Control Systems Feedback Principles Mathematical Models

Control Systems
Feedback Principles
Muhammad Farooq Haydar
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Institute of Space Technology, Islamabad
March 29, 2018
M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 1 / 35

Mathematical Models
Feedback design can be counter-intuitive.

Mathematical Models
Design with hit-and-trial can be

I expensive
I dangerous
I inefficient.

Mathematical Models

I expensive
I dangerous
I inefficient.
A model is mathematical approximation of a real system.

Mathematical Models

I expensive
I dangerous
I inefficient.
A model is mathematical approximation of a real system.
A model provides insight into the dynamic characteristics of a system.

Mathematical Models: Linear Differential Equations
In many practical systems, input/output behavior can be approximated

as:
y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = b1 um−1 + ... + bm u. (1)

Mathematical Models: Linear Differential Equations
In many practical systems, input/output behavior can be approximated

as:
y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = b1 um−1 + ... + bm u. (1)
System (1) is time-invariant:

if u(t), y(t) are the solution, then u(t + τ ), y(t + τ ) are also a
solution.

Input/output
x& = Ax + Bu
u
System (1) is also linear: y Linear syst
y = Cx + Du condition a
if u1 (t), y1 (t) and u2 (t), y2 (t) are the solution, then
x (0) = 0 x(0) = 0 to
αu1 (t) + βu2 (t), αy1 (t) + βy2 (t) are also a solution (α, β ∈ R).
For differen
1 1 need to be
like a good
u1 0 y1 0
+
-1
0 5 10 + -1
0 5 10
Linear system
1 0.5 and frequenc
with input am
u2 0 y2 0
2X input ⇒
-1
0 5 10
-0.5
0 5 10 Allows us t
2 2
percen-tag
u1 + u2
y1 + y2
response.
0 0 of input am
-2 -2
Limitation:
0 5 10 0 5 10
holds up to
Figure 1: A demonstraion of the superposition theorem.
M. Farooq Haydar
18 Oct 04
(IST) Control Systems
R. M. Murray, Caltech CDS
March 29, 2018 4 / 35
Mathematical Models: LTI Systems
Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems:

can be fully characterized by a (suitable) single input-output pair, e.g.
step or impulse response.
LTI systems are our main focus in this course.

Mathematical Models: Solutions of Differential Equation
Solutions of ODEs via Laplace Transform

Laplace transforms of a differential equation yields an algebraic
equation.
This algebraic equation can be solved for the unknown functions Y (s),
via manipulation.
The inverse Laplace transform of function Y (s) gives the solution y(t).

Mathematical Models: Solutions of Differential Equation
Example: Find the solution y(t) for
0
y − y = e3t , y(0) = 2.
Solution: Take the Laplace transform
1
sY (s) − y(0) − Y (s) = ,
s−3
and solve for Y (s)

2 1 2 1 1 1
Y (s) = + = − − .
s − 1 (s − 1) (s − 3) s−1 2 s−1 s−3
Now take the inverse Laplace transform

3 1
y(t) = et + e3t .
2 2

Mathematical Models: Homogeneous Solution
The LHS of (1) specifies the homogeneous solution (free response), which
is the solution to
y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = 0. (2)

Mathematical Models: Homogeneous Solution
The LHS of (1) specifies the homogeneous solution (free response), which
is the solution to
y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = 0. (2)
Characteristic Equation:
The solution to the characteristic polynomial
a(s) = sn + a1 sn−1 + a2 sn−2 + ... + an−1 s + an , (3)
is called a pole of the system and describes the homogeneous solution.

Mathematical Models: Homogeneous Solution (contd.)
If sk is a root of the characteristic equation (i.e., pole of the system),

then the solution to the homogeneous equation (2) is
Xn
y(t) = Ck esk t ,
k=1
if there are no multiple/repeated roots.

I Ck are constants determined from the initial conditions.


