UNIT III

PETROLOGY

Classification of rocks, distinction between Igneous, Sedimentary and

Metamorphic rocks. Engineering Properties of rocks. Description, occurrence,

engineering properties, distribution and uses of Granite, Dolerite, Basalt,

Sandstone, Limestone, Laterite, Shale, Quartzite, Marble, Slate, Gneiss and Schist.

1. DEFINE PETROLOGY.

Petrology (from the Greek petra, "rock" and logos, "study") is the branch
of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks.

2. BRIEFLY DESCRIBE ABOUT THE CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS? (NOV/DEC

2014)

The rocks of the crust can be divided into three types, according to their origin. The
types are:(i) Igneous rock ; (ii) Sedimentary rock; and (iii) Metamorphic rock.

Igneous Rocks:

Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus meaning of fire) forms through
the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Typically, the melting of rocks is
caused by one or more of three processes:

 an increase in temperature
 a decrease in pressure or
 a change in composition.

 Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories: plutonic

rock and volcanic.

 Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and

crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust. A common example of this type
is granite.

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  Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface
as lava, forming minerals such as pumice or basalt.

Sedimentary Rocks:

 Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the

accumulation and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks,
minerals, and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic
growths in water (sedimentation).

 This process causes clastic sediments (pieces of rock) or organic particles

(detritus) to settle and accumulate, or for minerals to
chemically precipitate (evaporate) from a solution.

 The particulate matter then undergoes compaction and cementation during at

moderate temperatures and pressures (diagenesis).

 Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are
deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and may be
referred to as stratified rocks.

 A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show

cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where
another layer eroded the first as it was laid at top the first. They are called un-
stratified rocks.

Metamorphic Rocks:

 Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—

sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to
different temperature and pressure conditions than those in
which the original rock was formed. This process is
called metamorphism; meaning to "change in form".

 The original rock, known as the protolith, transforms into other mineral
types or else into other forms of the same minerals, such as
by recrystallization.
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  The temperatures and pressures required for this process are
always higher than those found at the Earth's surface: temperatures
greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures of 1500 bars.

The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation
mechanism.

 An intrusion of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact

metamorphism—a temperature-dominated transformation.
 Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under the
ground; pressure is dominant and temperature plays a smaller role. This is
termed burial metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as jade.
 Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is termed
regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building
regions.

Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories.
Those that possess a texture are referred to as foliated; the remainder are
termed non-foliated.

 The name of the rock is then determined based on the types of minerals
present. Schist are foliated rocks that are primarily composed of lamellar
minerals such as micas.

 A gneiss has visible bands of differing lightness, with a common example

being the granite gneiss. Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic
rocks include marble, soapstone, and serpentine.

3. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND

METAMORPHIC ROCKS.

Metamorphic
S.no Description Igneous Rock Sedimentary Rock
Rock
1 On basis of It is formed by hot molten It is formed by It is formed by
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 1. Weathering 1. Heat
2. Transportation 2. Pressure
formation magma / lava 3. Deposition 3. Chemically
4. Consolidation Active Fluid

1.Crystalloblastic
texture
1.Fine = 1mm 2.Porphyroblastic
2.Medium =1mm to 5 mm 1.Fine = 1mm texture
On basis of
2 3.Coarse = > 5mm 2.Medium = 1mm to 5 mm 3.Granolithic
Texture
4.Porphyritic texture 3.Coarse = > 5mm texture
5.Poikilitic texture 4.Palimpbest
texture

I). Intrusive I.R

1.Thermal
i) Concordant I.R
Metamorphism
a) Sills
2.Dynamic
b)Phacolith
Metamorphism
c)Lacolith
1. Clastic 3.Plutonic
Mode of ii) Disconcordant I.R
3 2. Chemical Metamorphism
occurrence a)Dykes
3. Organic 4.Metasomic
b)Volcanic neck
Metamorphism
c)Batholith
5. Dynamo-
II). Extrusive I.R
Thermal
a)Flow
Metamorphism
b) Pyroclastic
4 On basis of Primary Structure Primary Structure 1.Cataclastic
Structure i) Those which are caused I)Mechanical Structure Structure
by Mobility a) Stratification / bedding 2. Maculose
a) Flow Structure b) Lamination & cross Structure
b) Pillow Structure lamination 3. Granulose
c) Blocky & Rophy Structure c) Ripple mark Structure
d) Spherulitic Structure d) Rain mark 4. Foliated
e) Orbicular Structure e) Joints/ cracks Structure
ii) Those which are caused by II) Chemical Structure 5. Schistose
Surroundings a)Concretionary Structure Structure
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 b)Pisolitic Structure
c) Oolitic Structure
d) Geode Structure
III) Organic Structure
a)Rift & grain Structure
a) Vesicular Structure
b)Tension joint/ columnar 6. Slaty Structure
b) Miarolitic Structure
Structure

Secondary Structure
a) Shear zone
b) Faults/ break
Silica, Alumina,
Chemical Silica, Alumina, Iron Oxide, Iron Oxide, Magnesia,
5 Iron Oxide,
Composition Magnesia, Lime. Lime.
Magnesia, Lime.

1. Acidic Rock
Mineral 2. Basic Rock
6 ---- ----
Composition 3. Intermediate Rock
4. Ultra Basic Rock

A) Plutonic Rock
i)Granites
ii) Pegmatite 1. Breccias 1. Gneisses
iii) Syneites 2. Conglomerates 2. Schists
iv)Diorites 3. Sandstone 3. Phyallites
7 Examples
v) Gabbros 4. Shale 4. Slate
B) Hypabyssal Rock 5. Limestone 5. Quartize
vi) Dolerites 6. Dolostone 6. Marble
C) Volcanic Rock
vii) Basalt
8 Uses 1.It has very high Crushing 1. It is used for Natural 1. It is used for
strength reservoir & ground water road construction.
2.Satisfactory rock for all supply
type of construction work
3.Porosity = 0.1 to 0.5
4.Absorption value = 0.5 to 1.20
5.Bulk Density = 2.7 g/cc

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 6.Colour = Light colour

4. EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS IN DETAIL.

Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneous meaning of fire) forms
through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Typically, the melting of
rocks is caused by one or more of three processes:

 an increase in temperature
 a decrease in pressure or
 a change in composition.

