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Microbial Waste Management

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 Acknowledgement
The author would like to put on record her sincere thanks to Dr. Ashok K.
Chauhan, Founder President, Ritnand Balved Education Foundation for his
motivation, support and guidance to promote research in Amity Institute of
Microbial Biotechnology. Sincere thanks to Mr. Atul Chauhan, Chancellor,
Amity University Uttar Pradesh, for always motivation to keep abreast of
the latest findings and support offered during the course of authoring this
book. My special thanks to the seniors and faculty colleagues who have
been instrumental in the successful completion of this book. I wish to
record a special word of thanks to my friends Dr. Sarika Saxena, Dr. Kirti
Rani Sharma, Dr. Prachi Bhargava and Dr. D. D. Joshi for their sincere
concern and unflinching support at all the times.
The task could have not been accomplished without the inputs from my
students Ms. Rajshree Saxena and Ms. Sonali Gupta who helped me in the
preparation of the manuscript.
No words can suffice to describe the patience, love, cooperation and
encouragement tended by my parents for completing this task. I wish to
record special thanks to my husband Mr. Vishal Kumar Singh and children
Kunal and Daksh for their encouragement and unconditional moral
support, without which I could never have accomplished this project.
A special thanks to LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing team for
smooth execution of all the steps of publication on time.

Rajni Singh
 Preface
Human activities through the past few decades for global development
have lead to generation of massive amount of waste and caused a deep
impact on the environment including soils, groundwater as well as open
water bodies across the globe. Different types of wastes include - organic
solid waste, industrial solid wastes, liquid waste, inert waste biomedical
wastes, hazardous wastes, metal waste, nuclear waste etc.
Solid wastes may though seem to be the most ordinary forms of wastes,
but they could be responsible for many problems such as spread of
diseases and emission of green house gases. The management of solid
waste depends upon major financial and logistical resources to collect,
separate, transport and transfer, process, recycle and arrange final disposal.
The degradable organic matter from these wastes when dumped in open
undergoes either aerobic or anaerobic degradation. Combustion of waste is
also a widely practiced method. Combustion involves technologies as
incineration, pyrolysis, thermal gasification or plasma arc. However all
these practices are either not economical or difficult to manage? In this
scenario, waste degradation by microorganisms gain tremendous
importance.
Degradation of organic substances by means of microorganisms constitutes
the carbon cycle of nature that allows recycling and reuse of carbon
throughout the biosphere. Bacteria facilitate the chemical process of
breaking down organic matter by converting the inputs into carbon
dioxide, water, heat (energy), water soluble mineral forms of nutrients,
ammonium and humus (ligno proteins). The ammonium is further
converted by bacteria into plant-utilizable nitrites and nitrates through the
process of nitrification. This process fulfils several waste management
purposes as handling of waste, stabilization, volume reduction, sanitation
by thermal inactivation of pathogens, utility and marketability of products
and leave residues causing least impact on environment. Stabilization of
waste results in production of material as compost that which does not
possess any foul odor, does not putrefy, and is a serves as a rich source of
carbon and nitrogen for the soil.
In nature, microorganisms do not live isolated in a certain space and time;
they coexist with many different microorganisms establishing relationships
that have an effect in the biological adequacy of all interacting species.
They are present as highly interactive communities called consortia that
are bound to surface or near surface of the earth in flocs, biofilms or
granules. These flocs or biofilms provide a heterogeneous environment to
the bacteria where they survive in compatibility to each other as a group.
Thus it is increasingly apparent that in nature, bacteria function less as
individuals and more as coherent groups that are able to inherent multiple
ecological niches. Hence there has been considerable interest in developing
cultivation independent methods to study microbial communities.
Environmental protection or biodegradation involve process comprising
multiple microbial consortia and it is individual consortium performance,
rather than individual strain performance.
The book “Microbial Waste Management” covers all aspects related to
waste as type of waste, its generation, various handling techniques, and it
also offers a complete solution to the biodegradation of waste by
exploitation of microorganisms. It includes the integrated waste
management scheme that focus on green waste management, viz,
techniques that would cause least environmental impact. Different aerobic
and anaerobic pathways that the microbes adopt for the degradation of
various types of waste result in formation of different types of products
have been discussed at large. It also focuses on the easiest and safest way
for the degradation of various kinds of non hazardous and hazardous
wastes by microorganisms present naturally and/or bioengineered.
This book thus works as a complete guide to the waste management
techniques and offers complete solution to the various types of waste
related queries.
 Microbial Waste Management

Chapter 1 Introduction 1-12

Chapter 2 Classification of waste 13-28

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Characteristics and Classification of waste
2.2.1 On the basis of matter
2.2.2 On the basis of degradation property
2.2.3 On the basis of environmental impact
2.2.4 On the basis of source of generation
2.3 Solid waste Generation
2.4 Conclusion
2.5 References

Chapter 3 Waste management practices 29-53

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Waste Hierarchy
3.2.1 Reduction of waste (Waste minimization)
3.2.2 Reuse
3.2.3 Recycling
3.2.4 Comparison of reuse to recycling
3.3 Waste Management
3.3.1 Monitoring:
3.3.2 Cooperation
3.3.3 Collection:
3.3.4 Transportation:
3.3.5 Waste disposal, processing recycling and recovery
3.4 Techniques of waste management
3.4.1 Landfill
3.4.2 Thermal Treatment
3.4.3 Composting (Biological reprocessing)
3.5 Integrated waste management
3.5.1 Energy recovery from waste (Waste to Energy)
3.5.2 Basic techniques of energy recovery
3.5.3 Impact of global WTE capacity on reducing landfill emissions
3.6 Green Waste management
3.7 Conclusion
3.8 References
Chapter 4 Solid Waste Management Techniques 54-87
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Dumps and Landfills
4.2.1. Dumps
4.2.2. Controlled dumps
4.2.3. Landfill
4.3 Thermal Treatment
4.3.1Open burning
4.3.2Incineration
4.3.3Pyrolysis and Gasification
4.3.4 Plasma Arc technology
4.3.5 Supercritical water decomposition
4.4 Composting (Biological reprocessing)
4.4.1 Types of composting
4.4.2 Benefits of Composting
4.5 Conclusion
4.6 References

Chapter 5 Liquid Waste Management Techniques 88-118

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Impact of Effluent Waste
5.2.1 Environmental impacts
5.2.2 Health impacts
5.2.3 Economic impacts
5.3 Characterization of Liquid Waste
5.3.1 Origin of Waste
5.3.2 Destination:
5.3.3 Content
5.3.4 Treatment
5.4 Liquid waste Management Strategy
5.5 Methods of Liquid Waste/ Waste water Treatment
5.5.1 Preliminary Treatment
5.5.2 Primary Treatment
5.5.3 Secondary Treatment
5.5.4 Tertiary treatment
5.6 Disinfection and Aeration
5.7 Conclusion
5.8 References
Chapter 6 Role of Microbes in waste management 119-141
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biodegradation
6.2.1 Principle of Biodegradation
6.2.3 Metabolism Modes of Microbes
6.2.4 Aerobic digestion
6.2.5 Composting
6.2.6 Anaerobic Digestion
6.3 Microbes in waste treatment
6.4 Microbes in Environment
6.4.1 Factors affecting Microbial Activity in Environment
6.4.2 Acclimatization of Microbes
6.4.3 Temperature
6.4.4 Nutrients
6.5 Microorganisms in treatment of various types of waste
6.6 Conclusion
6.7 References
Chapter 7 Anaerobic digestion of waste 142-159
7.1 Introduction
7.2 History
7.3 Anaerobic Digester
7.3.1 Design of anaerobic digester
7.3.2 Types of Digesters
7.3.3 Mechanism of anaerobic digestion
7.3.4 Role of different variables in the design of anaerobic digester
7.4 Applications of anaerobic Digestion
7.4.1 Recovery of energy
7.4.2 Byproducts of anaerobic digestion
7.4.3 Livestock Manure
7.4.4 Organic Manure
7.4.5 Potential biogas yield
7.4.6 Utilization of Biogas and Digestate
7.5 Conclusion
7.6 References

Chapter 8 Aerobic Digestion of waste 160-181

8.1 Introduction
8.2 History
8.3 Aerobic Digestion Process
8.4 Factors affecting aerobic digestion
8.5 Aerobic Sludge Digestion
8.5.1 Kinetics of aerobic sludge digestion
8.5.2 Activated sludge process (endogenous respiration)
8.5.3 Optimization of aerobic sludge digestion
8.5.4 Operational parameters
8.6 Aerobic digester.
8.6.1 Design of aerobic digesters
8.6.2 Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs)
8.7 Operational Issues
8.8 Applications of aerobic digestion
8.9 Conclusion
8.10 References

Chapter 9 Microbial consortia for waste management 182-192

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Characteristics of microbial consortia
9.3 Microbial consortia in waste management
9.3.1. Biodegradation of hydrocarbon
9.3.2. Biodegradation of herbicides, pesticides and insecticides
9.3.3 Biodegradation of paints and dyes
9.4 Conclusion
9.5 References
 Chapter 1
Introduction

The most meaningful activity in which a human can be engaged is one

that is directly related to human evolution. This is true because human

beings now play an active and critical role not only in the process of

their own evolution but in the survival and evolution of all living beings.

Awareness of this places upon human beings a responsibility for their

participation in and contribution to the process of evolution. If

humankind would accept and acknowledge this responsibility and

become creatively engaged in the process of metabiological evolution

consciously, as well as unconsciously, a new reality would emerge, and a

new age would be born."

Jonas Salk

1.1 Introduction
The economic well being of a nation depends on its industrial, agricultural and
infrastructure development. Human activities through the past few decades for this
global development has been accompanied with booming population, rapid
urbanization, encroachment of fertile area and extreme exploitation of nature and its
resources as whole. All these factors collectively have lead to generation of massive
amount of waste and caused a deep impact on the environment including soils,
groundwater as well as open water bodies across the globe. The world population has
reached an enormous of 7 billion people this year and it is estimated that by 2030 the
world population will be around 8.6 billion. China leads as the most populated
country with 1.3 billion people, India comes next with 1.2 billion, United States

1
follows with a population of 310.2 million, followed by Indonesia with a population
of 242.9 million and Brazil with 201.1 million. The global population is increasing at
an average of one percent per year. This booming population leads to rapid
urbanization, encroachment of fertile area and extreme exploitation of nature and its
resources as whole. The economic well being of a nation depends on its industrial,
agricultural and infrastructure development. In course of this global development all
these factors collectively lead to generation of massive amount of waste and cause a
deep impact on the environment including soils, groundwater as well as open water
bodies across the planet.
Waste refers to unwanted residues or byproducts of any process that are usually
perceived as of negative value, and not required at the place where it is produced. It is
the substance or object which the producer or the person in possession of it, discards
or intends or is required to discard. Waste includes all items that people no longer
have any use for, which they either intend to get rid of or have already discarded.
Additionally, wastes are such items which people are require to discard, for example
by lay because of their hazardous properties. Many items can be considered as waste
e.g., household rubbish, sewage sludge, wastes from manufacturing activities,
packaging items, discarded cars, old televisions, garden waste, old paint containers
etc. Waste is generated in a variety of forms, and can also change its form over time.
Solid waste includes common household waste (including kitchen and garden waste),
commercial and industrial waste, sewage sludge, construction and demolition waste,
waste from agriculture and food processing, and mine and quarry tailings. Liquid
waste includes domestic wastewater (liquid kitchen, laundry, and bathroom waste),
storm water, used oil, and waste from industrial processes. Gaseous waste comprises
gases and small particles emitted from open fires, incinerators, and vehicles, or
produced by agricultural and industrial processes. Once released, the effects of these
gases and particles are hard to control. Hazardous waste is solid, liquid, or gaseous
waste that poses a risk to human health and the environment. It includes paint,
medical waste, used oil, solvents, electronic waste, and toxic gases. Thus all our daily

2
activities can give rise to a large variety of different wastes arising from different
sources.
Few definitions of waste are:
• The Basel convention: Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed or
are intended to be disposed or are required to be disposed of by the provisions
of national laws.
• The United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD): Wastes are materials that are
not prime products (that is products produced for the market) for which the
generator has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production,
transformation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes
may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw
materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final
products, and other human activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the place
of generation are excluded.
• The legal definition of waste in the UK is derived from the EU Waste
Framework Directive. In basic terms a waste is anything which you decide to,
or are required to, throws away. Even if the substance or article is given to
someone else to be reused or recycled, it is still legally considered to be waste
if it is no longer required by the person who produced it.
• The New Zealand Waste Strategy: "Any material, solid, liquid or gas, that is
unwanted and/or unvalued, and discarded or discharged by its owner".
Waste is directly linked to human development, both technological and social.
The compositions of different wastes have varied over time and location, with
industrial development and innovation being directly linked to waste materials. The
generation of waste represents a loss of resources, and the management of waste
places pressure on the environment in terms of air and water quality, and land take-
up. As already stated the increasing population is not only related with development
of nations, their prosperity but also with the waste accumulation and increased
exploitation of various resources. The quantity of waste produced by the world’s

3
population amounted to more than 12 billion tones in 2006, estimated to rise to 13
billion tones in 2011. This figure is expected to rise further up to 18 billion tones by
2020. On a global scale, calculating the amount of waste being generated presents a
problem. There are a number of issues; including a lack of reporting by many
countries and inconsistencies in the way countries report (definitions and surveying
methods employed by countries vary considerably). The Basel Convention has
estimated the amount of hazardous and other waste generated for 2000 and 2001 at
318 and 338 millions tonnes respectively. These figures are based on incomplete
reports from the parties to the Convention. Compare this with the almost 4 billion
tonnes estimated by the OECD as generated by their 25 member countries in 2001
(Environmental Outlook, OECD) and the problems of calculating a definitive number
for global waste generation are obvious. Therefore the figures shown below should be
used with caution

Box 1.1
• Over 1.8 billion tonnes of waste are generated each year in Europe. This
equals to 3.5 tonnes per person. This is mainly made up of waste coming
from households, commercial activities (e.g., shops, restaurants, hospitals
etc.), industry (e.g, pharmaceutical companies, clothes manufacturers etc.),
agriculture (e.g., slurry), construction and demolition projects, mining and
quarrying activities and from the generation of energy. With such vast
quantities of waste being produced, it is of vital importance that it is
managed in such a way that it does not cause any harm to either human
health or to the environment.

4
From the above data, it is clear that, in recent years, there has been a sharp increase in
the solid waste generation throughout the globe and estimates indicate that generation
rates are set to double over the next 25 years. Despite the increasing urbanization and
industrialization, the economic activity of the region remains predominantly
agricultural and, as a consequence, generates substantial quantities of agricultural
wastes. However, much of the waste is utilized within rural communities through
composting, direct land application, biogas generation or is used as construction
materials. Available data on the quantity and types of solid waste generated, and the
methods employed in the treatment and disposal of generated waste, are incomplete,
inconsistent and unreliable due to wide variations in data recording, definitions,
collection methods and seasonal variations (World Bank 1999). Whilst at a regional
level this mitigates against a clear view of the overall status and trends, at the local
level the lack of robust data acts as a barrier to the development and implementation
of efficient and cost-effective waste management practices.
Whilst most of the region’s municipal waste continues to be indiscriminately dumped
on open land, land filling, controlled incineration and composting are increasingly
being employed. Industrial solid waste generation rates vary from country to country
and even within a country depending upon the nature of the active industries. Open
dumping, land filling and incineration are the major disposal processes of industrial
solid waste. Generation of hazardous waste from manufacturing, hospital and health-
care facilities and nuclear power and fuel-processing plants is rising and has been
estimated to more than double within next 10 to 15 years time. The region’s capacity
for adequately managing the disposal of such wastes is extremely limited, particularly
when additional wastes enter the region through the dumping activities of some
industrialized nations. Over the forthcoming five to ten years, the region faces many
waste management challenges that will require clear and effectively implemented
policies and strategies. Efforts to develop inter-regional discussions on joint
strategies and common approaches are continuing although individual countries will
need to address specific issues associated with the current lack of long-term planning,

5
proper policy formulation, insufficient government priority, lack of finance, lack of
skilled personnel; lack of public awareness and public participation, inadequate
legislation and institutions and poor monitoring and enforcement. These have led to
escalating environmental pollution and health problems in the region and, in the long
term, may have implications for the continued economic development of the region.
Waste is not only unsightly; it can also pollute our water, air, and land unless it is
adequately managed. Waste of all types can affect human health and the
environment. The effects can be direct, such as high levels of air pollution that causes
respiratory problems or indirect, such as contaminants in soils that reduce the
productivity of land or affect the quality of food. Inert wastes, such as those produced
by earthworks, building, and demolition activities, do not usually affect the
environment significantly. Some waste can produce hazardous substances that cause
asthma and other respiratory diseases, bacterial illnesses, birth defects, and cancer.
Some hazardous waste, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), can be
especially toxic. Persistent organic pollutants remain in the environment for long
periods, are widely dispersed – usually by water or wind – and accumulate in the
fatty tissue of people and animals. There are a number of different options available
for the treatment and management of waste including prevention, minimization, re-
use, recycling, energy recovery and disposal. Under EU policy, land filling is seen as
the last resort and should only be used when all the other options have been
exhausted, i.e., only material that cannot be prevented, re-used, recycled or otherwise
treated should be land filled.
Hazardous and non-hazardous waste present risks to the environment. The
environmental impacts that have been most closely associated with waste
management are, for example:
• greenhouse effect (e.g. methane emissions from landfill sites),
• pollution of ground and surface water,
• soil contamination,

6
 • additional health impacts from odour, noise (e.g. waste transport) and nature
deterioration.
• Moreover, the proper treatment of waste is an economic burden on industry,
municipalities and households and creates in itself secondary waste – mostly
hazardous waste.
However, evidence from the region indicates that environmental awareness and
consciousness of waste is taking roots in industry and business. Australia, Japan,
Republic of Korea and Singapore are leading in the waste management area by not
only actively pursuing environmental protection through proper institutions and
legislation but also developing new and innovative technologies for waste disposal.
Countries like People’s Republic of China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan,
Philippines and Thailand have also made good progress in waste management
practices. Multi-lateral and bi-lateral development agencies (including various United
Nations agencies (UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO, WHO, ESCAP), World Bank, ADB, and
some donor countries) are offering both technical and final assistance for waste
disposal in countries of the region. There is however, a need to intensify efforts
towards development of indigenous capabilities in the countries of the region in terms
of expertise, equipment manufacture, process technology guidelines, design,
construction installation, operation and maintenance of waste treatment/disposal and
pollution abatement facilities.
Box 1.2
Every year, about 55 million tones of municipal solid waste (MSW) and 38 billion
liters of sewage are generated in the urban areas of India. In addition, large quantities
of solid and liquid wastes are generated by industries. Waste generation in India is
expected to increase rapidly in the future. It is estimated that the amount of waste
generated in India will increase at a per capita rate of approximately 1-1.33%
annually. This has significant impacts on the amount of land that is and will be
needed for disposal, economic costs of collecting and transporting waste, and the
environmental consequences of increased MSW generation levels.

7
Waste is the by-product of economic activity. Waste can be generated at different
times during the material life cycle: when raw natural resources are extracted or
harvested; when goods are manufactured or services produced; and when goods are
packaged, transported, and consumed. Waste generation can indicate the inefficient
use of resources. Historically, the relationship between the amount of waste generated
and economic growth has meant that the greater the wealth, the greater the
consumption of goods and services (and the resources used to produce these), and the
more waste produced. A 40 per cent increase in Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) gross domestic product since 1980 has been
accompanied by a 40 per cent increase in municipal waste over the same period
(Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development, in Ministry for the
Environment, 2002).
Internationally, a key goal is to ‘decouple’ waste generation from economic growth.
Waste generation can be decoupled by:
• increasing the resource efficiency of goods and services by using fewer
resources in production
• decreasing the resource intensity in the production of goods and services
through improved processes, designs, and materials.
The efficient use of our valuable natural resources saves us money, reduces our
impact on the environment, and ensures that our goods and services are competitive.
The avoidance of waste generation is more economical than paying for waste to be
reused, recycled, or treated and managed to final disposal.
It is important to note that, the environmental ideals that guide the identification of
sound practices are not always embodied in a particular sound practice. This is due to
the fact that, beyond a certain point, additional investments in environmental
improvement are likely to lead to diminishing returns. Therefore, rather than striving
for absolute avoidance of pollution or risk to human beings, policy makers should
direct resources where they would yield the greatest return to society. For example,
while MSWM decision makers may strive to capture the recyclable components in

8
the waste stream and to minimize the environmental damage done by the handling
and final disposition of waste, sound practice will require that resources be allocated
in a way that seeks the balanced achievement of all of society's goals. In practice, a
level of spending on environmental improvements can be reached where the
environmental benefits from any further spending would be less than the benefits
from investing more in education, roads, or hospitals. That said, the enormous
problems posed by MSW remain, and it is the purpose of this section to suggest what
practices tend to make sense, when viewed in the broader context. Since general
guidance and the experience of others can be extremely useful in assessing and
adjusting current MSWM practices and in planning new systems, this book will
identify sound practices in a variety of MSWM activities.
Management capabilities, project financing, and economic assessment are all
important when dealing with urban infrastructure issues, including MSWM. There
are sometimes situations in which the difficulty experienced by urban managers in
planning and directing concrete projects in a cost-effective way may overshadow the
need for technical solutions to MSWM problems. In other cases, there is a tendency
for MSWM decisions to be made without sufficient planning, to take into account
only some aspects of a situation, to be based on a short-term view of the situation, or
to be influenced by the interests of political elites. Overcoming these tendencies will
greatly facilitate the identification of the best solution in a given circumstance.
It is important to note that, the environmental ideals that guide the identification of
sound practices are not always embodied in a particular sound practice. This is due to
the fact that, beyond a certain point, additional investments in environmental
improvement are likely to lead to diminishing returns. Therefore, rather than striving
for absolute avoidance of pollution or risk to human beings, policy makers should
direct resources where they would yield the greatest return to society. For example,
while MSWM decision makers may strive to capture the recyclable components in
the waste stream and to minimize the environmental damage done by the handling
and final disposition of waste, sound practice will require that resources be allocated

9
in a way that seeks the balanced achievement of all of society's goals. In practice, a
level of spending on environmental improvements can be reached where the
environmental benefits from any further spending would be less than the benefits
from investing more in education, roads, or hospitals. That said, the enormous
problems posed by MSW remain, and it is the purpose of this section to suggest what
practices tend to make sense, when viewed in the broader context. Since general
guidance and the experience of others can be extremely useful in assessing and
adjusting current MSWM practices and in planning new systems, this book will
identify sound practices in a variety of MSWM activities.
Management capabilities, project financing, and economic assessment are all
important when dealing with urban infrastructure issues, including MSWM. There
are sometimes situations in which the difficulty experienced by urban managers in
planning and directing concrete projects in a cost-effective way may overshadow the
need for technical solutions to MSWM problems. In other cases, there is a tendency
for MSWM decisions to be made without sufficient planning, to take into account
only some aspects of a situation, to be based on a short-term view of the situation, or
to be influenced by the interests of political elites. Overcoming these tendencies will
greatly facilitate the identification of the best solution in a given circumstance.

10
 Box 1.3

• Some international businesses, such as Wal-Mart in America, recognise the

benefits of resource efficiency and have adopted zero-waste targets
(Economist: Science Technology Quarterly, 2007).
• The New Zealand Waste Strategy recognises the benefits that can be
achieved by using our natural resources more efficiently. In particular, the
strategy supports the ‘waste hierarchy’-‘5Rs’ of reduction, reuse, recycling,
recovery, and management of residual waste. Under this hierarchy, reduction
in the amount of waste generated is put ahead of all other forms of waste
management.
• In 2003, public expenditure on waste management in New Zealand amounted
to $218 million, or about 0.16 % of gross domestic product (GDP). The
management of wastewater cost an additional $603 million, or 0.45 % of
GDP. Since 2001, the operation and maintenance of facilities for managing
waste and wastewater have accounted for about 58 % of the total expenditure
on waste and wastewater, with local authorities accounting for 99 % of that
figure (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2007

This book aims to give practical guidance to urban managers in developing countries
and countries with economies in transition regarding sound practices available for
management for various types of solid and liquid wastes. By discussing and assessing
current practices, it seeks to clarify the conditions under which specific technologies
and policies are most appropriate for use in developing countries. The entire arena
under discussion, from waste minimization to final disposal, is connected in
numerous ways to many other environmental, economic, and social issues; most of
the answers in waste management have broader implications.

11
1.2 References:

• ENVIS Urban Municipal Waste Management Newsletter (Sponsored by:

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi) 12th
Issue • September, 2008.
• Environment New Zealand. (http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/ser/enz07-
dec07/chapter-6.pdf)
• European Topic Centre on sustainable consumption and Production.
(http://scp.eionet.europa.eu/themes/waste)
• J Gustavsson, C Cederberg and U Sonesson. Global Food Lossesand Food
Waste, The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology, Save Food
Congress, Düsseldorf 16 May 2011

12
 Chapter 2
Classification of waste

“Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course. Human

activities inflict harsh and often irreversible damage on the

environment and on the critical resources. If not checked, many of

our current practices put at serious risk the future that we wish for

human society and the plant and animal kingdoms, and may so alter

the living world that it will be unable to sustain life in the manner

that we know. Fundamental changes are urgent if we are to avoid the

collision our present course will bring about.”

World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity, 1992

2.1 Introduction
Waste is an unavoidable by-product of most human activity. Economic development
and rising living standards around the globe have led to increases in the quantity and
complexity of generated waste, whilst industrial diversification and the provision of
expanded health-care facilities have added substantial quantities of industrial
hazardous waste and biomedical waste into the waste stream with potentially severe
environmental and human health consequences.
Before beginning to tackle the issue of waste management, it is important to have a
basic understanding of what waste is and to be aware of the types of waste stream.
For effective-management and disposal of hazardous waste, waste classification is an
essential pre-requisite.

2.2 Characteristics and Classification of waste

13
 Waste can exist as solid, liquid, gas or waste heat. Waste is classified by its
source and by its properties. Waste products differ according to their type and source:
household, industry, hospitals, agriculture etc. Basically waste comprises of four
sources of generation- municipal waste, industrial waste, biomedical waste and
electronic waste. An initial approach consists in identifying waste according to its
source, such as distinguishing between household waste and industrial waste,
hazardous and nonhazardous waste, degradable, biodegradable and nondegradable
waste, a distinction essential for defining the most suitable treatment procedures.
Waste can be classified into diverse varieties on the basis of matter, source of
generation, degradation pattern, environmental impact etc.
Different classifications of wastes
2.2.1 On the basis of matter
• Solid wastes
Domestic, commercial and industrial wastes especially common as co-disposal
of wastes. Examples: plastics, styrofoam containers, bottles, cans, papers, scrap
iron, medical waste, e waste and other trash
• Liquid Wastes:
Wastes in liquid form. The release of unwanted waste material into water
systems. Examples: Effluents from various industries as petrochemicals,
distillaries, thermal power plants, domestic washings, chemicals, oils, waste,
water from ponds, manufacturing industries and other sources
• Air emissions:
The release of unwanted waste into the air. This includes combustion by-
products from cars, factories, and power plants. This also includes the release
of volatiles from manufacturing processes.
2.2.2 On the basis of degradation property
• Bio-degradable - can be degraded (paper, wood, fruits and others)
• Non-biodegradable/ Inert waste - cannot be degraded (polymer waste as plastic
bags, bottles, ceramics, old machines, cans, styrofoam, containers and others,

14
2.2.3 On the basis of environmental impact
• Hazardous wastes
Substances unsafe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or
economically that are shipped, transported to or brought from the country of
origin for dumping or disposal in, or in transit through
• Non-hazardous
Substances safe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or
economically that are shipped, transported to or brought from the country of
origin for dumping or disposal in, or in transit through
2.2.4 On the basis of source of generation
Household waste
Household and consumer waste is waste produced by households, shopkeepers and
trades people. However, it also includes waste from companies and industries when it
is not harmful or polluting, such as paper, cardboard, wood, glass, textiles, packaging,
etc. This waste is collected by municipal authorities whenever its elimination presents
no special technical constraints and is harmless to people and the environment.
The breakdown of waste also varies from one country to another, although no strict
correlation can be made with the level of wealth. Nevertheless, it can be noted that
the proportion of organic material (food, garden waste, etc.) is higher in poorer
countries, whereas developed countries show significant proportions of newspaper
and packaging in the volumes of waste produced.

15
 Box 2.1

• In France, more than half of household waste comprises organic waste,

paper and cardboard. Packaging products represent 40% of household
waste, and glass, a fact that is unique in Europe, more than 13%. Household
waste mainly contributes to biomass waste which is a high-volume waste
with a relatively low impact

• In the UK there has been a 38 per cent reduction in non recycled household
waste per person between 2000-01 and 2009-10. The EU Waste Framework
Directive requires the UK to recycle, compost or reuse 50 per cent of waste
from households by 2020.