Xn
y(t) = Ck esk t ,
k=1

A real root/pole corresponds to the (pure) exponential solution esk t .


Xn
y(t) = Ck esk t ,
k=1

A real root/pole corresponds to the (pure) exponential solution esk t .
A complex pair of roots/poles sk = σ ± iω corresponds to oscillatory

solution
e(σ±iω)t = eσt (sin(ωt) + cos(ωt)) .

If the characteristic equation has repeated roots/poles, then the

solution to the homogeneous equation (2) is
Xm
y(t) = Ck (t)esk t ,
k=1
where
I Ck (t) is a polynomial in t and k < m.

2.1. MATHEMATICAL MODELS 2-3
Time Responses: Homogeneous Solution
3
1 1
2
y(t)
y(t)
y(t)
0.5 0.5
1
0 0 0
0 0.5 1 0 2 4 0 0.5 1
Time t Time t Time t
s=0 s = −1 s=1
1 20
1 y(t)
y(t)
y(t)
0 0 0
−1
−1 −20
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time t Time t Time t
s=i s = −0.2 + i s = 0.2 + i
Figure 2.1: Examples of exponential signals. The top row corresponds to exponential signals
with aFigure
real exponent,
2: Time and responses
the bottom rowof corresponds
the roots toofthose with complexequation.
characteristic exponents. The
dashed line in the last two cases denotes the bounding envelope for the oscillatory signals.
In each case, if the real part of the exponent is negative then the signal decays, while if the
Mathematical Models: Transfer Functions
Lets now consider again (1)
y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = b0 um + b1 um−1 + ... + bm u. (4)

This equation is completely described by two polynomials

b(s) = b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + ... + bm−1 s + bm . (6)


b(s) = b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + ... + bm−1 s + bm . (6)
Consider the exponential input u(t) = est , then the output is also an
exponential function y(t) = y0 est .


b(s) = b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + ... + bm−1 s + bm . (6)
Inserting the signals in (4)

sn + a1 sn−1 + ... + an y0 est = b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + ... + bm est .


b(s) = b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + ... + bm−1 s + bm . (6)
Inserting the signals in (4)

sn + a1 sn−1 + ... + an y0 est = b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + ... + bm est .
If a(x) 6= 0
b(s) st
y(t) = y0 est = e = G(s)est = G(s)u(t).
a(s)
Transfer Function
The transfer function of an LTI system
y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = b0 um + b1 um−1 + ... + bm u, (7)
is the rational function

b(s) Y (s) L {y(t)}
G(s) = = = ,
a(s) U (s) L {u(t)}
and completely describes the input/output relation (or forced

response) of the system
y(t) = G(s)u(t).

Transfer Function
The transfer function of an LTI system
is the rational function

b(s) Y (s) L {y(t)}
G(s) = = = ,
a(s) U (s) L {u(t)}
and completely describes the input/output relation (or forced

response) of the system
y(t) = G(s)u(t).
Remember:
A transfer function is only defined for an LTI system!

Mathematical Models: Transfer Functions (contd.)
The Laplace transform of a unit-impulse is 1. Thus the output to a
unit-impulse input is
Y (s) = G(s) · 1 = G(s).
Thus the impulse response of the system is given by (inverse Laplace
transform of) G(s).
Figure 3: The (impulse) input and output response of the system.

Find the transfer function of an integrator,

dy
= u(t).
dt

Find the transfer function of an integrator,

dy
= u(t).
dt
Solution:
*0
sY (s) −
Y (0)
= U (s),
Y (s) 1
= ,
U (s) s
1
=⇒ G(s) = .
s

Find the transfer function of a derivative,

du(t)
y(t) = .
dt

Find the transfer function of a derivative,

du(t)
y(t) = .
dt
Solution:
0
Y (s) = sU (s) −
U (0),
*
Y (s)
= s,
U (s)
=⇒ G(s) = s.