The Classification of igneous rocks are based on the following considerations;

 Classification based on depth of formation or origin

 CIPW classification or chemical classification
 Mineralogical classification
 Textural classification
 Tabular classification

(i) Classification based on depth of formation or origin

Based on the depth of formation, igneous rocks are classified into; Plutonic rocks,
Hypabyssal rocks and volcanic rocks.

# Plutonic Rocks/ Intrusive Rocks:

 Rocks formed from magma at deep seated layer in earth generally at the depth of 7-10 km
below the surface of earth.

 Magma can either cool slowly (over centuries to millions of years) within the crust—forming
intrusive igneous rock.
# Hypabyssal Rocks:
Rocks formed close to surface of earth generally upto 2 kms from the surface of
earth. Ex. Porphyries

# Volcanic Rocks/ Extrusive Rocks:

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  Rocks formed from lava on earth surface by cooling and crystallization of lava
erupted from volcanoes.

 The magma erupt onto the surface and cool quickly (within seconds to years)—
forming extrusive igneous rock.

 The Deccan trap of India is the best example.

(ii) CIPW classification or chemical classification

 In this classification, a standard set of minerals called norm is selected.

Chemical composition of a given rock is ultimately expressed in terms of these
normative minerals.

 The relative abundance of different groups of normative minerals is taken as a

basis for dividing the rock into classes, subclasses and order etc.

a) The Norm

 It is set of standard minerals of calculated chemical composition. The norm

minerals are divided into two groups namely, Salic and Femic minerals.

 The salic minerals are: Quartz, feldspars orthoclase, albite and anorthite,
leucite, nephelite, corundum, zircon and halite etc.

 The Femic minerals are: Acmite, diopside, hypersthenes, olivine, magnetite,

chromite, hematite, pyrite, rutile, etc.

b) Nomenclature

In the C.I.P.W. classification,the igneous rocks are divided into five classes, which
have been named according to salic/femic mineral ratio.

S.No Salic/Femic ratio Class Name

1 >7.00 Persalic

2 7-1.66 Dosalic

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 3 1.66-0.60 Salfemic

4 4 0.60-0.14 Dofemic
5 <0.14 Perfemmic

(iii) Mineralogical classification

 The mineralogical composition of an igneous rock is actually an expression of

the chemical composition of the parent magma and cooling history of the
rock.

 This can also form, therefore a sound basis for classifying the igneous rocks.

 It has been observed over wide areas that only a few minerals make bulk of
igneous rocks.

These are called rock-forming minerals and are divided into two main classes:

 The Felsic Minerals

 The Mafic Minerals

1) The felsic Minerals: These are generally light in colour and lower in density and
include:quartz,feldspar group and felspathoid group of minerals

2) The Mafic Minerals: These are dark in colour, comparatively heavier in density and
contain ferromagnesian minerals such as amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas, olivine, oxides of
iron etc

Based On % Silica Composition:

Acidic rock: over saturated (>66%) eg. Granite and rhyolite Intermediate rock: saturated
(50-66%) eg. Dacite and andesite

Basic rock: under saturated (40-50%) eg. Gabbro and basalt

Ultra basic rock: under saturated (>40%) eg. Picrite, komatit and perioditite

Based On Colour Index:

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 Rock division Colour Colour index Ex
Leucocratic Light colour 1-30 Granite
Mesocratic Medium colour 31-60 Gabbro
Melanocratic Dark colour 61-100 Peridotite

(iv) Textural classification (APR/MAY 2015)

 Phanerites: These are coarse grained (average size greater than 5 mm) in which all
the consitutent minerals are indentified. eg. Granite
 Porphyrites: The igneous rocks are coarse grains embedded in fine matrix of
minerals(grain size less than 1 mm).eg. Basalt
 Aphanerites(glasses): Igneous rocks in which all the minerals are present in
practically uncrystallized or glassy texture. eg. Obsidian

(V) Tabular Classification

Saturated Under Saturated

Over Saturated
Rock Basic
Intermediate Ultra Basic
Class ACID (Free
(Free Silica (Free Silica
(Free Silica >66%) Silica
55-66%) <44 %)
44-55%)
Plutonic Granite Syenite Gabbro Peridotite
Granite Syenite Gabbro
Hypabassal Limburgite
Porphyry Porphyry Porphyry
Volcanic Rhyolite Trachyte Basalt Olivine Basalt

5. GIVE A NOTE ON SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AND EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF

FORMATION.

Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the accumulation

and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms or
as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water (sedimentation).
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 This process causes clastic sediments (pieces of rock) or organic particles (detritus)
to settle and accumulate, or for minerals to chemically precipitate (evaporate) from
a solution.

Mode of formation:

 Weathering and erosion

 Transportation of sediment
 Deposition

WEATHERING AND EROSION:

 Rock existing on the surface of the earth is exposed to weathering and
disintegration by the action of natural agencies like atmosphere, water and ice
on them.
 The original hard and coherent rock bodies are gradually broke down into
smaller and still smaller fragments, grains and particles.
 The disintegrated, loosened material so formed and accumulated near the
source is called detritus.
TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENTS:
 The detritus produced from the decay and disintegration of the pre-existing
rocks forms the source of the sedimentary rocks.
 The wind, running water and ice in the form of glaciers are the very important
and common agents of transport for carrying millions of tones of sediments
and particles from one place to another.
GRADUAL DEPOSITION:
 The sedimentations are formed by weathering are transported to settling basins.

