _________________________ solution
Tray B _________________________ solution
Tray C _________________________ solution

23
B. Diffusion Demo

Introduction: In this demo you will observe the diffusion of a substance across a semi permeable membrane.
Iodine is a known indicator for starch. An indicator is a substance that chances color in the presence of the
substance it indicates. Watch as your teacher demonstrates how iodine changes in the presence of starch.
Describe what happened when iodine came into contact with starch.

Procedure for the Demonstration:

1. Fill a plastic baggie with a teaspoon of corn starch and a half a cup of water tie bag.
2. Fill a beaker halfway with water and add ten drops of iodine.
3. Place the baggie in the cup so that the cornstarch mixture is submerged in the iodine water mixture.
4. Wait fifteen minutes and record your observations in the data table.

Questions:
1. What is the main difference between osmosis and diffusion.

2. Molecules tend to move from areas of ________ concentration to areas of ________ concentration.

Make Some Predictions

3. If the baggie was permeable to starch, which way would the starch move, into or out of the bag?

4. If the baggie was permeable to iodine, which way would the iodine move, into or out of the bag?

5. If the baggie was permeable to iodine, what color would you expect the solution in the baggie to turn?
What about the solution in the beaker?

6. If the baggie was permeable to starch, what color would you expect the solution in the baggie to turn?
What about the solution in the beaker?

Data Table
Starting Color Color after 15 minutes
Solution in Beaker
Solution in Bag

Post Lab Analysis

7. Which substance moved, the iodine or the starch? How did you determine this?

8. The plastic baggie was permeable to which substance?

9. Is the plastic baggie selectively permeable? How do you know?

10. Sketch the cup and baggie. Use arrows to illustrate how diffusion occurred in this lab.

11. What would happen if you did an experiment in which the iodine solution was placed in the baggie, and the
starch solution was in the beaker? Be detailed in your description.

24
Surface Area to Volume Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

INTRODUCTION:
Why are cells so small? Think about this: even though a whale is much larger than a human and a human is much larger
than a tulip, their cells are all roughly the same size. Whales do not have larger cells than humans, just more of them.

There is a very specific reason why cells are the size they are. Anytime this cell interacts with its environment, it does so
at its membrane. The more membrane a cell has, the more exchange it can perform with its environment. This exchange
can include activities such as obtaining nutrients or getting rid of wastes. We refer to the amount of surface that an object
has as its surface area (SA). How quickly exchange takes place depends on the surface area of the cell membrane. The
amount of food and oxygen needed and the amount of waste produced depends on the volume of the cell.

Once materials get inside the cell, they move via diffusion. Diffusion is the random movement of particles that results in
their dispersion in the cytoplasm. A drop of food coloring in a beaker of water will diffuse until the entire beaker is the
same color. This type of movement occurs inside cells as a way of dispersing molecules. Diffusion works best over short
distances. Imagine how long it would take food coloring molecules to diffuse in a water glass vs. in a swimming pool.
Because the water glass has less volume (V), diffusion is more efficient.

When cells grow to a certain size, their rate of growth slows down and then stops. They have reached their size
limit. When one of these larger cells divides into two smaller cells, the rate of growth again increases. In this investigation
you will experiment to determine why this is so.

Cells try to maximize their surface area (in order to improve exchange) and minimize their volume (to make diffusion
more efficient). A basketball-sized cell would have lots of surface area (good), but also lots of volume (bad). Think about
how long it would take molecules to diffuse from the outer portion of the ball to the center. A ping-pong ball or a marble
would be better choices. When we discuss the interplay of these two quantities, we use the ratio of surface area to volume
(abbreviated SA/V). Ideal cells have large SA values, but small V values.

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS:

test tubes Agar with Bromothymol Blue (BTB) indicator
millimeter ruler Vinegar – acetic acid

PROCEDURE:
1. Obtain a BTB agar block from your teacher.
2. With a spatula or knife, cut your agar into blocks with the following dimensions:
a. 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm
b. 1 cm x 1 cm x 4 cm
c. 2 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm
3. Record the measurements of each block.
4. Place the agar blocks in 3 large test tubes.
5. Measure 25 mL of vinegar using a graduated cylinder.
6. Submerge all of the agar blocks in the vinegar solution.
7. Allow the cubes to soak for 8 minutes.
8. Pour the vinegar down the sink and rinse the cubes with water. Use care that you do not pour your agar cubes out of
the test tube.
9. Remove the agar cubes and blot them dry with a paper towel.
10. With your spatula blade or knife, cut the agar cubes to remove a slice from the middle of the agar block.
11. Observe the depth of the yellow area around the edge of the agar slice. This is known as the amount of absorption and
should be recorded in the vinegar absorbed column.
12. Using your measurements, determine the surface area, volume, and surface area to volume ratio of each block and
record it on the data table.
25
 Surface area (mm2) = L x W of each side, add the 6 numbers together

a is the length of the side of each edge of the cube

Surface area of a cube = 6 a2

a, b, and c are the lengths of the 3 sides

Surface Area of a Rectangular Prism = 2ab + 2bc + 2ac

Volume (mm3) = L x W x H

SA:V = Surface area to volume ratio = surface area / volume

DATA and CALCULATIONS TABLE

Vinegar
Cube Dimensions Absorbed
Surface Area Volume
(mm) SA:V Ratio
(mm2) (mm3)
L, W, H (mm)

RESULTS – Draw your cubes to scale, and shade in the area that was blue and yellow. Use a ruler to draw
straight edges.