Industrial waste
Industrial waste can be classified into six categories: toxic chemicals, air
contaminants, greenhouse gases, hazardous wastes, nonhazardous wastes and
radioactive wastes.
• Toxic Chemicals
These substances are hazardous to human health and the environment. Over the
period 1998–2004, total releases of carcinogens and developmental/reproductive
toxicants declined by 26 percent in the United States and Canada
• Air Contaminants
Air contaminants include nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide,
particulate matter and volatile organic compounds, are associated with environmental
effects such as smog, acid rain and regional haze, and health effects such as
respiratory illness. These pollutants are emitted from a variety of sources, including
residential fuel combustion, motor vehicles and agricultural activities. Industrial
sources are also major contributors—among them, electric utilities, primary metal
smelters and cement kilns. Although emissions of criteria air contaminants are

16
trending downward, reductions from sources such as motor vehicles have been
partially offset by increases from certain oil and gas industry subsectors attributed to
expanded production.
• Greenhouse Gases
These gases, which include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and nitrous oxide, are
linked to global climate change. Industrial energy use is a major source of CO2
emissions in North America, roughly on a par with the CO2 emissions arising from
energy use in the agricultural, commercial and residential sectors combined.
Although CO2 emissions from industrial energy use dropped by more than 30 percent
from 1980 to 2005, emissions from transportation increased by about 50 percent and
those from electricity generation and refineries by nearly 60 percent during the same
time period. Total emissions of greenhouse gases in
North America amounted to more than 8.5 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent in 2005.
• Hazardous waste
It is harmful and toxic to human and enviroment and need special precautions during
its storage, collection, transport and treatment must be taken in treating it. This waste
in particular includes products that are explosive, flammable, irritant, harmful, toxic,
carcinogenic, corrosive, infectious, or toxic. The amounts of hazardous wastes being
generated are significant. In the United States, nearly 34.8 million tonnes of
hazardous waste were generated in 2005, mostly in the form of liquid waste.
Government estimates put Canada’s annual generation at about 6 million tones. In
Mexico, data from over 35,000 facilities put the annual total at 6.17 million tonnes in
2004
• Non-hazardous or ordinary industrial waste
(OIW) is generated by an industrial or commercial activity, but is similar by its nature
and composition to household waste. It is not toxic, presents no hazard and thus
requires no special treatment. In particular, it includes ordinary waste produced by
companies, shopkeepers and trades people (paper, cardboard, wood, textiles,
packaging, etc.). Due to its non-hazardous nature, this waste is often sorted and

17
treated in the same facilities as household waste. In Canada, disposal of wastes from
nonresidential sources (industrial, commercial and institutional) increased from 14.6
to 15.5 million tonnes between 2002 and 2004. In the United States and Mexico,
overall estimates of nonhazardous industrial waste are not readily available, although
estimates for various individual sources may exist
Construction and Demolition waste
Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste represents 10-15 per cent of total waste
generated in developed countries (Bournay 2006) and some countries have reported a
much higher proportions. For example, OECD (2008a) estimated that Germany
generates 178.5 million tonnes of C&D waste, which is about 55 per cent of the total
waste reported. C&D waste can be classified as high-volume waste with relatively
low impact compared with other types of waste
Scrap vehicle waste
Scrap vehicle waste account for 8-9 million tonnes of waste in the European Union
(EU) with Germany, UK, France, Spain and Italy responsible for approximately 75
per cent of EU-25 vehicles de- 2009).
Electronic waste
E-waste continues to increase dramatically amid growing global demand for
electronic and electrical goods. It is estimated that in 2004 alone, 315 million
Personal Computers (PC) became obsolete globally and 130 million mobile phones
were estimated to have reached their “end of life” in 2005 (UNEP 2005). The USA
produces most electronic scrap, reportedly 3.16 million tonnes in 2008 (EPA 2009).
The total e-waste generated worldwide rose from 6 million tonnes in 1998 to 20-50
million tonnes in 2005 (UNEP 2005). Jinglei Yu et al. (2010) predict that obsolete
PCs in developing regions will exceed those of developed regions by 2016-2018 and
that by 2030 they could amount to 400-700 million units (compared with 200-300
million units in developed countries).

18
Medical waste
Medical waste or waste from healthcare activities (HCW) includes waste produced by
hospitals, independent and healthcare professions, veterinary medicine, and education,
research and manufacturing activities in the fields of human and veterinary medicine.
A healthcare establishment produces approximately 45 types of waste out of which
some types are classified as hazardous (Medical waste with infectious risk, Waste
presenting chemical and toxic risk) and others as non-hazardous. Health-care waste is
sometimes classified as a subcategory of hazardous waste. No global estimates are
available. On average, however, low-income countries have been observed to
generate between 0.5 kg and 3 kg of health-care waste per capita per year, which
includes both hazardous and non-hazardous components. High income countries have
been reported to generate up to 6 kg of hazardous waste per person per year from
health-care activities (WHO 2010).
Nuclear waste
Nuclear waste includes the solid and liquid waste containing radioactive material,
unused materials from nuclear power plants and falls under the category of hazardous
waste.
Toxic waste in dispersed quantities (TWDQ) includes small quantities of hazardous
waste produced by households, shopkeepers or small and medium-sized companies
(garages, hairdressers, photo laboratories, printers, research laboratories, etc.). This
waste may be solid (cloth, cardboard, batteries, paint residue, etc.), or liquid (hair
care products, soaps and detergents, bleach, aerosols, used oil, etc.). This waste must
be processed along with hazardous waste. Holders of this type of waste must dispose
of it or recycle it in facilities classified for environmental protection (ICPE).

19
 Figure 2.1: Sources and Types of Waste
From the above classification solid wastes may though seem to be the most ordinary
forms of wastes, but they could be responsible for many problems such as spread of
diseases and emission of green house gases. The large volumes of this waste threaten
soil, surface water and groundwater quality in the event of waste spills, leakage from
waste storage facilities, and runoff from fields on which an excessive amount of
waste has been applied as fertilizer. Solid waste includes biodegradable and non
biodegradable wastes generated from various domestic commercial and industrial
sources. It is thus the most widespread waste stream and is produced by millions of
people. With such vast quantities of waste being produced, it is of vital importance
that it is managed in such a way that it does not cause any harm to either human
health or to the environment.
Of all the waste streams, waste from electrical and electronic equipment containing
new and complex hazardous substances presents the fastest-growing challenge in
both developed and developing countries. The management of solid waste depends

20
upon major financial and logistical resources to collect, separate, transport and
transfer, process, recycle and arrange final disposal.
2.3 Solid Waste generation
Waste generation is closely linked to population, urbanization and affluence. The
archaeologist E.W. Haury wrote: “Whichever way one views the mounds [of waste],
as garbage piles to avoid, or as symbols of a way of life, they are the features more
productive of information than any others.’(1976, p. 80). In developed countries
seeking to reduce waste generation, a current goal is to decouple waste generation
from economic driving forces such as GDP (OECD, 2003; Giegrich and Vogt, 2005;
EEA, 2005). In most developed and developing countries with increasing population,
prosperity and urbanization, it remains a major challenge for municipalities to collect,
recycle, treat and dispose of increasing quantities of solid waste and wastewater. The
global population is increasing at an average of one percent per year. According to
the UN, between now and 2025, the world population will increase by 20% to reach 8
billion inhabitants. Moreover, by 2050, the total population will be around 9.5 billion,
unless specific control measures are broadly adopted. As already stated the increasing
population is not only related with development of nations, their prosperity but also
with the waste accumulation and increased exploitation of various resources. Every
year, an estimated 11.2 billion tonnes of solid waste are collected worldwide and
decay of the organic proportion of solid waste is contributing to about 5 per cent of
global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. At the global level, during 2006, the total
amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) reached 2.02 billion tons, representing a 7
per cent annual increase since 2003 (Global Waste Management Market Report
2007).The quantity of waste produced by the world’s population estimated to rise to
13 billion tones in 2011 and further up to 18 billion tones by 2020 (2). Over 1.8
billion tonnes of waste are generated each year in Europe which equals to 3.5 tonnes
per person. This waste mainly comes from households, commercial activities (e.g.,
shops, restaurants, hospitals etc.), industry (e.g, pharmaceutical companies, clothes
manufacturers etc.), agriculture (e.g., slurry), construction and demolition projects,

21
mining and quarrying activities and from the generation of energy. In the Asia-Pacific
region, as per World Bank estimates, the waste generation in urban areas is between
450,000 and 760,000 tons per day; by 2025, this is expected to reach about 1.8
million tons per day (World Bank 1999, ESCAP 2007). Figure 2 depicts the solid
waste generated (kg/capita/year) around the globe across various countries. This
shows that United States and some European countries as France, Germany and
Switzerland have the highest income group, at the same time contribute to the
maximum waste generation per annum.

Source: Global Waste Challenge

Figure 2.2: Municipal solid waste generation (Kg/capita/year) in 25 countries
grouped according to their Gross National Income
1. India
In India as much as 38-40 million tones of solid waste is generated per annum with a
yearly increase of about 5-8%. Per capita waste generation ranges between 0.20 to
0.60 kg. Figure 3 shows the solid waste generation by top 10 cities of India. The
metropolitan cities contribute heavily to the production of waste in the country (Fig
3A) The solid waste generated across the country has diverse composition with the
compostable matter approximately 50-60%, inert non biodegradable matter 40-45%
and recyclable matter 8-10% (Fig 3B). These percentages may vary with region as
22
rural, urban, commercial or industrial areas. The biodegradable and the inert matter
go into land filling. Biodegradable matter can be converted into manure by
composting while the recyclable matter is taken for recycling
10%
Surat

Kanpur

Pune

Ahemdabad

Banglore
City

Hyderabad

Kolkata 35% 55%

Chennai

Mumbai

Delhi

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

Waste generated (Tones/day) Biodegradable Non Biodegradable Recyclable

A B
Source: Central Pollution Control Board
Figure 2.3: A. Solid waste generated in top 10 Indian Cities B. % Composition
of Solid Waste
2. United States
With a booming population of 310 million, the annual waste produced in the country
is 236 million tons. However, the recycling rates have also increased from 29% in
1990 to over 55% in 2003, and that came to 72 million tons.
3. Russian Federation
Annual waste produced: 207.4 million tons. The waste production has been
increasing along with the burgeoning capitalist society and middle class, especially in
the largest cities.
4. Japan
Annual waste produced: 52.36 million tons. Japan's 1997 Packaging Recycle Law has
placed recycling in the lap of the manufacturer. Japan's record in recycling could be a
model for the U.S.
5. Germany
Annual waste produced: 48.84 million tons. The country recycles 48%of the waste.
German's population of 83 million produces less waste per person than the US.

23
6. United Kingdom
Annual waste produced: 34.85 million tons. The volume of its waste production
suggests that the U.K. appears to take garbage seriously. Its 60 million population
filled its dustbins on a per capita basis much more effectively than the U.S. Each Brit
contributed less than one-third of the U.S. average
7. Switzerland
With 7.8 million people, the waste generation in the country has increased steadily
since 1998. Growth has been around 12.5 % since 2002, from 17.2 million tonnes to
19.4 million tonnes in 2009. There has been an increase in all waste types, including
construction waste, solid municipal waste, hazardous waste and sewage sludge.
However, waste management in Switzerland has improved; the country recycles 52%
of the waste generated.
8. Sweden
Annual waste produced: 161.6 million tons of which 34% was recycled
9. Mexico
Annual waste produced: 32.17 million tons. Mexico's total waste generation may be
low because its economy does not support the level of waste considered proper in
more prosperous countries. With one-third the U.S. population, Mexico produced
barely one-ninth the garbage.
10. France
Annual waste produced: 32.17 million tons. Comparing its population with U.K. (61
million), France produced slightly less waste. Recycling is yet to gain initiation and
pace in France.
11. Italy
Annual waste produced: 29.74 million tons. Italy, with only half of Mexico's
population, was a close match with the U.K.'s average.

24
12. Spain
Annual waste produced: 26.34 million tons. Along with the bull come other products
of municipal waste. Given its 45 million population, this factors to about one-third
the weight of garbage produced per U.S. citizen.
13. Turkey
Annual waste produced: 25.99 million tons. Turkey's 73 million citizens make this
country twice as frugal at garbage production as the Japanese.
14. Andorra
Annual waste produced: 37,000 tons. The waste produced by Andorra must be taken
in consideration with its tiny population of 70,549. As good as it is in volume, it
comes close to matching industrial nations in waste per citizen.
15. St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Annual waste produced: 38,000 tons. With a population of 117,534, St. Vincent and
the Grenadines is somewhat better than Andorra in the amount per citizen.
16. Monaco
Annual waste produced: 40,000 tons. Monaco's 32,409 population varies with the
season. Its record suggests that it out-produces most industrial nations in trash per
citizen.
17. Belize
Annual waste produced: 62,000 tons. The Belize population of 279,457 creates
almost twice as much weight as Monaco, but with around eight times the population.
18. French Guiana
Annual waste produced: 65,000 tons. The per capita waste produced by French
Guiana's 195,506 citizens singles it out as a blue ribbon winner.
19. Costa Rica
Annual waste produced: 71,000 tons. Costa Rica's tiny production comes from a
staggering population of more than 4 million, so each citizen contributed a mere
fraction of the Andorra average.

25
20. Burkina Faso
Annual waste produced: 128,000 tons. The country's 13.9 million residents produced
a tiny fraction of the waste produced by much larger industrial nations, perhaps
because it is a landlocked nation in West Africa with a low level of personal
economic development ($1,200 annual per capital income).
21. Iceland
Annual waste produced: 209,000 tons. Iceland's waste is generated by 300,000
citizens. This is three times as much garbage as Costa Rica, but with about one-
thirteenth the population
22. Malta
Annual waste produced: 212,000 tons. The 398,534 citizens of Malta did just slightly
better per citizen than Iceland.
23. Guadeloupe
Annual waste produced: 217,000 tons from a population of 448,713
2.4 Conclusion
The increase in population leads to the increase in GDP (Gross Domestic Product).
As GDP goes up, it is expected that by 2050 the demand for agricultural goods will
rise by 70% and the demand for meat will double. Besides the serious issues related
to food production and sustainability, those changes will change the waste
composition in a large part of the world. The organic fraction will be more dominant
in MSW, more agricultural and meat waste will create new problems that have to be
faced. Such a change in waste composition makes the greenhouse gas challenge for
waste management more difficult than it is already. It has been estimated that urban
food waste is going to increase by 44% globally between 2005 and 2025. During the
same period, and because of its expected economic development, Asia is predicted to
experience the largest increase in food waste production, from 278 million to 416
million tons (252 to 377 million tonnes). If present waste management trends are
maintained, landfilled food waste is predicted to increase world CH4 emissions from

26
34 million to 48 million tons (31 to 43 million tonnes) and the landfill share of global
anthropogenic emissions from 8% to 10%.
Other than the increase in food and agricultural waste, a major environmental impact
will be due to the production, consumption and inclusion in waste streams of more
and more complex products. Personalized medicine, new computers and gadgets,
networked homes and full home management systems, fully customized consumer
products, personal security and personal energy products are coming or are already
here. Some points of special interest are:
• The rapidly growing stream of electronic waste (WEEE) which is already a big
problem, and directly related with the crime of waste trafficking. As the world
becomes more and more networked and interconnected, and as electrical and
electronic products, including PCs, gadgets, digital cameras, pervasive computing
etc., are rapidly devalued and become waste due to fast update and built-in
obsolescence, the WEEE stream will become a major challenge of future waste
management.
• The second is the stream of nanomaterials that are coming slowly but steadily.
Nano-bio and e-technologies will create a whole spectrum of new artificial
materials. Major breakthroughs within the next two decades will provide
inexpensive ways to produce mass quantities of those materials. In addition, the
function of such materials will move from ‘passive’ to ‘active’ with the
integration of nanoscale valves, switches, pumps, motors and other components.
Obviously, the willingness to throw them away will increase as they become less
and less expensive.
• The main trend in consumer goods will be the personalization of them, which on
the one hand will create products that are more difficult to throw away and on the
other hand will make reuse much more difficult.

27
2.5 References:
• Angulo SC, Carrijo, PM, Figueiredo AD, Chaves AP, John VM. On the
classification of mixed construction and demolition waste aggregate by
porosity & its impact on the mechanical performance of concrete.
Materials &Structures, 2010, 43(4),519-528
• Demirbas A. Waste management, waste resource facilities and waste
conversion processes. Energy Conversion and Management, 2011, 52(2),
1280-1287
• ENVIS Urban Municipal Waste Management Newsletter (Sponsored by:
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi)
12th issue, September 2008.
• Mavropoulos A, WASTE MANAGEMENT 2030+.
• Stablein C, The Role of Energy-from-Waste in the 21st Century, ISWA
World Congress 2010 Hamburg
• Waste Minimization and Resource; Conservation Bureau of Energy
Efficiency. http://www.beeindia.in/energy_managers_auditors/
documents/guide_books /4Ch13.pdf)
• Waste Online (http://www.wasteonline.org.uk)
• Weltens R, Vanermen G, Tirez K., Robbens J., Deprez K., Michiels L.
Screening tests for hazard classification of complex waste materials –
Selection of methods, Waste Management. 32(12), 2012, 2208–2217

28
 Chapter 3
Waste management practices

We are recycling not only to protect the environment, but for

economic reasons as well. Disposal is simply too costly and too

dangerous. The challenge is to redirect the flow of raw materials

going to landfill into strengthening our declining local economies. The

solution to pollution is self-reliant cities and counties.

-Neil Seldman, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, 1990

3.1 Introduction
As already discussed in the previous chapter, two factors namely increase in
population and rapid urbanization of nations, contribute increase in the volume of
waste generation. The large increase in population has left lot of developing countries
deficient in infrastructure services like water supply, sewerage and solid waste
management. The lack of proper education, knowledge and efforts towards
management of garbage, this could become a tenacious problem. The need to manage
this waste increases considerably so that the collection and disposal of this waste
would cause least impact on environment. With respect to the enormous increase in
volumes and types of waste, waste management has evolved as an industry which
revolves around the collection, storage, and disposal of waste, ranging from ordinary
household waste to the waste generated at nuclear power plants. Waste management
thus becomes the basic essential practice required to keep the waste in control and
maintain hygiene and sanitation across the area. The developments in various
scientific technologies have provided scientists and researchers across the globe with
new methods of treatment, recovery of resources and reuse of waste. Developing
effective waste management strategies is critical for nations all over the world, as

29
many forms of waste can develop into a major problem when they are not handled
properly.

Box 3.1

• The global waste market, from collection to recycling, is estimated at US$

410 billion a year, not including the sizable informal segment in developing
countries.
• 36 million tonnes of municipal waste was generated in the UK in 2004/05
• India produces 42.0 million tons of municipal solid waste annually, with the
waste management market comprising of four segments - Municipal Waste,
Industrial Waste, Bio-Medical Waste and Electronic Waste.

3.2 Waste Hierarchy

With the increasing environmental impact of the waste, the education and awareness
of people in the area of waste and waste management is increasingly important from
a global perspective of resource management. Waste management thus turns to the
dealing of waste in terms of reduction in production of waste, reuse and recycle of
waste. This constitute to the 3R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) in the "waste hierarchy".
Waste hierarchy includes a pyramid with the most desirable options in the top than
those at the bottom. It refers to the "3 R’s" reduce, reuse and recycle, which classify
waste management strategies with the sole aim of waste minimization and reuse and
recycle of all the resources that are termed waste at the point of their generation. The
waste hierarchy remains the most important concept of waste management for waste
minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum
practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste.

30
 Figure 3.1: Waste Hierarchy

3.2.1 Reduction of waste (Waste

Waste minimization
minimization)
Reduction of waste may also be termed as waste minimization, prevention of
pollution prevention,, source reduction and cleaner technology. Waste minimization is
any measure that reduces the volume or toxicity of Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act–regulated
regulated waste. It may include environmentally sound recycling,
reuse, or reclamation
Waste minimization
ation refers to the prevention of waste material being created. Waste
minimization is best practiced by reducing the generation of waste at the source itself.
It means:
• Prevention and/or reduction of waste generated
• Efficient use of raw materials and packaging
• Efficient use of fuel, electricity and water
• Improving the quality of waste generated to facilitate recycling and/or reduce hazard
• Encouraging re-use,
use, recycling and recovery.
It should be also clearly understood that waste minimization;
minimization; however is not a
universal remedy for all the environmental problems. This has to be supported by
conventional waste treatment or disposal methods.

31
3.2.2 Reuse
In waste hierarchy reuse refers to the use of a commodity again and again to
minimize waste production. The reuse of products, without reprocessing, without
recycling, saves time, money, energy, and resources. This is the most important
advantage of reuse. In broader terms, reuse offers quality products to people and
organizations with limited means, while generating jobs and business activity that
contribute to the economy.
The major advantages of reuse are:
• It reduces the use of energy and resource as reuse of a single product decreases
the number or amount of the product manufactured.
• Reuse of wasted materials in the same process or for another useful application
within the industry.
• It reduces the cost of the product for consumers and manufacturers as reusable
product is often cheaper than the new product.
• Reusable products help the small scale industries as handicrafts
• Reduced waste disposal needs and costs.
3.2.3 Recycling
The process of extracting resources or value from waste is generally referred to
as recycling, meaning to recover or reuse the material. The term refers to the reuse of
materials that is otherwise considered as waste, thrown or discarded. Recycling
involves the collection of used and discarded materials processing these materials and
making them into new products. It reduces the amount of waste that is thrown into
the community dustbins thereby making the environment cleaner and the air fresher
to breathe. Recycling is likely to grow steadily and form a vital component of greener
waste management systems, which will provide decent employment (Box 3.2.).

32
 Box 3.2

• Recycling in all its forms employs 12 million people in the three countries
- Brazil, China and United States. Sorting and processing recyclables
alone sustain ten times more jobs than land filling or incineration on a per
tonne basis.
• For an average investment of US$ 143 billion in waste management over
the period 2011-2050, a total employment of 25-26 million could be
created in the waste sector by 2050, which represents 2-2.8 million jobs,
more than the 23 million projected under a business as usual scenario.
• Overall the investment in the waste management market, hence, appears to
be positive.

Recycling includes reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of

buying new, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton, jute or
paper bags instead of plastic shopping bags), widespread collection and reuse of
everyday waste materials such as empty food, beverage cans, glass bottles and jars
plastic bottles, containers, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines cardboards
etc., less use of disposable products made of plastic (such as disposable cutlery),
reuse of paper, and more use of recycled paper. Material for recycling may be
collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles,
or sorted directly from mixed waste streams. Recycling is done to avoid exhausting
the source opportunities and recycle the already existing products or the waste.
Finally, modification or reformulation of products so as to manufacture it with least
waste generation should be considered.
The recycling of products as cans, plastics, paper etc. mentioned above is relatively
easy as they are made up of a single type of material. The recycling of complex
products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the

33
additional dismantling and separation required, however many companies are now
focusing on to recycle their own products for manufacture of new products.
There are a number of different methods by which waste material is recycled: the raw
materials may be extracted and reprocessed, or the calorific content of the waste may
be converted to electricity.

Source: Waste recycling environmentalchoice.co.za

Figure 3.2: Waste recycling

Waste recycling has some significant advantages.

• Less greenhouse emissions, which can better protect our environment from the
negative effects of global warming and climate change overall.
• It leads to less utilization of raw materials.
• Reduces environmental impacts arising from waste treatment and disposal.
• Makes the surroundings cleaner and healthier.
• Saves on landfill space.

34
 • Reduces the amount of energy required to manufacture new products.
• Recycling leads to substantial resource savings (Box 3.3).

Box 3.3

• For every tonne of paper recycled, 17 trees and 50 per cent of water can
be saved.
• Recycling each tonne of aluminium, the following resource savings could
be accrued: 1.3 tonne of bauxite residues, 15 m3 of cooling water, 0.86
m3 of process water, and 37 barrels of oil. These are in addition to the
avoidance of 2 tonnes of CO2 and 11 kg of SO2.
• Agricultural residue amounting to 140 billion tonnes globally may have
an energy potential equivalent to 50 billion tonnes of oil.
• Waste to Energy (WtE) market was already estimated at US$19.9 290
Waste billion in 2008 and projected to grow by 30 per cent by 2014.
benefits, between 20–30 per cent of projected landfill methane emissions
for 2030 can be reduced at negative cost and 30–50 per cent at costs of
less than US$ 20/tCO2-eq/yr.

3.2.4 Comparison of reuse to recycling

Recycling differs from reuse in that it breaks down the item into raw materials which
are then used to make new items, as opposed to reusing the intact item. As this extra
processing requires energy, as a rule of thumb reuse is environmentally preferable to
recycling ("reduce, reuse, recycle"), though recycling does have a significant part to
play as it can often make use of items which are broken, worn out or otherwise
unsuitable for reuse. However, as transport emissions are significant portion of the
environmental impact of both reuse and recycling, in some cases recycling is the
more prudent course as reuse can require long transport distances. A complex life

35
cycle analysis may be required during a products design phase to determine the
efficacy of reuse, recycling, or neither, and produce accordingly.
Reuse of some electronic waste could be hazardous, so its better to get them recycled
or disposed. Reuse of products may require cleaning or transport, which have
environmental impact. The lack of awareness causes loss or reusable items thus
affecting the economy. Sorting and segregation of materials for reuse is time and
money consuming as it requires manual effort.
3.3 Waste Management
Waste management is a very broad field that includes topics from monitoring and
collection of waste to disposal. It refers to the inspection or monitoring of waste to
identify its composition, collection, transport, processing, recycling, and reprocessing
of waste products. It comprises of identification of materials that are discarded as
waste, picking them up from the site of their generation and disposing them off
suitably so as to cause least impact on environment. The requirement of waste
management arises from recovery of various products or utilization of waste into
useful products. This requires management of various types of waste that includes
solid, liquid and gaseous waste. Different waste management practices are required as
different types of waste require different methods and expertise for treatment. The
methodology of waste management and practices may though differ from nation or
country, region to region and type of the waste generated, but the basic concept of
management remains the same. The developed nations use new techniques to convert
calorific content of the waste into electricity or fuel while in developing countries
manual collection and segregation of waste is done, land-filled recycled and thus
minimized.
Collecting the waste and dumping it in the landfill are not the only steps to waste
management. Several other intermediate steps are required for effectively managing
the waste which in turn works best towards preserving the environment. Five
effective steps for the waste management are:

36
 Figure 3.3:: Five steps in Effective Waste Management

3.3.1 Monitoring: Monitoring refers to understand the need of waste management. It

requires a government or nongovernment body to understand the various processes
involved in the waste management process.
process. It involves the identification various
sources of waste generation, types of wastes as solid or liquid, and their segregation
as domestic or industrial, hazardous or nonhazardous, biodegradable and
nonbiodegradable, recyclable and non-recyclable
non etc. The monitoring of waste helps
to understand the process that would be required for the treatment of the waste.
Monitoring also helps to analyze the methods that could be helpful in reduction of
waste generation at both domestic and industrial level.
3.3.2 Cooperation: Community or consumer participation has a direct bearing on
effective waste management practices. This requires the consumer to have proper
knowledge of impact of waste on environment and surroundings. The waste
management company should make the consumer or the communities understand the
need of waste management, as how to handle waste, knowledge of different types of
waste, proper practices of having different garbage bins for different types of waste at
domestic and commercial level. Different types of bins are used for the collecti
collection of
different types of waste, as blue colored bins are used for collection of no

37
biodegradable waste, green garbage bins are used for biodegradable waste, while, red
colored bins are used for hazardous waste. The consumer and the community should
have the proper information and knowledge regarding the segregation and disposal of
the waste.

Figure 3.4: Different colored bins for collection of different types of waste
However, in absence of a basic collection facility from any government body, the
consumers are forced to dump the garbage in open areas. In such situation the
RWA’S or other such associations in the residential area should be able to establish
the proper garbage collection facility in the region.
Cooperation also involves the understanding between the management authority and
the consumer for the site and time of collection of waste.
3.3.3 Collection: This involves the collection of waste from various sources of
generation including domestic, commercial and industrial waste. Waste collection
methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste
collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private
companies in the industry that are charged with the collection of waste from each
household in its area on a regular basis. If assigned, it can also collect commercial
and industrial wastes from the private sector. Some areas, especially those in less
developed countries, do not have a formal waste-collection system. The waste
collection authority selects a particular system of waste collection depending upon
38
the method and place of disposal used by the authority, the physical layout for the
collection and the current system in place. In addition demographic and cultural
factors relating to the population served may be of importance. It also depends
quantity and the quality of the waste produced and its disposal or processing
techniques to be followed post disposal.
In India waste collection is usually done on a contract basis. In most cities it is done
by rag pickers, smalltime contractors and municipalities. Wastes is usually collected
in black or refuse sacks (7-8 l), regular bins or wheeled bins (20-30 l) or large
mechanical containers (more than 50 l) for collection of industrial waste. The
selection of collection bins depends upon
• Type of the waste to be collected
• Collection frequency
• Space available for placement of containers
There are numerous ways for collection of waste. Mostly the waste is collected on a
daily basis, however in many countries the residual waste (waste that is not intended
for recycling or composting) weekly. Many offer an additional recycling collection
either weekly or fortnightly. Municipal waste includes all wastes collected by the
Waste Collection Authorities (WCAs), or their agents, such as all household waste,
street litter, municipal parks and gardens waste, council office waste and some
commercial and industrial waste. All these wastes should be collected in accordance
with various laws and rules mandated by the government.
Household and domestic waste
These wastes are collected from the residential areas on daily basis, either by the
waste collection authority or the local government body as the municipal authority.
Vegetable, fruit, meat and fish markets waste
These wastes are collected or removed on a daily basis by the municipal body,
through the market association authorities or through contractors. The collection of
waste from such markets is done normally during night, early morning or nonpeak
hours.