 These basins may be located in different environments such as continent, along the
seashore or deep sea environment.

6. EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN DETAIL.

There are two major groups, 1. Clastic rocks 2. Non-clastic rocks

CLASTIC ROCKS:
Clastic rocks mainly comprise broken fragment of older rock. The broken fragments
of pre-existing rocks are ranging in size from minute particles to very large boulders.
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They are 3 groups,
1. Rudaceous
2.Arnaceous
3.Argillaceous
Rudaceous(Rudites):
 Rocks are formed by the accumulation of bigger fragments such as gravels, pebbles,
boulders
 If the grains are rounded it is called conglomerate
 If they are annular they are called breccias
Arnaceous(Psamites):
 The rocks are composed of sand grains
 If the individual grains are rounded it is called sandstone
 If the grains are rounded it is called grit
Argillaceous(Pelites):
 These rocks are made up of fine grained sediments
 Shale and mudstone are typical examples of argillaceous rocks
Some Other Clastic Rocks:
Arkose: The amount of feldspar is present in sandstone the rock is called arkose
Graywacks: The sandstone contain some quantity of clay as well as angular quartz grains.

NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

These are sedimentary rocks which are formed by Chemical precipitation of minerals
from water or by accumulation of remains of animals and plants. It can be classified
into two groups. 1. Chemically formed rocks. 2. Organically formed rocks.
Chemically formed rocks are further divided into,
1. Carbonate rocks. 2. Salt rocks. 3. Ferruginous rocks. 4. Silicious rocks.
Organically formed rocks are further divided into,
1. Bio-chemically rocks. 2. Organically formed rocks.
(i) CHEMICALLY FORMED ROCKS:
Carbonate Rocks:
 These are precipitated from carbonate rich waters under different conditions
that control the concentration of carbon dioxide.

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  Limestone and dolomite are most abundant rocks. They are formed by
chemical precipitation of CaCO3 from sea water.
Salt Rocks (Evaporites):
 These may be treated as distinct class of sedimentary rocks formed by the
process of evaporation.
 The salt deposits formed by the evaporation of saline lakes are called
“evaporates”. Examples: Rock salt, anhydrite, gypsum.
Ferruginous Rocks:
This groups includes those which are formed by the chemical precipitation of Fe2O3.
Such rocks contains a high proportion of iron-bearings minerals. They are known as bog-
iron ores.
Siliceous Deposit:
In which silica is the chief constituent. Siliceous rocks formed when silica is
precipitated in water. Eg: Flint, Chert, Ag.
(ii) ORGANICALLY FORMED ROCKS:
Bio-Chemical Rocks:
Shells accumulate on the oceans floor in great quantities to form rocks Eg: Shell,
Limestone.
Carbonate Rocks:
It has been formed by gradual accumulation and compaction of shells and skeleton
of sea organisms.
Phosphatic Deposists – Guano:
Guano is the name given to small volumes of phosphatic composition that are
accumulation of excreta of some birds and hence they are organic in origin.
These birds live on island and mostly eat fish. Their excreta naturally contain high
content of phosphate salt.

Carbonaceous Rocks:
Sedimentary rocks rich in carbon are called as carbonaceous rocks. In their
formation, the source materials of carbon are mainly derived from plants.

TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

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TEXTURE:

 Texture means the size and the shape and arrangement of grains in rocks.

 Grains size in important of factor of the description of sedimentary rocks of factor of

the description of sedimentary rocks.

TEXTURE BASED ON GRAINSIZE ROCKTYPE

SHAPE

Pebble >10mm Conglomerate

Gravel 2mm to 10mm

Sand 0.1mm to 2mm Sandstone

Silt 0.01mm to 0.1mm Silt stone

Clay <0.01mm Clay

TEXTURE BASED ON GRAIN SIZE:

1. Coarse Grained: Average grain size > 5mm

2. Medium Grained: Average grain size 1mm to 5mm

3. Fine Grained: Average grain size < 1mm

Textural and mineralogical composition is great importance for determining the nature of
environment.

EXAMPLE: Shale indicates low energy and organic rich environment [lagoon].

7. WHAT ARE METAMORPHIC ROCKS? WHAT ARE THE FACTORS

AFECTING METAMORPHIC ROCKS?

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 Metamorphic rocks are formed from older rocks when they are subjected to
increased temperature, pressure and shearing stresses.

AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM /FACTORS AFFECTING METAMORPHIC

ROCKS:

1. Temperature
2. Pressure
3. Chemically fluids and gases
TEMPERATURE

 Rocks are made up of minerals that are stable at temperature below 2000°C.

 However, when the temperature around these rocks changes due to one reason to
other, the minerals composition of the rocks undergoes some changes in the order to
adjust the new temperature.

Two common sources of heat for such a metamorphism to take place are

 Internal heat
 Magmatic heat

 The internal heat becomes operative when the rocks formed at surface are pushed
downwards due to some geological process where they have to withstand the higher
temperature.

 Similarly, the rocks around the margins of intrusions are suffer sudden and
enormous change in their temperature.

PRESSURE:

 Many metamorphic changes are induced due to the pressure factor whereas in great
majority of cases pressure is the important factor.

 Any given rock at some depth below the surface is subjected to pressure from two
sources:

o Load from overlying burden

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 o Crustal movements

 The first type of pressure acts generally in a vertical direction and the process of
changes in the structure of the rock is called as load metamorphism.

 The pressure from organic activity is generally lateral or horizontal is called as

directed pressure.

CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT:

 Presence or absence of chemical active fluids within the body of rocks or around
them plays very important role in the all types of metamorphism.

 With the rise in temperature, the pore fluids undergo expansion and become very
active in disturbing and breaking the original crystals boundaries of the involved
minerals.

 New minerals are created that are stable in the changed conditions. This process is
called crystallization.