Mathematical Models: Homogeneous + Particular Solution
The full solution to
for an exponential input u(t) = est is
Xm
y(t) = Ck (t)esk t + G(s)est .
k=1

Mathematical Models: Homogeneous + Particular Solution
2-4 CHAPTER 2. FEEDBACK PRINCIPLES
0.2
0.1
Output
−0.1
0 5 10 15
0.5
Input
−0.5
−1
0 5 10 15
Time
Figure 4: Two solutions, with same input. (Particular/forced solution is the same,
Figure 2.2: Two responses of a linear time-invariant system to a sinusoidal input. The dashed
while homogeneous
line shows the outputsolution
when theisinitial
different due toarethechosen
conditions initialsoconditions.)
that the output is purely
sinusoidal. The full lines show the response response for the initial conditions y(0) = 0 and
y′ (0) = 0. The transfer function G(s) = 1/(s + 1)2 .
Review: Fourier Series
Figure 5: Fourier series: Approximation of periodic signals with sinusoidal signals.

Consider a mass-spring system with input u (force)

mẍ + cẋ + kx = F.


mẍ + cẋ + kx = F.
If the force is the input and the position x is the output

1
G(s) = .
ms2 + cs + k


mẍ + cẋ + kx = F.

1
G(s) = .
ms2 + cs + k
For small s, G(s) ≈ k1 . =⇒ x = k1 F (the system behaves as a spring

at low frequency).


mẍ + cẋ + kx = F.

1
G(s) = .
ms2 + cs + k
For small s, G(s) ≈ k1 . =⇒ x = k1 F (the system behaves as a spring

at low frequency).
1 1
For large s, G(s) ≈ ms 2 . =⇒ x = ms2
F (the system behaves as a
mass driven by force).

Convolution
Figure 6: Convolution of an input signal x(t) with the impulse response h(t).

Transfer Functions & Block Diagrams
If g(t) is the impulse response of the system, then convolution integral

of impulse response with the input gives the output.
Z ∞
y(t) = g(t − τ )u(τ )dτ.
0
The Laplace transform of the convolution operation is
Y (s) = G(s)U (s).

Figure 7: Calculation of output from input and the impulse response, both in time
and complex frequency (s) domain. (∗ is the convolution operation.)
Transfer Functions & BlockFEEDBACK
2.2. USING Diagrams TO IMPROVE DISTU
G
u y u
G1 G2
G
y1 = G1 u
y2 = G2 y1
=⇒ y = G2 G1 u
(a) Gyu (s) = G2 (s)G1 (s) (b) Gyu (s) =
Figure 2.3: Interconnections of linear syst

ACK TO IMPROVE DISTURBANCE ATTENUATION
G1 u
Σ
y u y
G2 Σ
G2
)G1 (s) (b) Gyu (s) = GG1 1(s)

y1 = u + G (s)
2
y2 = G2 u (c) Gyu (s
=⇒ y = (G1 + G2 ) u
ANCE ATTENUATION
Transfer Functions & Block Diagrams 2-7
u e y
Σ G1
y
Σ
−G2
s) + G2 (s) y = G1 eG1 (s)