QUESTIONS:
1. Which cube has the greatest surface area?
2. Which cube has the greatest surface area to volume ratio?
3. What evidence is there that vinegar is being absorbed by the agar cubes?
4. Was the vinegar absorbed completely through any one of the cubes? If so, which cube? If not, which cube
absorbed the most vinegar? Explain why one cube would absorb more vinegar than another cube.
5. If the vinegar were some vital substance, such as food, and the agar cubes were cells, which cell would be
fed the most efficiently? Why?
6. What happens to the cell’s ability to absorb materials and get rid of waste as it increases in size?
7. Make a statement which explains why cells are limited in the size to which they can grow.

26
Cell Membrane - Bubble Lab Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

https://vimeo.com/52263821

https://www.haikudeck.com/cell-membrane-bubble-lab-uncategorized-presentation-CGr1dLyYXe#slide-3

Background: The membrane that surrounds cells and organelles are made of a layer of phospholipids and
proteins. It would take more than 10,000 stacked cell membranes to equal the thickness of a piece of paper.
The phospholipid bi-layer is fluid but holds its shape due to its interactions with water. We will use soap
bubbles as an analogy for the cell membrane. Soap bubbles are also lipid bi-layers that are held together
because of the surface tension of water.

Activity 1:
This activity will show how the cell membrane acts as a liquid and a solid. You will be able to see the
flexibility of the cell membrane and how it is able to keep the shape of the cell without breaking.
1. Place the bubble holder (straw rectangle) into the soap mixture on your plate.
2. Lift it out and slowly twist it back and forth to show the flexibility of the cell membrane.

Activity 2:
This activity will show how the lipid bi-layer is able to re-seal itself after being opened. This property allows
for the cell to be semi-permeable so that nutrients can be imported into the cell and protein products and waste
can be exported out of the cell without destroying the membrane.
1. Dip your straw into the bubble solution.
2. Blow gently and create a bubble the size of your plate.
3. Carefully remove the straw from the bubble.
4. Take any object (your pencil or straw) and put it into your bubble. You should be able to move it around
the bubble without popping it.
5. Remove your object and observe how the membrane “repairs” itself.

Activity 3:
This activity illustrates how proteins are embedded in the lipid bi-layer. As part of the “fluid mosaic” proteins
don’t remain in one place. These proteins provide passageways for larger molecules to cross the membrane
(sort of like a revolving door). We will use a thread ring that represents a channel that allows molecules
through the membrane.
1. Take a piece of thread, make a circle with it (about the size of a nickel) and tie it in a knot.
2. Place the straw “rectangle” into the soap solution.
27
3. One partner hold the rectangle while the other partner places the circle of thread on the soap membrane.
4. Pop the membrane inside the thread circle and move the circle around.
5. Remove the circle of thread without popping the membrane in the rectangle to represent the membrane
“repairing” itself.

Activity 4:
In this activity the endosymbiotic theory will be explored. This theory is an explanation for the origin of
eukaryotic cells. It states that larger prokaryotic cells ate smaller ones and eventually instead of digesting them,
they worked together in a mutualistic relationship. The evidence to support this is the fact that chloroplasts and
mitochondria both have their own phospholipid bi-layers.
1. Blow a bubble the size of your plate.
2. Carefully insert your straw into your bubble and try to blow another bubble inside your big bubble.
3. Make sure that the second bubble is not attached to the big bubble.

Activity 5:
This activity will show that vesicles are membrane-bound sacs used in the cell to store and transport materials.
Certain organelles in the cell like the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus often use vesicles to
transport materials throughout the cell and out of the cell. The membranes of the vesicles can fuse with the cell
membrane. Vesicles will pinch off of the cell and the membrane will stay intact.
1. Place your straw rectangle in the soap mixture.
2. Lift up the holder and use your straw to slowly blow into the bubble membrane to make a few bubbles that
will come off of the back of the straw rectangle.
3. The original membrane shouldn’t break to show that even though the vesicles are given off, the membrane
can keep its shape.

Activity 6:
All organisms are made of cells that grow and reproduce. The simplest cellular division, called binary fission,
occurs in bacteria. They reproduce by copying their DNA and dividing in two. More complex, eukaryotic cells
undergo a division of the nucleus called mitosis.
1. Place a piece of string across your plate.
2. Blow a bubble the size of your plate
3. Carefully take the two ends of the string and lift it up through the middle of your bubble.
4. You should see that your one bubble has turned into two.

POSTLAB:
1. For each activity, please summarize what you saw and what you learned. There should be six summaries.

2. Compare and contrast a cell membrane (lipid bilayer) and a soap bubble. Make sure you support you
conclusions/ideas with evidence from the lab or background information about the membranes.

3. Critical thinking: Based on what you know about soap from this lab, your knowledge of water chemistry,
and your background experience, develop a hypothesis that explains how soap molecules work. In other
words, how does soap achieve our goal of removing dirt, grease, and oil from our bodies and clothing?

28
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration Lab Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Green plants bask in sunlight. They use the energy in the sun's rays to make food. The production of food also
requires raw materials. When plants synthesize food, more precisely carbohydrates, they use carbon dioxide and
water. The process of synthesizing carbohydrates with the aid of light energy is known as photosynthesis. The
carbohydrates plants make are used by plants as a source of energy. To release the energy contained in the
bonds of carbohydrate molecules, the chemical reactions of photosynthesis must be reversed. The process in
which energy is released from food is called cellular respiration. Respiration also produces waste products,
carbon dioxide and water, which are the same substances that served as raw materials for photosynthesis.

In water, carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves to form a weak acid, carbonic acid (H2CO3). As a result, an acid-base
indicator such as bromothymol blue (BTB) can be used to indicate the presence of carbon dioxide. In this
laboratory investigation, you will use bromothymol blue to explore the relationship between photosynthesis and
respiration.