 Sometimes fluids present around the rocks also come in contact with them at
elevated temperature and react with the minerals within the rocks producing many
changes in their composition and structure.

 This type of changes is called metasomatism.

8. EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS IN DETAIL.

 Classification of metamorphic rocks is based on mineral assemblage, texture,

protolith, and bulk chemical composition of the rock.

 Textures of metamorphic rocks fall into two broad groups, FOLIATED and NON-
FOLIATED.

 Foliation is produced in a rock by the parallel alignment of platy minerals (e.g.,

muscovite, biotite, chlorite), needle-like minerals (e.g., hornblende), or tabular
minerals (e.g., feldspars).
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 This parallel alignment causes the rock to split easily into thin layers or sheets.

 Foliation is common in aphanitic as well as phaneritic metamorphic rocks.

 Some foliated rocks are also banded. Banding means that the rock consists of
alternating, thin layers (typically 1 mm to 1 cm) of two different mineral
compositions.

 Normally, the two types of layers have the same kinds of minerals, but in different
proportions, giving the rock a striped appearance. Banding, by itself, defines a
foliation.

 In order of increasing grain size, foliated textures are referred to

as SLATY, PHYLLITIC, SCHISTOSE.

 The corresponding rock types are called SLATE, PHYLLITE, and SCHIST. These
rocks are not normally banded.

 The composition of the rock is uniform throughout the volume of the rock. The
banded, foliated texture is referred to as GNEISSOSE. The corresponding rock type
is GNEISS.

 As the term implies, NON-FOLIATED rocks lack foliation or banding. Such rocks
are most commonly composed of minerals that are neither platy nor needle-like, but
rather more equidimensional.

 Quartz, calcite and dolomite are the most common such minerals. In phaneritic
rocks the texture is referred to as GRANOBLASTIC.

 Common granoblastic rocks included QUARTZITE (quartz), and MARBLE (calcite

or dolomite).

 The textures of some metamorphic rocks do not fit neatly into any of these
categories.

 In such cases, where the protolith is obvious because the texture of the protolith is
well preserved, the prefix "META" is simply used in front of the protolith name,

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 e.g., METAGRANITE, METABASALT, METAWACKE, METACONGLOMERATE,
etc.

9. EXPLAIN THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS IN DETAIL.

(NOV/DEC 2014) (NOV/DEC 2015)

The Engineering properties of rocks to be tested in laboratory, to find their

suitability to be used as building stones, road metal or concrete aggregate are listed below;

1. Uniaxial compressive strength

2. Tensile strength
3. Hardness
4. Water absorption capacity
5. Porosity
6. Abrasion coefficient
7. Toughness index
8. Specific gravity
9. Weathering resistance index

UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

It is also known as crushing strength of a stone. It is defined as the maximum force

expressed per unit are, which a stone can withstand without rupturing. It is expressed as C o.

Co = Load at failure/ Load bearing surface area = P/A

Where,

P – Load at failure

A – Area of cross section of sample

The stone specimen of standard size is placed on the base plate of UTM and load is
applied gradually. The loading is continued till the first crack appears in the test specimen,
indicating beginning of failure. Any further loading will crush the specimen.

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INDIRECT (BRAZILIAN) TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

 Although rocks are much weaker in tension than in compression or shear, tensile
failure also plays an important role in some engineering activities (e.g. drilling,
cutting and blasting of rocks).

 Tensile behavior of different rock formations can vary considerably, and neglecting
such a parameter may overestimate the efficiency of the formation.

 A laboratory technique to measure the tensile strength of rocks is the indirect tensile
tests.

 A cylindrical specimen is loaded diametrically across the circular cross section. The
loading causes a tensile deformation perpendicular to the loading direction, which
yields a tensile failure.

 By registering the ultimate load and by knowing the dimensions of the specimen, the
indirect tensile strength of the material can be computed.

 The indirect tensile strength is measured in accordance with the procedures given in
ASTM D3867 - Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength.

HARDNESS

 The hardness of a material is resistance to penetration under a localized pressure or

resistance to abrasion.

 Hardness tests provide an accurate, rapid and economical way of determining the
resistance of materials to deformation.

 Place the specimen on the lower table & lift it up slightly. Adjust the zero fixed value
at the bottom side of the lower cross head.

 Increase the load slowly ultimate load value is obtained. Then release the load slowly
with left control valve.

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  Get the impression of a suitable value of five to ten millimeter on the specimen &
measure the diameter of the impression correctly by microscope & calculate
hardness.

WATER ABSORPTION CAPACITY

 Water absorption capacity of a rock specimen refers the ability of that rock to absorb
water at a given time and temperature.

 In this test, A known weight of sample (w 1) was immersed in water for three days at a
temperature of 20 to 30˚C. Weight of the sample (w2) after 3 days was taken. Now,

 Water absorption capacity = [ (w2 - w1) / w1 ] x 100 (%)

ABRASION TEST

 Abrasion coefficient is defined as the resistance offered by the stone against rubbing
action.

 The test sample and the abrasive charge should be placed in the Los Angles abrasion
testing machine and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 revolutions/minute
for 1000 revolutions.

 At the completion of the test, the material should be discharged and sieved through
1.70mm IS Sieve.

 The proportion of loss between weight before (A) and weight after (B) of the test
sample should be expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the test sample.
This value should be reported as,

Aggregate abrasion value = (A-B)/B x 100%.

TOUGHNESS INDEX

 Toughness index refers to the resistance offered to the number of blows of load from
a constant height applied to the stone specimen without undergoing failure.

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  The cup of the impact testing machine should be fixed firmly in position on the base
of the machine and the whole of the test sample placed in it and compacted by 25
strokes of the tamping rod.

 The hammer should be raised to 380mm above the upper surface of the aggregates
in the cup and allowed to fall freely onto the aggregates.