39
Garden waste
The waste generated in public areas as parks, gardens lawn plots etc should be
collected on a weekly basis in rotation from different areas, on different days. The
people should be kept informed to enable them to keep the garden or lawn waste
ready. This waste may be got collected through a contractor or departmentally as
deemed appropriate by the urban local authorities.
Hotel and restaurant waste
Hotels and restaurants may make their own arrangements or assign any local waste
collection for collection of waste.
Bio-medical waste
Biomedical waste should be collected in accordance with the rules formatted by the
environment ministry for safe disposal of biomedical waste
Construction and demolition waste
The demolition or the construction waste should be removed by local bodies on
request from the person producing it. This waste is transported in large trucks or
loaders in big cities, while in small towns manual handling of the waste is done.
Domestic hazardous & toxic waste
Domestic hazardous and toxic waste includes batteries, paints, broken tube lights,
expired medicines, electronic waste. They should be kept separately in the bins
placed in various parts of the city should be collected periodically by the waste
management authority and disposed of as per the hazardous waste management rules
and specifications
Table 3.1: Waste Collection systems- Advantages and Disadvantages
Source:http://web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/upgrading/issues-tools/issues/waste-
collection.html
System Description Advantages Disadvantages
Shared: Residents can bring out waste at any time
Dumping The waste is dumped Low capital costs Loading the waste
at at specified location. into transport

40
designated vehiclesis slow and
location unhygienic. Waste is
scattered and littered
around the collection
point creating foul
smell
Shared The waste is dumped Low operating costs Storage of waste into
container into shared containers container creates
from where it is foul smell
collected by the
collection authority
Individual: The generators need a suitable container and must store the
waste on their property until it is collected.
Block The waste is collected Economical. Less If the waste is just
collection form a specified waste on streets. No left at pick point the
location by the permanent container waste binbag may be
collection truck which or storage to cause pricked upon by the
waits for the residents complaints. animals resulting in
to bring their waste at the littering of waste.
the specified location
and time
Curbside Waste is left outside Convenient. No Waste that is left out
collection property in a permanent public may be scattered by
container and picked storage. wind, animals,
up by passing vehicle, children or waste
or swept up and pickers.
collected by sweeper.

41
Door to Waste collector Convenient for Residents must be
door collects waste daily resident. Little waste available to hand
collection from door to door on street. waste over.
Yard Collection labourer Very convenient for The most expensive
collection enters property to residents. No waste system, because of
remove waste. in street. the walking
involved. Cultural
beliefs, security, or
architectural styles
may prevent
labourers from
entering properties.

3.3.4 Transportation:
After collection, transportation of the waste at regular intervals is essential to avoid
over flow or littering of waste at the collection sites. A cost effective and an efficient
transport system is required for the transportation of garbage from collection to
disposal or the treatment sites. The system should synchronize with the system of
waste storage depot and should be easily maintainable. Transport system requires
waste transport vehicles which can coordinate well with containers placed at
temporary waste storage depots. The selection of the type of vehicles should also be
done keeping in mind the quantity of waste to be transported, the distances to be
travelled, the road widths, road conditions, work shop facilities, etc.
• In very small towns with poor repairs and maintenance facility, with less
population, the waste is collected and transported manually by small animal
driven carts, tractor-trolley combination or lifting of containers or toeing of
containers by tractors to the dumping sites. In such towns may be utilized
• In cities with population above 5 lac, hydraulic vehicles could be used. Simple
hydraulic tipping-trailers are recommended to avoid manual unloading.

42
 • Container lifting devices such as Dumper placers/skip lifters or similar other
vehicles may be used for transportation of large size containers to transfer
stations or to disposal site.
• The risk for pollution increases during the transportation of waste while it is
carried from one location to another, especially for the hazardous waste. The
more the volume and hazardous the waste, the bigger environmental/human
health impact it is likely to cause in case of spills or littering that would release
the pollutants in the air, water, and soil and cause health hazard. Wastes may
also be released while being loaded or unloaded during transportation. Hence
care should be taken while transport of waste.
• The route of the transport vehicle should be taken to avoid the residential and
the densely populated areas. Risk analysis may become important in selecting
routes for hazardous waste transport in order to minimize adverse impacts to
human health in case of an accidental release.
• The type of highway or road and the weather conditions along the route must
also be considered.
• Open trucks loaded with garbage wade through cities and towns, emanate foul
smell and cause nuisance to people. The transport vehicle should hence be
closed
• The transport vehicles used are generally under loaded. The lorries which can
easily take 5 to 6 tones of solid waste in one trip, carry only 1-3 tones of waste
as strict monitoring system does not exist. This results in wastage of time
energy and money
• Transportation of biomedical and hazardous waste as nuclear waste has to be
arranged by waste producers or their associations. Specified instructions should
be followed for the transport of the same.
3.3.5 Waste disposal, processing recycling and recovery: After collection, the
residual waste is disposed of (either through dumping, landfill, thermal treatments as
incineration), recycled or reused, enabling recyclate remanufactured and/or energy

43
recovered. Different types of wastes require different methods for its processing. The
solid waste, liquid effluent from the industries, recyclable, the nonrecyclable
nonrecyclable,
biodegradable and non-biodegradable
biodegradable waste, hazardous and non hazardous, solid and
liquid, all these different types of waste require entirely different methods for their
recycling or processing.

5: Schematic representation of collection and transportation of waste to

Figure 3.5:
disposal site

3.4 Techniques of waste management

3.4.1 Landfill:
Disposing off the waste on land is the most common practice in many countries.
There are two ways to dispose the wa
waste on land
• Dump - an open area in the ground where the waste is dumped in open and has
various animals (flies, rats, mice, birds) swarming around and releasing a foul
odour in the area. Garbage dump in open land is practiced in developing
countries especially
ially in the rural areas.
• Landfill – A landfill is a carefully engineered depression in the ground, in a
low lying area or built on top of the ground into which wastes are disposed.
The area is isolated from the surrounding environment particularly
groundwater.
ater. This isolation is done by having a double bottom liner and
covering of soil.

44
 o Sanitary landfill - landfill that uses a clay liner to isolate the trash from
the environment
o Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill - uses a synthetic (plastic) liner to
isolate the trash from the environment
3.4.2 Thermal Treatment
Thermal treatment involves the treatment of waste at high temperature. It includes
various processes as incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, plasma arc etc..
a. Open burning
Open burning of waste is the burning of waste materials as paper, wood, plastics,
textiles, rubber, waste oils and other debris in open-air or in open dumps. This allows
the emission of smoke and other gases to be released directly into the air without
passing through any filters or chimneys. Open burning includes the burning of
outdoor piles, burning in a burn barrel and the use of incinerators which have no
pollution control devices. Open burning of waste is practiced in many developing
countries because of the cheapness, ease and convenience of the method. This
reduces the volume of the waste at the dump and therefore extends the life of their
dumpsite.
b. Incineration:
Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of solid organic waste
material with the release of heat energy gas, steam, and ash. Disposal of waste by
incineration is based on the principle of waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste
(EfW), that implies burning of waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam or
electricity.
c. Pyrolysis and Gasification:
Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures
in the absence of air or oxygen. The process, which requires heat, produces a mixture
of combustible gases, primarily methane, complex hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and
carbon monoxide, and liquids and solid residues.

45
Gasification of waste is a special type of pyrolysis where thermal decomposition
takes place in the presence of a small amount of oxygen or air. The gas which is
generated can then be burned in industrial boilers or cleaned up and used in
combustion turbines for electric generators.
d. Plasma arc:
The plasma arc technology (PAT) uses heat generated by a plasma arc to melt the
inorganic portion of waste material while destroying the organic portion. Types of
waste materials tested include medical incinerator ash, Longhorn sludge, open
burning ground soil, agricultural and plastic/glass blast media, surrogate absorbent
materials, Mendocino soil spiked with dichlorobenzene, and waste paint.
e. Supercritical water decomposition:
Supercritical water decomposition also known as hydrothermal monophasic oxidation
with high temperature and pressure is an alternative to incineration, pyrolisis or
gasification. Supercritical water oxidation uses supercritical water as a medium in
which to oxidize hazardous waste; eliminating production of toxic combustion
products that burning can produce.
The waste product to be oxidized is dissolved in the supercritical water along with
molecular oxygen (or an oxidizing agent that gives up oxygen upon decomposition,
e.g. Hydrogen Peroxide) at which point the oxidation reaction occurs.
3.4.3 Composting (Biological reprocessing)
Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and
paper products, can be recycled using biological composting and digestion processes
to decompose the organic matter and can be used as manure for agriculture purpose
or landscaping purpose. The gas produced in the process of digestion can be utilized
for generation of electricity. The intention of biological processing in waste
management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of
organic matter.

46
The biological decomposition of the waste occurs by aerobic or anaerobic pathways.
Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic or anaerobic
methods, though hybrids of the two methods also exist.
A variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies exist that vary in
complexity from simple home compost heaps, to industrial-scale
industrial enclosed
enclosed-vessel
digestion of mixed domestic waste The intention of biological processing in waste
management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of
organic matter.

Figure 3.6: Waste generation and Treatment

3.5 Integrated waste management.
Integrated waste management is a system of waste disposal that includes segregation
of waste according to type, and finding the best utilization for discarded products.
Integrated waste management includes alternatives as reuse and recycle of waste
other than energy recovery and landfill.
landfill. These alternatives will include recycling and
reusing some materials through an approved program.
Integrated waste management using LCA (life cycle analysis) attempts to offer the
most benign options for waste management. A life cycle analysis also known as life
cycle assessment, eco-balance
balance or cradle-to-grave analysis is a technique to assess
environmental impacts
ts associated with all the stages of a product's life from
from-cradle-
47
to-grave i.e., from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture,
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling. Integrated waste
management utilizes LCA and also focus on environmental concerns of waste
production, disposal and management. An integrated waste management program
handles household, domestic as well as commercial and industrial waste that may
have different requirements as far as treatment and disposal is concerned.
In most cases, the integrated waste management system depends upon the consumers
separate the waste. In some countries, the government or the authority imposes fine
and penalties on people who fail to do so. Thus it becomes mandatory by law to
follow the rules of waste separation and disposal.
The integrated waste management program differs from waste management program
on the fact that it focuses more on waste reduction, minimization, its recycle and
reuse rather than disposal techniques. However the waste that cannot be reused or
recycled has to be disposed of by the various techniques as mentioned above, so as to
cause least environmental impact. Disposal of waste for compost production and
energy recovery becomes the preferred way of disposal in integrated waste
management.

Source: Hickman
Figure 3.7: Waste management and Integrated waste management

48
3.5.1 Energy recovery from waste
Waste energy is the energy or the heat, which is generated in the processing of waste
by thermal treatment as combustion or any chemical reaction and could be utilized
for some useful and economic purpose. The energy content of waste products can be
harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by
processing them into another type of fuel. Recycling through thermal treatment
ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating, to anaerobic
digestion that releases gases that can be used as fuel for boilers to generate steam and
electricity in a turbine.

(Source: World Energy Outlook 2008 to 2030 by the International Energy Agency)
Figure 3.8: Forecast energy mix in 2030
Box 3.4
• Globally, 140 billion metric tons of biomass is generated every year
from agriculture.
• Equivalent to approximately 50 billion tons of oil, agricultural biomass
waste converted to energy can substantially displace fossil fuel, reduce
emissions of greenhouse gases and provide renewable energy to some
1.6 billion people in developing countries, which still lack access to
electricity.

49
 Source:

peswiki.com
Figure 3.9: Waste to Energy
3.5.2 Basic techniques of energy recovery:
Basically there are two methods that are followed for recovery of energy from the
waste.
(i) Thermo-chemical conversion: This process allows thermal de-composition of
waste/organic matter to produce either heat energy or fuel oil or gas. Pyrolysis and
gasification (discussed above) are two related forms of thermal treatment where
waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The
process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste
converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be
burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery).
The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon.
The Thermo-chemical conversion processes are useful for wastes containing high
percentage of organic non-biodegradable matter and low moisture content.
50
(ii) Bio-chemical conversion: This process is based on enzymatic decomposition of
organic matter by microbial action to produce methane gas or alcohol. It includes the
anaerobic decomposition of the waste by microorganisms.
Box 3.5
According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), there exists a
potential of about 1700 MW from urban waste (1500 from MSW and 225 MW from
sewage) and about 1300 MW from industrial waste. The ministry is also actively
promoting the generation of energy from waste, by providing subsidies and
incentives for the projects. Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA)
estimates indicate that India has so far realized only about 2% of its waste-to-energy
potential. A market analysis from Frost and Sullivan predicts that the Indian
municipal solid waste to energy market could be growing at a compound annual
growth rate of 9.7% by 2013.
While the Indian Government’s own figures would suggest that the cost of waste to
energy is somewhat higher than other renewable sources, it is still an attractive
option, as it serves a dual role of waste disposal and energy production.

3.6 Green Waste management

Green waste management is a term used to describe any environmental friendly
method of processing the waste. This waste management method focuses on finding
different ways or methods that involves recycle or reuse of the discarded products,
rather then to dump them into landfills. The main aim of green waste management is
to find methods of waste disposal that would cause least impact to the environment.
Recycling is the key approach to the green waste management. Plastics, paper, glass
etc are the major part of the household trash. These recyclable materials are
separated from the nonrecyclable materials at the source of generation i.e. at the
home, or at point of collection by the waste collecting person. These separated
products are taken to the recycling centers, are recycled and new product is produced,
thus the natural resources remain untapped. This reduces the pressure on the ecology

51
as new resources are not explored. This in turn saves the natural resources from
becoming scarce. This is just an example of green waste management. In fact many
small scale industries that are based on manufacturing recycled products are booming
up.
Different types of waste require different handling and recycling methods. For ex.
Medical waste as paper gowns, rubber gloves are recycled in to new products but the
toxic waste as syringes, medicine etc. need to be incinerated to avoid environmental
toxicity. The sludge from the sewage disposal is used in biogas plant. The sludge
from the oil companies are taken by the textile manufacturing companies and
converted in to fiber used to make draperies. Old aluminum can be used for making
batteries of laptop, old cast furnitures can be remodeled, while wood from old
wooden furniture can be reused for making the shelves, wooden legs from an old
table can be made use of in a side table or a coffee table etc. Organic waste from food
and vegetables, dead plants are reused making compost. Thus when any old product
is used to create a new product, that keeps that waste material out of the landfill,
helps in green waste management.
With more focus on green waste management, newer and novel methods for recycle
and reuse have been developed. Even in the process of toxic waste management,
there are now processes that help to render the waste harmless over time, thus
preventing it from contaminating oceans, soil, and groundwater. These efforts have
led to the development of a number of green waste management jobs, both in terms
of research and development as well as workers who carry out the actual process of
collection and recycling. Thus green waste management is a boon to environment as
it uses the techniques that disposes the waste in eco friendly way.

52
3.8 References:
• Converting Waste Agricultural Bi omass into a Resource United Nations
Environmental Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and
Economics International Environmental Technology Centre Osaka/Shiga,
Japan 2009
• Giusti L.A review of waste management practices and their impact on
human healthWaste Management. 29(8), 2009, 2227–2239.
• Mavropoulos A. Waste management, 2030+ Waste management world
• Modak P. Waste - Investing in energy and resource efficiency, Towards a
green economy, UN Environment Programme, 2011
• Pandey S. Hazardous waste management in India, 2003
• Review of progress, constraints and policy challenges with regard to the
implementation of international, regional and national commitments:
Waste management (hazardous and solid wastes), Regional
implementation meeting for asia and the pacific ahead of the eighteenth
session of the commission on sustainable development United nations,
economic and social commission for asia and the pacific, 2009
• http://www.wastemanagement.in
• http://www.cyen.org/innovaeditor/assets/Solid%20waste%20management.
pdf
• Tchobanoglous G Solid waste management: In Environmental
Engineering: Environmental Health and Safety for Municipal
Infrastructure, Land Use and Planning and Industry, 2009

53
 Chapter 4
Techniques for Solid Waste Management

The production of waste and pollution represents inefficiency, lost

resources and a long-term economic burden for communities required

to manage, treat, remediate, detoxify, or control these wastes. The

result is not only environmental degradation, but degradation of our

economy and quality of life. The true cost of managing materials at

the end of their life is generally not reflected in the costs of

producing the materials. The result is the taxpayer, rather than the

producer or user of the product, may pay for disposal part of the

true cost of the product. Industrial development often occurs

without significant attention to the full environmental impacts of the

resulting activity on our environment or natural resource

consumption. Businesses often do not realize the full economic

impact of managing waste materials.

-Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance,

1999 The Solid Waste Policy Report

4.1 Introduction
Waste management techniques aim to transform the waste into a more manageable
form, reduce the volume and the toxicity of the waste thus making the waste disposal
easy, causing least impact to the environment. The objective of solid waste
management is to reduce the quantity of solid waste disposed off on land by recovery
of materials and energy from solid waste. As discussed in the previous chapter,
reduce, recycle and reuse are the three R’s that are employed for management of

54
waste. However, the waste which cannot be composted, reused or recycled may be
disposed at the landfill sites following appropriate procedure, (usually construction
waste, debris etc).
The most commonly used waste management techniques include dumping of waste
on land in open, land-filling, high thermal treatment as combustion or burning of
waste, or use of biological processes to treat the waste. It should be noted that
treatment and disposal options are chosen as a last resort to the management
strategies reducing, reusing and recycling of waste as discussed in the last chapter.
4.2 Dumps and Landfills
Disposing or dumping of the waste on land in open or in landfills is the most
common practice in many countries.
Box 4.1

What is in our landfills?

• Kitchen organics – 16-18%

• Garden organics-19-22%
• Paper- 20-22%%
• Glass- 7-8%
• Metals- 4-6%
• Textiles- 2-4%
• Plastics- 10- 12%
• Hazardous -0 .05- 0.07
• Sanitary-2-4%
• Electrical/Electronic-0.5-0.7%
• Wood-5-7%
• Miscellaneous-10-12%

4.2.1 Dumps – Waste dumps are open areas in the ground where the waste is dumped
in open. It has various animals (flies, rats, mice, birds) swarming around and

55
releasing a foul odor in the area. Garbage dump in open land is practiced in
developing countries especially in the rural areas.
Open dumps pose the following health, safety, and environmental threats:
• Fire and explosion
• Inhalation of toxic gases in nearby homes
• Injury to children playing on or around the dump site
• Disease carried by mosquitoes, flies, and rodents
• Contamination of streams, rivers and lakes
• Contamination of soil and groundwater
• Contamination of drinking water
• Damage to plant and wildlife habitats
• Decrease in the quality of life to nearby residents and the local community
4.2.2 Controlled dumps
Controlled dumps are disposal sites which are similar to the sanitary landfills
• Controlled dumps monitor the volume of waste dumped on the site. They may
have a planned capacity.
• They are enclosed and fenced
• They do not have a gas management system, a regular cover or a lining
• They do not have any leachate management or hydrogeological system to
prevent water seepage into the dump
• These dumps have a reduced risk of environmental contamination, the initial
costs are low and the operational costs are moderate. While there is controlled
access and use, they are still accessible by scavengers and so there is some
recovery of materials through this practice.
4.2.3 Landfill –
Dumping of waste in open areas can create adverse environmental impact as litter,
attraction of worms and flies, and generation of liquid leachate. Landfills are an
improved method of open area dump. It is the ultimate means of disposal of all types
of residual, residential, commercial and institutional waste as well as unutilized
56
municipal solid waste from waste processing facilities and other types of inorganic
waste and inerts that cannot be reused or recycled in the foreseeable future. It is the
most inexpensive method of waste management and hence the most preferred method
of waste management in developing countries and has the potential for the recovery
of landfill gas as a source of energy, with net environmental gains if organic wastes
are landfilled. The gas after necessary cleaning can be utilized for power generation
or as domestic fuel for direct thermal applications.
A properly designed and well-managed landfill is relatively hygienic causing lesser
impact on environment than dumping. Landfill disposal is the most commonly used
waste management method worldwide with constant developments required to reduce
GHG emissions from landfills. Landfills have served as ultimate waste receptors for
municipal refuse industrial residues, recycle discards and wastewater sludge.
Landfilling for different types of waste:
• Landfilling is done for the following types of waste:
(i) Comingled waste (mixed waste) not found suitable for waste processing;
(ii) Pre-processing and post-processing rejects from waste processing sites;
(iii) Non-hazardous waste not being processed or recycled.
• Landfilling is not done for the following waste streams in the municipal solid
waste:
(i) Biowaste/garden waste. Such waste is taken for composting or microbial
degradation
(ii) Dry recyclables.
• Landfilling of hazardous waste stream in the municipal waste is done at a
hazardous waste landfill siteidentified by the State Government and is likely to
be operated by industries of a district/state
• Landfilling of construction and demolition waste is done in a separate landfill
where the waste can be stored and mined for future use in earthwork or road
projects.

57
 A landfill is a carefully engineered depression in the ground, in a low lying area or
built on top of the ground into which wastes are disposed. The area is isolated
from the surrounding environment particularly groundwater. This isolation is done
by having a double bottom liner and covering of soil. Landfills are often
established in abandoned or unused low pits in the outskirts of the residential
areas. The most important factors in establishment of a land fill include a bottom
liner, a leachate collection system, a covering of the landfill and a natural
hydrogeologic system that keeps the waste isolated from the natural surroundings.
Certain steps have to be followed in building of a land fill.
The foremost step requires studying the environmental impact of establishing landfill
in a particular region which includes the study of
• the area of land necessary for the landfill
• the composition of the underlying soil and bedrock
• the flow of surface water over the site
• the impact of the proposed landfill on the local environment and wildlife
• The historical or archaeological value of the proposed site
Composition of a landfill
At the most basic level landfilling involves placing waste in a hole in the ground and
covering it with soil. Today, the engineering of a modern landfill is a complex
process, typically involving lining and capping individual "cells" or compartments
into which waste is compacted and covered to prevent the escape of polluting liquid
or gases. In newer landfill sites, systems are installed to capture and remove the gases
and liquids produced by the rotting rubbish.
There are five essential elements in a secure landfill
• A bottom liner
• A leachate collection system
• Gas collection facility
• A cover
• Natural hydrogeologic setting.

58
The design objectives of these landfills are to minimize possibility of wastes or
leachate migration into the subsurface environment or to groundwater beneath a
landfill and maximize landfill gas generation rates under controlled conditions. Each
of the above mentioned elements is critical to success.
Bottom liner
It may be one or more layers of clay or a synthetic flexible membrane (or a
combination of these). The liner effectively creates a complete isolation of the two
areas, inside and outside of the liner. If the bottom liner fails, wastes will migrate
directly into the environment. There are three types of liners: clay, plastic, and
composite. Two types of landfills are usually designed on the basis of type of the
liners used
o Sanitary landfill - landfill that uses a clay liner to isolate the trash from the
environment
o Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill - uses a synthetic (plastic) liner to
isolate the trash from the environment
Leachate collection system
Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and
covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Design characteristics of
a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining
material. Leachate is generated on account of the infiltration of water into landfills
and its percolation through waste as well as by the squeezing of the waste due to self
weight. Thus, leachate is a contaminated liquid that is produced when water or
another liquid comes in contact with solid waste. It contains a number of dissolved
and suspended materials, inorganic and chemicals organic in the form of as
Chlorides, Nitrogen, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Lead, Copper,
Arsenic, Mercury, Cyanide, Acetone, Benzene, Toluene, Chloroform, dichloroethane,
Methyl ethyl ketone, Naphthalene, Phenol, Vinyl Chloride etc.
It seeps to the bottom of a landfill and is collected by a system of pipes. The bottom
of the landfill is sloped with pipes laid along the bottom to collect leachate or waste

59
water as they accumulate. The leachate drainage layer is usually 30 cm thick, has a
slope of 2% or higher and a permeability of greater than 0.01 cm/sec. Leachate is
removed from the landfill by
(i) pumping in vertical wells or chimneys
(ii) pumping in side slope risers
(iii) by gravity drains rough the base of a landfill in above –ground and
sloped landfills.
The pumped leachate is treated at a wastewater treatment plant (and the solids
removed from the leachate during this step are returned to the landfill, or are sent to
some other landfill). If leachate collection pipes clog up and leachate remains in the
landfill, fluids can build up in the bathtub. The resulting liquid pressure becomes the
main force driving waste out the bottom of the landfill when the bottom liner fails.
Gas collection system
A gas collection and control facility (optional for small landfills) collects and extracts
gas produced within the landfill. This gas then treats it or uses it for energy recovery.
Gas control within a landfill site involves the following features:
a. containment system which encloses the gas within the site and prevents
migration outside the landfill
b. a system (passive or active) for collecting and removing landfill gas
from within the landfill and in particular from the perimeter of the
landfill
c. a system for flaring or utilizing the collected gas with adequate back-up
facilities.
Cover
A cover or cap is an umbrella over the landfill to keep water out (to prevent leachate
formation). It consist of several sloped layers: clay or membrane liner (to prevent
rain from intruding), overlain by a very permeable layer of sandy or gravelly soil (to
promote rain runoff), overlain by topsoil in which vegetation can root (to stabilize the
underlying layers of the cover). If the cover (cap) is not maintained, rain will enter

60
the landfill resulting in buildup of leachate to the point where the bathtub overflows
its sides and wastes enter the environment.
Natural hydrogeologic setting:
A natural hydrogeologic system is required for a good landfill design that prevents
the wastes from escaping, at the same time the tight setting of rocks should behave as
a waterproof covering on sides and base of the landfill that should not allow the
ground water or the rain water to enter the system. A fractured bedrock is highly
undesirable beneath a landfill because the wastes cannot be located if they escape.
Mines and quarries should be avoided because they frequently contact the
groundwater.

Source: runcoenv.com
Figure 4.1: Landfill Cross Section

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A landfill can be built in three sizes depending upon the area it occupies
• Small size landfill : less than 5 hectare area
• Medium size landfill : 5 to 20 hectare area
• Large size landfill: greater than 20 hectare area.
Landfill heights are reported to vary from less than 5 m to well above 30 m.
Over recent years the landfill has been favored for disposal of waste and this has
been possible because of our geology. Mineral extraction and quarrying left large
holes in the ground which were restored by filling with waste. In addition, the
underlying geology often provided naturally impermeable ground conditions,
allowing us to bury our waste with less risk of liquids seeping out and polluting
groundwater. This makes landfill very cheap method of waste disposal and hence
most practiced in the underdeveloped ad developing nations.

Box 4.2.

On a basis of research and literature available, landfills with the single

composite liner system with minimum requirements is adopted in different
countries

• A leachate drainage layer 30 cm thick made of granular soil having

permeability (K) greater than 10-2 cm/sec.
• A protection layer (of silty soil) 20 cm to 30 cm thick.
• A geomembrane of thickness 1.5 mm or more.
• A compacted clay barrier or amended soil barrier of 1 m thickness having
permeability (K) of less than 10-7 cm/sec.

Energy recovery from landfills

Landfills can be regarded as a viable and abundant source of materials and energy.
Landfill gas is generated as a product of waste biodegradation. Biological
degradation of the waste may occur in the presence of oxygen (aerobic bacteria), in
an environment devoid of oxygen (anaerobic bacteria), or with very little oxygen

62
(facultative anaerobic bacteria). In all cases, organic waste is broken down by
enzymes produced by bacteria in a manner comparable to food digestion.
Considerable heat is generated by these reactions with methane, carbon dioxide, and
other gases as the byproducts. The typical percentage distribution of gases found in a
MSW landfill is reported in Table 4.1. (Bagchi (1994). Tchobanoglous et. al. (1993)

TABLE 4.1. : Typical Constituents of Municipal Landfill Gas

Constituent Range
Major Constituents (Percentage or Concentration)
Methane 30 to 60 %
Carbon Dioxide 34 to 60 %
Nitrogen 1 to 21 %
Oxygen 0.1 to 2 %
Hydrogen Sulphide 0 to 1 %
Carbon Monoxide 0 to 0.2 %
Hydrogen 0 to 0.2 %
Ammonia 0.1 to 1 %
Trace Constituents
Acetone 0 to 240 ppm
Benzene 0 to 39 ppm
Vinyl Chloride 0 to 44 ppm
Toluene 8 to 280 ppm
Chloroform 0 to 12 ppm
Dichloromethane 1 to 620 ppm
Diethylene Chloride 0 to 20 ppm
Vinyl Acetate 0 to 240 ppm
Trichloroethane 0 to 13 ppm
Perchloroethane 0 to 19 ppm
Others Variable
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Gas recovery, fossil fuel power plants and waste incinerators which have built-in
material recovery plants are major commercial exploitations of landfill energy. This
material recovery is possible through the use of filters (electro filter, active carbon
and potassium filter, quench, HCL-washer, SO2-washer, bottom ash-grating, etc.).
Sometimes, if properly processed the amount of materials or minerals recovered from
the recovery plants is actually more than what could be obtained from mines.
However, because of the high concentration of gases and the unpredictability of the
landfill contents, which often include sharp objects, landfill excavation is generally
considered dangerous. Furthermore, the quality of materials residing within landfills
tends to degrade and such materials are thought to be not worth the risks required to
recover them.