Materials: Beaker or Erlenmeyer Flask Elodea Straw

Bromothymol blue solution 10 mL graduated cylinder

Procedure:
1. Fill a beaker with 100 mL of water. Using a graduated cylinder, measure out 3 mL of bromothymol blue
solution and add to the water in the beaker.
2. Insert one end of a drinking straw into the beaker. Gently blow through the straw. Keep blowing until there
is a change in the appearance of the bromothymol blue solution. Record your results.
3. Add a sprig of Elodea to each beaker.
4. Place one beaker in a dark area and the other beaker in a sunny area. Allow the beakers to sit for 24 hours.
5. Examine each beaker. Note any change in the appearance of the bromothymol blue solution.

Observations
1. What was the color of the bromothymol blue solution before you exhaled into it?
2. What was the color of the bromothymol blue solution after you exhaled into it?
3. What was the color of the bromothymol blue solution in the flask that was placed in the dark for 24 hours?
4. What was the color of the bromothymol blue solution in the flask that was placed in the light for 24 hours?

Analysis and Conclusions

1. What substance was released into the bromothymol blue solution when you exhaled into it? How is this
substance produced?
2. Explain why the color of the bromothymol blue solution changed after you exhaled into it.
3. Why was Elodea placed in both flasks?
4. How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related? Use reactants and products of each process in your
answer.
5. Carbon dioxide was bubbled through two flasks of bromothymol blue until they became acidic. Then a sprig
of Elodea was placed in each flask. One flask was left in green light for 24 hours; the other flask was left in
red light. No change occurred in the flask left in green light. The bromothymol blue in the flask that was left
in the red light turned back to blue. Explain these results.
6. How would you demonstrate that Elodea carries out photosynthesis at a faster rate than it carries out
respiration?
7. Based on your understanding of the chemistry of photosynthesis, why do plants need animals in order to
survive?
29
Yeast Fermentation Lab Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Introduction
In this lab study, you will investigate alcoholic fermentation in yeast (a single-celled fungus), Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, or “baker’s yeast.” When oxygen is low, some fungi, including yeast and most plants, switch from
cellular respiration to alcoholic fermentation. In bread making, starch in the flour is converted to glucose and
fructose, which serve as the starting compounds for fermentation. The resulting carbon dioxide is trapped in the
dough, causing it to rise. Ethanol is also produced in bread making but evaporates during baking.

In this laboratory experiment, the carbon dioxide

(CO2) produced, being a gas, bubbles out of the
solution and can be used as an indication of the
relative rate of fermentation taking place. The rate of fermentation, a series of enzymatic reactions, can be
affected by several factors, for example, concentration of yeast, concentration of glucose, or temperature. In
this lab study you will investigate the effects of carbohydrates on the rate of fermentation.

Hypothesis: Write a hypothesis to explain the effect of different carbohydrates on the rate of fermentation.

Materials
test tubes pipettes yeast solution
test tube rack sugar solutions

Procedure
1. Obtain four clean test tubes, and label them 1 through 4. Fill the test tubes with the following:
Tube 1: 5 mL of distilled water and 5 mL of yeast solution
Tube 2: 5 mL of glucose and 5 mL of yeast solution
Tube 3: 5 mL of sucrose and 5 mL of yeast solution
Tube 4: 5 mL of starch and 5 mL of yeast solution
2. Fill a beaker ¾ full with hot water (~37-40°C). Place all test tubes in the beaker. You must maintain the
warm water temperature. Constantly replenish the beaker with warm water.
3. You should observe tiny bubbles being released within the test tube forming a froth above the liquid. See
the picture below of yeast froth.
4. Measure the amount of froth above the liquid every five minutes for a total of 30 minutes.
5. Record your results.
6. Clean all test tubes with soap and water before returning glassware to the lab drawer.

Yeast Froth 

30
Data and Observations:
Time Elapsed Measured amount of froth
(min) Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3 Tube 4
Water Glucose Sucrose Starch
5
10
15
20
25
30

Glucose Sucrose

Analysis Questions:
1. Using graph paper construct a line graph of your results. Use different colors for each yeast solution. Be
sure to include a key.
2. Explain the results shown in your graph.
3. What molecule is split in the fermentation process that produces CO2?
4. Identify which of the tubes represents the control for the experiment. Briefly explain why this is a valid
control for this experiment.
5. Based on your knowledge of cellular respiration and carbohydrates, attempt to explain why some of the
substrates gave faster fermentation rates than others.
6. When a carbohydrate is fermented by yeast cells, only one third of the carbons are released as CO2. The rest
of the carbon atoms are released as a molecule of what?
7. Explain how measuring the froth is a way of measuring the rate of fermentation.

Use the following website to review the lab and to help answer the questions.

http://emp.byui.edu/wellerg/Cell%20Respiration/introduction.html

31
DNA Isolation Lab Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Introduction
This is a simple, effective protocol for spooling DNA. Ripe strawberries are an excellent source for extracting
DNA because they are easy to pulverize and contain enzymes called pectinases and cellulases that help to break
down cell walls. And most important, strawberries have eight copies of each chromosome (they are octoploid),
so there is a lot of DNA to isolate. The purpose of each ingredient in the procedure is as follows:
 Dish soap (Sodium Lauryl Sulfate) helps to dissolve the cell membrane, which is a lipid bilayer.
 Salt solution (Sodium Chloride) helps to remove proteins that are bound to the DNA. It also helps to
keep the proteins dissolved in the aqueous layer so they don’t precipitate in the alcohol along with the
DNA.
 Ethanol (Isopropyl Alcohol) causes the DNA to precipitate. When DNA comes out of solution it tends
to clump together, which makes it visible. The long strands of DNA will wrap around the glass stirring
rod when it is swirled at the interface between the two layers.