 The test sample should be subjected to a total of 15 such blows, each being delivered
at an interval of not less than one second. The sample should be removed and sieved
through a 2.36mm IS Sieve. The fraction passing through should be weighed (Weight ‘B’).
The fraction retained on the sieve should also be weighed (Weight ‘C’) and if the total weight
(B+C) is less than the initial weight (A) by more than one gram, the result should be
discarded and a fresh test done. The ratio of the weight of the fines formed to the total
sample weight should be expressed as a percentage.

Aggregate impact value = (B/A) x 100%

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity of a material is defined as the ratio of weight of the sample in air to
that of an equal volume in water. The specific gravity of the sample can be determined using
pycnometer. Empty weight of pycnometer (W1) was taken. Put the sample in pycnometer
and take its weight (W2). Add known volume of water with sample and take weight (W3).
Remove water and sample from the pycnometer and take the same amount of water in
pycnometer and take weight (W4).

Specific gravity = {(W2 – W1) / [ ( W4 – W1) – (W3 – W2)]}

10. EXPLAIN THE COMMON TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS, ITS ENGG

PROPERTIES, COMPOSITION, TEXTURE, DISTRIBUTION AND USES.

GRANITE: (APR/MAY 2015)

Granite may be defined as plutonic light coloured igneous rocks. These are among
igneous rocks. The word granite is derived from latin word granum meaning grains
Description: Granite is a hard and resistant acid igneous rock having free silica greater
than 66% in composition.
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Origin: plutonic

Colour: leucocratic (light colour)

Texture: phaneritic, porphyritic. Granite are generally coarse to medium grains.

Mineral composition:

Essential minerals: quartz and feldspar

Accessory minerals: mica or hornblende

Occurrence: Granite occurs as massive batholiths

Varieties:

Granite are named according to the main accessory minerals For instance, when
white mica, muscovite is present as a prominent accessory mineral, then the granite is
called as muscovite- granite. Similarly, when both the muscovite and biotite is present in
almost equal amounts as accessory minerals, it is called as muscovite-biotite.

Occurrence: They commonly occur as major extrusive bodies such as batholiths and
stocks ans as intrusive bodies like sills.

Engineering Properties:


Compressive strength – 1000 to 2500 Kg/cm2

Density of granite – 2550 to 2650 Kg/m3

Water absorption capacity – 0.5 to 1.2 %

Uses: Granite finds extensive use in architectural and massive construction where they are
found abundance. These rocks have been extensively used in monuments, columns and
steps in buildings.

DOLERITES: (APR/MAY 2015)(NOV/DEC 2015)

These are igneous rocks of hypabyssal origin having formed as shallow sills and
dykes. They may be regarded as gabbros of plutonic origin and basalts of volcanic origin.
The term diabase is also used for dolerites.

21
Origin: Hypabyssal

Colour: Melanocratic

Texture: Ophitic and porphyritic. They are mostly medium and fine grained rocks.
Mineral composition:

Essentially minerals: calcic plagioclase

Accessory mineral: augite, olivine and iron oxide

Occurrence: sills and dykes of doleritic composition have been recorded at many places
associated with magmatioc activity.

Engineering Properties:

Uniaxial Compressive Strength of dolerite: 1500 to 3500 Kg/cm3

Uses: crushed stone and as ornamental stone

BASALT:

Basalt are volcanic igneous rocks formed by rapid cooling of lava flows from
volcanoes either over the surface or under water or ocenic floors.
Origin: volcanic igneous rocks(extrusive rocks)

Colour: melanocratic

Texture: fine grained

Mineral composition:

Essential mineral: calcic, plagioclase feldspar

Accessory mineral: augite, olivine, hornblende and iron oxide

Varieties:

olivine rich- basanite Olivine free- zepherite

Occurrence:

22
i. Occurs oceanic divergent boundaries

ii. Occurs at oceanic hotspots

iii. Mantle plumes and hotspot beneath continents

Engineering Properties:


Compressive strength of basalt: 1500 to 3500 Kg/cm2

Porosity of basalt: 0.1 to 1 %

11. EXPLAIN THE COMMON TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, ITS ENGG

PROPERTIES, COMPOSITION, TEXTURE, DISTRIBUTION AND USES.

SANDSTONE (APR/MAY 2015) (NOV/DEC 2015)

Definition: Sandstones are mechanically formed sedimentary rocks. These are mostly
composed of sand grade particles that have been compacted and consolidated together in
the form of beds in basins of sedimentation.

Origin: mechanically formed

Texture: clastic (fine to medium grained)

Mineral composition: quartz, feldspar, mica, garnet, magnetite

Colour: Sandstones naturally occur in a variety of colours: red, brown, grey and white
being the most common colours. The colour of sandstone depends on its composition,
especially nature of the cementing material.

Types:

1. Based on type of building material

2. Based on mineralogical composition

Alkose- rich in feldspar

Greywacke- rich in fragments of granite

23
Flagstone- rich in mica

Freestone: It is a massive variety of sandstone that is rich in quartz.

3. Based on type of binding material

a. Siliceous sandstone: Silica is the cementing material in this sandstone. Sometimes the
quality of siliceous cement is so dense and uniform that a massive compact and
homogeneous rock is formed. This is named QUARTZITE.

b. Calcareous sandstone : These varieties of sandstones in which carbonates of calcium and

magnesium are the cementing materials.

c. Ferruginous sandstone : As the name indicates, the cementing materials is an iron oxide
compound.

d. Argillaceous sandstone : These are the soft varieties of sandstone because the cementing
material is clay that has not much inherent strength.

Uses:
Masonry
Pavement material

Flooring
Wall facing material

Engineering Properties:


Uniaxial Compressive Strength: 200 to 2000 Kg/cm2

Porosity – 5 to 25%

Distribution: Next to shales, sandstone are the most abundant sedimentary rocks found
in the upper 15km of the crust and make an estimated 15 percent of total sedimentary rocks
of the earth.