(c) Gyu (s) =
y=G 1 +−GG12(s)G
1 (u y) 2 (s)
G1
=⇒ y = u
Series (a), parallel (b) and feedback
1 + G2(c)
G1 con-
r theM. composite systems can
Farooq Haydar (IST)
be derived by
Control Systems March 29, 2018 26 / 35
Feedback for Disturbance AttenuationCHAPTER 2. FEEDBACK PRIN
r e u y
Σ C(s) Σ P(s)
−1
re 2.4: Block diagram of simple feedback system. The controller transfer functio
and the process transfer function is P(s). The process output is y, the external sig
he reference r and the loadYdisturbance
(s) = P (s) v.
(V (s) − C(s)Y (s))
P (s)
Y (s) = V (s)
1 + P (s)C(s)
ature, blood pressure and other Pimportant (s) variables constant. For ex
Gyv (s) =
pillary reflex guarantees that1 the + P light
(s)C(s)intensity of the retina is reas
nt in spite of large variations inControl
M. Farooq Haydar (IST)
the ambient
Systems
light intensity. Keeping
March 29, 2018
va
27 / 35
Feedback
2-10 for Disturbance Attenuation
CHAPTER 2. FEEDBACK PRINCIPLES
2 2
kp
ωc
1 1
y
y
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
0
0
kp ωc
−0.5 −0.5
u
u
−1 −1
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Normalized time, at Normalized time, at
(a) Proportional control (b) Proportional-Integral (PI) control
Figure 2.5: Step responses for a first-order, closed loop system with proportional control
Figure 8: Disturbance Rejection with Proportional and PI control. (PI control is
(a) and PI control (b). The process transfer function is P = 2/(s + 1). The controller gains
designed
for proportional control are k p =ξ0,=0.5,
with damping-ratio 0.707 and
1 and undamped
2. The natural
PI controller frequency
is designed using equa-
ωction
= (2.19)
0.707,with
1, ζand 2.)
c = 0.707 and ωc = 0.707, 1 and 2, which gives the controller parameters
CHAPTER 2. FEEDBACK PRIN
Feedback for Reference/Command Tracking
v
r e u y
Σ C(s) Σ P(s)
−1
re 2.4: Block diagram of simple feedback system. The controller transfer functio
and the process transfer function is P(s). The process output is y, the external sig
he reference r and the loadYdisturbance v. (R(s) − Y (s))
(s) = P (s)C(s)
P (s)C(s)
Y (s) = R(s)
1 + P (s)C(s)
ature, blood pressure and other important variables constant. For ex
P (s)C(s)
Gyr (s) =
pillary reflex guarantees that1 the + P light
(s)C(s)intensity of the retina is reas
nt in spite of large variations inControl
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light intensity. Keeping
March 29, 2018
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Feedback for Reference/Command Tracking
2.3. USING FEEDBACK TO FOLLOW COMMAND SIGNALS 2-13
1.5 1.5
1 1
y
y
ζc
0.5 ωc 0.5
0 0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
6 3
ζc
4 2
ωc
u
u
2 1
0 0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
Normalized time, ωc t Normalized time, ωc t
Figure 2.6: Responses to a unit step change in the command signal for different values of
Figure 9: Reference Tracking with PI control.
the design parameters ωc and ζc . The left figure shows responses for fixed ζc = 0.707 and
ωc = 1, 2 and 5. The right figure shows responses for ωc = 2 and ζc = 0.5, 0.707, and 1. The
process parameters are a = b = 1. The initial value of the control signal is k p .
Two Degrees of Freedom Control
6. FEEDBACK AND FEEDFORWARD 2-25
Controller
Fu v
uff
r ym e ufb u y
Fm Σ C
− Σ Σ P
−1
Figure 2.18: Block diagram of a closed loop system where the controller has an architecture
Figure
with two degrees 10: TwoThe
of freedom. degrees
desiredofresponse
freedomymcontrol
and thearchitecture.
feedforward signal uff are
generated from the reference r. The feedback controller C acts on the control error e = ym −y
and generates the feedback control signal ufb .

Two Degrees of Freedom Control
26 CHAPTER 2. FEEDBACK PRINCIP
Controller v
−Fv
r u y
Σ C Σ P1 Σ P2
−1
Figure 2.19: Block diagram of a system with a control architecture that combines feedback
Figure 11: Two degrees of freedom control architecture, where disturbance can be
with feedforward from a disturbance v that can be measured.
measured and a correction can be applied.
arranging the equation to compute the relative error gives