MATERIALS:
Strawberries Test Tube Beaker (1000mL)
Sandwich Baggie Funnel Hot Plate
8% Saline (NaCl) Solution Cheese Cloth 95% Ethyl Alcohol (ice cold)
Dish soap Clean Drinking Cup Test tube rack
10 mL Graduated Cylinder Rubber Stopper Rubber stopper

Part A: Extracting Strawberry DNA

1. Remove the green leaves from a strawberry.
2. Place the strawberry into a sandwich baggie and seal shut.
3. Squish for a few minutes to completely squash the fruit.
Crushing the strawberries breaks open many of the strawberry cells, where the DNA is.
4. Add 5 drops of the dish soap and 5 mL of the 8% sodium chloride solution into the sandwich baggie. Try
not to make a lot of soap bubbles.
The soap breaks down the membranes releasing DNA. The salt makes the DNA molecules stick together
and separate from the proteins that are also released from the cells.
5. Filter through a layer of cheese cloth set in a funnel, and collect the liquid in a 10 mL graduated cylinder.
The cheesecloth with retain cell debris and unmashed pieces of fruit. The DNA will pass through the
cloth into the test tube.
6. Do NOT squeeze the cheese cloth. Transfer about 3 mL of the strawberry liquid
to a clean test tube. Do not leave the mixture in the graduated cylinder.
7. Place the test tube in a hot water bath (50C) for 2 minutes to destroy the
proteins and enzymes that break down DNA.
8. Carefully add 4 mL of cold ethyl alcohol to the strawberry liquid in the tube - tilt
the test tube to a 45 angle. CAREFULLY pour the ethyl alcohol SLOWLY
down the side of the tube so that it forms a separate layer on top of the
strawberry liquid. DNA is not soluble in alcohol so it precipitates.
9. Watch for about 2 minutes. What do you see? You should see a white fluffy
cloud at the interface between the two liquids. That’s DNA!
10. Take a glass stir rod and swirl it at the interface between the two layers. The DNA will wrap around the
glass tubing.
11. Clean all lab equipment with soap and water. Put the Ziploc bag and cheese cloth in the garbage.
32
PART B: Learn how to isolate DNA from human cells – YOURS!!
1. Add 1 mL (20 drops) of the 8% sodium chloride solution to a test tube and set aside in the test tube rack.
2. Pour several mL of water into a clean drinking cup. (Just enough to cover the bottom of the cup)
3. Put the water in your mouth and swirl the water around for at least 30 seconds.
4. Pour about 3 mL of the “cheek water” into the test tube containing the salt solution.
5. Add 10 drops of dish soap to the “cheek cell” mixture in the test tube.
6. Stopper the test tube and mix the contents of the tube by gently inverting the test tube several times to mix
cells with the dish soap and salt solution to break apart all cells. DO NOT SHAKE THE TUBE.
7. Remove the stopper from the test tube and place the test tube in the hot water bath for 2 minutes to destroy
enzymes which break apart DNA.
8. Tilt the test tube about forty five degrees, and CAREFULLY pour 4 mL of ICE COLD 95% ethyl alcohol
SLOWLY down the side of the test tube so that it forms a layer over the “cheek cell” mixture in the tube.
9. Hold the test tube upright for 2 minutes and observe what happens at the interface between the ethyl alcohol
and the “cheek cell” solution. (The clouds of white strands are the DNA. The DNA is not soluble in cold
ethyl alcohol, so it precipitates where the two liquids meet.) Soap bubbles from the “cheek cell” solution
will get trapped in the DNA strands.
10. Show your cheek cell DNA to the teacher.
11. Take a glass stir rod and swirl it at the interface between the two layers. The DNA will wrap around the
glass tubing.
12. Clean all lab equipment with soap and water. Throw away the disposable cup. Return ALL materials to
their proper location.

After you have completed the lab, go to the DNA Virtual Extraction Lab:
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/extraction/

What is DNA?
 DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid
 DNA is the blueprint for the construction of cells
 DNA molecules are shaped like a double helix,
 In cells, DNA is packaged into chromosomes or a twisted ladder

Did you know…

 There are about 2 meters of DNA in each of your cells?
 If all of the DNA in your body was put end to end, it would reach to the sun and back over 600 times?
 Human DNA is 98 percent identical to chimpanzee DNA?
 My DNA is 99% identical to your DNA…yet we are so different!

Why use strawberries?

 Strawberries are soft and easy to crush.
 Most interestingly, strawberries have eight copies of each chromosome – that is a
lot of DNA in each cell!

For more labs, go to “How to Extract DNA from Anything Living”:

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/extraction/howto/

33
DNA Isolation Post Lab

1. Carefully describe the appearance of the DNA molecules from the strawberry.

2. Were you able to see DNA from your own cheek cells? Is there any difference in appearance between your
DNA and the DNA extracted from the strawberry? Explain.

3. Would the DNA be the same for every cell in your body? Explain.

4. Is the DNA the same for every person in the group? Explain.

5. List two reasons why strawberries are a good organism to study DNA.

6. How is the procedure of DNA extraction different in the plant cells compared to the animal cells (consider
differences in organelles)?

7. Explain why you able you extract more DNA from the strawberry than your own cells.

8. Why might some people get more DNA than others?

9. A person cannot see a single cotton thread 100 feet away, but if you wound thousands of threads together
into a rope, it would be visible much further away. Is this statement analogous to our DNA extraction?
Explain.

10. Is there DNA in your food? How do you know? It is important that you understand the steps in the
extraction procedure and why each step was necessary. Each step in the procedure aided in isolating the
DNA from the other cellular materials. Match the procedure with its function:

PROCEDURE
A. Filter strawberry slurry through cheesecloth
B. Mush strawberry with salty/soapy solution
C. Initial smashing and grinding of strawberry
D. Addition of ethanol to filtered extract
FUNCTION
___ To precipitate DNA from solution
___ Separate components of the cell
___ Break open the cells
___ Break up proteins and dissolve cell membranes

11. Explain what happened in the final step when you added ethanol to your strawberry extract. (Hint: DNA is
soluble in water, but not in ethanol)

34
Complete the table explaining the procedure for human DNA extraction. This should be put into your lab
notebook.

What will I do? Why did I do it?