LIMESTONE: (NOV/DEC 2015)

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Definition: These are the most common sedimentary rocks from the non-clastic group
and are composed chiefly of carbonate of calcium with subordinate proportions of
carbonate of magnesium.They are formed both bio-chemically and mechanically.

Origin: bio-chemically and mechanically

Texture: non-clastic

Mineral composition: calcite, dolomite, quartz, feldspar minerals

Types:
(i) Chalk: It is the purest form of limestone characterized by fine grained earthy texture.
Common colour of chalk is white.

(ii) Shelly Limestone: It is also called fossiliferous limestone, it has a rich assemblage of
fossils that are fully or partly preserved. When the limestone is made up entirely of fossils, it
is termed coquina.

(iii) Argillaceous Limestone: These limestones contains clay as a significant

constituent and are clearly of allochthonous origin. When the clay and carbonate factions
are present in almost equal proportions, the rock is termed marl.

(iv) Lithographic Limestone: These are compact massive homogeneous varieties of

pure limestones that find extensive use in lithoprinting.

(v) Kankar : It is common nodular or concretionary form of carbonate material formed by

evaporation of subsoil water rich in calcium carbonate just near the soil surface.

(vi)Calc-sinter: It is a carbonate deposit formed by precipitation from carbonate rich

spring waters.

Formation:

1. Biothermal limestone Which occur in the form of reefs or mounds and are actually
transformed deposits of corals and similar sea organism. These are highly fossiliferous.

2. Biostromal limestone These are sheet like accumulations of biological deposits that
may have single or complex types of organisms involved in their formation.

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3. Pelagic limestone These are formed from accumulations of limy secretions of floating
type of sea organisms.

Uses:
Primary source in Portland cement

In metallurgical industries as flux

Occurrence: Limestone and dolomites are among the most common non clastic
sedimentary rocks forming mountains and hills extending over several hundred kilometers
at a stretch in many region of the world.

LATERITE: (NOV/DEC 2015)

Laterite is a residual deposit, formed due to weathering in humid climatic

conditions. These are made up of clay minerals and iron oxides

Colour: Red, brown or yellow in colour

Origin: Residual sedimentary in origin

Texture: Porous and concretionary in texture

Mineral composition: Clay minerals, silica and iron oxide

Varieties:

1) Laterite: When iron rich

2) Bauxite: When alumina rich

Occurrence: laterite occurs as the residual deposits in mantle over bed rock.

Uses:

 Bauxite is used as the raw material for manufacture of aluminum metal

 Used in electrical and cemical industries

SHALE:

26
 Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock of argillaceous composition. Shales are
generally characterized with a distinct fissility parallel to the bedding planes and are made
up of very fine particles of silt grade and some extent of clay.

Origin: compaction and consolidation of silt and clay minerals

Texture: fine grained

Mineral composition: quartz, clay minerals and oxides of iron

Structure:
(*) Fissibilty: Shales are characterized with a distinct property of fissbility which may be
defined as tency of a rock to spilt into flat, shell like fragments parallel to bedding.

(*) lamination : Shales also show lamination or depositions in very thin layers. The
lamina or the layers range in thickness from 0.05 to 1 mm depending upon the environment
of deposition.

Types:
1. Based on origin

Residual Shales: These are formed from decay and decomposition of pre-existing rocks
followed by compaction and consolidation of the particles in adjoining basins without much
mixing.
Transported shales: These are the deposits of clastic minerals of finer dimensions
transported over wide distance before final settlement in basins of depositions.
Hydrid Shales: In such shales, materials derived both clastic sources and non-clastic
sources especially those from organic sources make up the rock.

2. Based on mineralogical composition

Quartz Shales: They are rich in free quartz content.

Felspathic shales: in which feldspars and clay minerals predominate; silica becomes a
secondary constituent.

Chlorite shales: In these shales, minerals of chlorite group and clay group make the bulk
of the shales.
27
Micaceous Shales: These are rich in muscovite mica and other flaky minerals.

3. Based on predominant group

Siliceous shales Calcerous shales Ferruginous shales Carbonaceous shales

Formation:

Shales are formed from compaction and consolidation of sediments of silt and clay graded
minerals.

Uses:
Manufacture of bricks

Place source for paraffin

Distribution: Of all the sedimentary rocks occurring on the surface of the earth, shales are
the most predominat forming 70-80 % of this group.

12. EXPLAIN THE COMMON TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS, ITS ENGG

PROPERTIES, COMPOSITION, TEXTURE, DISTRIBUTION AND USES.
GNEISS:
A gneiss is a megascopically crystalline foliated metamorphic rock characterized by
segregation of constituent of minerals into layers or bands of contrasting colours, texture
and composition.

Origin: Gneisses of all varieties are generally the result of advanced stages of
metamorphism of a variety of parent rocks such as sandstones, conglomerates and granites.

Nature: it is coarse grained, irregularly banded, metamorphic rocks and light in colour

Texture: coarse crystalline texture

Structure: gneissose. By the texture and structure, it can be called as augen-gneiss. Show
a typical cataclastic structure in which the hard minerals are flattened and elongated.

28
Mineral composition: quartz, feldspar, mica, amphiboles, pyroxenes
Types:
Ortho- gneiss: They are formed as a result of metamorphism of granites and other
igneous rocks.

Para- gneiss : These are formed from the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks like
sandstones

Banded: Gneiss in which the tabular and flaky minerals are segregated in very
conspicuous bands of alternative dark and light colours.

Augen gneiss: It is a gneissic rock formed as a result of dynamic metamorphism of

granites and sedimentary rocks showing a typically cataclastic structure. In this rock
stronger minerals are elongated in the form of lense- like form under operating stress.