dGyr dP CdP 1 dP dP
= − = =S . (2.
Gyr
P 1 +Control
PC Systems
1 + PC P P
March 29, 2018 32 / 35
Feedforward For2.7.Disturbance Rejection
USING FEEDBACK TO SHAPE BEHAVIOR
s
Σ
Primary Output
− G(s)
microphone
Secondary n
Filter
microphone
(a) Schematic diagram
Figure 12: Noise cancellation using feedforward.
Figure 2.20: Schematic and block diagrams fo
Noise Cancellation
Noise cancellation is a common example of the us
M. Farooq Haydar (IST)fects of disturbances.
Control Systems Consider, for example,
March 29, 2018 33a/ pil
35
Magnitude (
-50
Case-100Study
Example:
-150 Satellite Attitude Control
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Frequency (rad/s)
Closed loop step response
1
Amplitude
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (seconds)
Control effort for step response
40
Amplitude
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (seconds)
Figure 4: The Figure 13: loop

closed Step response with two the
bode response, different
unitcontrollers.
step response for the
output, andHaydar
M. Farooq the unit
(IST) step response forSystems
Control the input of the innerMarch loop
29, 2018design
34 / in
35
10 0
Magnitude (
Case Study 10
-10 closed loop
closed loop + prefilter
open loop
Example: Inverted
10 Pendulum -20
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
Closed-loop step response

1.5
1
Amplitude
0.5
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (seconds)
Control effort for step response

0.6
0.4
Amplitude
0.2
-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (seconds)
Figure 9: The closed-loop bode response, the unit-step response for the out-
Figure
put, 14:unit
and the Step
stepresponse
response forwith twoofdifferent
the input controllers.
the inner loop design in
HW B.18.

Control Systems Feedback Principles Mathematical Models

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Control Systems

Muhammad Farooq Haydar

Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics

March 29, 2018

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 1 / 35

Feedback design can be counter-intuitive.

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 2 / 35

Feedback design can be counter-intuitive.

Design with hit-and-trial can be

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 2 / 35

Feedback design can be counter-intuitive.

Design with hit-and-trial can be

A model is mathematical approximation of a real system.

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 2 / 35

Feedback design can be counter-intuitive.

Design with hit-and-trial can be

A model is mathematical approximation of a real system.

A model provides insight into the dynamic characteristics of a system.

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 2 / 35

In many practical systems, input/output behavior can be approximated

y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = b1 um−1 + ... + bm u. (1)

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 3 / 35

In many practical systems, input/output behavior can be approximated

y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = b1 um−1 + ... + bm u. (1)

System (1) is time-invariant:

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 3 / 35

Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems:

LTI systems are our main focus in this course.

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 5 / 35

Solutions of ODEs via Laplace Transform

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 6 / 35

Now take the inverse Laplace transform

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 7 / 35

y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = 0. (2)

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 8 / 35

y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = 0. (2)

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 8 / 35

If sk is a root of the characteristic equation (i.e., pole of the system),

if there are no multiple/repeated roots.

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 9 / 35

If sk is a root of the characteristic equation (i.e., pole of the system),

if there are no multiple/repeated roots.

A real root/pole corresponds to the (pure) exponential solution esk t .

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 9 / 35

If sk is a root of the characteristic equation (i.e., pole of the system),

if there are no multiple/repeated roots.

A real root/pole corresponds to the (pure) exponential solution esk t .

A complex pair of roots/poles sk = σ ± iω corresponds to oscillatory

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 9 / 35

If the characteristic equation has repeated roots/poles, then the

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 10 / 35

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 12 / 35

This equation is completely described by two polynomials

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 12 / 35

This equation is completely described by two polynomials

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 12 / 35

This equation is completely described by two polynomials

M. Farooq Haydar (IST) Control Systems March 29, 2018 12 / 35

This equation is completely described by two polynomials

y n + a1 y n−1 + a2 y n−2 + ... + an y = b0 um + b1 um−1 + ... + bm u, (7)

is the rational function

and completely describes the input/output relation (or forced