Put the water into your mouth an swirl for

30 seconds

Pour several mL of cheek water into the test

tube with the 8% salt solution

Add 1 mL (20 drops) of soap solution to

cheek cell mixture in large test tube

Stopper and mix contents by inverting (DO

NOT SHAKE)

Heat in water bath for 2 minutes

Hold a test tube at an angle and carefully

add 4 mL of ice cold 95% ethanol slowly
down the sides of the tube so it layers over
the cell mixture

Observe at interface between ethanol and

cheek solution.

35
Human Traits Lab Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Introduction
Heredity is the passing of traits or characteristics from parents to offspring. The units of heredity are called
genes. Genes are found on the chromosomes in a cell. The combinations of genes for each trait occur by chance.

An alternate form of a gene is called an allele. For example, if the gene is height, the two alleles are tall and
short. When one allele in a pair is stronger than the other allele, the trait of the weaker allele is masked, or
hidden. The stronger allele is the dominant and the allele that is masked is the recessive allele. Dominant alleles
are written as capital letters and recessive alleles are written as lowercase letters. If both alleles in a pair are the
same, the trait is said to be homozygous, or pure. If the alleles in a pair are not similar, the trait is said to be
heterozygous, or hybrid. Sometimes alleles are neither dominant nor recessive. The result of such a situation is a
blending of traits in the heterozygous condition.

The genetic makeup of an individual is known as its genotype. The observable physical characteristics of an
individual that are the result of its genotype are known as its phenotype. In humans, the sex of an individual is
determined by the particular combination of the two sex chromosomes. Individuals that have two X
chromosomes (XX) are females; those with an X and a Y (XY) are males. In this investigation, you will observe
how the results of different allele combinations produce certain traits.

Problem: How are traits inherited?

Procedure:
1. Determine which partner will toss for the female and which will toss for the male. Remember that there
are two alleles per trait.

2. Have the partner who is representing the male flip a coin onto the desk to determine the sex of the
offspring. If the coin lands head up, the child is a female. If tails, a male. Record the sex on the sheet.

3. For all the coin tosses you make, HEADS will represent the DOMINANT allele and TAILS the
RECESSIVE.

4. You and your partner should now flip your coins into the well at the same time. NOTE: the coins should
be flipped only once for each trait except for hair color, eye color and skin color.

5. Continue to flip, record the allele for mother and father, the combination of alleles and the phenotype for
each trait in the appropriate boxes on the Data Table. The phenotypes can be found on the packet that
was handed out.

6. Using the recorded traits, both of you draw the facial features for your offspring on a separate sheet of
paper. We are assuming identical twins. Be sure to give both of your children a name. Be sure to save
your results (data table) in Google Classroom and share with your partner.

36
Data Table
Parents Names ___________________________ and _________________________
Children’s Names ____________________ and ____________________ Sex _______________________
Allele From Allele From
Trait Genotype Phenotype
Mother Father
1 Face Shape
2 Cleft Chin
3 Hair Type
4 Widow’s Peak
5 Eyes (Distance Apart)
6 Eyes (Shape)
7 Eyes (Slantedness)
8 Eyes (Size)
9 Lower Lip
10 Color of Eyebrows
11 Nose Shape
12 Ear Attachment
13 Length of Eyelashes
14 Shape of Eyebrows
15 Position of Eyebrows
16 Size of Nose
17 Shape of Lips
18 Size of ears
19 Size of Mouth
20 Freckles
21 Dimples
22 Eye Color
23 Hair Color
24 Skin Color

Draw YOUR OFFSPRING on a separate sheet of paper and remember to include all 24 traits of your
child. Give your child a name. Yes, NEATNESS and EFFORT do count. It is a twin contest as you and
your partner should have your drawings match.

37
POSTLAB: Analysis and Conclusions

1. What percent did you and your partner have of “producing” a male offspring? Explain your answer.

2. Would you expect the other pairs of students in your class to have an offspring similar to yours? Explain

3. What is the difference between a genotype and a phenotype?

4. Most traits in this lab followed a dominant and recessive pattern. For example, RR and Rr both give your
child a round face, but rr gives a square face. Which traits in this investigation did not follow this pattern,
but showed a blending of genes instead?

Critical Thinking

Looking at the meiosis diagram to

the right, the chromosomes contain
the gene for baldness. Bald is the
dominant trait and therefore
represented by a “B,” and normal
hair is recessive, “b.”

Use the diagram to answer the

following questions:

5. Looking at the alleles on the chromosomes, is this person bald? How can you tell?

6. Which cells represent diploid cells and which cells represent haploid cells? Explain how you can tell the
difference between haploid and diploid cells.

7. What is the name of the structure formed by the chromosomes in cell B? How many chromatids does this
structure contain?

8. How many alleles for each gene does the sperm cell contain?

9. What percentage of sperm cells carry the allele for baldness?

10. Which of Mendel’s principles states that only one allele from each gene can be passed along to the next
generation?

11. Explain how passing down alleles from one generation to the next is like flipping a coin.

38
Blood Typing Lab Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Introduction:
Blood typing involves identifying substances called antigens present on red blood cells (RBC). A person
normally produces antibodies against those antigens not present on their RBCs but does not produce antibodies
against those that are present. Thus, a person with antigen A has anti-B antibodies.
Blood type is determined by multiple alleles IA, IB and i. IA and IB are codominant and both are dominant over i.
Blood typing is performed with a serum that contains specific antibodies. For ABO blood typing, antibodies
against A and B antigen (these antibodies are also called anti-A and anti-B antibodies) are used.