Uses:
Roofing material

Monuments

Flooring materials

QUARTZITE:

Quartzite is granular metamorphic rocks formed due to contact and dynamic

metamorphism of sandstone

Origin: It is formed by recrystallization of pure sandstone by the influence of contact and

dynamic metamorphism.

Texture: granular

composition: quartz, mica, feldspar and some amphiboles

Types:
Orthoquartzite- Sedimentary rocks of similar composition but having different origin, in
which quartz grains are cemented together with siliceous cement.
Paraquartzite – In metamorphic quartzite, the grains are fused together in such a way

29
that when subject to heavy loads they fracture through the grains.
Uses:
Crushed quartzite is used in railway ballast

Decorative stones

MARBLE: (APR/MAY 2015)

Definition: Marble is essentially a granular metamorphic rocks composed of

recrystallisated limestone. It varies from finely sachhroidal to highly coarse grained.

Origin: Marble is formed from contact metamorphism of carbonate group of sedimentary

rocks;pure white marble results from pure limestone; coloured marbles from those
limestones that have some impurities.

Nature: recrystallised by limestone

Texture: fine to coarse grain

Structure: granulose

Mineral composition: calcite, olivine, serpentine, garnet

Types:
pink marble, white marble, black marble, Dolomitic marble

Uses: used for making sculpture and building stone

SLATE:
Definition: Slate is an extremely fine grained metamorphic rock characterized by a salty
cleavage by virtue of which it can be readily split into thin sheets having parallel smooth
surfaces. The salty cleavage is due to parallel arrangement of platy and flaky minerals of the

30
slate under the dominant stress operating during the process of metamorphism.

Origin: Slate is a product of low grade regional metamorphism of argillaceous rocks like
clays and shales.

Clays/shales-(dynamo thermal metamorphism)-----slates When the slate is

subjected to further action of dynamo thermal metamorphism, recrystallisation leads to the
development in number and size of some minerals, especially micas. Such metamorphic
rocks with conspicuous constituents and general slaty appearance are termed PHYLLITES.
The phyllites on further metamorphism change into rocks called SCHISTS that show
megascopically crystalline texture and foliated structure.

Nature: fine grained metamorphic rocks

Texture: fine grained

Structure: -slaty

Mineral composition: mica, chlorite, oxide of iron

Uses:
Roofing slabs

Slate tile used in interior and exterior.

Electrical insulators , fireproof material, switch board, electrical motor.

SCHIST:
Definition: Schist are megascopically crystalline foliated metamorphic rocks
characterized by a typical schistose structure.

NATURE: Foliated metamorphic rocks. Flaky and platy minerals arranged in parallel or
subparallel layers or bands.

TEXTURE: coarsed crystalline, porphyroblastic, lineation.

31
STRUCTURE: schistose

MINERAL COMPOSITION: mica, chlorite, hornblente, tremolite, actinolite,, kyanite.

VARITIES:
1. Based on predominant of minerals

Muscovite schists, biotite-schists, sericite-schist, tourmaline-schist etc.

2. Based on degree of metamorphism

a)Low-grade schists: Formed under conditions of regional metamorphic at low

temperature. These are rich in minerals like albite, muscovite and chlorite that are unstable
at high temperature. Mica schist, chlorite-schist and talc-schist are a few examples from
this group.

b) High grade schist.: These are formed under conditions of regional metamorphism
and are rich in minerals that are stable at high temperature such as andalusite, cordierite,
garnet, staurolite and sillimanite etc. Garnet-schists, cordierite-schists and staurolite-
schists are common examples.

USES:
Rarely used as building material in flooring and garden decoration

32
 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. DEFINE PETROLOGY.

Petrology (from the Greek petra, "rock" and logos, "study") is the branch
of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks.

2. HOW ARE THE ROCKS CLASSIFIED?

 Igneous rocks
 Sedimentary rocks
 Metamorphic rocks

3. DEFINE IGNEOUS ROCKS.(NOV/DEC 2015)

Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus meaning of fire) forms through
the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Typically, the melting of rocks is
caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in
pressure or a change in composition.

4. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS?

 Plutonic rocks
 Volcanic rocks

5. WHAT ARE PLUTONIC ROCKS?

Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly
within the Earth's crust. A common example of this type is granite.
33
6. WHAT ARE VOLCANIC ROCKS?

Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface as lava,
forming minerals such as pumice or basalt.

7. DEFINE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.(NOV/DEC 2014)

Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the

accumulation and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals,
and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water
(sedimentation).

8. DEFINE DIAGENESIS.

The particulate matter undergoes compaction and cementation during at

moderate temperatures and pressures it is known as diagenesis.

9. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS?

 Stratified rocks
 Un-stratified rocks

10. WHAT ARE STRATIFIED ROCKS?

Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in
horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and may be referred to as stratified
rocks.

11. WHAT ARE UNSTRATIFED ROCKS?

A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show cross
bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another layer eroded the
first as it was laid at top the first. They are called un-stratified rocks.

12. DEFINE THE TERM METAMORPHISM. (OR) HOW THE

METAMORPHIC ROCKS ARE FORMED? (MAY/JUNE 2014)

34
 Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary
rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to
different temperature and pressure conditions than those in which the
original rock was formed. This process is called metamorphism; meaning to
"change in form".

13. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF METAMORPHISM?

 Temperature dominated transformation

 Burial metamorphism
 Regional metamorphism

14. WHAT ARE THE CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS BASED ON

DEPTH OF FORMATION?

 Plutonic rocks
 Hypabyssal rocks
 Volcanic rocks.

15. WHAT ARE THE CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK FORMING MINERALS OF

IGNEOUS ROCKS?

Rock-forming minerals and are divided into two main classes: The Felsic Minerals and
The Mafic Minerals
16. HOW THE IGNEOUS ROCKS ARE CLASSIFIED BASED ON TEXTURE?