Box 4.3.

• The rate and quantity of gas generation with time, is difficult to predict
however typical generation rates reported in literature vary from 1.0 to
8.0 litres/kg/year.
• Bhide (1993) has reported landfill gas production rates of 6-0 cu.m. per
hour from landfill sites in India having an area of 8 hectares and depth
of 5 to 8 m.
• The experience of Sweden [Hogland (1997)] in the area of landfill gas
generation is summarised hereafter and may be noted.
• The potential volume of landfill gas generation can be estimated to be
200 to 300 cu.m. per tonne of municipal waste.
• 50 to 75% of landfill gas can be recovered using well functioning
recovery systems.
• Landfill gas can be burned directly to generate electricity or it can be
processed into a higher-energy gas for power generation. It can also be
burned as a heat source for various industrial processes
• Using landfill methane to generate electricity, fire boilers or substitute
64
for other energy sources can turn a potential liability into a benefit.
Environmental Impacts of Landfill:
Landfill operations can cause a large number of environmental impacts as
• Fatal accidents (e.g., scavenger animals or birds get buried under waste piles
during dumping of waste)
• Infrastructure damage (e.g., damage to roads by heavy vehicles during waste
transport)
• Pollution of the local environment (such as contamination of groundwater
and/or aquifers by leakage or sinkholes
• Soil contamination in the region during landfill usage, as well as after landfill
closure
• Gases, most commonly, methane and carbon dioxide are produced in landfills
due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes on any organic matter. These gases
create odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and contribute to green house
emission. If a significant amount of methane is present, it may be explosive;
proper venting eliminates this problem. Landfill gas monitoring can be carried
out to alert for the presence of a build-up of gasses to a harmful level. This gas
is often referred to as Trash Air
• Poorly managed sites have resulted in polluted ground or surface waters and
uncontrolled landfill gas generation. Without proper control, landfills can
become a site of harboring of disease vectors such as rats and flies, litter or
noise in the surrounding area, injuries to wildlife; and simple nuisance
problems (e.g., dust, odor or noise pollution).
• Many current landfill sites are nearly full and we are rapidly running out of
suitable land, close to where the waste is produced, for new landfills. Some
local authorities find it difficult to locate new landfills.
• Most importantly, when we landfill our waste we are simply burying and
losing our resources. Communities may charge a fee or levy in order to
discourage waste and/or recover the costs of site operations. Many landfills are
publicly funded, but some are commercial businesses, operated for profit.

65
 There are other problems with land filling which cannot be avoided by good
site management and control.
Bioreactor landfills
A bioreactor landfill is a sanitary landfill site that uses microbiological processes to
enhance the transformation and stabilization of decomposable organic waste
constituents.

Box 4.5.

• According to the Solid Waste Association of North America (SWANA),

a bioreactor landfill is: “A controlled landfill or landfill cell where liquid
and gas conditions are actively managed in order to accelerate or
enhance biostabilization of the waste. The bioreactor landfill
significantly increases the extent of organic waste decomposition,
conversion rates, and process effectiveness over what would otherwise
occur with the landfill.”
• The USEPA Clean Air Act regulations (40 CFR 63.1990, National
Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants) define a bioreactor
landfill as: “A MSW landfill or a portion of a MSW landfill where any
liquid, other than leachate or landfill gas condensate, is added in a
controlled fashion into the waste mass (often in combination with
recirculating leachate) to reach a minimum average moisture content of
at least 40% by weight to accelerate or enhance the anaerobic
biodegradation of the waste.”

The basic concept of bioreactor landfill is to use specific design and operation
practices to accelerate the decomposition of food waste, green-waste, paper and other
organic wastes in a landfill by promoting optimum moisture content and sufficient
nutrients for the microorganisms to degrade the waste. The method not only enhances
the degradation processes, but also stabilizes the landfill as quickly as possible.

66
Landfill stabilization means that the environmental performance parameters (landfill
gas composition, gas generation rate and leachate concentration) remain at a steady
level. Biological processes are known to reduce the fraction of solid waste. Leachate
recirculation system in a bioreactor landfill is one of the techniques that can be used
to enhance solid waste biodegradation. Landfill's leachate may contain high
concentration of organic and inorganic materials including toxic compounds and
heavy metals. The recirculation of landfill's leachate accelerates the rate at which the
waste is broken down, thus decreasing the time required to stabilize the landfill's site.
Engineered bioreactor landfill sites can provide a more controlled means by which
society can reduce the emission of global warming landfill gas (LFG), additionally
they can provide immediate improvements to the surrounding local environment.
Bioreactor landfills are of the following types
• Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill: Biodegradation occurs in the absence of
oxygen (anaerobically) and produces landfill gas (LFG). Landfill gas, primarily
methane, and carbon-dioxide can be captured to minimize greenhouse gas
emissions and for energy generation. Moisture is added to the waste mass in
the form of recirculated leachate and other sources to obtain optimal moisture
levels.
• Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill: In an aerobic bioreactor landfill, aerobic
biodegradation occurs when air is passed into the waste mass, using vertical or
horizontal wells, to promote aerobic degradation activity and accelerate waste
stabilization.Here leachate is removed from the bottom layer, piped to liquids
storage tanks, and recirculated into the landfill in a controlled manner.
• Hybrid (Aerobic-Anaerobic) Bioreactor Landfill: The hybrid bioreactor
landfill employs aerobic-anaerobic treatment sequentially to rapidly degrade
organics in the upper sections of the landfill and collect gas from lower
sections. The simultaneous application of both aerobic and anaerobic processes
accelerates waste degradation.

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 • Semi Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill: This describes a landfill system
wherenatural ventilation of the leachate collection system promotes aerobic
stabilization of the leachate.
• As-Built Bioreactor Landfill: A landfill where the waste is actively deposited
while the construction of the bioreactor continues.
• Retrofit Bioreactor Landfill: A landfill that is not originally conceived as a
bioreactor; the construction and operation of bioreactor components occurs
after landfill operation, and most or all of the waste has been placed. The
methods that can be used for liquids addition are limited compared to as-built
bioreactors.
Potential Advantages of Bioreactor Landfills
Decomposition and biological stabilization of the waste in a bioreactor landfill can
occur in a much shorter time frame than occurs in a traditional “dry tomb” landfill
providing a potential decrease in long-term environmental risks and landfill operating
and post-closure costs. Potential advantages of bioreactors include:
• Decomposition and biological stabilization in years vs. decades in “dry tombs”
• Lower waste toxicity and mobility due to both aerobic and anaerobic
conditions
• Reduced leachate disposal costs
• A 15 to 30 % gain in landfill space due to an increase in density of waste mass
• Significant increased LFG generation that, when captured, can be used for
energy use onsite or sold
• Reduced post-closure care
The bioreactor landfill significantly increases the extent of organic waste
decomposition, conversion rates and process effectiveness over those that otherwise
occur within the traditional landfill sites.
4.3 Thermal Treatment
Thermal treatment is a term given to any waste treatment technology that involves
high temperatures in the processing of the waste feedstock. Thermal technologies use

68
heat energy in the form of high temperatures to retrieve or destroy hydrocarbon-
contaminated material. Thermal treatment is the most efficient treatment for
destroying organic materials, however, additional treatment may be necessary for
inorganic metals and salts, depending on the final fate of the wastes. Thermal
treatment can be used as a final treatment process or an intermediate step to reduce
toxicity and volume of waste and prepare it for further treatment or disposal (e.g.,
landfill, land farming, land spreading).
Thermal treatment technologies can be grouped into following categories
• One method uses combustion or incineration (e.g., rotary kilns, cement kilns)
to destroy hydrocarbons by heating them to very high temperatures in the
presence of air. Incineration is not commonly used for drilling wastes but has
greater applicability for materials like medical waste.
• The second method uses thermal desorption, in which heat is applied directly
or indirectly to the wastes, to vaporize volatile and semivolatile components
without incinerating the soil. In some thermal desorption technologies, the off-
gases are combusted, and in others, such as in thermal phase separation, the
gases are condensed and separated to recover heavier hydrocarbons. Thermal
desorption technologies include indirect rotary kilns, hot oil processors,
thermal phase separation, thermal distillation, thermal plasma volatilization,
and modular thermal processors.
• Open burning does not classify necessarily as thermal treatment method; still it
is discussed in methods utilizing heat for treatment of waste
• Gasification is in fact a ‘gasification-combustion’ processes where the
calorific value of the solid waste is recovered in the form of steam. (as in
conventional Waste to Energy processes).

69
 Box 4.5.

The Waste-To-Energy Research and Technology Council (WTERT),

headquartered at Columbia University in New York City, keeps a close watch
on the thermal treatment technologies used worldwide. It judges the best Waste-
To-Energy centers in the world on the basis of the following criteria:
• energy recovery in terms of kWh of electricity plus kWh of heat recovered per
tonne of MSW, and as the percentage of thermal energy input in the MSW feed
• level of emissions achieved
• optimal resource recovery and beneficial use of WTE ash
• aesthetic appearance of the facility
• acceptance of the facility by the host community

Open burning
Open burning of waste is the combustion of unwanted combustible materials such as
paper, wood, plastics, textiles, rubber, waste oils and other debris in nature (open-air)
or in open dumps, that allow smoke and other emissions to be released directly into
the air without passing through any filters or chimneys. Open burning includes the
burning of outdoor piles, burning in a burn barrel and the use of incinerators which
have no pollution control devices. Open burning of waste is practiced in many
developing countries because of the cheapness, ease and convenience of the method.
This reduces the volume of the waste at the dump and therefore extends the life of
their dumpsite. In countries where house holders are required to pay for garbage
disposal, burning of waste in the backyard allows the householder to avoid paying the
costs associated with collecting, hauling and dumping the waste.
Open burning has many negative impacts on human health and the environment. The
uncontrolled burning of waste releases many pollutants into the atmosphere that
includes include several carcinogenic or mutagenic pollutants as acid gases, dioxins
and furans, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, cadmium, mercury, lead and hydrogen
sulphide, particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic compounds, volatile organic

70
compounds, carbon monoxide, hexachlorobenzene and ash. All these chemicals pose
serious risks to human health, particularly dioxins that can have adverse effects on
reproduction, development, disrupt the hormonal systems or even cause cancer. The
polycyclic aromatic compounds and the hexachlorobenzene are considered to be
carcinogenic. The particulate matter can be harmful to persons with respiratory
problems such as asthma or bronchitis and carbon monoxide can cause neurological
symptoms. The emission of carbon monoxide in the open burning contributes to
ozone formation in presence of sunlight. The particulate matter creates smoke and
haze which contribute to air pollution. Open burning also releases acidic gases such
as halo-hydrides, oxides of nitrogen and carbon. These oxides contribute to acid rain,
ozone depletion, smog and global warming. Apart from the gaseous emissions,
burning of waste leaves solid residues that include inert mineral ash, inorganic
compounds, and any remaining unreformed carbon (which is also inert) – these can
be between 8 and 15 per cent of the original volume of waste
4.3.3 Incineration:
Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of solid organic waste
material with the release of heat energy gas, steam, and ash. Disposal of waste by
incineration is based on the principle of waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste
(EfW), that implies burning of waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam or
electricity. Toxic substances that cannot be dumped are burnt. This process reduces
the volume of waste to 20-30% of the original volume. Incineration is recognized as a
practical method of disposing of mainly solid waste as
• vegetable and wood waste from food processing, agriculture and forestry;
• certain fibrous vegetable waste from pulp paper or paper production
• cork waste
• animal carcasses
• waste resulting from the exploration of oil and gas and incinerated on board off-
shore installations

71
• certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste, nuclear
waste).
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by
industry. Incineration is common in countries that don’t have waste lands for
dumping or land fills, for ex. Japan.
Certain precautions and rules have to be followed inside and around the region of an
incineration plant.
• Necessary precaution should be taken to prevent or limit negative effects on
the environment and risks to people during delivery and reception of waste.
• Extra precaution should be taken for during incineration and handling of
hazardous waste. Complete information of physical and chemical
composition of the waste should be provided to the incineration palnt so as to
avoid any mishaps or accidents during the burning of the waste.
• It is required to keep the incineration or co-incineration gases in the treatment
plant at a temperature of at least 850°C for at least two seconds. If hazardous
waste with a content of more than 1% of halogenated organic substances,
expressed as chlorine, is incinerated, the temperature has to be raised to 1
100 °C for at least two seconds.
• The heat generated by the incineration process can be recovered and utilized
for energy purposes.
• Air emissions from an incineration unit include heavy metals, dioxins and
furans, carbon monoxide (CO), dust, total organic carbon (TOC), hydrogen
chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and the
nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2). Incineration of both hazardous and harmless
wastes may cause emissions of substances which pollute the air, water and
soil and have harmful effects on human health

72
 Box 4.5.

• Currently there are 86 facilities in the United States for

combustion of municipal solid waste (MSW), with energy
recovery.
• The 86 facilities have the capacity to produce 2,720 megawatts
of power per year by processing more than 28 million tons of
waste per year
• In 2008 we combusted about 32 million tons of MSW (about 13
percent) for energy recovery
• In India an incinerator capable of generating 3.75 MW power
from 300 TPD MSW was installed at Timarpur, Delhi in the
year 1987. It could not operate successfully due to low net
calorific value of MSW. The plant is lying idle and the
investment is wasted.

4.3.3 Pyrolysis and Gasification:

Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures
in the absence of air or oxygen. The process, which requires heat, produces a mixture
of combustible gases, primarily methane, complex hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and
carbon monoxide, and liquids and solid residues.
Principle of process:
Pyrolysis occurs at high temperatures above 800 °F (430 °C ) under pressure, in the
absence of air, and actually is a cracking process. Under pyrolysis conditions, the
biomass feed material cannot combust and the long chains of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen compounds break down into smaller molecules in the form of gases,
condensable vapours (tars and oils), and solid charcoal. Pyrolysis differs from other
high-temperature processes like combustion and hydrolysis in that it does not involve
reactions with oxygen, water, or any other reagents. In practice, it is not possible to
achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some oxygen is present in
any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs.

73
Products of pyrolysis:
• Bio-oil (maximum 60-70% of the dry ash free Bio mass feed)
• Gas (10-20% of the dry ash free Bio mass feed)
• Coal (10-20% of the dry ash free Bio mass feed)

Source: http://www.btg.cz/en/about-biomass/fast-pyrolysis/btg-s-pyrolysis-technology
Figure 4.2 : Schematic representation of pyrolysis
The best example of pyrolysis is burning of vegetation when it comes into contact
with lava in volcanic eruptions. Pyrolysis leaves a solid residue richer in carbon
content and hence the process may also be called as carbonization.
Gasification of waste is a special type of pyrolysis where thermal decomposition
takes place in the presence of a small amount of oxygen or air. The gas which is
generated can then be burned in industrial boilers or cleaned up and used in
combustion turbines for electric generators.
In pyrolysis, waste is converted into solid &liquid, in which solid is refined into
carbon form& liquid got from the waste is used as energy giving oil. In gasification,
waste is converted into synthetic gases: that are burnt to give high energy

74
Gasification and pyrolysis can produce a gas for fuel. The process operates at a high
temperature and in the absence of air. Under special conditions, a liquid fuel or
chemical feedstock can also be made. The gas may be used in existing boilers or
furnaces, or can fire combustion turbines to generate electricity.
Thermal gasification facilities share some of the same environmental problems
associated with mass burn incinerators including:
• Air emissions of pollutants
• Classification of the ash as a hazardous material
• Disposal of ash and other by-products
• Possible conflict with adjacent land uses
• Disturbances to biological resources
• Use of large amounts of water for cooling purposes (if wet cooling towers are
used)
• Transportation impacts from numerous truck trips from the refuse source to the
facility
• Health, safety, odor, and traffic impacts
• Possible hazardous materials leakage
• Conflicts between using MSW for electricity generation and waste reduction
techniques, composting, and recycling
Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste
materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The
process typically occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid
waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can
be burnt to produce energy or refined into other products. The solid residue (char) can
be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced
Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic
gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to
produce electricity and steam.

75
4.3.4 Plasma Arc technology;
Plasma arc technology (PAT) or Plasma Gasification Process (PGP) is a waste
treatment technology that uses electrical energy and the heat generated by a plasma
arc (electric arc gasifier) to break down organic waste primarily into elemental gas
and solid waste (slag), while melting the inorganic portion of waste material in a
device called a plasma converter. The process has been intended to be a net generator
of electricity, depending upon the composition of input wastes, and to reduce the
volumes of waste being sent to landfill sites
Types of waste materials tested include medical incinerator ash, Longhorn sludge,
open burning ground soil, agricultural and plastic/glass blast media, surrogate
absorbent materials, Mendocino soil spiked with dichlorobenzene, and waste paint.
Principle of operation
High current electricity at high voltage is passed between two electrodes, spaced
apart, creating an electrical arc. Inert gas under pressure is passed through the arc into
a sealed container of waste material, reaching temperatures as high as 25,000 °F
(13,900 °C) in the arc column. The temperature a few feet from the torch can be as
high as 5000–8000 °F (2760–4427 °C). At these temperatures, most types of waste
are broken into basic elemental components in a gaseous form, and complex
molecules are separated into individual atoms. The reactor operates at a slightly
negative pressure, as the burning of the waste generates gas and hence the feed
system is complemented by a gaseous removal system and a solid removal system to
remove the residue obtained after burning of the waste. Depending on the input waste
(plastics tend to be high in hydrogen and carbon), gas from the plasma containment
can be removed as syngas, and may be refined into various fuels at a later stage or
fired on site to provide power.
Syngas is produced exclusively from organic materials with a conversion rate of
greater than 99% using plasma gasification. Other inorganic materials in the waste
stream that are not broken down but only go through a phase change (solid to liquid)
add to the volume of slag with minimal energy recovery and increased cost for

76
refining. For efficient operation of the plant, a portion of the syngas may be used to
run on site turbines to power the plasma torches and feed system.

Source: http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/26/japan/Waste-139.html
http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/26/japan/Waste 139.html
Figure 4.3 : Schematic representation of Plasma Arc Technology
Plasma arc technology is suited
• Hazardous & toxic compounds broken down to elemental constituents by high
temperatures
• Organic materials
– Pyrolyzed or volatilized
– May be converted to fuel gases
– Amenable to conventional off-gas treatment
• Residual materials (radionuclides, heavy metals, etc.) immobilized in a rock
rock-
like vitrified mass which is highly resistant to leaching
• The plasma arc can be used for inorganic wastes.
• It is being studied for mixed radioactive
radioactive waste treatment, because it separates
the organic from the inorganic portion of the waste.
• It is also being studied to reduce explosive compounds and unexploded
ordnance in place of traditional technologies, such as open burning and open
detonation that produced toxic emissions and hazardous ash.
77
 • It has also been used to thermally reduce asbestos to a slag that can be disposed
of in a municipal landfill
Safety and Health
• Caution must be exercised with the equipment, as high voltages are a potential
danger. The process employs two plasma torches, each of which are capable of
a sustained output of 160 kW. The torches must be shielded and protected.
• Since the process is use to treat hazardous and combustible materials, proper
personal protective equipment must be worn and other safety practices must be
employed. Consult your local industrial health specialist, your local health and
safety personnel, and the appropriate MSDS prior to implementing this
technology.
• The PAT waste treatment process has several safety advantages when
compared to conventional incineration systems. The primary advantage is the
use of less air for combustion. Water-cooled chambers allow better sealing,
which reduces the risk of uncontrolled releases of noxious fumes. Water
cooling reduces the exterior surface temperature, which reduces burn and fire
hazards. It also allows for faster shutdown, and a significant thermal
capacitance for responding to unusual events. Rapid cooling and capture of the
reaction products in the slag or in the off-gas treatment systems reduces the
opportunities for operator contact with the hazardous materials.
• Consult your local industrial health specialist, your local health and safety
personnel, and the appropriate MSDS prior to implementing this technology.

78
 Box 4.7
Some of the Existing PAT centres are:
• National Cheng Kung University - Tainan City, Taiwan
• Yoshii, Utashinai, &Mihama-Mikata, Japan (Hitachi Metals Ltd.)
• Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Plasco Energy Group Inc.)
• Swindon, Wiltshire, England, UK, (Advanced Plasma Power)
• Energy Park Peterborough, England, UK (Tetronics)
• St. Lucie County, Florida, USA (GeoPlasma)
• Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (Plasco Energy Group
Inc.)
• Port Hope, Ontario, Canada (Sunbay Energy Corporation)
• Tallahassee, Florida, USA (Green Power Systems)
• Hirwaun, Wales, UK (EnviroParks Limited)
• Jackson, Georgia, USA (PR Power Company)
• Red Deer, Alberta, Canada (Plasco Energy Group Inc.)
• Pune, Maharashtra, India (Maharashtra Enviro Power Limited)
• Beijing, China (Plasco Energy Group Inc.)

Benefits:
• Offers a single-step treatment for a variety of waste streams, both small and
large. Media amenable to treatment includes soil, sludge, ash, solids, pastes,
and liquids from industrial processing operations.
• Requires minimal waste pretreatment.
• Achieves destruction and removal efficiencies (DREs) in excess of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency requirement of 99.99%. It converts organic
materials into simple gaseous compounds that can be easily scrubbed and
rendered harmless, and stabilizes toxic wastes in a leach-resistant, vitrified slag
that is suitable for landfill deposition.

79
 • Efficient in treating process by-products including fly ash and scrubber
residues.
• Offers several safety advantages in comparison to conventional incineration
processes.
• Provides volume reduction of the waste streams, ranging from 67-99%,
depending on the composition of the waste stream. Corresponding benefits
include reduced storage, handling, and shipping costs, in addition to providing
increased life to landfills since less waste will be dumped into landfills.
Disadvantages:
• Still in research stage.
• Substantial initial investment in equipment and staff training.
• Air and water permits are needed; however, the demonstration revealed air
emissions met Clean Air Act standards, and the process generated wastewater
that could be treated and recycled.
• A chief concern about plasma arc technology is ensuring that gaseous
emissions are kept to a minimum and cleaned before being released to the
atmosphere.
• Concerns have been raised regarding the reliability of plasma torch technology.
• The water-cooled copper torch must be replaced periodically to prevent burn-
through at the attachment point of the arc and a subsequent steam explosion
due to rapid heating of the released cooling water
However, till this date no municipal-scale waste disposal plasma arc facilities have
been constructed yet. Various plants across the world have been using this technology
just for the destruction of medical and hazardous waste. For municipal solid waste
disposal considerable technological and budgetary uncertainties remain.

4.3.5 Supercritical water decomposition:

Supercritical water decomposition is a high temperature and pressure hydrothermal
monophasic oxidation and an alternative to pyrolysis incineration and plasma

80
gasification. Supercritical water oxidation uses supercritical water as a medium in
which to oxidize hazardous waste, eliminating production of toxic combustion
products that burning can produce. The waste product to be oxidized is dissolved in
the supercritical water along with molecular oxygen (or an oxidizing agent that gives
up oxygen upon decomposition, e.g. Hydrogen Peroxide) at which point the oxidation
reaction occurs.

Source: bioenergy/2008/02/researchers-find-large-potential-for.html
Figure 4.4: Schematic representation Supercritical water decomposition
Principle of process
Supercritical water decomposition refers to the process of hydrothermal monophasic
oxidation where in the organic fraction of waste gets decomposed by high
temperature and pressure. It is a sophisticated procedure that is used in the
decomposition of waste plastics. It utilizes the property of water as a reaction solvent
in its super critical condition. When the waste material which is decomposed of the
condensation polymerization plastic and the addition polymerization plastic, is
treated in the super critical water, the former one is selectively decomposed to their
monomer in short time, that is the chemicals, and at this time latter one is not
decomposed. The addition polymerization polymer however is continuously

81
converted to the oil following to the monomerization of the condensation
polymerization plastic. The technology on this decomposition of plastics in the super
critical water is expected as novel waste treatment process.

Box 4.8
• Japan is the largest user of thermal treatment of MSW in the world (40
million tonnes). The principal technology used is grate combustion of
‘as received MSW’ (i.e. mass burn).
• Total thermal treatment capacity in China is estimated at about 4 million
tonnes in less than 50 facilities.
• Waste streams high in hydrocarbons (typically 10 to 40%), like oil-
based mud, are good candidates for thermal treatment technology.
• Costs for thermal treatment range from $75 to $150/ton, with labor
being a large component (Bansal and Sugiarto 1999).
• The only true gasification process at an industrial scale is the
Thermoselect process, currently operating at seven facilities built by
JFE, a major Japanese steel maker

4.4 Composting (Biological reprocessing)

Composting is the controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter by the action
of micro organisms and small invertebrates. Composting described as nature’s way of
recycling, is the biological process of breaking up of organic waste such as plant and
garden waste, food scraps, and paper products, worms, and coffee grounds, etc., into
an extremely useful humus-like substance by various micro-organisms including
bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes in the presence of oxygen. Organic matter
constitutes 35%–40% of the municipal solid waste and can be recycled by the method
of composting, one of the oldest forms of disposal. It is the natural process of
decomposition of organic waste that yields manure or compost, which is very rich in
nutrients. This finished product, which looks like soil, is high in carbon and nitrogen
and is an excellent medium for growing plants. The process of composting ensures

82
the waste that is produced in the kitchens is not carelessly thrown and left to rot. It
recycles the nutrients and returns them to the soil as nutrients. Apart from being
clean, cheap, and safe, composting can significantly reduce the amount of disposable
garbage. The organic fertilizer can be used instead of chemical fertilizers and is better
specially when used for vegetables. It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and
makes the soil easier to cultivate. It helped the soil retain more of the plant nutrients.
Composting is suitable for organic biodegradable fraction of MSW, yard (or garden)
waste/waste containing high proportion of lignocelluloses materials, which do not
readily degrade under anaerobic conditions, waste from slaughter house and dairy
waste. The rate of compost formation is controlled by the composition and
constituents of the materials i.e. their Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) ratio, the temperature,
the moisture content and the amount of air. The C/N ratio is very important for the
process to be efficient. The micro organisms require carbon as an energy source and
nitrogen for the synthesis of some proteins. If the correct C/N ration is not achieved,
then application of the compost with either a high or low C/N ratio can have adverse
effects on both the soil and the plants. A high C/N ratio can be corrected by
dehydrated mud and a low ratio corrected by adding cellulose. Moisture content
greatly influences the composting process. The microbes need the moisture to
perform their metabolic functions, hence a optimum level of moisture is required in
the compost.If the waste becomes too dry the composting is not favoured. If however
there is too much moisture then it is possible that it may displace the air in the
compost heap depriving the organisms of oxygen and drowning them. A high
temperature is desirable for the elimination of pathogenic organisms. However, if
temperatures are too high, above 75oC then the organisms necessary to complete the
composting process are destroyed. Optimum temperatures for the process are in the
range of 50-60oC with the ideal being 60oC.
Aeration is a very important and the quantity of air needs to be properly controlled
when composting. If there is insufficient oxygen the aerobes will begin to die and
will be replaced by anaerobes. The anaerobes are undesirable since they will slow the

83
process, produce odours and also produce the highly flammable methane gas. Air can
be incorporated by churning the compost.
In India composting is a technology known in India since ancient times immemorial.
Farmers have been using compost made out of cow dung and other agro-waste. Full-
scale commercially viable composting technology is already demonstrated in India
and is in use in several cities and towns. Its application to farm land, tea gardens, fruit
orchards or its use as soil conditioner in parks, gardens, agricultural lands, etc., is
however, limited on account of poor marketing. There are many small and large
composting projects in the country though the exact figure is not known. Those
functioning are generally being managed by the private sector through a contractual
arrangement with municipal authorities. Most of the plants are facing a problem of
marketing the compost due to an ineffective marketing mechanism.
There are a number of composting techniques based on the three types of process,
namely aerobic, anaerobic and vermicomposting. These include: in vessel
composting, windrow composting, vermicomposting and static pile composting. The
process is controlled by making the environmental conditions optimum for the waste
decomposers to thrive.
4.4.1 Types of composting
Aerobic composting:
It refers to decomposition of waste in presence of air. The presence of oxygen allows
the degrading bacteria to break the waste quickly without any smell. This type of
compost is good for large volumes of compost.
Anaerobic composting:
This refers to the biodegradation of waste in absence of air. Anaerobic composting or
degradation requires less maintenance, however the time period required for the
waste to decompose remains much higher compared to the aerobic composting.
Anaerobic decomposition may take years to break the waste Anaerobic composting is
used to describe putrefactive breakdown of the organic matter by reduction in the
absence of oxygen where end products as methane and carbon dioxide are released.