In this investigation, you will determine the blood type of four unknown bottles (labeled 1-4) and the
individuals in the crime scene investigation. Who committed the crime?
Background Information:
Susie Brown was a 20-year-old college freshman who was majoring in Physical Therapy. She paid for school
by working as a personal trainer at a local gym. Susie had been promoted to head personal trainer at the gym
just before she was killed.

Crime Scene – Susie’s body was found in the women’s locker room of the gym at 1:00 am by the night janitor,
Harvey Smith. The victim had been strangled and was wearing a robe. There were signs of a struggle in the
room. The glass door of the shower was broken and had traces of blood on it. The victim was pronounced dead
at the scene and the coroner suggested that the time of death was at least 3 hours before the body was found.

Criminal Investigation – Susie’s co-worker Karen Jones told police that Susie was a newer employee who did
not deserve her recent promotion and only got it because she spent a lot of time with their boss, Steven Green.
When asked if he knew if Susie had problems at work, Steven told Police that Susie had complained to him that
one of her fitness clients, Mike Reed, kept asking her out and would not take no for an answer.

Blood Analysis – Obviously a real crime investigation would use many clues, but your investigation will be
based on the simplest type of blood testing, namely testing for blood types A, B, O, and AB, for the blood

39
sample found at the scene and for each of the possible suspects. No individual can change blood types, and
blood type does not change with age.

Explain why – In order to test a blood type sample, you mix a sample of the blood with two different types of
antiserum—one which contains anti-A antibodies and one which contains anti-B antibodies. The reactions
between the antibodies in the antiserum and the corresponding antigens on the red blood cells in the blood
sample result in clumping.

PRELAB:
1. Write an objective for the lab.
2. Fill in the table below and answer the questions:
o Which types of blood have the antigens that will react with anti-A antibodies?
o Which types of blood have the antigens that will react with anti-B antibodies?
Blood Type A B AB O
Antigens present in Blood

Antibodies present in Blood

Possible Genotypes
3. Write an abbreviated procedure.
4. Prepare data tables for the lab.

PROCEDURE:
Materials: Wax pencil Simulated blood types 1-4 Anti-A serum
Glass plates Simulated blood types (people) Anti-B serum
CAUTION: These chemicals may stain your clothes and other personal items. Be careful when using and transporting.

Part 1: Determine a positive result for each blood type. A data table has been prepared for you.
1. Place 2 drops of “blood” on each end of the glass plate.
2. Place 2 drops of anti-A serum on top of the blood on the left side of the glass plate.
3. Place 2 drops of anti-B serum on top of the blood on the right side of the glass plate.
4. If a precipitate forms, the antigen is present. Record your results in the data table. Repeat for each blood
type.
Bottle # anti-A serum anti-B serum
A
B
AB
O

Part 2: Determine the blood types of the individuals involved in the crime scene. Create your own data
table for this section!
1. Place 2 drops of blood from one person on each end of the glass plate.
2. Place 2 drops of anti-A serum on top of the blood on the left side of the glass plate.
3. Place 2 drops of anti-B serum on top of the blood on the right side of the glass plate.
4. If a precipitate forms, the antigen is present. Record your results in the data table. Repeat for each person.

40
POSTLAB: Blood Typing Analysis
Part 1
1. Which blood type(s) showed clumping when anti-A serum was added?
2. Which blood type(s) showed clumping when anti-B serum was added?
3. If clumping occurs when both anti-A and anti-B serum are added, what is the blood type?
4. If clumping does not occur with either anti-A or anti-B serum, what is the blood type?

Part 2
1. It turns out Susie Brown was pregnant when she died. The baby had type A blood. Determine which of the
following individuals could have been the father of Ms. Brown’s child? Use a Punnett square for each to
support your answer and give the probability of a child with type A blood (Use the symbols IA, IB and i).
a. Harvey Smith
b. Steven Green
c. Mike Reed
2. Assuming that the people along the top of the chart are the donors and the people along the vertical side are
the receivers, tell which squares would be compatible by placing a check mark  in the square and which
squares would be deadly by placing an X in the square.
Donors

Brown Green Jones Smith Reed

Brown

Green
Recipients

Jones

Smith

Reed

3. Type AB Blood is sometimes called a “universal recipient”. Explain why.

4. Type O blood is sometimes called a “universal donor”. Explain why.

5. Why is a person with type O blood unable to receive blood from any type other than O?

6. Investigator’s Report – Describe the circumstances which you believe led up to the crime, the time of the
crime, and the individual that you believe is guilty of the murder. What evidence supports your conclusions?

41
Recombinant DNA Activity Name:
Genetic Engineering Date: Period:

Objective: Model the process of using restriction enzymes and plasmids to form recombinant DNA.

Background Information
The major tools of recombinant DNA technology are
bacterial enzymes called restriction enzymes. Each
enzyme recognizes a short, specific nucleotide sequence in
DNA molecules, and cuts the backbones of the molecules at
that sequence. The result is a set of double-stranded DNA
fragments with single-stranded ends, called "sticky ends."
Sticky ends are not really sticky; however, the bases on the
sticky ends form base pairs with the complementary bases
on other DNA molecules. Thus, the sticky ends of DNA
fragments can be used to join DNA pieces originating from
different sources.

In order to be useful, the recombinant DNA molecules have to

be made to replicate and function genetically within a cell. One
method for doing this is to use plasmid DNA from bacteria.
Small DNA fragments can be inserted into the plasmids, which
are then introduced into bacterial cells. As the bacteria
reproduce, so do the recombinant plasmids. The result is a
bacterial colony in which the foreign gene has been cloned.