 Phanerites
 Porphyrites
 Aphanerites

17. LIST SOME FORMS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS.

 Columnar joints
 Flow structure
 Pillow structure
 Rift and grain
 Vesicular structure

35
18. LIST SOME OF THE INTRUSIVE FORMS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS.

 Sills
 Lacsolith
 Lopolith
 Dykes
 Batholith

19. WHAT IS THE MODE OF FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS?

 Weathering and erosion

 Transportation of sediment
 Deposition

20. WHAT IS THE MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS?

 Clastic rocks
 Non-Clastic rocks

21. WHAT ARE THE THREE GROUPS OF CLASTIC ROCKS?

1. Rudaceous
2.Arnaceous
3.Argillaceous

22. WHAT IS THE CLASSIFICATION OF NON-CLASTIC ROCKS?

It can be classified into two groups. 1. Chemically formed rocks. 2. Organically

formed rocks.

Chemically formed rocks are further divided into,

1. Carbonate rocks. 2. Salt rocks. 3. Ferruginous rocks. 4. Silicious rocks.

Organically formed rocks are further divided into,

1. Bio-chemically rocks. 2. Organically formed rocks.

36
23. LIST SOME MECHANICAL STRUCTURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.

1. Stratification
2. Bedding plane
3. Lamination
4. Graded bedding
5. Current bedding

24. LIST SOME CHEMICAL STRUCTURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.

 Concretionary structure
 Nodular structure
 Geode structure

25. WHAT ARE THE AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM?

1. Temperature

2. Pressure

3. Chemically fluids and gases

26. WHAT ARE THE PROCESSES IN METAMORPHISM?

i. Recrystallization

ii.Neometamorphism

iii. Metasomatism

27. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF METAMORPHISM?(NOV/DEC2016)

1. Contact metamorphism.

2. Cataclastic metamorphism

3. Plutonic metamorphism

4. Dynamic metamorphism/ lord metamorphism.

5. Dynamo thermal metamorphism

28. HOW METAMORPHIC ROCKS ARE CLASSIFIED?

37
  Foliated rocks
 Non-foliated rocks

29. WHAT ARE THE STRUCTURAL FORMS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS?

1. Gneissose structure

2. Schistose structure

3. Maculose structure

4. Cataclastic structure

5. Granulose structure

30. WHAT ARE THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS?

10. Uniaxial compressive strength

11. Tensile strength
12. Hardness
13. Water absorption capacity
14. Porosity
15. Abrasion coefficient
16. Toughness index
17. Specific gravity
18. Weathering resistance index

31. DEFINE UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH.

It is also known as crushing strength of a stone. It is defined as the maximum force

expressed per unit are, which a stone can withstand without rupturing. It is expressed as C o.

Co = Load at failure/ Load bearing surface area = P/A

32. DEFINE WATER ABSORPTION CAPACITY.(APR/MAY2016)

Water absorption capacity of a rock specimen refers the ability of that rock to
absorb water at a given time and temperature.

33. DEFINE ABRASION COEFFICIENT.

38
 Abrasion coefficient is defined as the resistance offered by the stone against
rubbing action.

34. DEFINE TOUGHNESS INDEX.

Toughness index refers to the resistance offered to the number of blows of load
from a constant height applied to the stone specimen without undergoing failure.

35. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GRANITE AND MARBLE. (MAY/JUNE 2010)

GRANITE MARBLE
Granite may be defined as plutonic light Marble is essentially a granular
coloured igneous rocks. These are among metamorphic rocks composed of
igneous rocks. recrystallisated limestone.
Texture: phaneritic, porphyritic. Texture: fine to coarse grain

36. LIST ANY TWO SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCS.

(MAY/JUNE 2010)

Sedimentary rocks: Sandstone, Limestone, Laterite

Metamorphic rocks: Marble, Gneiss, Schist

37. GIVE FOUR EXAMPLES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. (APR/MAY 2011)

 Sandstone
 Limestone
 Laterite
 Shale

38. WRITE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRECCIAS AND

CONGLOMERATES.

 Rocks are formed by the accumulation of bigger fragments such as gravels, pebbles,
boulders
 If the grains are rounded it is called conglomerate
 If they are annular they are called breccias

39
39. WRITE ABOUT MINERAL COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES, ORIGIN AND
USES OF BASALT. (NOV/DEC 2009)

Origin: volcanic igneous rocks(extrusive rocks)

Mineral composition:

Essential mineral: calcic, plagioclase feldspar

Accessory mineral: augite, olivine, hornblende and iron oxide

Engineering Properties:


Compressive strength of basalt: 1500 to 3500 Kg/cm2

Porosity of basalt: 0.1 to 1 %

40. WHAT IS MEANT BY RMR? WRITE ITS SIGNIFICANCE (NOV/DEC

2014)

The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) System is a geomechanical classification system

for rocks. It combines the most significant geologic parameters of influence and
represents them with one overall comprehensive index of rock mass quality. It is used
for the design and construction of excavations in rock, such as tunnels, mines, slopes
and foundations.

41. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN GNEISS AND SCHIST. (NOV/DEC 2014)

GNEISS SCHIST
A gneiss is a foliated metamorphic rock Schist are foliated metamorphic
characterized by segregation of constituent rocks characterized by a typical
of minerals into layers or bands schistose structure.

Structure: gneissose. STRUCTURE: schistose

42. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON ROCK CYCLE. (MAY/JUNE 2014)

40
 The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes the active transitions
through geologic time among the three main rock types: sedimentary, metamorphic,
and igneous. The rocks are continually changing from one type to another and back
again, as forces inside the earth bring them closer to the surface (where they are
weathered, eroded, and compacted) and forces on the earth sink them back down
(where they are heated, pressed, and melted). So the elements that make up rocks are
never created or destroyed — instead, they are constantly being recycled.

41