84
Anaerobic composts create the awful smell most people associate with composting.
The bacteria break down the organic materials into harmful compounds like ammonia
and methane. It is mostly produced in a closed system, perhaps in a plastic bag or a
sealed bin or sometimes even in open exposed piles.
Anaerobic digestion of organic matter is also a natural process and takes place at the
bottom of marshes and in buried organic materials with no access to oxygen.
Microorganisms that thrive in a low-oxygen environment (mostly bacteria) reduce
nitrogen-containing or sulphur-containing compounds found in organic matter to
yield organic acids and gases (ammonia etc).
Vermicomposting:
Vermi-compost is the natural organic manure produced from the excreta of
earthworms fed on scientifically semi-decomposed organic waste In this method,
worms are added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta
of the worms makes the compost very rich in nutrients. Along with red worms, this
includes composting with bacteria, fungi and insects. Oxygen and moisture are
required to keep this compost healthy. This is most beneficial for composting food
waste.
A few vermi composting plants generally of small size have been set up in some
cities and towns in India, the largest plant being in Bangalore of about 100 MT/day
capacity. Normally, vermi-composting is preferred to microbial composting in small
towns as it requires less mechanization and it is easy to operate. It is, however, to be
ensured that toxic material does not enter the chain which if present could kill the
earthworms.
4.4.2 Benefits of Composting:
• Improvement in soil texture and augmenting of micronutrient deficiencies.
Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period. It
supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the plants.
• It also increases moisture-holding capacity of the soil and helps in
maintaining soil health.

85
 • It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the
excessive use of chemical fertilizer.
• It makes soil easier to cultivate.
• It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
• It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered.
• It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.
• As it is an age-old established concept for recycling nutrients to the soil, it is
simple and straightforward to adopt, for source separated MSW.
• It does not require large capital investment, compared to other waste treatment
options.
• The technology is scale neutral.
4.5 Conclusion
Solid Waste Management takes an overall approach to creating sustainable systems
that are economically affordable, socially acceptable and environmentally effective. It
involves the use of a range of different treatment methods, and key to the functioning
of such a system is the collection, sorting ad disposal of the waste. It is important to
note that no one single treatment method can manage all the waste materials in an
environmentally effective way. Thus all of the available treatment and disposal
options must be evaluated equally and the best combination of the available options
suited to the particular community chosen. Effective management schemes therefore
need to operate in ways which best meet current social, economic, and environmental
conditions of the municipality.

86
4.5 References:
• Urbanindia.nic.in/Publicinfo/Swm/Chap17.Pdf
• Drilling waste management treatment system: Fact Sheet - Thermal
Treatment Technologies
(http://web.ead.anl.gov/dwm/techdesc/thermal/index.cfm)
• Galante G, Aiello G, Enea M, Panascia E. A multi-objective approach
to solid waste management. Waste Management2010, 30, 8–9, 1720–
1728
• Gunalay Y, Yeomans JS, and Huang GH. Modelling to Generate
Alternative Policies in Highly Uncertain Environments: An Application
to Municipal Solid Waste Management Planning. Journal of
Environmental Informatics, 2012, 19 (2).
• Landfill Operational Guidelines, 2nd Edition; prepared By Iswa
Working Group On Landfill
• Townsend TG, Kumar D and Ko JH, Bioreactor Landfill Operation: A
Guide For Development, Implementation And Monitoring
(http://www.bioreactor.org/BioreactorFinalReport/FinalReportVOLUM
E1_10/AttachmentforVOLUME8/Bioreactor_Landfill_OperationV10)
• UN Environment Program International Source Book on
Environmentally Sound Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste
Management
• U.S. EPA, Office Of Resource Conservation And Recovery, Basic
Facts
• Van Haaren R, Themelis N and Goldstein N, The State Of Garbage In
America, BioCycle December 2008, 49 (12), 22
• Warith M. A, Solid Waste Management: New Trends In Landfill
Design, Department Of Civil Engineering, Ryerson Polytechnic
University Extempore, Emirates Journal for Engineering Research,
2003, 8 (1), 61-70
87
 Chapter 5
Liquid Waste Management Techniques

According to the report, by the International Atomic

Energy Agency (IAEA), an estimated 1.1 billion people have

no access to safe drinking water, 2.5 billion lack proper

sanitation and more than five million people die from

waterborne diseases each year - 10 times the number of

casualties killed in wars around the globe… "The simple fact

is that there is a limited amount of water on the planet, and

we cannot afford to be negligent in its use. We cannot keep

treating it as if it will never run out," the IAEA's director,

Mohamed El-Baradei, said.

-BBC News "UN warns of looming water crisis," 22 Mar 02

5.1 Introduction
Environmental management, wastes recycling, treatment and disposal, pollution
control and prevention and wastewater reuse have become the most important issues
and are in the top of the global agenda. The development and expansion of industries
across the globe has on one hand has resulted in economic independence of the
nations; however on the other hand it has caused a great environmental impact to life
in the ecosystem. The discharge of untreated or inadequately treated wastewater from
industry, agriculture, and sewage often causes pollution or harmful effects to the
environment and human health, including undesirable changes to ecosystems,
reduction in the economic value of resources, aesthetic damage, and human health
risks.
88
Liquid waste can be defined as such fluids as wastewater, fats, oils or grease, used
oil, and hazardous household liquids, to name a few. Following types of waste fall
under the liquid waste category
• Oily Waste, Grease trap waste, Hazardous liquid spills
• Organic sludges, Bitumen, Hydrocarbon based waste, Phenol contaminated
water acids
• Non chlorinated solvents, Chemicals, Alkalines Paints Cyanide waste, Acid
sulphate soils, PAH impacted soils
• Dyes Resins, inks, Latex, Adhesives, Photographic processing effluent
• Paper pulp, Caustic & caustic sludges Chromium & chrome
• Laboratory materials, Wash waters, Detergents Acids
Wastewater may be defined as any discharge into the environment (effluent or
sludge) with or without treatment (human excrement, effluent, flushing water,
industrial wastewater and stormwater) (SOPAC 2002). Contaminants of concern that
are present in wastewater include pathogens (microorganisms), nutrients, heavy
metals, suspended solids, biological oxygen demand (BOD), and oil and grease.
According to Environmental Management Act Liquid Waste is
i. Effluent which originates from any source and is discharged into a
municipal sewer system,
ii. Effluent from residential sources discharged to the ground
iii. Effluent specified by a manager to be included in a waste management
plan
Effluent may be defined as – a substance that is discharged into water or onto land
and that
i. injures or is capable of injuring the health or safety of a person,
ii. injures or is capable of injuring property or any life form
iii. interferes or is capable of interfering with visibility,
iv. interferes or is capable of interfering with the normal conduct of business
v. causes or is capable of causing material physical discomfort to a person,

89
 vi. damages or is capable of damaging the environment
5.2 Impact of Effluent Waste
5.2.1 Environmental impacts
Poor wastewater management or effluent treatment plants cause high environmental
impact. Coastal areas adjacent to residential and industrial areas are subject to
contamination from wastewater from industry, domestic waste, urban stormwater and
shipping related activities. High concentrations of nutrients and micororganisms
related to sewage contamination appear to be the major problem. High levels of
heavy metal contamination are generally found at locations near industry.
Some factors that indicate contamination of water bodies as rivers or seas are
• Presence of pathogens in water that could impact human health
• High levels of nutrients that may cause algal growth
• Degradation of coral reef in coastal areas.
Extensive algae growth results in competition for space between the algae, coral and
other organisms, leading to overgrowth and smothering of coral, and preventing fish
and other reef inhabitants from finding food and shelter. There may also be a shading
effect caused by the algae, which would decrease the amount of light reaching the
coral. Increased nutrients are also thought to cause blooms of undesirable toxic
phytoplankton such as blue-green algae, which causes ciguatoxic fish poisoning
(Kelly 1994). Elevated BOD in effluent reduces dissolved oxygen levels in waters,
reducing survival of many organisms. Suspended solids affect sea grass and coral
reefs by decreasing light penetration, smothering benthic organisms or clogging
respiratory structures. Oil may also smother benthic organisms and clog respiratory
structures, as well as tainting commercial species, smothering breathing roots of
mangroves, and inhibiting the growth of fish and invertebrates. Heavy metals and
other persistent pollutants may have direct lethal or sub lethal effects, killing or
reducing survivorship of individuals. They also biomagnified in the food chain, and
can cause neuronal damage and inhibit embryonic development and normal
metabolic processes in humans (Cripps 1992).

90
5.2.2 Health impacts
The discharge of inadequately treated sewage effluent from both humans and animals
into water bodies as rivers and seas may result in bacterial contamination of waters
and exposed biota (IAS 2004). Sewage discharge may be via sewerage outfalls,
seepage from septic tanks and other toilet types. Pathogens in wastewater may also be
transmitted by direct contact with sewage such as playing in a yard with a failed
septic system or coming into contact with animal waste, or via drinking contaminated
water or through contact with insect carriers (NSFC 2006). Human sewage contains
enteric bacteria, pathogens, viruses, and eggs of intestinal parasites that cause
diseases as salmonellosis, typhoid fever, hepatitis, cholera, dysentry and various other
gastrointestinal diseases may be released into the water and transmitted to new hosts
by contact (bathing, swimming) or by consuming contaminated biota (Feacham et al.
1989). Both coastal waters and groundwater may be contaminated. The measurement
of faecal coliform bacteria found exclusively in the gut of warm-blooded animals is
used to indicate contamination from sewage and is a standard by which water and
biota may be evaluated. Drinking water may also become contaminated as a result of
contamination of aquifers through seepage from septic tanks and water seal toilets,
pollution of catchment areas from animal waste, and poor sanitation practices in
general.
5.2.3 Economic impacts
Health and environmental impact directly affect the economy of the people in a
particular region. Health-related costs can include costs due to absence from work,
costs of medical treatment and even loss of life. Costs associated with the
environmental impacts of poor liquid waste management can include decreased
terrestrial and/or marine primary productivity due to pollution, decreased property
values near polluted areas, loss of environmental services if important habitats are
degraded, and the cost of clean up. The reduction in quality of natural assets and
aesthetic value due to pollution from liquid waste can lead to economic costs such as

91
loss in tourism earnings in areas where coral reefs are degraded because of poor
wastewater management.

Box 5.1

• In India Wastewater treatment involves collection of sewage and

effluent segregated by sectors
sectors and treating it through various
techniques to reuse the water for different purposes
• With the already limited water resources depleting rapidly, and
increasing demand for consumption has fostered the immediate need
• Many industries have been forced to adopt water recycling systems due
to the scarcity of water
.
• Growing public concern, media pressure and renewed legislation have
left industries with little option but to install water treatment equipment
• water treatment segment is one of the most important
important sectors for
players in the market Wastewater Treatment

5.3 Characterization of Liquid Waste

Liquid waste may be characterized on the basis of origin, destination, content, value
and treatment (Figure 1). The five way characterization of the waste helps in
diversified classification of the waste aiming for the better waste management
strategies.

1: Characterization of liquid waste

Figure 5.1:

92
5.3.1 Origin of Waste:
Origin of waste refers to the source of generation of the waste. Classification of waste
by source is useful for a characterization scheme and for a discussion of properties,
effects or treatment method. The Water Treatment Handbook (Degremont, 1973)
provides an extensive classification by source, including identification of the
multiplicity of waste streams that can arise from each industry and also indication of
the contents and requirements for treatment. To be effective, classification should be
detailed and simplified
The following is a comprehensive but simple and effective list of main sources based
on type of industry:
• Sewage waste
• Animal processing waste
• Vegetable processing
• Food processing (if excluded from the above)
• Organic and Inorganic chemical waste
• Agricultural Water
• Synthetic and Natural organic wastes (usually water-based)
5.3.2 Destination:
Destination refers to the handling or processing of waste. The classification of waste
depending upon the way of handling or destination is much easier (Figure 2).

93
 2: Classification of liquid waste on the basis of destination
Figure 5.2:
• Recycling of Liquid Waste
A waste may be preferentially reused, rather than recycled, as recycling employs
treatment methods that require treatment plants. However, as all the waste cannot be
reused, recycling ensures that the recyclable liquids are used again and that hazardous
substances
bstances are safely handled. Recycling provides the primary material for the reuse,
as the burning of waste lubricating oils or solvents for their heat content to generate
energy. Further sub classification of primary and secondary recycle and reuse could
be by industrial source. Food wastes, effluent treatment sludge and other liquids are
recycled to agricultural land which provides agricultural benefit through nutrient
addition.
• Disposal of Liquid Waste
Disposal of liquid waste includes dumping on land, drains, underground to rivers
or to the sea. However, there are a number of substances which for a variety of
reasons are considered to be too hazardous to be disposed of to drain. This is due to
the risk of them getting into either sewers or watercourses and the potential impact of

94
them on human or environmental health. Hence some pretreatment of such waste may
be necessary before disposal in order to comply with the legislation.
5.3.3 Content:
Content refers to the phase or nature of waste. In the physical form
form waste may exist in
two i.e. aqueous or non- aqueous phases. Chemical nature describes the chemical
contaminants present in the waste.

3: Classification of liquid waste on the basis of content

Figure 5.3:

• Physical Nature of Pollutant

Usually the liquid waste exists in a phase where in the aqueous and the non
non-aqueous
matter occurs together. For example emulsions and oily waste water from petroleum
refining, or presence of solid organic waste in the liquid household waste. This
classification
cation of waste is helpful in initial screening test as it differentiates between
those wastes where the major constituent, water, may be safely discharged (for

95
example, to rivers), usually after separation of the pollutant, and those wastes which
must be totally recycled or disposed off in some other way.

Box 5.2.

• Oxygen depletion is a consequence of adding wastes with high BOD

values to aquatic ecosystems.
• A high BOD indicates the presence of excess amounts of organic carbon.
The higher the BOD of a source of wastes the higher the polluting power
of that waste. BOD's of certain wastes are listed in the table below.

Type of Waste BOD(mg/L)

Domestic Sewage 200-600

Slaughterhouse Wastes 1000-4000

Cattle Shed Effluents 20000

Vegetable Processing 200-5000

Classification by phase differentiates between those effluents which are totally

noxious (non-aqueous or ‘synthetic’ organic wastes), and those effluents from which
the pollutant has to be removed or changed to leave an aqueous liquid that is
acceptable for discharge. Non-aqueous and mixed wastes that are disposed off need
little identification other than required for safe handling and disposal. The
pollutant(s) in either aqueous or nonaqueous wastes may exist in several forms. A
complete classification of the physical nature of the liquid state is represented in the
table.

96
Table 5.1: Classification of liquid waste by physical nature of Contaminant
Physical Nature of Contaminant Examples
Dissolved Ammonia
Gas Suspended Foam
Miscible Methanol
Liquid Emulsion soluble cutting oil
Immiscible Discrete phases oily refinery waste
Solid / liquid paint spray wash-waters
Solid Dissolved Immiscible metal salts
Coarse mining wastes
Suspended Fine / colloidal aluminium hydroxide gel

The following factors are are also considered while characterizing the physical nature
of the waste
• Ash
• COD
• Nitrogen content
• Odor
• Permanganate value
• Taste
• Turbidity

• Chemical Nature of Pollutant

The chemical characterization of waste may differentiate liquid wastes into sewage
and other wastes. Sewage consists of natural organics (such as protein, fats, and
carbohydrates) in either solution or suspended, ‘synthetic’ organics (such as
detergents and disinfectants) and various life forms. Apart from sewage, any waste

97
containing organic materials may be treated biologically, as any other biodegradable
waste.
• Quantity and Concentration of Pollutant
The composition of the waste in terms of quantity and concentration of the
contaminant is a helpful factor to evaluate the possibility of reuse, recycle and
disposal methods of the waste. This information is necessary for the design of
treatment plant and setting up of storage facilities, making arrangements for disposal
and also for budgeting.
5.3.4 Treatment
This is the most common system of classification of waste. Liquid waste treatment
methods fall under the category of effluent treatment methods and have been divided
under three main categories-chemicals, physical and biological. (The treatment
methods are discussed in detail in the section below).
All the characterization criteria discussed above must be combined together for
complete characterization and classification of liquid waste.
5.4 Liquid waste Management Strategy
Liquid waste management plans aims at achieving zero pollution. It includes
procedures and practices to prevent discharge of pollutants to the storm drain system
or to various water bodies. It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to
remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce an
environmentally-safe fluid waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste (or
treated sludge) suitable for disposal or reuse (usually as farm fertilizer).

98
Table 5.2: Major Elements of Liquid waste Management Systems and
Associated Tasks
Elements of Wastewater Associated Tasks
Management
Source of generation Quantification of wastewater, evaluation of
techniques of wastewater reduction and
determination of wastewater characteristics
Source control Design of onsite systems to provide partial
treatment of the wastewater
Collection Design of sewers used to remove wastewater from
the various sources of generation
Transmission and pumping Design of large sewers used to transport wastewater
to treatment facilities
Treatment Selection, analysis and design of treatment
operations and processes to meet specified
treatment objectives related to the removal of
wastewater contaminants of concern
Disposal and reuse Design of facilities used for the disposal and reuse
of treated effluent in the aquatic and land
environment, and the disposal and reuse of sludge
on land

The different types of liquid waste covered under the strategy include domestic
wastewater such as sewage and greywater, which is collected by sewerage systems or
goes into septic tanks; commercial and industrial wastewater, including that from the
tourism industry; animal waste; marine shipping; urban stormwater; leachate from
landfills/dumps; and sludge (septic tanks, industries and sewerage treatment plants).
The liquid waste treatment tasks focus on
• Turbid water and suspended solids in the outlet water.
• High content of COD, BOD, Hydrocarbons, Oils, organic compounds, heavy
metals and specific anionic compounds (ex. Phosphates, fluorides)
• High volumes of slude and high water content in the sludge
99
 • Biological growth
• Bad Smell
• Formation of persistent foam
• Non accepted polyacryamide based products
Liquid waste management applies to existing facilities with primary treatment or no
treatment, and can be implemented in stages, taking into account the assimilative
capacity of the receiving environment, the ability to finance the upgraded sewage
facilities, and public input to the waste management planning process.
5.5 Methods of Liquid Waste/ Waste water Treatment
Liquid waste or Wastewater treatment includes a series of steps. Each of the steps
involves one or more treatment processes or types of equipment. Historically,
biological techniques have been widely utilized since they are generally economical
to build and operate as composed to physico-chemical techniques. Moreover, they are
more efficient as natural means of treatment are utilized in optimized conditions.
Treatment systems could be classified according to the degree of pollutant removal
into pretreatment, primary, secondary, tertiary and ultimate treatment. They could be
classified according to the means of pollutant removal into biological or physico-
chemical treatment. Essentially, pretreatment and primary treatment involves
screening and grit removal, equalization and the removal of high concentration of
solids that might decrease the efficiency of subsequent treatment processes. The term
secondary treatment is commonly used to describe any of the following biological
processes: activated sludge, extended aeration, trickling filters, aerobic and anaerobic
lagoons and anaerobic and facultative (mixed) ponds. In the typical aerobic process
the removal of oxygen-demanding dissolved organics through microorganisms takes
place.
The major steps of treatment are:
1. Preliminary treatment - Removes materials that could damage plant equipment or
would occupy treatment capacity without being treated.

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2. Primary treatment - Removes settleable and floatable solids (may not be present in
all treatment plants).
3. Secondary treatment - Removes BOD and dissolved and colloidal suspended
organic matter by biological action. Organics are converted to stable solids, carbon
dioxide and more organisms.
4. Tertiary treatment - Removes microorganisms to eliminate or reduce the possibility
of disease when the flow is discharged.
Table 5.3: Treatment Processes and Purpose of each Process in a Treatment
System
Principal purposes of Unit Processes Unit Processes
Grit Removal Grit Chambers
Removal or grinding of coarse solids Bar Screens
Odour control Perchlorination, Ozonation
Gross solids-liquid suspension, BOD Plain primary settling
reduction
Gross removal of soluble BOD and COD Biological treatment
from raw wastewater
Removal of oxidized particulates and Plain secondary settling
biological solids
Decomposition or stabilization of organic Anaerobic sludge digestion
solids, conditioning of sludge for dewatering
Ultimate sludge disposal Sludge drying beds, land disposal,
land reclamation
Removal of colloidal solids and turbidity Chemical treatment, sedimentation,
from wastewater mixed-media filtration
Phosphates removal Chemical coagulation, flocculation
and settling
Nitrate removal Ammonia stripping
Removal of suspended and colloidal Mixed-media filtration
materials
Disinfections Chlorination, UV treatment
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 5.5.1 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
The initial stage in the wastewater treatment process (following collection and
influent pumping) is the preliminary treatment. Raw influent entering the treatment
plant may contain many kinds of materials (trash). The purpose of preliminary
treatment is to protect plant equipment by removing these materials that could cause
clogs, jams, or excessive wear to plant machinery. In addition, the removal of various
materials at the beginning of the treatment process saves valuable space within the
treatment plant. Preliminary treatment may include many different processes. Each is
designed to remove a specific type of material — a potential problem for the
treatment process. Processes include: wastewater collections (influent pumping,
screening, shredding, grit removal, flow measurement, pre-aeration, chemical
addition, and flow equalization).
i. Screening
The purpose of screening is to remove large solids, such as rags, cans, rocks,
branches, leaves, roots, etc., from the flow before the flow moves on to downstream
processes. A bar screen traps debris as wastewater influent passes through. Typically,
a bar screen consists of a series of parallel, evenly spaced bars or a perforated screen
placed in a channel.
ii. Shredding
As an alternative to screening, shredding can be used to reduce solids to a size that
can enter the plant without causing mechanical problems or clogging. Shredding
processes include minimizing or cutting devices.
iii. Grit Removal
The purpose of grit removal is to remove the heavy inorganic solids that could cause
excessive mechanical wear. Grit is heavier than inorganic solids and includes, sand,
gravel, clay, egg shells, coffee grounds, metal filings, seeds, and other similar
materials. All the processes are based on the fact that grit is heavier than the organic
solids, which should be kept in suspension for treatment in following processes. Grit
removal may be accomplished in grit chambers or by the centrifugal separation of

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sludge. Processes use gravity and velocity, aeration, or centrifugal force to sep
separate
the solids from the wastewater.
iv. Pre-aeration
In the pre-aeration
aeration process (diffused or mechanical), wastewater is aerated to achieve
and maintain an aerobic state (to freshen septic wastes), strip off hydrogen sulfide (to
reduce odors and corrosion), agitate solids (to release trapped gases and improve
solids separation and settling), and to reduce BOD. All of this can be accomplished
by aerating the wastewater for 10 to 30 min. To reduce BOD, pre-aeration
pre aeration must be
conducted from 45 to 60 min.
v. 1.5. Chemical
ical Addition
Chemical addition is made (either via dry chemical metering or solution feed
metering) to the waste stream to improve settling, reduce odors, neutralize acids or
bases, reduce corrosion, reduce BOD, improve solids and grease removal, reduce
loading on the plant, add or remove nutrients, add organisms, and aid subsequent
downstream processes. The particular chemical and amount used depends on the
desired result. Chemicals must be added at a point where sufficient mixing will occur
to obtain maximum
ximum benefit. Chemicals typically used in wastewater treatment include
chlorine, peroxide, acids and bases, miner salts (ferric chloride, alum, etc.), and bio-
bio
additives and enzymes.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment
Figure 5.4:
4: Schematic of an example wastewater treatment process

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5.5.2 PRIMARY TREATMENT
The purpose of primary treatment (primary sedimentation or primary clarification) is
to remove settleable organic and flotable solids. Primary sewage treatment involves
physical separation to lower the BOD of the waste. Suspended solids are removed in
this step through the use of settling tanks. Normally, each primary clarification unit
can be expected to remove 90 to 95% settleable solids, 40 to 60% TSS, and 25 to
35% BOD. Primary treatment reduces the organic loading on downstream treatment
processes by removing a large amount of settleable, suspended, and floatable
materials. Primary treatment reduces the velocity of the wastewater through a
clarifier to approximately 1 to 2 ft/min, so that settling and floatation can take place.
Slowing the flow enhances removal of suspended solids in wastewater. Primary
settling tanks remove floated grease and scum, remove the settled sludge solids, and
collect them for pumped transfer to disposal or further treatment. Clarifiers used may
be rectangular or circular. In rectangular clarifiers, wastewater flows from one end to
the other, and the settled sludge is moved to a hopper at the one end, either by flights
set on parallel chains or by a single bottom scraper set on a traveling bridge. Floating
material (mostly grease and oil) is collected by a surface skimmer. In circular tanks,
the wastewater usually enters at the middle and flows outward. Settled sludge is
pushed to a hopper in the middle of the tank bottom, and a surface skimmer removes
floating material.
5.5.3 SECONDARY TREATMENT
The objective of secondary treatment is the further treatment of the effluent from
primary treatment to remove the residual organics and suspended solids. In most
cases, secondary treatment follows primary treatment and involves the removal of
biodegradable dissolved and colloidal organic matter using aerobic biological
treatment processes. Aerobic biological treatment is performed in the presence of
oxygen by aerobic microorganisms (principally bacteria) that metabolize the organic

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matter in the wastewater, thereby producing more microorganisms and inorganic end-
products (principally CO2, NH3, and H2O).
Organic matter + O2
CO2 + NH3 + H2O
NH3
NO3-
Several aerobic biological processes are used for secondary treatment differing
primarily in the manner in which oxygen is supplied to the microorganisms and in the
rate at which organisms metabolize the organic matter. Secondary treatment provides
BOD removal beyond what is achievable by primary treatment
Secondary treatment processes can be separated into two large categories: fixed film
systems and suspended growth systems. Fixed film systems are processes that use a
biological growth (biomass or slime) that is attached to some form of media.
Wastewater passes over or around the media and the slime. When the wastewater and
slime are in contact, the organisms remove and oxidize the organic solids. The media
may be stone, redwood, synthetic materials, or any other substance that is durable
(capable of withstanding weather conditions for many years), provides a large area
for slime growth and an open space for ventilation, and is not toxic to the organisms
in the biomass. Fixed film devices include trickling filters and RBCs. Suspended
growth systems are processes that use a biological growth that is mixed with the
wastewater. Typical suspended growth systems consist of various modifications of
the activated sludge process.
Secondary treatment includes three methods and all take advantage of the ability of
microorganisms to convert organic wastes (via biological treatment) into stabilized,
low-energy compounds. Two of these approaches, the trickling filter and the
activated sludge process, sequentially follow normal primary treatment. The third,
ponds (oxidation ponds or lagoons), can provide equivalent results without
preliminary treatment.
Secondary treatment processes are high-rate biological processes characterized by
relatively small reactor volumes and high concentrations of microorganisms
compared with low rate processes. Consequently, the growth rate of new organisms is

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much greater in high-rate systems because of the well controlled environment. The
microorganisms must be separated from the treated wastewater by sedimentation to
produce clarified secondary effluent. The sedimentation tanks used in secondary
treatment, often referred to as secondary clarifiers, operate in the same basic manner
as the primary clarifiers described previously. The biological solids removed during
secondary sedimentation, called secondary or biological sludge, are normally
combined with primary sludge for sludge processing. Activated sludge processes,
trickling filters or biofilters, oxidation ditches, and rotating biological contactors
(RBC) are high rate biological processes. A combination of two of these processes in
series (e.g., bio filter followed by activated sludge) is sometimes used to treat
municipal wastewater containing a high concentration of organic material from
industrial sources.
i. Oxidation Ponds
A pond that contains partially treated wastewater which is then left to allow the
growth of algae and bacteria which decompose therest of the waste is called an
oxidation pond. Oxidation Ponds are also known as stabilization ponds or lagoons.
Ponds are relatively easy to build and manage, can accommodate large fluctuations in
flow, and can also provide treatment that approaches conventional systems
(producing a highly purified effluent) at much lower cost. Ponds can be classified
(named) based upon their location in the system, the type wastes they receive, and the
main biological process occurring in the pond. Types of ponds according to their
location and the type of wastes they receive are: raw sewage stabilization ponds,
oxidation ponds, and polishing ponds. Whereas the ponds classified by the type of
processes occurring within the pond are: Aerobic Ponds, anaerobic ponds, facultative
ponds, and aerated ponds.
Solids in the wastewater are retained or broken down in the septic tank before the
effluent is discharged into the lagoon. The effluent is discharged under the surface of
the water to the center of the lagoon. This allows even distribution and more effective
treatment. Within an oxidation pond heterotrophic bacteria degrade organic matter in

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the sewage which results in production of cellular material and minerals. This
supports the growth of algae in the oxidation pond. Growth of algal populations
allows further decomposition of the organic matter by producing oxygen. The
production of this oxygen replenishes the oxygen used by the heterotrophic bacteria.