Materials for each group:

 Handout: Plasmid Base Sequence Strips  Scissors
 Handout: DNA Base Sequence Strips  Tape
 Handout: Restriction Enzyme Sequence Cards  Pencil
 Paper

42
Procedure:
1. Cut out the Plasmid Base Sequence strips and tape them together into one long strip. The letters should all
be in the same direction. Tape the two ends of the long strip together to form a circle - with the letters facing
out. THIS IS YOUR PLASMID DNA.
2. Cut out the DNA Base Sequence Strips and tape them together in numerical order. This is your HUMAN
DNA, which contains the gene for insulin production. The gene area is shaded.
3. Cut out the Restriction Enzyme Sequence Cards. Each card shows a sequence where a particular restriction
enzyme cuts DNA.
4. Compare the sequence of base pairs on an enzyme card with the sequences of the plasmid base pairs. If you
find the same sequence of pairs on both the enzyme card and the plasmid strip, mark the location on the
plasmid with a pencil, and write the enzyme number in the marked area. Repeat this step for each enzyme
card. Some enzyme sequences may not have a corresponding sequence on the plasmid, and that some
enzyme sequences may have more than one corresponding sequence on the plasmid. In this step, you are
simulating the process of choosing the correct restriction enzyme to recombine your DNA. With hundreds
of restriction enzymes available, scientists must determine which one will work for the DNA they want to
recombine.
5. Once you have identified all corresponding enzyme sequences on the plasmid, identify those enzymes
which cut the plasmid once and only once. Discard any enzymes that cut the plasmid in the shaded plasmid
replication sequence. You don't want to cut out this particular gene, because it is necessary for the bacteria
to replicate itself. Which enzymes fit this criteria?
6. Next, compare the enzymes you chose in step 5 against the cell DNA strip. Find any enzymes that will make
two cuts in the DNA, one above the shaded insulin gene sequence and one below the shaded insulin gene
sequence. Mark the areas on the DNA strip that each enzyme will cut and make a note of which enzyme
cuts in that spot.
7. Select one enzyme to use to make the cuts. The goal is to cut the DNA strand as closely as possible to the
insulin gene sequence without cutting into the gene sequence. Make cuts on both the plasmid and the DNA
strips. Make the cuts in the staggered fashion indicated by the black line on the enzyme card.
8. Tape the sticky ends (the staggered ends) of the plasmid to the sticky ends of the insulin gene to create their
recombinant DNA. In the lab, DNA ligase is used to bind the strands together.

Congratulations! You have successfully created a bacterial cell that contains the human insulin gene.
This bacterium will reproduce and create more bacteria with the gene. Bacteria grown in cultures
can now mass produce insulin for diabetics.

POSTLAB: Recombinant DNA Activity Questions

1. Which enzyme(s) cut the plasmid once and only once and did NOT cut the plasmid in the shaded plasmid
replication sequence?
2. Why was it important to find an enzyme that would cut the plasmid at only one site? What could happen if
the plasmid were cut at more than one site?
3. Which restriction enzyme did you use? Ask other groups what they used and compare the final transgenic
plasmids. Why might there be some of different lengths?
4. Why was it important to discard any enzymes that cut the plasmid at the replication site?
5. Why is it important to cut the plasmid and the human DNA with the same restriction enzyme?
6. Why would restriction enzymes that created "blunt" ends not be as useful in recombination as those that
create sticky ends?
7. In the activity, you simulated creating a recombinant bacteria organism. For each of the following materials,
indicate what they represent? Scissors, tape?

43
Gel Electrophoresis Lab Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Introduction
The object of this experiment is to become familiar with the basic concepts of agarose gel electrophoresis. In a
normal research setting, samples of various DNA, RNA, or proteins would be run on this type of system.
However, in this lab we will be substituting various colored dyes for the DNA samples. The dyes will act in
much the same way as DNA samples and begin to separate once the electrical current is applied. These dyes
will be attracted to either the negative (cathode) or positive (anode) electrode, depending on their chemical
properties. DNA fragments, when electrophoresed, have their own unique migration pattern, separating
fragments by size. Smaller fragments move more quickly through the gel than larger fragments. Each of the
dyes in this kit will migrate predictably in the same manner. Once the dyes are exposed to the electrical
currents and the buffer, they will become ionized and take on a structure that will be attracted to either the
negative or positive charge. This lab consists of 5 individual dyes to electrophorese and observe their rate of
migration. There will also be 3 unknown dye mixtures which the class will determine their charge and identity.

Pre-Lab Questions
1. Why should you use a clean micro-pipette tip for each sample?
2. Explain how gel electrophoresis separates molecules (List two ways).
3. DNA has a negative charge. In which direction will DNA move during gel electrophoresis? Explain.
4. What is the importance of restriction enzymes in DNA gel electrophoresis?
5. The restriction enzyme HindII cut DNA at following sequence:

a. How many DNA fragments would be formed if the above sequence was cut up using HindII?
b. Draw lines separating the DNA fragments.

DNA gel electrophoresis can be used to make a DNA fingerprint. In a DNA fingerprint forensic scientists look
at segments of DNA that do not code for any protein and therefore vary widely from person to person. The
scientist can take that segment of DNA and cut it up with a restriction enzyme and because restriction enzymes
only cut at specific sequences each person’s DNA will have different size fragments.

The murderer’s DNA that was left at the crime

scene was placed in well A. There are three
suspects whose DNA was placed in wells B, C,
and D. All DNA was cut using the restriction
enzyme HindII and the fragments were
separated using gel electrophoresis. Look and
the gel below to answer the following
questions.
6. Which suspect is the murderer? How can
you tell?
7. Suspect C had four different DNA
fragments. Give the approximate size of
each fragment in base pairs from largest to
smallest.
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Procedure A: Loading the Gel

1. Use the micropipette to load 10 ml of each tube into a separate well in the gel. Change the tip and load the
next sample. Follow this order of loading from left to right:
1) Methyl orange
2) Ponceau G
3) Xylene cyanol
4) Unknown # 1
5) Unknown # 2
6) Unknown # 3
7) Bromophenol blue
8) Pyronin Y

2. Steady the micropipette over the well using hands.

3. Be careful to expel any air in the pipette tip end before loading the gel. (If an air bubble forms a “cap” over
the well, the sample dye will flow into the buffer around the edges of the well)

4. Dip the pipette tip through the surface of the buffer, position it over the well and slowly expel the mixture.
Sucrose in the dye solution weighs down the sample, causing it to sink to the bottom of the well.

5. BE CAREFUL NOT TO PUNCH THE TIP OF THE PIPETTE THROUGH THE GEL!!!

Procedure B: Gel Electrophoresis

6. Close the top of the electrophoresis chamber and connect the electrical leads to the approved power supply,
anode to anode (red-red) and cathode to cathode (black to black). Make sure both are connected to the same
channel of the power supply.

7. Turn on the power supply and set the voltage to 120 V.

8. Electrophoresis should take from 15-20 minutes. Do not allow any of the dyes to run off the gel. A safe
distance is when the lowest band is 1 cm or more from the end of the gel.

9. When the dyes have reached the optimum distance, turn off the power supply, disconnect the leads from the
input, and remove the top of the electrophoresis chamber.

10. Carefully remove the casting tray, and slide the gel into the staining tray.

11. Use the (metric) ruler to measure the distance that each band has traveled from the well. You will want to
measures from the front edge of the well to the front edge of the dye band. You will also want to indicate
which electrode each band is attracted to. Create your own data table and enter the measured distances
and direction of migration in your data table.

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POSTLAB

1. Use the information from your data table to draw

the results of the gel electrophoresis in your
notebook. Use this diagram as a guide 

2. From the migration distances of the known dyes,

you should be able to identify the combination of
dyes that are present in each unknown sample.

Unknown Dye Mixture Identity:

UNKNOWN # 1:
UNKNOWN # 2:
UNKNOWN # 3:

3. As you will notice when the dyes were in a

combination mixture, they lose a small amount of
their migration rate, usually 1-2 mm. What is the
reasoning behind this?

4. What is the function of the Agarose gel?

5. Why is the gel in an electrophoresis buffer (the liquid inside the chamber)?

6. Which dye has the smallest molecules? Explain how you can tell?

7. Describe what is occurring in the gel when the electric current is applied.

8. Do you think restriction enzymes could be used to cut DNA from other organisms?

9. The words BOB and MADAM are called palindromes. What are palindromes? (hint: spell the words
backwards) What do palindromes have to do with the way restriction enzymes cut DNA?

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Bird Beak Activity Name:
6.0 Biology Date: Period:

Background Information:
Survival of the fittest is an everyday
affair in the wild. One of the most
basic needs of all living things is food.
The ability of an animal to get enough
food basically depends on two things:
the type of “tool” the animal has and
the type of food available. The two
factors are dependent upon each other
because without the right tools, animals
can’t get the food, and without the right
types of food, the animals’ tools are
useless. Have you ever been in a
situation with the wrong tools? In this
lab, you will discover how these two
factors interact by using “bird beaks” to pick up various “foods” available to birds.

Purpose: Bring back enough food to your nestlings so they can survive to pass their genetic information on to
the next generation.

Materials:
Beaks: plastic spoon, clothespin, dissecting probe, and binder clips
Plastic Cup “nests” and Xerox box lid “habitat”
Food: gummy slugs, pipe cleaner worms, washer beetles, bean sunflower seeds, marshmallow butterflies

Procedure:
1. The teacher will be the timer for this activity make sure to STOP when time is called.
2. Each student will choose one of the bird beaks to gather food. These may not be traded among birds during
the simulation.
3. Scatter the slugs, worms, beetles, seeds and butterflies into the box lid. Try to spread them out as much as
possible.
4. When the teacher gives the signal, each student picks up food pieces, one at a time, in their beak and brings
it back to the nest for the nestlings.
5. Count and record the number of each type of food gathered on the data sheet for each bird. Do not put the
food back in the box lid, it was removed from the habitat, the nestlings have eaten it.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the food is gone or until all the birds have died. If a bird gets less than fifteen
pieces of food in a round, that bird dies and is out of the game. However once your bird has died you can
come back into the game as a spoonbill bird.
7. At the end of the simulation, empty all of the food from your cups into the box lid and stack all of the cups.
Place bird beaks, cups and food container in the box lid.
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POSTLAB Analysis:
1. Which bird or birds seemed best adapted for picking up:
a. gummy slugs: d. sunflower seeds:
b. pipe cleaner worms: e. marshmallow butterflies:
c. washer beetles:

2. Which bird or birds seemed least adapted to picking up:

a. gummy slugs: d. sunflower seeds:
b. pipe cleaner worms: e. marshmallow butterflies:
c. washer beetles:

You will need pages 491 and 549-551 from your text to help you answer some of the following questions.
3. In this lab, what is the environmental pressure that is affecting natural selection?
4. What is natural variation? How is natural variation demonstrated in this lab?
5. What is meant by fitness? According to your results which bird is most fit?
6. According to your results which type of bird would be most affected if all of the prey went extinct except
for the beans? What is the name of the pattern of evolution where two organisms, like predator and prey,
evolve together?
7. How did Thomas Malthus help Darwin form his theory of evolution? How are Malthus’s ideas supported in
this simulation?
8. What is genetic equilibrium? Explain how this population of birds could reach a state of genetic
equilibrium?
9. What is adaptive radiation? Explain how so many different types of birds could have evolved from a single
ancestor?

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