Box 5.3.

• Many small municipal sewage systems in the United States (1

million gal./day or less) use aerated lagoons
• Lagoons are a much more effective treatment method in central
and western America
• The size of the lagoon is calculated by using a formula that
includes the estimated water usage, rainfall, and pan evaporation
for each site.
• Oklahoma Lagoon sizes in the southeastern counties of
Oklahoma can be quite large due to the high rainfall and low pan
evaporation.
• DEQ regulations do not allow lagoons to be constructed on tracts
of land that are less than 2 ½ acres in size.
• Lagoon size increases from west to east across the state.

Lagoons are designed to operate with three to five feet of wastewater to support the
algal growth. Volume is reduced through evaporation. In addition, the use of
oxidation ponds is largely restricted to warmer climate regions because they are
strongly influenced by seasonal temperature changes. Biological oxidation processes
are sensitive to temperature and, between 0 °C and 40 °C, the rate of biological
reactions increase with temperature. Most surface aerated vessels operate at between
4 °C and 32 °C. Lagoons should be built in locations where trees will not restrict
sunlight exposure or air movement. A dike is constructed on all sides of the lagoon
to prevent inflow of surface water and discharge of wastewater. Lagoons must be

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constructed in clay soil or be lined to prevent leakage. Lagoons are designed to have
no discharge to the environment. If properly designed, operated, and maintained,
lagoons normally have no undesirable odors. Lagoons provide effective treatment
with minimal threat to the environment.
Lagoons tend to fill, due to the settling of the bacterial and algal cells formed during
the decomposition of the sewage. Overall, oxidation ponds tend to be inefficient and
require large holding capacities and long retention times. The degradation is
relatively slow and the effluents containing the oxidized products need to be
periodically removed from the ponds. Lagoons are a very effective treatment method
and relatively easy to maintain

Source: http://www.oilgae.com/ref/glos/oxidation_ponds.html
Figure 5.5: Oxidation ponds or lagoons
Advantages
• Low operational and maintenance cost.
• Lagoons provide effective treatment with minimal threat to the environment.
• Work well in clay soils where conventional subsurface on-site absorption fields
will not work.
Disadvantages
• Lagoons must be constructed in clay soil or be lined to prevent leakage.

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 • May overflow occasionally during extended periods of heavy rainfall.
• Sometimes offensive odors may occur for a brief time.
• Lagoons usually recover rapidly if this occurs.
• Cannot be installed on a small lot.
• Takes up a relatively large space for only one use.
• Lagoons are not aesthetically acceptable to some people. Some people
consider lagoons unsightly and unsafe.
• As with any other open body of water, there is some potential danger.
• Although lagoons are required to be fenced, this does not always prevent
access by people or pets.
ii. Trickling filters
The trickling filter system is relatively simple and inexpensive. It is an aerobic
sewage treatment method in which the sewage is distributed by a revolving sprinkler
suspended over a bed of porous material.

Source: http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech
Environ/FUNDAMNT/streem/methods.htm
Figure 5.6: Trickling Filter
A trickling filter consists of a bed of coarse media, usually rocks or plastic, covered
with microorganisms. The trickling filter process involves spraying wastewater over a

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solid media such as rock, plastic, or redwood slats (or laths). As the wastewater
trickles over the surface of the media, a growth of microorganisms (bacteria,
protozoa, fungi, algae, helminthes or worms, and larvae) develops. This growth is
visible as a shiny slime very similar to the slime found on rocks in a stream. The
sewage slowly moves through the porous bed and the effluent is collected at the
bottom. This porous material becomes coated with a dense slimy bacterial growth
which provides a home for a heterogeneous microbial community which includes
bacteria, fungi, and protozoa as well as other organisms. As the sewage drains
through the porous bed, this microbial community absorbs and breaks down
dissolved organic nutrients in the sewage; this reduces the BOD.
The process is shown in the following equation:
Organics + Organisms More Organisms + CO + Solid Wastes
Aeration of the sewage occurs by the movement of air through the porous bed. The
sewage may need to be recirculated several times through the filter in order to reduce
the BOD sufficiently. One disadvantage to this system is that an excess amount of
nutrients produces an excessive amount of slime on the bed which in turn reduces
aeration, leading to the need to renew the porous bed. Cold winter temperatures also
reduce the effectiveness of this method in outdoor treatment facilities. The growth of
the microorganisms and the buildup of solid wastes in the slime make it thicker and
heavier. When this slime becomes too thick, the wastewater flow breaks off parts of
the slime. These must be removed in the final settling tank. In some trickling filters, a
portion of the filter effluent is returned to the head of the trickling filter to level out
variations in flow and improves operations (recirculation).
iii. Rotating Biological contactors
RBC is a fixed film biological treatment system similar to that occurring in the
trickling filter. An RBC consists of a series of closely spaced (mounted side by side),
circular, plastic (synthetic) disks that are typically about 3.5 m in diameter and
attached to a rotating horizontal shaft. Approximately 40% of each disk is submersed
in a tank containing the wastewater to be treated. As the RBC rotates, the attached

110
biomass film (zoogleal slime) that grows on the surface of the disk moves into and
out of the wastewater. While submerged in the wastewater, the microorganisms
absorb organics; while they are rotated out of the wastewater, they are supplied with
needed oxygen for aerobic decomposition. As the zoogleal slime reenters the
wastewater, excess solids and waste products are stripped off the media as
sloughings. These sloughings are transported with the wastewater flow to a settling
tank for removal. Modular RBC units are placed in series simply because a single
contactor is not sufficient to achieve the desired level of treatment; the resulting
treatment achieved exceeds conventional secondary treatment. Each individual
contactor is called a stage and the group is known as a train. Most RBC systems
consist of two or more trains with three or more stages in each. The key advantage in
using RBCs instead of trickling filters is that RBCs are easier to operate under
varying load conditions, since it is easier to keep the solid medium wet at all times.
The level of nitrification, which can be achieved by a RBC system, is also significant.
This is especially the case when multiple stages are employed.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotating_biological_contactor
Figure 5.7: Rotating Biological contactor
iv. Activated Sludge
Activated Sludge is a widely used aerobic method of sewage treatment. The basic
components of an activated sludge sewage treatment system include an aeration tank
and a secondary basin, settling basin, or clarifier. The incoming waste effluent is

111
continuously fed into biological reactor (aeration tank) in which bacterial mass, in a
desired concentration, is maintained in suspension. After primary settling, the waste
stream is brought to an aeration tank. Air is put in and/or there is mechanical stirring
which provides aeration of the waste. Sludge from a previous run is usually
reintroduced to the tanks to provide microorganisms. This is why it is called activated
sludge. This sludge is continuously recycled back to the aeration tanks, however, a
portion of sludge (excess sludge) is sent to the sludge beds for drying and in this way
a desired concentration is maintained. During the period in the aeration tank, large
developments of heterotrophic organisms occur. In the activated sludge tank the
bacteria occur in free suspension and as aggregates or flocs. Extensive microbial
metabolism of organic compunds in the sewage results in the production of new
microbial biomass. Most of this biomass becomes associated with flocs that can be
removed from suspension by settling. A portion of the settled sewage sludge is
recycled and the remainder must be treated by composting or anaerobic digestion.
Combined with primary settling, activated sludge reduces the BOD by 85% to 90%.
It also drastically reduces the number of intestinal pathogens. An illustration of an
aeration basin is shown below.

Source: http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/env110/lesson17.htm
Figure 5.8: Activated sludge Process

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Primary effluent is mixed with settled solids recycled from the secondary clarifier
and is then introduced into the aeration tank. Compressed air is injected continuously
into the mixture through porous diffusers located at the bottom of the tank, usually
along one side. Wastewater is fed continuously into an aerated tank, where the
microorganisms metabolize and biologically flocculate the organics. Microorganisms
(activated sludge) are settled from the aerated mixed liquor under quiescent
conditions in the final clarifier and are returned to the aeration tank. Left
uncontrolled, the number of organisms would eventually become too great; therefore,
some must periodically be removed (wasted). A portion of the concentrated solids
from the bottom of the settling tank must be removed from the process (waste
activated sludge). Clear supernatant from the final settling tank is the plant effluent.
The activated sludge process is a treatment technique in which wastewater and reused
biological sludge full of living microorganisms are mixed and aerated. The biological
solids are then separated from the treated wastewater in a clarifier and are returned to
the aeration process or wasted. The microorganisms are mixed thoroughly with the
incoming organic material, and they grow and reproduce by using the organic
material as food. As they grow and are mixed with air, the individual organisms cling
together (flocculate). Once flocculated, they more readily settle in the secondary
clarifiers. The wastewater being treated flows continuously into an aeration tank
where air is injected to mix the wastewater with the returned activated sludge and to
supply the oxygen needed by the microbes to live and feed on the organics. Aeration
can be supplied by injection through air diffusers in the bottom of tank or by
mechanical aerators located at the surface. The mixture of activated sludge and
wastewater in the aeration tank is called the mixed liquor. The mixed liquor flows to
a secondary clarifier where the activated sludge is allowed to settle. The activated
sludge is constantly growing, and more is produced than can be returned for use in
the aeration basin. Some of this sludge must be wasted to a sludge handling system
for treatment and disposal. The volume of sludge returned to the aeration basins is
normally 40 to 60% of the wastewater flow. The rest is wasted.

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 v. Anaerobic Digesters
The anaerobic digester is a closed tank in which anaerobic organisms slowly digest
the organic matter in sludge. These organisms produce methane, hydrogen sulfide,
and carbon dioxide in the process. The solids are removed from the tank and sent to
a drying bed for eventual land application while the supernatant is drawn off and sent
to the trickling filter

Source:
http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/env110/lesson15.htm
Figure 5.9: Anaerobic digester
Anaerobic decomposition could be used for direct treatment of sewage, but it is
economically favorable to treat the waste aerobically. Large-scale anaerobic digestors
are usually used for processing of the sludge produced by primary and secondary
treatments. It is also used for the treatment of industrial effluents which have very
high BOD levels. The mechanisms for mechanical mixing, heating, gas collection,
sludge addition and removal of stabilized sludge are incorporated into the design of
large-scale anaerobic digestors. Anaerobic digestion uses a large variety
of nonmethanogenic, obligately or facultatively anaerobic bacteria. In the first part of
the process, complex organic materials are broken down and in the next step,
methane is generated. The final products of anaerobic digestion are approximately
70% methane and 30% carbon dioxide, microbial biomass and a nonbiodegradable
residue.
5.5.4 Tertiary treatment:

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Tertiary treatment aims at further removal of BOD, suspended solids etc., as well as
colour, nitrates, phosphates and other pollutants not adequately removed by
secondary treatment processes. Tertiary treatment could involve carbon adsorption,
coagulation and sedimentation, ion exchange, membrane filtration, and other
processes.
It includes
• anaerobic microbiological process with a different microbe where O2 is toxic
(more sludge)
NO3-
N2 (escapes to atmosphere)
• removal of PO4-3 if not removed in sludge in secondary process
PO4-3 + Al+3
AlPO4 (s) (into sludge)
• aeration to strip N2 and re-oxygenate (add DO)
CPCB has carried out a series of studies on performance of Sewage Treatment Plants
(STPs) in different parts of the country to evaluate their performance. The findings
revealed that a majority of the treatment plants are based on Primary Settling
followed by Activated Sludge Process (PS+ASP) technology (with anaerobic
digesters for sludge), Oxidation Pond or Waste Stabilization Pond (OP or WSP)
technology and UASB followed by Polishing Pond (UASB+PP) technology. Findings
have also revealed that most of the STPs are not being utilized to the full capacity due
to various reasons.
It has been found that low capital and low operational cost sewage treatment method
such as Waste Stabilization Ponds (OP or WSP) technology and low operational cost
sewage treatment method such as (UASB+PP) technology are quite effective in BOD
removal as well as Fecal Coliform (FC) removal. Overall efficiency of STPs based on
these low cost technologies in terms of BOD and FC removal can be further
improved if effluent suspended solids (SS) are controlled by improvement in final
outlet structures. These technologies are best suited for towns and small cities.
In such situations where sewage of a large city is discharged into a receiving water
body having insufficient dilution and/or requires to be maintained at high

115
bacteriological quality, the conventional sewage treatment schemes based on
(PS+ASP) technology need augmentation with tertiary treatment units for further
removal of BOD and FC . Low cost tertiary treatment method such as series of
Polishing Ponds is the best option for tertiary treatment. However if land availability
is a constraint then other tertiary treatment options such as coagulant aided
flocculation+tertiary sedimentation (TS), TS+Filtration, TS+Chlorination may be
adopted.
Box 5.3.
• Using advanced technology it is now possible to re-use sewage effluent for
drinking water
• The combined use of primary and secondary treatment reduces
approximately 80% to 90% of the BOD.
• Secondary treatment involves microorganisms it is extremely sensitive to
toxic chemicals.
• Tertiary treatment uses chemicals to remove inorganic compounds and
pathogens.
• Singapore is the only country to implement such technology on a
production scale in its production of NE Water

5.6 Disinfection and Aeration

Disinfection is the final step in the sewage treatment process and is designed to
kill enteropathogenic bacteria and viruses that were not eliminated during the
previous stages of treatment Like drinking water, liquid wastewater effluent is
disinfected. Unlike drinking water, wastewater effluent is disinfected not to directly
(direct end-of-pipe connection) protects a drinking water supply, but instead is treated
to protect public health in general. This is particularly important when the secondary
effluent is discharged into a body of water used for swimming or for a downstream
water supply. Disinfection is commonly done by chlorination with chlorine gas or
hypochlorite. Chlorine gas reacts with water to yield hypochlorous and hydrochloric
acids which are the actual disinfectants. The purpose of chlorination is to reduce the
population of organisms in the wastewater to levels low enough to ensure that

116
pathogenic organisms will not be present in sufficient quantities to cause disease
when discharged. A disadvantage of using chlorination for disinfection is the
formation of disinfection by-products, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons. Chlorinated
hydrocarbons are toxic and difficult to mineralize. Trihalomethanes may also be
formed such as chloroform and bromoform, which are suspected carcinogens.
Ozonation is an alternative to chlorination, which uses ozone as the oxidant. This
however, is more expensive. Currently, alternative disinfection processes are being
sought.
The final part of the treatment process is the step aerator. As the effluent flows over
the step aerator, the dissolved oxygen levels are increased. The water is now ready to
be released into a stream or river.
Conclusion
Liquid waste management is an important component of various waste management
activities. Unless liquid waste is managed properly, it becomes an important health
hazard. The treatment methodology should be such that it becomes pathogen free,
does not promote insect breeding, and at the same time, this water could be recycled
and reused. The choice of technology is a tricky issue. The high cost, high tech
technologies will not be a solution for this problem under the prevailing conditions
and situations in rural areas. These technologies will have to be affordable and
manageable at village level and decentralized depending on the locations and spread
of habitations. They have to be environment friendly, low cost, hygienic, requiring
intermediate or low level construction and maintenance skills.

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5.8 References

• Atlas RM. Principles Of Microbiology, 1995

• Babu B V. Effluent Treatment: Basics & A Case Study Birla Institute Of
Technology And Science (Bits) Pilani – 333 031 (Rajasthan) India
• Cripps K. 1992. Survey of the point sources of industrial pollution entering
the port waters of Suva. Suva, Fiji: Ports Authority of Fiji.
• Demirbas A - Energy Conversion and Management, Waste management,
waste resource facilities and waste conversion processesVolume 52, Issue
2, February 2011, Pages 1280–1287
• Kelly D.J. 1994. The effects of domestic waste on marine and groundwater
quality in Tarawa atoll, Republic of Kiribati. IAS Environmental Report
No.72. Suva, Fiji: University of the South Pacific.
• Mapuskar SV. Technologies for liquid waste management in rural areas
(http://sanitation.kerala.gov.in/pdf/workshop/Technologies
_for_liquid_waste_management_in_rural_areas.pdf)
• Panda AK, Singh RK, Mishra DK, Thermolysis of waste plastics to liquid
fuel: A suitable method for plastic waste management and manufacture of
value added products—A world prospective. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 14(1), 2010, 233-248
• Syed S. Solid And Liquid Waste Management Emirates Journal For
Engineering Research, 2006, 11(2), 19-36
• U. S. EPA. 2002. Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual. Office of
Water, Washington, D. C., EPA/625/R-00/008
• Wan CY, De Wever H, Diels L, Thoeye C, Liang JB, Huang LN.
Biodiversity and population dynamics of microorganisms in a full-scale
membrane bioreactor for municipal wastewater treatment Water Research,
2011,45(3), 1129–1138
• Water Treatment Handbook, Degremont, 2007

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 Chapter 6

Role of Microbes in waste management

A microbiologist, in a 1941 Census of Bacteria in the United States,

claimed that there were 10,031 quintillion good microbes against

less than 3008 quintillion bad ones. This translates into 1 harmful

germ for every 30,000 good bacteria! This certainly puts a

different perspective on the role that microbes play in our lives.

There are three main areas where microbes are beneficial to us: In

food production, in and on the human body, and in our environment.

Microbes are also frequently used in research and industry.

Dr. Reynolds' Blog

6.1 Introduction
Micro-organisms appeared on the earth’s surface almost 3,000 million years ago as
the first types of life forms, but it was only in the 16th century that the scientists
started studying these antique groups of living organisms. Till date bacteriologists
have been able to study and describe only about 5,000 species of bacteria. They
constitute an inseparable part of human life and are found in soil, water, air, in plants,
animals, food products, in the human body, and on its surface. Microorganisms
formed the first biosphere with a wide taxonomic distribution including viruses,
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, nematodes and thus make up the major portion of the
biomass present on the earth outweighing all other living organisms on earth. There
are generally between one to ten million microorganisms in each gram of soil; similar
numbers occur on plants and animals. It is estimated that 50% of the living
protoplasm on this planet is microbial.

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Natural communities of microorganisms present in the subsurface have an amazing
physiological versatility. They are the basis for the all ecosystems processes and often
well associated with themselves and higher organisms. They are able to carry various
biogeochemical cycles in the course of growth and metabolism and thus help in the
production of various nutrients as oxygen, carbon and nitrogen, the three essential
elements for the survival of plants and animals. Microorganisms possess high
metabolic and degradative capabilities. Microorganisms can carry out biodegradation
in many different types of habitats and environments, both under aerobic and
anaerobic conditions. Communities of bacteria and fungi can degrade a multitude of
synthetic compounds and probably every natural product. They utilize dead plant and
animal matter that contributed to the organic matter in the soil with the release of
essential nutrients that support life on the planet. It is believed that the biological
activity of microorganisms are responsible for producing sufficient amounts of
oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere more than two billion years ago in order to support
life. Due to their relationship with all plant and animal groups and their abundance (in
terms of biomass) in virtually all habitats, man has long exploited this metabolic
wealth for food production and preservation, management of pests and pathogens,
generating biofuels, monitoring pollutants, cleaning up of oil spills, industrial
wastewater treatment and largely used for the development of health care applications
(i.e. produce of medicinal compounds).
Microbes are capable of growing in a wide variety of environments owing to the
existence of extremophiles that are adapted to generally hostile environments.
Extremophiles survive in deep hydrothermal vents, sub seafloor sediments, hyper
briny lagoons, methane seeps, deserts, hot sulphur springs and beneath the surface of
rocks. They grow in frigid glaciers to boiling volcanic springs, dry sands to the open
oceans. Some of the microbes are known to survive longer duration in vacuum, or to
be unusually resistant to radiation. In all habitats, microorganisms make nutrients
available for the future growth of other living things by degrading dead organisms.
Having survived the extreme conditions of the planet through millions of years the

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microorganisms are known to have the best adaptation capability. Some
microorganisms have a naturally occurring, microbial catabolic diversity to degrade,
transform or accumulate a huge range of compounds including hydrocarbons (e.g.
oils), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
pharmaceutical substances, radionuclides and metals. Major methodological
breakthroughs in microbial biodegradation have enabled detailed genomic,
metagenomic, proteomic, bioinformatic and other high-throughput analyses of
environmentally relevant microorganisms providing unprecedented insights into key
biodegradative pathways and the ability of microorganisms to adapt to changing
environmental conditions. Products that contain biodegradable matter and non-
biodegradable matter are often marketed as biodegradable.
6.2 Biodegradation
Degradation of organic substances by means of microorganisms constitute the carbon
cycle of nature that allows for carbon to be recycled and reused throughout the
biosphere and all of its organisms makes part of the natural carbon cycle in the
nature. Waste management, whether in compost, landfills or sewage treatment
facilities, exploits activities of microbes in the carbon cycle. Organic (solid)
materials are digested by microbial enzymes into substrates that eventually are
converted to a few organic acids and carbon dioxide. Biodegradation is often a
growth-linked process that brings about total degradation or mineralization of organic
matter. Microorganisms convert the organic substrate to fermentation products or
carbon dioxide with release of energy. Biodegradation is a process by which organic
(carbon-based) material is changed through chemical processes from complex
molecules into simpler molecules. An example of this is a banana peel being reduced
from cellulose to water, carbon dioxide gas, and humus in a compost pile.
Biodegradation is a waste management and recycling system that degrades
everything from yard waste to crude oil. This process helps to keep our planet clean
and healthy.

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 Box 6.1
• Bacteria have been isolated from hot springs where temperatures can be
>100o C
• Bacteria inhabit the Great Salt Lake in Utah, where the salt content is
higher than marine environments, or survive in acid mine drainage and the
defensive mechanisms of the human stomach.
• Dr Peter Coschigano, a microbiologist at Ohio University, is currently
studying Thauera aromatica T1, a bacterium that has the capacity to
consume toluene (a carcinogenic organic compound, found in gasoline,
adhesives and household solvents) in absence of oxygen.
• Southern Illinois University's Dr John Coates has discovered a bacterium
that can break down petroleum compounds in similar conditions.
• Many scientists are using a bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans to clean
up nuclear waste sites as they consume the toxic mercury compounds
associated with nuclear weapon production. It is able to withstand 3,000
times the lethal radiation dose for a human.
• Michael Daly at University of Health Sciences in US has discovered how
to inject the genetic material from other bacteria into Deinococcus, thus
creating different strains with various capabilities of treating various forms
of mercury and toluene.
• Australia's Road Technologies International produces a microbe- based
product Road Tech 2000, which helps to form a weather & traffic durable
road surface.

6.2.1 Principle of Biodegradation

Microorganisms use the organic contaminants for their growth. They utilize the major
cellular components as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen; in addition, compounds

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providing the nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and minor nutrients such as
sulfur and trace elements are also required for their growth. Characteristically, the
organic compound containing that represents a carbon and energy source is
transformed by the metabolic pathways by heterotrophic microorganisms. However
an organic compound need not necessarily be a substrate for growth in order for it to
be metabolized by microorganisms. Thus two categories of transformations exist.
• In the first process microbes utilize the organic compound as carbon and
energy to support growth and the process, therefore, is growth-linked.
• In the second, biodegradation is not linked to multiplication, but to obtaining
the carbon for respiration in order for the cells to maintain their viability. This
maintenance metabolism may take place only when the organic carbon
concentrations are very low. Cometabolic transformations also fall into the
second category. Thus whole process of biodegradation is based on two
processes: growth and co-metabolism. Organic matter is utilized by the
microorganism as a sole source of carbon and energy for its growth. This
process results in a complete degradation (mineralization) of organic
pollutants. Co-metabolism is defined as the metabolism of an organic
compound in the presence of a growth substrate which is used as the primary
carbon and energy source. Co-metabolism cannot take place without a
substrate needed for the growth of the organism or for the production of the
enzyme. These reactions are usually catalyzed by oxygenases or broad
specificity enzymes. It is the phenomenon by which a noxious waste is
degraded by an enzyme or cofactor produced during microbial metabolism of
another compound. Cometabolism is not metabolism (energy yielding), but
fortuitous transformation of a compound. Characteristically, there is no
apparent benefit to the microorganism involved except that it utilizes the
carbon and nitrogen for its growth and metabolism.

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 Figure 6.1:: Growth and Cometabolism: Utilization of Waste by Microbes

Cometabolic bioremediation was first mentioned by Wilson and Wilson (1985) and
was later defined by McCarty (1987). This process has been used in the field of waste
degradation and bioremediation for more than 20 years on some of the most
recalcitrant contaminants, e.g.,
.g., chlorinated alkenes, PAHs, halogenated aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons, MTBE, explosives, dioxane, PCBs, and pesticides.
6.2.2 Metabolism Modes of Microbes
Biodegradation process of waste requires identification of the desired degradation
reactionss to which the target compounds will be subjected. This involves selecting the
metabolism pathway and the mode that will occur in the process. The metabolism
modes are broadly classified as aerobic and anaerobic.
• Aerobic transformations occur in the presence
presence of molecular oxygen, with
molecular oxygen serving as the electron acceptor. This form of metabolism is
known as aerobic respiration.
• Anaerobic reactions occur only in the absence of molecular oxygen and the
reactions are subdivided into anaerobic respiration,
respiration, fermentation, and methane
fermentation.

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 Figure 6.2:: Major degradative steps during aerobic and anaerobic
decomposition by microorganisms
The two processes of degradation depend upon the respiratory pathway adopted by
the microbe. Microorganisms basically follow aerobic or anaerobic respiration
systems. This is characterized by the nature of the reductant and oxidant. In all cases
of aerobicc respiration, the electron acceptor is molecular oxygen, however in
anaerobic respiration an oxidized inorganic or organic compound other than oxygen
is used as the electron acceptor. The respiration of organic substrates by bacteria is, in
most cases, very
ry similar. The substrates are oxidized to CO2 and H2O.
6.2.3 Aerobic digestion
Aerobic respiration is a process in which microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi
convert carbon into energy and produce CO2, H2O, and humus (biomass) as waste
products. Aerobic
bic respiration is a fast and efficient source of energy and an effective
means to biodegrade waste matter. It involves the biological decomposition of
organic component of the waste by the use of microorganisms under controlled
conditions Aerobic bacteria facilitate the chemical process of breaking down organic
matter by converting the inputs into carbon dioxide, water, heat (energy), water
soluble mineral forms of nutrients, ammonium and humus (ligno proteins). The

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ammonium is further converted by bacteria into plant-utilizable nitrites and nitrates
through the process of nitrification. This process fulfils several waste management
purposes as handling of waste, stabilization, volume reduction, sanitation by thermal
inactivation of pathogens, utility and marketability of products and leave residues
causing least impact on environment. Stabilization of waste results in production of
material as compost that which does not possess any foul odor, does not putrefy, and
is a serves as a rich source of carbon and nitrogen for the soil.
Composting is a good example of aerobic biodegradation, which is widely used to
divert municipal wastes such as yard trimmings from landfills. Some cities have large
industrial composters that are able to accept food wastes and well as some paper and
plastic items. Aerobic biological treatment also includes techniques in-vessel
composting, bioreactor landfills etc. Main advantages of composting include
improvement in soil texture and augmenting of micronutrient deficiencies. It also
increases moisture-holding capacity of the soil and helps in maintaining soil health.
Moreover, it is an age-old established concept for recycling nutrients to the soil. It is
simple and straightforward to adopt, for source separated MSW. It does not require
large capital investment, compared to other waste treatment options. The technology
is scale neutral.
This method, however, is not very suitable for wastes that may be too wet and during
heavy rains open compost plants have to be stopped. Land required for open compost
plants is relatively large. Also, issues of methane emission, odour, and flies from
badly managed open compost plants remain. At the operational level, if waste
segregation at source is not properly carried out there is possibility of toxic material
entering the stream of MSW. It is essential that compost produced be safe for
application. Standardization of compost quality is, therefore, necessary. The MSW
Management and Handling) Rules 2000 (MSW Rules 2000) have specified certain
limits to acceptable percentage of heavy metals in compost produced from MSW and
a mechanism is put in place to ensure that the same are strictly implemented.

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Benefits of Composting
• Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period.
• It supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the plants.
• It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the
excessive use of chemical fertilizer.
• It makes soil easier to cultivate.
• It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
• It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered.
• It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.
6.2.4 Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which microorganisms break down the
organic matter in absence of oxygen. The digestion process begins with bacterial
hydrolysis of the input materials in order to break down insoluble organic polymers
such as carbohydrates and make them available for other bacteria. Acidogenic
bacteria then convert the sugars and aminoacids into carbon dioxide, hydrogen,
ammonia, and organic acids. Acetogenic bacteria then convert these resulting organic
acids into acetic acid, along with additional ammonia, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.
Finally, methanogens convert these products to methane and carbon dioxide.
The anaerobic metabolic process is further subdivided into
• Anaerobic respiration
• Fermentation
• Methane fermentation
In anaerobic respiration the molecules carry oxidation, when oxygen is absent. This
results in the production if energy. Anaerobic respiration produces less energy when
compared with the process of aerobic respiration. Fermentation is the simplest of the
anaerobic metabolic process. During fermentation, organic compounds serve as both
electron donors and electron acceptors. Fermentation can proceed only under strictly
anaerobic conditions. The process maintains a strict oxidation-reduction balance. The
average oxidation level of the end products is identical to that of the substrate
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fermented. Thus the substrate yields a mixture of end products, some more oxidized
than the substrate and others more reduced. The end products depend on the type of
microorganisms but usually include a number of acids, alcohols, ketones, and gases
such as CO2 and CH4 e.g. In alcoholic fermentation, glucose gets broken down and
produces energy, ethanol and carbon dioxide. In lactate fermentation where glucose
breaks itself into energy and lactic acid.
Anaerobic digestion is widely used as a renewable energy source because the process
produces a methane and carbon dioxide rich biogas suitable for energy production,
helping to replace fossil fuels. The nutrient-rich digestate which is also produced can
be used as fertilizer. Anaerobic biodegradation is often used to treat municipal
sewage, as it is extremely efficient at reducing known pathogens in human and
animal waste. This process produces methane as a waste gas this is captured and
utilized for energy production.
Bioremediation strategies that use electron donors that only stimulate a specific group
of microorganisms that can degrade the contaminants of concern are ideal for many
applications. Many electron donors used as amendments for bioremediation can
broadly stimulate many members of the indigenous microbial community, most of
which do not have the ability to degrade or completely degrade the contaminants of
concern. Indeed, this often creates problems excess biomass (e.g., plugging the
aquifer around the injection site), incomplete degradation of contaminants,
transformation of contaminants to more recalcitrant or toxic daughter products,
higher costs (amendment/contaminant), and inability of the amendment to stimulate
biodegradation at low contaminant concentrations. Cometabolic bioremediation
enables remediation strategies that stimulate biodegradation of the contaminants at
contaminant concentrations that are way below the concentration that could be of
carbon or energy benefit to the biodegrader. Thus cometabolic bioremediation has the
added advantage of allowing scrubbing of environmental contaminants down to
undetectable concentrations, e.g., parts per trillion.

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 Box 6.2
• Anaerobic digestion has also been used to treat agricultural waste for several
years and it now treats segregated municipal solid waste.
• Anecdotal evidence indicates that biogas was used for heating bath water in
Assyria 3,000 years ago.
• The first digestion plant was said to have been built at a leper colony in
Bombay, India in 1859, reached England in 1895, when biogas was
recovered from a sewage treatment facility to fuel street lamps in Exeter,
Devon.
• In Germany in 1951 half the biogas from sewage sludge was being
converted for use as fuel for cars.
• Biogas forms a combustible mixture in range of 6% -15% concentration in
air.
• Biogas comprises of 68% methane, 31% CO2, 1% nitrogen and gives
calorific value of 5871 kcal/cu.M.
• Calorific value of biogas is 80% that of methane gas and depends on its
CO2 contents.

Microbes are also essential in treating the large volume of sewage and wastewater
produced by metropolitan areas, recycling it into clean water that can be safely
discharged into the environment. Less helpfully (from the view of most humans),
termites contain microorganisms in their guts that assist in the digestion of wood,
allowing the termites to extract nutrients from what would otherwise be indigestible.
Understanding of these systems helps us to manage them responsibly and as we learn
more we will become ever more effective stewards.
Anaerobic digestion leads to the emission of methane and other green house gases
along with production of some intermediary foul smelling, phytotoxic organic
compounds and also it is a very slow process, hence aerobic digestion of solid waste
remains a preferred technology by scientists and researchers for the elimination of

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biodegradable matter from the waste owing to its simplicity in the process, low cost
factor and less pollution effects.
6.3 Microbes in waste treatment
Environmental microbiology has emerged since early 1970s with scientists and
researchers across the globe been humbled by the devastating impact of
environmentally transmitted microorganisms on human health and awed by the wide-
ranging adaptability and usefulness of microorganisms found in the environment.
Today, microorganisms are being manipulated to provide a natural method for
cleaning up some of the environment’s worst chemical hazards. The uniqueness of
microorganisms and their often unpredictable nature and biosynthetic capabilities,
given a specific set of environmental and cultural conditions, has made them likely
candidates for solving particularly difficult problems in the life sciences and other
fields as well.
Micro-organisms, such as bacteria, play an important role in the natural cycling of
materials and particularly in the decomposition of organic wastes. In both natural and
engineered treatment systems micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and
crustaceans play an essential role in the conversion of organic waste to more stable
less polluting substances. Owing to this property, microorganisms have always been
an integral part of traditional waste and sewage management. Now, scientists have
discovered strains that can clean up toxic and radioactive wastes. The emerging role
of bacteria in the field of biotechnology, with countless new genes and biochemical
pathways to sift for enzymes, antibiotics and other useful molecules, has generated
new interest in them. Scientists haven’t only discovered microbes capable of
surviving in hostile or toxic environments, but have found that microbes are also
capable of immobilizing, degrading, removing or detoxifying environmental
contaminants. In addition, methods of manipulating these populations to enhance
their clean-up capabilities have been discovered, These microbes often use
contaminants as a food source, thereby completely eliminating toxic compounds by
changing them into basic elements such as carbon dioxide and water, a process

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known as mineralization. Incomplete degradation may also occur, or the partial
breakdown of the original contaminant to a less complex form. Another result may be
the transformation of a compound to a different chemical structure that may affect the
toxicity and mobility of the original agent. Sometimes immobilization of a compound
occurs where the agent is overcome by the microbe but not eliminated or altered,
which is often a potential benefit but rarely a final solution.
6.4 Microbes in Environment
The microbial population of the soil is made up of five major groups: bacteria,
actinomycetes, fungi, algae, and protozoa. Among them bacteria are the most
abundant group, more than the other four combined. Bacterial populations have a lot
of advantages as rapid growth, diverse metabolic characteristics and degradation of
varied contaminants over other microbial flora. Bacteria have been classified
differently to fulfill various objectives that help in identification of their
characteristics for degradation of various contaminants. The main factors of
classification are
1. Cell morphological structure:
Three morphological types are known, the bacilli or rod-shaped bacteria, which are
the most species found in soil, the cocci or spherical-shaped cells, and the spirilla or
spirals. The latter are not common in soils. Some of the bacilli persist in unfavorable
conditions by the formation of endospores that function as part of the normal life
cycle of the bacterium.
2. Ability to grow in the presence or absence of oxygen:
The ability to grow in the presence or absence of oxygen is an important biochemical
trait which has led to three separate and distinct categories: aerobes, which must have
access to O2; anaerobes, which grow only in the absence of O2; and facultative
anaerobes, which can grow either in the absence or presence of O2.
3. Type of energy and carbon sources:
Microorganisms are divided into two broad classes with respect to their energy and
carbon sources. Heterotrophic forms, which require organic substrates to serve as

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sources of energy and carbon, dominate the soil microflora. Autotrophic
microorganisms obtain their energy from sunlight or by the oxidation of inorganic
compounds and their carbon by the assimilation of CO2. Autotrophs are of two
general types: photoautotrophs whose energy is derived from sunlight, and
chemoautotrophs which obtain the energy needed for growth from the oxidation of
inorganic materials.
6.4.1 Factors affecting Microbial Activity in Environment
Micro-organisms are always present in the environment and given the right
conditions of food availability, temperature and other environmental factors, they
grow and multiply. The activity of microorganisms is highly dependent on the
physical–chemical environmental factors. Microbial populations capable of
degrading contaminants in the subsurface are subjected to a variety of physical,
chemical, and biological factors that influence their growth, their metabolic activity,
and their very existence. Parameters such as presence of a contaminant, temperature,
pH, moisture content determine the efficiency and extent of biodegradation. The
properties and characteristics of the environments in which the microorganisms
function have a profound impact on the microbial population, the rate of microbial
transformations, the pathways of products of biodegradation, and the persistence of
contaminants. The impact of site-specific factors is evident from studies showing that
a specific compound is biodegraded in samples from one but not another environment.
6.4.2 Acclimatization of Microbes
The growth of microorganisms in presence of any contaminant often observes an
initial period, also known as the acclimatization lag. During this period, no obvious
biotic changes of contaminant levels take place. This period may be due to various
reasons, and the causes may be in the indigenous microbial communities. The starting
biomass may be so low that no appreciable degradation can happen until a critical
biomass concentration is reached or the total microbial population may be abundant,
but the specific degrading populations may need to be enriched. On other occasions,
the contaminant must induce requisite enzyme or a new enzyme needs to be

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synthesized. Sometimes, the reasons for the initial lag period may lie in the
contaminants themselves. The contaminants may be present in such low
concentrations that they will not induce the relevant enzymes, or their chemical
structure may be so unusual that they cannot interact with the active enzyme sites.
The lag for the degradation of a specific contaminant can also occur due to the
preferential depletion of other substrates first. Measurement of the indigenous
microbial activity is one method for evaluating potential toxic or inhibitory
conditions at a site. Low bacteria counts can indicate a potential toxicity problem or a
stressed microbial population. Groundwater bacterial counts range from 102 to 105
colony forming units (CFU) per milliliter of sample. Typical soil microbial counts
range from 103 to 107 CFUs per gram of soil. Higher counts indicate a healthy
microbial population. Counts below 103 organisms per gram of soil at contaminated
sites may indicate a stressed microbial population.
6.4.3 Temperature
Every microorganism thrives under specific environmental conditions of temperature,
pH salinity etc. Such conditions are termed as the optimum growth conditions for that
organism. There exist an optimum temperature for each microorganism to grow.
Beyond some optimum temperature, the activity of any organism declines
precipitously. At the lower end of the temperature range, most bacteria stop
metabolic activities at temperatures just above the freezing point of water.
Three categories of microorganisms are defined, based upon temperature optima:
• Psychrophiles: Psychrophilic (or cryophilic) organisms have an optimum
temperature of 15 ± 5°C, and a minimum temperature of 0°C or below. Strict
psychrophiles usually die if exposed even temporarily to room temperatures. On the
other hand, there are organisms with optima at 25 to 30°C, but which can grow at
0°C; these are sometimes called facultative psychrophiles.
• Mesophiles: Mesophilic organisms have an optimum temperature between 25°C and
40°C. Most of the microorganisms that inhabit the subsurface are mesophiles.

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Microorganisms commonly found effective in bioremediation perform over a
temperature range of 10 to 40°C.
• Thermophiles: Thermophilic organisms have temperature optima above 45°C.
Forexample, there are thermophilic methanogens that prefer temperatures of 55 to
60°C. Some are facultative thermophiles, in that their range extends into the
mesophilic zone.
6.4.4 Nutrients
The major nutrients required for the growth of microorganisms include carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Calcium and phosphorus come under the minor
nutrient category required for the cell growth. Carbon is usually supplied by organic
substrates—organic contaminants in the case of bioremediation—for the
heterotrophic microorganisms. Autotrophic microorganisms obtain their carbon
supply from inorganic sources such as carbonates and bicarbonates. Hydrogen and
oxygen are supplied by water. Usually nitrogen and phosphorus, are in short supply,
however, the supply of potassium, sulfur, magnesium, calcium, iron, and
micronutrient elements is greater than the demand. These micronutrients are present
in most soil and aquifer systems. Even in the absence of added N and P,
biodegradation will continue in the subsurface, albeit at a slow rate. This
phenomenon is due to the recycling of the elements as they are assimilated into
microbial cells and then are converted back to the inorganic forms due to the death
and lysis of microbial cells. Under such circumstances, the rate of biodegradation will
be limited and will be impacted by the rate at which the limiting nutrient is recycled.
Many microorganisms also require some substances that are part of the cell structural
building blocks, at trace quantities. These substances, known as the growth factors,
are organic molecules such as amino acids, vitamins, or other structural units. Growth
factors are not essential nutrients, but they stimulate the species of organisms that
need them.
6.5 Microorganisms in treatment of various types of waste
Natural Biodegradation

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Microorganisms recycle nutrients in the environment, by decomposing organic
materials present in the nature. Organic materials, such as animal carcasses and tree
trunks, decay by the action of decomposing microbes. The nutrients from the
breakdown of these products are free in the environment to feed plants or algae,
which in turn feed all animals
Fermentation
Bacteria, yeasts and other microbes have been used to produce many foods and
beverages since ancient times. Bread is the result of a microbial fermentation of
sugars to produce carbon dioxide, which are liberated in the dough making the bread
rise. Microbes are also fundamental in the production of beer and wine, converting
sugars into alcohol. Microbial fermentation is also a step during the chemical process
of waste recycling
Pollution Prevention
Biotechnology can eliminate hazardous pollutants at their source before they enter the
environment. Every year, some 5 billion pounds of 320 potentially harmful chemicals
are released into the environment. The EPA has targeted 17 of those chemicals for
massive reductions. Biotreatment with naturally occurring biocatalysts has been
demonstrated to almost completely eliminate one of these chemicals, methylene
chloride, a suspected carcinogen, from industrial process streams. About 130 million
pounds of this compound are currently discharged each year in manufacturing
process wastes. Some bacteria, during their regular activity, feast on certain toxins.
Many strains of bacteria have been used effectively to control toluene, a carcinogenic
organic compound, found in gasoline, adhesives and household solvents.
Landfill
Vast numbers of bacteria exist naturally in the prevailing conditions in landfills and
other solid waste sites. Some of those bacteria consume, or degrade, different types of
waste present at the site. But they do it slowly.
Oil spills

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A number of microorganisms can utilize oil as a source of food, and many of them
produce potent surface-active compounds that can emulsify oil in water and facilitate
the removal of the oil. Some bacteria utilize oil as the source of growth. A lot of oil
spills in ocean have been successfully treated with microorganisms. The major oil
spill in Alaska's Prince William Sound was cleaned up by the Environmental
Protection Agency using natural oil-eating bacteria. Such bioremediation cannot only
help to clean up oil spills, but also chlorinated chemicals and leaks from storage tanks.
Microbes are the only process that breaks down the oil deeper in the water, while
physical processes such as evaporation or waves can be applied to surface waters.
Energy Production
Degradation of various organic waste microbes produce methane gas, the major
component of natural gas. Anaerobic microorganisms, which live in oxygen-leaking
environments, can also convert a mixture of manure and energy crops, such as
sugarcane and maize, into electricity.
Biotransformation of toxic wastes to harmless products
The expansion and development in the chemical industries in the decades has lead to
increase in amount and complexity of toxic waste effluents. This has shifted the focus
of regulatory authorities as EPA to problems of contamination of the environment.
Industrial companies are therefore becoming increasingly aware of the political,
social, environmental and regulatory pressures to prevent escape of effluents into the
environment. The occurrence of major incidents (such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill,
the Union-Carbide (Dow) Bhopal disaster, large-scale contamination of the Rhine
River, the progressive deterioration of the aquatic habitats and conifer forests in the
Northeastern US, Canada, and parts of Europe, or the release of radioactive material
in the Chernobyl accident, etc.) and the subsequent massive publicity due to the
resulting environmental problems has highlighted the potential for imminent and
long-term disasters in the public's conscience.
Microorganisms have been the focus of research for the degradation of effluent waste
from different industries. Over the last few years, a number of companies have been

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established already to develop and commercialize biodegradation technologies.
Existence of such companies now has become economically justifiable, because of
burgeoning costs of traditional treatment technologies, increasing public resistance to
such traditional technologies. The interest of commercial businesses in utilizing
microorganisms to detoxify effluents, soils, etc. is reflected in "bioremediation"
having become a common buzzword in waste management. Use of microbes for
bioremediation is not limited to detoxification of organic compounds. In many cases,
selected microbes can also reduce the toxic cations of heavy metals (such as selenium)
to the much less toxic and much less soluble elemental form. Thus, bioremediation of
surface water with significant contamination by heavy metals can now be attempted.
Custom-Made Microbes
Often intrinsic microorganisms are available from natural environments. If tolerant
microbes cannot be isolated from the test environment, they can be isolated from sites
of known contamination where they’ve adapted to the presence of the target toxin.
An intrinsic population is the most desirable since these microbes will be well
adapted to conditions of the surrounding environment and are most likely to survive.
Alternately, bacteria can be altered to produce certain enzymes that metabolize
industrial waste components that are toxic to other life, and also new pathways can be
designed for the biodegradation of various wastes. Since waste management itself is a
well-established industry, genetics and enzymology can be simply "bolted-on" to
existing engineering expertise, microbes can be genetically engineered, where their
genomes are artificially enhanced to increase their ability to survive under conditions
of varied exposures. Similarly, microbes may be artificially adapted to a foreign
condition by a process called successive adaptation. This is accomplished in the
laboratory by slowly increasing the concentration of the contaminant of interest in the
microbial growth media, selecting for pure cultures of resistant populations. These
developed microbes are often used in contained, controlled, and aboveground vessels
(bioreactors) where conditions of temperature, pH, etc., may be optimized.

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Biotechnologists using recombinant DNA, the principal tool of genetic engineering,
can recombine, or mix-and-match, the most desirable traits of several bacterial
species. They can, for instance, extract the gene from one strain that allows it to 'feed'
on PCBs or other hazardous wastes, then take the genes that allow another bacterial
strain to withstand wide temperature ranges - lack of oxygen or other environmental
extremes - and transplant them into a common, harmless bacterium that can be mass
produced easily. The result is an organism custom-made to 'eat up' a specific problem
waste at a specific site under specific conditions.
6.6 Conclusion
Bioremediation has proven to be an effective tool in the reduction of environmental
contaminants but can rarely restore the affected environment back to its original
condition. Residual contamination may be difficult to completely eliminate. In
addition, bioremediation can be an extremely slow process, requiring manipulation of
the treated environment to enhance the microbial activity. The diversity of
ecosystems and the nature of living systems lead to uncertain outcomes. Methods of
water treatment, including filtration and absorptive media, can be very effective at
removing contaminants from waste streams but often produce a highly concentrated
waste product in the filtration media. When combined with other treatment systems
such as ion exchange, bioremediation can aid in producing a cleaner waste stream,
especially for persistent compounds, mixed wastes, or hard-to-reach environments
such as the deep subsurface.
Micro-organisms allow us clean up waste in an environment friendly and hygienic
manner. They produce soil manures by decomposing waste. These are safer to use
than chemical fertilizers from the environment point of view. They enable us to
produce energy from waste and harness it. This is extremely useful in today’s energy
crisis. They not only degrade waste material, but also help us to produce environment
friendly material. Thus they play a vital role in management of solid waste generated
from urban areas Microbes and their biosynthetic capabilities have been invaluable in
finding solutions for several intractable problems mankind has encountered in

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maintaining the quality of the environment. They have, for example, been used to
positive effect in human and animal health, genetic engineering, environmental
protection, and municipal and industrial waste treatment. Microorganisms have
enabled feasible and cost-effective responses which would have been impossible via
straightforward chemical or physical engineering methods. Microbial technologies
have of late been applied to a range of environmental problems, with considerable
success
The use of biotechnology to solve environmental problems, according to William K.
Reilly, former head of the Environmental Protection Agency, "could be - should be -
an environmental breakthrough of staggering positive dimensions."

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Box 6.3
• Bioremediation is currently approved by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency
• Aspergillus carbonarius is a microorganism used in the
biodegradation of chromium shavings ( a part of tannery waste).
• Hydrocarbon-consuming microbes, such as Alcanivorax
borkumensis, are used to clean oil spills, especially in deep waters
• In March 1989, 33,000 tons of crude oil accidently spilled from the
Exxon Valdez into the Prince William Sound in Alaska. On July 26
the EPA informed Exxon that it would support a proposal by the
company to use bioremediation to help with the clean-up. Fertilizers
that had the ability to adhere to the oil were added to the
contaminated ocean water. Consequently, the number of microbes
that could degrade the oil increased. Scientific studies concluded
that there was a 3 to 8 fold increase in the rate of biodegradation due
to the addition of these nutrients.
• Perchlorate is a known groundwater contaminant associated with the
manufacture of explosives including solid propellant rocket fuel. It
is resistant to conventional chemical and physical removal
processes. It is, however, biodegradable under proper conditions to
undetectable levels by microbes that are widely available in nature.
• Envirogen (NJ), a bioremediation company has developed
recombinant PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl)-degrading
microorganisms with improved stability and survivability in mixed
populations of soil organisms.
• It has also developed a naturally occurring bacterium that degrades
trichloroethylene (TCE) in the presence of toluene, a toxic organic
solvent killing many other microorganisms

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 6.4 References
• Becker J G, Green E C, Bioremediation of Hazardous Organics,
chapter b, Environmental Microbiology by Ralph Mitchelle

• Böhme MH. and Le HA. Advanced Composting Technology for Using

Bio-Waste in South East Asia. Acta Hort. (ISHS), 2012. 958:91-97
(http://www.actahort.org/books/958/958_9.htm)
• Fritsche W, Hofrichter M. Aerobic Degradation by Microorganisms,
Biotechnology Set, Second Edition Pages: 144–167, 2008

• Pandey M, Bacteria in waste management, The Hindu, Business line,

Financial Daily, from THE HINDU group of publications, Wednesday,
December 26, 2001

• Suthersan, S.S. “In Situ Bioremediation” Remediation engineering :

design concepts, Ed. Suthan S. Suthersan, Boca Raton: CRC Press
LLC, 1999
• Saravannan, S., T.Meenambal, R.N.Uma “Study On Biodegradation Of
Fruit Waste Aerobic Composting” in Martin J. Bunch, V. Madha
Suresh and T. Vasantha Kumaran, eds., Proceedings of the Third
International Conference on Environment and Health, Chennai,India,
15-17 December, 2003. Chennai: Department of Geography, University
of Madras and Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University.
Pages 441 – 450.

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 Chapter 7

Anaerobic digestion of waste

The key to our waste management system is a natural

biological process called anaerobic digestion that relies on
microorganisms to transform animal manure into methane
gas. Anaerobic digesters, which process waste under oxygen-
free conditions, are different than conventional aerobic
systems that use oxygen to treat the waste.

Ann Wilkie

7.1 Introduction
Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is a biological process that happens naturally when
bacteria breaks down organic matter in environments with little or no oxygen.
Generally it is a controlled and confined process of the anaerobic breakdown of
organic waste in landfill which releases methane and carbon dioxide as end-products
under ideal conditions. The biogas produced in AD-plant usually contains small
amount of hydrogen sulphide and ammonia, as well as trace amounts of other gases.
AD is the oldest type of digestion to occur in nature, it takes place naturally and
spontaneously in oxygen-limiting environments, such as bogs, rice paddies, landfills
and improperly aerated compost piles. The efficiency and stability of anaerobic
digestion is based on the type of digester used and the parameters of this operation.
The factors responsible for AD are waste type, digester design, digestion temperature,
retension time, pH, bacteria, material flow, organic loading rate and presence of
toxicants.
Humans have been able to exploit this process for benefit in several terms. In Rural
areas of India and other countries, especially in China are getting benefit of AD
widely, to process the farm waste in form of manure and to generate biogas. In
farming communities of North America, AD is used in large farms to treat compost

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and to control odor. The only other application of AD is at wastewater treatment
plants where, in modern facilities, sewage sludge is anaerobically treated to reduce
biological and chemical oxygen demands. European nations take advantage of the
next logical application and employ AD to process more complicated waste streams,
including industrial and agricultural wastewaters and the organic fraction of
municipal solid waste (OFMSW).
7.2 History
Historical evidence indicates that the anaerobic digestion (AD) process is one of the
oldest technologies; the industrialization of AD began in 1859 with the first digestion
plant in Bombay. The first systems were large, unheated and unmixed tanks with
significant operational problems due to solid settling and scum formation. By 1895,
biogas was recovered from a sewage treatment facility and used to fuel street lamps
in Exeter, England. Research led by Buswell and others in the 1930s identified
anaerobic bacteria and the conditions that promote methane production. As the
understanding of the AD process and its benefits improved, more sophisticated
equipments and operational techniques emerged. The result was the used of closed
tank and heating and mixing systems to optimize AD. Regardless of improvements,
AD suffered from the development of aerobic treatment and low costs of coal or
petroleum. While AD was used only for the treatment of wastewater sludge digestion,
developing countries such as India and China embrace the technology. At small-scale
AD systems were mostly used for energy and sanitation purposes. Numerous failures
were reported. Nevertheless, technical improvements and increasing energy prices
have led to a diversification of the waste treated and larger size AD plants.
AD facilities usually have a good record in treating a wide spectrum of waste streams
such as municipal, agricultural or industrial waste. Some of these facilities continue
to operate in countries such as China and India, where organics dominate the waste
stream More than 600 farm-scale digesters operate in Europe, where the key factor is
simplicity. The typical small-scale digester, for example, produces about the same
amount of energy daily as is contained in one gallon of propane.

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The development of the field of microbiology in the 1930s allowed scientists to
identify the mechanism of gas production which is based on anaerobic bacteria.
Subsequent experiments were carried out to determine the optimal environmental
conditions for gas production. As a result, heated and mixed digesters of increasing
complexity came to the market in the middle of the twentieth century in Europe. The
first commercial applications were on farms where manure was digested to produce
heat and later electricity. As the awareness enhanced, AD was employed to treat other
farm wastes, wastewater, industrial organics and finally Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW), while the predominant use continues to be on farms. The energy crises in the
1970s prompted American research into alternative energy strategies, and AD was
one such option. This push resulted in the first farm digester built in America in 1970
where the biogas could be used for heat and power.
At present, development continues on farms as well as wastewater treatment plants,
where anaerobic processes and subsequent gas recovery are an industry standard.
Expansion into other areas of waste treatment has been neglected partly because land
filling remains inexpensive and fossil fuels are, falsely the economic energy choice.

Source: http://u-e-t.net/anaerobic-digestion/
Figure 7.1 : Design of Anaerobic Digester
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Pump and an electric water heater:- electric heating element and a small pump
which will circulate warm water through a coil of 13mm poly pipe inside the digester.
Compressor:- The compressor is used to re-circulate gas through the digester for the
purpose of agitation. The effluent being put through the digester will be made up of a
mixture of solids, suspended solids and liquids
Insulation:- Insulation is used mainly to reduce heating costs and to help maintain a
homogeneous temperature within the digester.
Effluent inlet and outlet pipe:- inlet pipe contain the liquid under operating
conditions and outlet pipe e feeds into the effluent retention sump.
Gas collector:- It is basically a drum that is inverted and inside another drum filled
with water. The water acts as a barrier, preventing the gas from escaping from the
drum.
Moisture collection reservoir:- This device serves two purposes; to capture and
prevent any build up of water in the tube; and also to prevent the gas collection vessel
from sucking air in the case that a vacuum is created in the pipe.
Gas collection tube:- It has an overflow tube which allow excess gas to be vented off
well above ground level.
7.3.2 Types of Digesters
Anaerobic digesters can be classified into the following categories:
Single-stage
In the single stage fermentation, the four anaerobic digestion steps take place in one
reactor, i.e. they are not separated in time or in space. These types of plants have the
advantages of being simple and easy to operate and they require low investment cost.
On the other hand, the biogas output is lower in comparison to multi stage
fermentation. The retention time on this type of fermentation oscillates between the
14 and 28 days depending on the feed and operating temperature.
The process scheme of a single stage plant is shown in Figure 3. The initial step is
feeding the system with wet biowaste and milling it. The mixed solution is sent to the
pulper and mixed with process water, where the light fraction (plastics) and the heavy

145
fraction (glass, stones and batteries) are removed. Next the hydro-cyclone separates
the solids (sand) from the liquids, producing a clean, homogenous and ready for
digestion pulp. The pulp is heated and enters the reactor where hydrolysis,
acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis take place. The digestor contents are
continuously mixed using compressed biogas. The biogas is burned in a CHP to
produce thermal and electrical energy, while the rest of the substrate is mechanically
dewatered and sent to post-composting.
Multi stage
In multi stage fermentation, two or more reactors are utilized to make the anaerobic
digestion. The idea of utilizing several reactors is to separate in space and time the
hydrolysis and methanogenesis phases, with the intention of increasing the biogas
yield and making it safer to operate. The retention time in multi stage fermentation is
approximately seven days, three days for the methanogenesis and between two and
four days in the hydrolysis phase.
The process scheme of multi stage wet fermentation is shown in Figure. The
processes from waste-to-pulp and biogas-to-energy are similar to the single stage
already mentioned before. It is after obtaining the clean homogenous pulp fraction
that the two systems differ from each other. In the multi stage the pulp is hygienized
and centrifuged, obtaining from it two fractions, one is sent to hydrolysis and the
other to methane reactor. A fraction with "a high amount of already dissolved organic
material is pumped directly into the methane reactor. The dewatered solids are mixed
with process water and fed into the hydrolysis reactor to dissolve the remaining
organic solids. After 2-4 days, the suspension is dewatered and the resulting liquid
also fed into the methane reactor” (BTA, 2007), while the solids are sent to post-
composting. The waste water resulting from the methane reactor is then treated by
flocculation and denitrification.

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Source:http://www.wtert.eu/default.asp?Menue=13&ShowDok=17
http://www.wtert.eu/default.asp?Menue=13&ShowDok=17
Figure 7.2 : Multistage Reactor
Batch
In batch fermentation, the reactor is loaded once and discharged until the end of the
anaerobic process takes place. Because of its simplicity and portability, batch reactors
are a good option for treating biowaste in countries where landfilling is the most
common waste management method utilized. Batch reactors function similar to a
landfill, but at higher temperatures
peratures and with continuous leachate recirculation the
biogas yield is between 50 and 100 percent higher than in landfills. Another
advantage of batch fermentation is the possibility to recover recyclables and other
materials after the anaerobic fermentation
fermentation is completed. On the other hand, extra
safety must be taken to avoid explosions when unloading the reactor after the
digestion is complete.
7.3.3 Mechanism of anaerobic digestion
147
The principle behind AD can be multifarious and the process is best understood if
divide into the three main stages: hydrolysis, acidogenesis and methanogenesis:
Hydrolysis:- In this process, the fermentative bacteria convert the insoluble complex
organic matter, such as cellulose, into soluble molecules such as fatty acids, amino
acids and sugars. The complex polymeric matter is hydrolyzed to monomers, e.g.
cellulose to sugars or alcohols. The hydrolytic activity is of significant importance in
wastes with high organic content and may become rate limiting. Chemicals can be
added during this step in order to decrease the digestion time and provide a higher
methane yield.
Acidogenesis – In this stage further break down of the product of first stage into
simpler molecules, volatile fatty acids (VFAs) occurs, producing ammonia, CO2 and
hydrogen sulfide as byproducts. by acidogenic bacteria.
Acetogenesis - the simple molecules from acidogenesis are further digested by
bacteria called acetogens to produce CO2, hydrogen and mainly acetic acid.
Methanogenesis – In this stage formation of methane takes place in two ways: by
means of cleavage of two acetic acid molecules to generate carbon dioxide and
methane called methanogens. or by reduction of carbon dioxide with hydrogen. The
acetate reaction is the primary producer of methane because of the limited amount of
hydrogen available.

148
 Carbohydrates fat protein
Hydrolysis

Acidogenesis
sugar Fatty acids Amino acids

Acetogenesis

Carbonic acids and alcohol Hydrogen carbondioxide

ammonia
Methanogenesis

Hydrogen acetic acid

carbondioxide

Methane & carbondioxide

Figure 7.3 : Mechanism of anaerobic digestion

Mechanical biological treatment
AD can also be combined with mechanical sorting systems to process residual mixed
municipal waste (mechanical biological treatment or MBT). After recyclable and
compostable materials have been separated from the waste stream, MBT is the best
way to treat the remaining waste in terms of the environment, and in particular
climate change. These are only some of the mechanical pre-treatments available;

149
there a numerous processes such as magnetic separation, fluidised bed
screening/vibrating tables
The process takes place in a digester; a warmed, sealed airless container. The
digestion tank is warmed and mixed thoroughly to create the ideal conditions for
biogas conversion. During the digestion process 30 - 60% of the organic material is
converted into biogas. It can be then be burned in a conventional gas boiler for heat
or it can be burned in a more efficient combined heat and power (CHP) system,
where heat and electricity are generated. The digestate is stored and can be applied
straight to land or it can be separated to produce fibre and liquor.
7.3.4 Role of different variables in the design of anaerobic digester
Anaerobic Digestion is a complex process and there are many variables that must be
considered in the optimization of a design and the designer has many variables to
optimize to come up with the most appropriate system.
i. Temperature
Generally two temperature levels are used in the anaerobic digester.
Mesophilic :- mesophiles are the key microorganism, which takes place optimally
around 30-38 °C or at ambient temperatures between 20-45 °C. It is usually more
robust than the thermophilic process, but the biogas production tends to be less, and
additional sanitisation is usually required.
Thermophilic :- thermophiles are the key microorganisms, which takes place
optimally around 49-57 °C at elevated temperatures up to 70 °C. Thermophilic
digestion systems provides higher biogas production, faster throughput and an
improved pathogen and virus ‘kill’, but the technology is more expensive, more
energy is needed and it is necessary to have more sophisticated control &
instrumentation.
ii. pH:- a biogas plant works optimally at neutral pH level.
iii. Carbon-nitrogen ratio:- Carbon-nitrogen ratio of the feed material is also an
important factor and should be in the range of 20:1 to 30:1.

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 iv. Solid concentration in the feed material:- Solid concentration in the feed
material is also crucial to ensure sufficient gas production, as well as easy
mixing and handling.
v. Hydraulic retention time:- Hydraulic retention time (HRT) is the most
important factor in determining the volume of the digester which in turn
determines the cost of the plant; the larger the retention period, higher the
construction cost.
vi. Proper Mixing:- Mixing, within the digester, improves the contact between
the micro-organisms and substrate and improves the bacteria l population’s
ability to obtain nutrients. Mixing also prevents the formation of scum and the
development of temperature gradients within the digester. However excessive
mixing can disrupt the micro-organisms and therefore slow mixing is preferred.
vii. Organic loading rate (OLR):- OLR is a measure of the biological conversion
capacity of the AD system. Feeding the system above its sustainable OLR,
results in low biogas yield due to accumulation of inhibiting substances in the
digester slurry. OLR is a particularly important control parameter in continuous
systems. Many plants have reported system failure due to overloading. OLR is
expressed in kg Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) or Volatile Solids (VS) per
cubic meter of reactor. It is linked with retention time for any particular
feedstock and anaerobic reactor volume.
viii. Sterilization :- Thermal sterilization (or pasteurization) of co-substrates or
digestate can be required when using specific feedstocks. Thermophilic
temperature ranges within digesters cannot generally be considered sufficient
for a reliable sterilization.
7.4 Applications of anaerobic Digestion
AD is widespread in all parts of the world. In the UK, AD has until recently been
limited to small on-farm digesters. However AD is widely used across Europe.
Denmark has a number of farm co-operative AD plants which produce electricity and
district heating for local villages, biogas plants have been built in Sweden to produce

151
vehicle fuel for fleets of town buses and Germany and Austria have several thousand
on-farm digesters treating mixtures of manure, energy crops and restaurant waste,
with the biogas used to produce electricity.1 India and Thailand have several
thousand mostly small scale plants. In developing countries, simple home and farm-
based AD systems offer the potential for cheap, low cost energy from biogas.
When treating municipal waste, AD can be used to process specific source separated
waste streams such as separately collected food waste. The digestate will be
uncontaminated so can be used as a soil improver. To minimise the impact our waste
has on the climate, Friends of the Earth believes that compostable and recyclable
material should be separated at source for treatment or reprocessing, using AD where
suitable. Anaerobic Digestion projects have several benefits, depending on the
priorities.
7.4.1 Recovery of energy
Anaerobic digesters convert the energy stored in organic materials present in manure
into biogas. AD produces a biogas made up of around 60 per cent methane and 40 per
cent carbon dioxide (CO2). This can be burnt to generate heat or electricity or can be
used as a vehicle fuel. If used to generate electricity the biogas needs to be scrubbed.
It can then power the AD process or be added to the national grid and heat for homes.
The material to be processed can be shredded to increase the surface area available to
microbes in the digesters and hence increase the speed of digestion. The AD process
takes place in an airtight container, known as a digester.
7.4.2 Byproducts of anaerobic digestion
As well as biogas, AD produces a solid and liquid residue called digestate which can
be used as a soil conditioner to fertilise land. The amount of biogas and the quality of
digestates obtained will vary according to the feedstock used. More gas will be
produced if the feedstock is putrescible, which means it is more liable to decompose.
Sewage and manure yield less biogas as the animal which produced it has already
taken out some of the energy content.

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Biogas - a mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), which can be used to
generate heat and/or electricity.
Fibre - used as a nutrient-rich soil conditioner.
Liquor - used as liquid fertiliser.
7.4.3 Feedstock for Anaerobic Digestion Plants
A wide range of feedstock is available for anaerobic digesters. In addition to MSW,
large quantity of waste, in both solid and liquid forms, is generated by the industrial
sector like breweries, sugar mills, distilleries, food-processing industries, tanneries,
and paper and pulp industries. Out of the total pollution contributed by industrial sub-
sectors, nearly 40% of the total organic pollution is contributed by the food products
industry alone. Food products and agro-based industries together contribute 65% to
70% of the total industrial wastewater in terms of organic load. Poultry waste has the
highest per tonne energy potential of electricity per tonne but livestock have the
greatest potential for energy generation in the agricultural sector.
Most small-scale units such as tanneries, textile bleaching and dying, dairy,
slaughterhouses cannot afford effluent treatment plants of their own because of
economies of scale in pollution abatement. Recycling/recovery/re-use of products
from the wastes of such small-scale units by adopting suitable technology could be a
viable proposition. Generation of energy using anaerobic digestion process has
proved to be economically attractive in many such cases. The urban municipal waste
(both solid and liquid) – industrial waste coming from dairies, distilleries, pressmud,
tanneries, pulp and paper, and food processing industries, etc., agro-waste and
biomass in different forms – if treated properly, has a tremendous potential for energy
generation. Fig 1 lists the possible feedstock for waste-to-energy plants based on
anaerobic digestion of biomass.
7.4.4 Anaerobic Digestion of Livestock Manure
The livestock industry is an important contributor to the economy of any country.
More than one billion tons of manure is produced annually by livestock in the United
States. Animal manure is a valuable source of nutrients and renewable energy.

153
However, most of the manure is collected in lagoons or left to decompose in the open
which pose a significant environmental hazard. The air pollutants emitted from
manure include methane, nitrous oxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, volatile organic
compounds and particulate matter, which can cause serious environmental concerns
and health problems.
Anaerobic digestion is a unique treatment solution for animal agriculture as it can
deliver positive benefits related to multiple issues, including renewable energy, water
pollution, and air emissions. Anaerobic digestion of animal manure is gaining
popularity as a means to protect the environment and to recycle materials efficiently
into the farming systems. Waste-to-Energy (WTE) plants, based on anaerobic
digestion of biomass, are highly efficient in harnessing the untapped renewable
energy potential of organic waste by converting the biodegradable fraction of the
waste into high calorific gases.
7.4.5 Potential biogas yield from various animals
Animal – Biogas Yield/Ton Manure (ft3/ton/day)
• Dairy – 920
• Beef – 1148
• Swine – 741
• Poultry – 2266
The establishment of anaerobic digestion systems for livestock manure stabilization
and energy production has accelerated substantially in the past several years. There
are more than 111 digesters operating at commercial livestock facilities in the United
States which generated around 215 million kWh equivalent of useable energy.
Besides generating electricity (170 million kWh), biogas is used as boiler and
domestic fuel. Many of the projects that generate electricity also capture waste heat
for various in-house requirements.
In the past, livestock waste was recovered and sold as a fertilizer or simply spread
onto agricultural land. The introduction of tighter environmental controls on odor and

154
water pollution means that some form of waste management is necessary, which
provides further incentives for biomass-to-energy conversion.
7.4.6 Utilization of Biogas and Digestate
An anaerobic digestion plant produces two outputs, biogas and digestate, both can be
further processed or utilised to produce secondary outputs. Biogas can be used for
producing electricity and heat, as a natural gas substitute and also a transportation
fuel. A combined heat and power plant system (CHP) not only generates power but
also produces heat for in-house requirements to maintain desired temperature level in
the digester during cold season. CHP systems cover a range of technologies but
indicative energy outputs per m3 of biogas are approximately 1.7 kWh electricity and
2.5kWh heat. The combined production of electricity and heat is highly desirable
because it displaces non-renewable energy demand elsewhere and therefore reduces
the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere.
In Sweden, the compressed biogas is used as a transportation fuel for cars and buses.
Biogas can also be upgraded and used in gas supply networks. The use of biogas in
solid oxide fuel cells is being researched.
The surplus heat energy generated may be utilized through a district heating network.
Thus, there is potential scope for biogas facilities in the proximity of new housing
and development areas, particularly if the waste management system could utilise
kitchen and green waste from the housing as a supplement to other feed stock.
Digestate can be further processed to produce liquor and a fibrous material. The fiber,
which can be processed into compost, is a bulky material with low levels of nutrients
and can be used as a soil conditioner or a low level fertilizer. A high proportion of the
nutrients remain in the liquor, which can be used as a liquid fertilizer.
7.4.7 Reduction of pollution
• The products of AD produce less odour than farm slurry
• Can reduce pollution of water courses by reducing run-off. Run-off is the
liquid slurry which is sprayed onto farmland, but then drains into surface
water. It can carry sediments and pollutants into the receiving waters.

155
 • AD can lessen the risks of the spread of disease and contamination by
destroying bacteria, viruses and weed seeds.
• Well-managed AD can decrease methane (CH4) release more effectively than
conventional waste management, because the methane is converted into carbon
dioxide (CO2), a less potent greenhouse gas.
• The use of AD can aid industry to manage organic waste in a manner that is
not detrimental to the surrounding area and will necessitate awareness of
environmental regulations.
7.4.8 Commercial Benefits
• AD can generate income by charging gate fees, selling biogas (as electricity or
heat), and liquor and/or fiber products.
• AD can produce savings by avoiding the costs of synthetic fertilisers, soil
conditioners and energy from other sources.
7.4.9 Other Benefits
• Elimination of malodorous compounds.
• Reduction of pathogens.
• Deactivation of weed seeds.
• Production of sanitized compost.
• Decrease in Green house gas emission.
• Reduced dependence on inorganic fertilizers by capture and reuse of nutrients.
• Promotion of carbon sequestration.
• Beneficial reuse of recycled water.
• Protection of groundwater and surface water resources.
• Improved social acceptance.
• Anaerobic digestion reduces reliance on energy imports.
• Such a facility contributes to decentralized, distributed power systems.
• Biogas is a rich source of electricity, heat, and transportation fuel.

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7.5 Legal and political objectives
• Public opinion is changing, and demands the farming community consider the
environment and minimize pollution when farming.
• There are increased legislative and regulative measures being placed on
farmers regarding local waste management.
7.6 Demand for alternative energy sources
• Heightened concern about global warming, and climate change, has influenced
UK Government and EU policy.
• Government and EU policy is driving an increase in the proportion of energy
derived from renewable sources.
• Competition within the energy industry has increased due to new emerging
energy markets derived from alternative sources such as renewable energy.
7.7 Community issues
• Anaerobic digestion projects can directly boost rural economies by creating
jobs and indirectly through increasing disposable incomes in rural areas.
• It can provide a waste management option with positive environmental and
economic benefits.
• Anaerobic digestion can also offer an opportunity to realize potential in local
communities working together, stimulating new developments that are
community owned and operated.
7.8 An Attractive Option for Renewable Power
Anaerobic digestion reduces dependence on fossil fuels for energy requirements. The
anaerobic process has several advantages over other methods of waste treatment.
Most significantly, it is able to accommodate relatively high rates of organic loading.
With increasing use of anaerobic technology for treating various process streams, it is
expected that industries would become more economically competitive because of
their more judicious use of natural resources. Therefore, anaerobic digestion
technology is almost certainly assured of increased usage in the future.

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7.9 Conclusions
Anaerobic digestion of biomass offer two important benefits of environmentally safe
waste management and disposal, as well as the generation of clean electric power.
The growing use of digestion technology as a method to dispose off livestock manure
has greatly reduced its environmental and economic impacts. Biomass-to-biogas
transformation mitigates GHGs emission and harness the untapped potential of a
variety of organic waste. Anaerobic digestion technology affords greater water
quality benefits than standard slurry storage due to lower pollution potential. It also
provides additional benefits in terms of meeting the targets under the Kyoto Protocol
and other environmental legislations.
The livestock industry is a vitally important contributor to the economy of any
country, regardless of the degree of industrialization. Animal manure is a valuable
source of renewable energy; additionally, it has soil enhancement properties.
Anaerobic digestion is a unique treatment solution for animal agriculture as it can
deliver positive benefits related to multiple issues, including renewable energy, water
pollution, and air emissions. Anaerobic digestion of animal manure is gaining
popularity as a means to protect the environment and to produce clean energy. There
is an urgent need to integrate the digester with manure management systems for
effective implementation of the anaerobic digestion technology to address associated
environmental concerns and to harness renewable energy potential of livestock.

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7.10 References

• Ostrem K. Greening waste: anaerobic digestion for treating the organic

fraction of municipal Solid wastes. Department of Earth and
Environmental Engineering
• Monnet F. An Introduction to Anaerobic Digestion of Organic Wastes.
Final Report November 2003
• U. S. EPA. 1992. Summary Report: Small community water and
wastewater
treatment. Office of Water, Washington, D. C., EPA/625/R-92/010

• U.S. EPA, 1996 Permit Writers' Manual, Office of Water, Washington, D.

C., EPA-833-B-96-003.

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 Chapter 8

Aerobic Digestion

“It's an environmentally friendly solution for an unpleasant

housekeeping task. It's not often that one technology can solve
several major problems, but our innovative animal manure
management system is a sustainable option for dairies and other
livestock operations that produces renewable energy and
protects the environment.”
Ann Wilkie
8.1 Introduction
Aerobic digestion is the process of oxidizing and decomposing the organic part of the
sludge by micro-organisms in the presence of oxygen.The role of organic waste
composting as an option for organic waste treatment, Composting is the biological
decomposition and stabilisation of organic substrate under conditions that are
predominantly aerobic and that allow the development of thermophilic temperatures
as a result of biologically produced heat. The composting process works when
sufficient quantities of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and water are present. Microbial
communities utilise the carbon and nitrogen as food and generate carbon dioxide,
water and heat as a consequence. When the sources of food have been used by the
microbial communities the composting process is complete. The product of this
process is a stabilised, organic matter rich material containing beneficial nutrients
including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In the presence of oxygen and water a
wide range of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi act upon the lipids, carbohydrates,
proteins, amino acids, ash, lignin and cellulose
Aerobic digestion produces a stable product, reduces mass and volume, and reduces
pathogenic organisms like salmonella, weed seeds, bacteria and has some key
advantages for smaller plants when compared to anaerobic digestion such as low
capital equipment cost and simple operational control. This type of composting

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doesn’t emit an unpleasant odor and, with the proper conditions, can be completed in
a span of two weeks. In contrast, anaerobic composting usually takes up to 3 months.

Source: http://clscivilengineering.co.uk/civil.php?id=37&page=2
Figure 8.1: Aerobic digester plant
8.2 History
The general aerobic digestion process has long been known as an effective sludge
stabilization system. The fundamental nature of bio-oxidation of sewage sludges was
established some time ago followed by the development of specific digestion
processes, however, the ATAD (autothermal, thermophilic, aerobic digestion) version
of the process is an approach which has developed only over the last thirty years.
Further, after initial interest and the installation of a number of commercial systems
in the 1970’s and 1980’s, the process was not broadly commercially acknowledged
again until fairly recently. This renewed interest has been driven largely by the desire
to produce Class A biosolids, for which the ATAD process offers several unique
characteristics. Most notable of these attributes is the thermophilic temperature. In
one form or another a variety of organizations have been instrumental in the

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development and commercialization of ATAD technology over the past thirty years.
Several key “learnings” can be derived from the evolution of the ATAD process.
These “learnings’ forms the basis for improvements in the ATAD process that have
increased its efficiency and will continue to broaden its attractiveness as a truly state-
of-the-art biosolids production process.
8.3 Aerobic Digestion Process

Respiration

Organic Waste Thermophilic stage

Oxygen (Agitation)

Mesophilic Stage

Heat , Water,

Carbondioxide
,

Compost

(Humus or
Aped organic
matter,

Figure 8.2: Aerobic digestion process

Pre composting Stage
The first stage of a composting process is referred to as the pre-composting stage and
normally involves shredding the wastes to a small particle size (1 - 2 cm), mixing the
wastes together thoroughly to produce a homogeneous feedstock, and adding water, if
necessary, to optimize the moisture of the mix.
Thermophilic composting stage
The next stage of the composting process is variously called the first stage, rapid
stage, Phase I or high-temperature stage, during which the temperature of the

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composting mixture can rise to between 45º C and 75º C. Much of the initial
breakdown of the waste occurs at this point.
Mesophilic Composting Stage
This stage, variously called conditioning, second stage, Phase II or lower temperature
stage, takes place at a lower temperature (45-50°C). This temperature may be reached
naturally, as the high-temperature stage comes to an end, or it may be brought about
by the operator increasing the supply of fresh air to the compost and thereby cooling
it.The Maturation Stage
This stage is also called the curing stage and takes place at even lower temperatures,
between ambient and 45°C. Many further chemical reactions occur during this stage
to produce mature and stable compost, for example the conversion of ammonium to
nitrate.
8.4 Factors affecting aerobic digestion
Aeration
Aerobic composting requires large amounts of O, particularly at the initial stage.
Aeration is the source of O, and, thus, indispensable for aerobic composting. Where
the supply of O is not sufficient, the growth of aerobic micro-organisms is limited,
resulting in slower decomposition. Moreover, aeration removes excessive heat, water
vapour and other gases trapped in the pile. Heat removal is particularly important in
warm climates as the risk of overheating and fire is higher. Therefore, good aeration
is indispensable for efficient composting. It may be achieved by controlling the
physical quality of the materials (particle size and moisture content), pile size and
ventilation and by ensuring adequate frequency of turning.
Moisture
Moisture is necessary to support the metabolic activity of the micro-organisms.
Composting materials should maintain a moisture content of 40-65 percent. Where
the pile is too dry, composting occurs more slowly, while a moisture content in
excess of 65 percent develops anaerobic conditions. In practice, it is advisable to start
the pile with a moisture content of 50-60 percent, finishing at about 30 percent.

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Nutrients
Micro-organisms require C, N, phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) as the primary
nutrients. Of particular importance is the C:N ratio of raw materials. The optimal C:N
ratio of raw materials is between 25:1 and 30:1 although ratios between 20:1 and 40:1
are also acceptable. Where the ratio is higher than 40:1, the growth of micro-
organisms is limited, resulting in a longer composting time. A C:N ratio of less than
20:1 leads to underutilization of N and the excess may be lost to the atmosphere as
ammonia or nitrous oxide, and odour can be a problem. The C:N ratio of the final
product should be between about 10:1 and 15:1.
Environmental Effects
In order to provide high-rate oxidation of organic pollutants, microorganisms must be
provided with an environment that allows them to thrive. Temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen and other factors affect the natural selection, survival and growth of
microorganisms and their rate of biochemical oxidation.
Temperature
• The process of composting involves three temperature ranges The rate of bio-
oxidation is a function of temperature. Various microbial species have optimal
temperatures for survival and cell synthesis.
• Psychrophilic microorganisms thrive in a temperature range of -20˚C to 30˚C
(28˚C to 86˚C). Optimum temperature is 12˚C to 18˚C.
• Mesophilic microorganisms thrive in a temperature range of 20˚C to 45˚C.
Optimum temperature is 25˚C to 40˚C.
• Thermophilic microorganisms thrive in a temperature range of 45˚C to 75˚C.
Optimum temperature is 55˚C to 65˚C.
• High temperatures characterize the aerobic composting process and serve as
signs of vigorous microbial activities. Pathogens are normally destroyed at 55
°C and above, while the critical point for elimination of weed seeds is 62 °C.
Turnings and aeration can be used to regulate temperature. The microbial

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 population in a buried aerobic treatment device will consist of a mixture of
Psychrophilic and Mesophilic organisms.
Food to Microorganism Ratio (F/M)
This ratio represents the mass of bio-available organic compounds (substrate) loaded
into the aeration chamber each day in relation to the mass of microorganisms
contained within the aeration chamber. Typically this ratio is expressed in terms of
mass of BOD per day per mass of microbes in the treatment unit (Crites and
Tchobanoglous, 1998). The microbial population is dynamic and responds to changes
in life-sustaining parameters. There are time lags to changes in the microbial
population in response to sudden changes in organic loading. However, if all other
factors are constant, the population can rapidly increase in response to an increased
organic loading. To effectively treat the increased organic load, the hydraulic
retention time of the basin must correspond to the time required for the population to
increase. However, increased organic loading is often associated with increased
hydraulic loading. If a means of flow equalization has not been provided, then
effluent will not have the same residence time nor have been exposed to the same
concentration of microbes.
Lignin content
Lignin is one of the main constituents of plant cell walls, and its complex chemical
structure makes it highly resistant to microbial degradation (Richard, 1996). This
nature of lignin has two implications. One is that lignin reduces the bioavailability of
the other cell-wall constituents, making the actual C:N ratio (viz. ratio of
biodegradable C to N) lower than the one normally cited. The other is that lignin
serves as a porosity enhancer, which creates favourable conditions for aerobic
composting. Therefore, while the addition of lignin-decomposing fungi may in some
cases increase available C, accelerate composting and reduce N loss, in other cases it
may result in a higher actual C:N ratio and poor porosity, both of which prolong
composting time.

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Polyphenols
Polyphenols include hydrolysable and condensed tannins (Schorth, 2003). Insoluble
condensed tannins bind the cell walls and proteins and make them physically or
chemically less accessible to decomposers. Soluble condensed and hydrolysable
tannins react with proteins and reduce their microbial degradation and thus N release.
Polyphenols and lignin are attracting more attention as inhibiting factors. Palm et al.
(2001) suggest that the contents of these two substances be used to classify organic
materials for more efficient on-farm natural resource utilization, including
composting.
pH value
Although the natural buffering effect of the composting process lends itself to
accepting material with a wide range of pH, the pH level should not exceed eight. At
higher pH levels, more ammonia gas is generated and may be lost to the atmosphere.
The influent pH has significant impact on organic wastewater treatment. It is possible
to treat organic wastewaters over a wide pH range, however the optimum pH for
microbial growth is between 6.5 and 7.5. It is interesting to note that bacteria grow
best at slightly alkaline water. Similarly, algae and fungi grow best in slightly acidic
water. The response to pH is largely due to changes in enzymatic activity.
Particle size
The rate of aerobic decomposition increases with smaller particle size. Smaller
particles, however, may reduce the effectiveness of oxygen movement within the pile
or windrow.Optimum composting conditions are usually obtained with particle sizes
ranging from 1/8 to 2 inches average diameter.
Time
The length of time required to transform raw materials into compost depends upon
the factors listed above. In general, the entire decomposition and stabilization of
materials may be accomplished within a few weeks under favorable conditions.
Active composting will change depending upon theamount of natural moisture or

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water added to the compost, turning frequency, materials being composted, and
temperatures reached.
8.5 Aerobic Sludge Digestion
Wastewater treatment plants produce organic sludge as wastewater is treated; this
sludge must be further treated before ultimate disposal. Sludges are generated from
primary settling tanks, which are used to remove settable, particulate solids, and from
secondary clarifiers (settling basins), which are used to remove excess biomass
production generated in secondary biological treatment units.
Disposal of sludges from wastewater treatment processes is a costly and difficult
problem. The processes used in sludge disposal include: (1) reduction in sludge
volume, primarily by removal of water, which constitutes 97–98% of the sludge; (2)
reduction of the volatile (organic) content of the sludge, which eliminates nuisance
conditions by reducing putrescibility and reduces threats to human health by reducing
levels of microorganisms; and (3) ultimate disposal of the residues.
Aerobic sludge digestion is one process that may be used to reduce both the organic
content and the volume of the sludge. Under aerobic conditions, a large portion of the
organic matter in sludge may be oxidized biologically by microorganisms to carbon
dioxide and water. The process results in approximately 50% reduction in solids
content. Aerobic sludge digestion facilities may be designed for batch or continuous
flow operations. In batch operations, sludge is added to a reaction tank while the
contents are continuously aerated. Once the tank is filled, the sludges are aerated for
two to three weeks, depending on the types of sludge. After aeration is discontinued,
the solids and liquids are separated. Solids at concentrations of 2–45 are removed,
and the clarified liquid supernatant is decanted and recycled to the wastewater
treatment plant. In a continuous flow system, an aeration tank is utilized, followed by
a settling tank.
Aerobic sludge digestion is usually used only for biological sludges from secondary
treatment units, in the absence of sludges from primary treatment units. The most
commonly used application is for the treatment of sludges wasted from extended

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aeration systems (which is a modification of the activated sludge system). Since there
is no addition of an external food source, the microorganisms must utilize their own
cell contents for metabolic purposes in a process called endogenous respiration. The
remaining sludge is a mineralized sludge, with remaining organic materials
comprised of cell walls and other cell fragments that are not readily biodegradable.
The advantages of using aerobic digestion, as compared to the use of anaerobic
digestion include: (1) simplicity of operation and maintenance; (2) lower capital
costs; (3) lower levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and phosphorus in the
supernatant; (4) fewer effects from upsets such as the presence of toxic interferences
or changes in loading and pH; (5) less odor; (6) nonexplosive; (7) greater reduction in
grease and hexane solubles; (8) greater sludge fertilizer value; (9) shorter retention
periods; and (10) an effective alternative for small wastewater treatment plants.
Disadvantages include: (1) higher operating costs, especially energy costs; (2) highly
sensitive to ambient temperature (operation at temperatures below 59°F [15°C]) may
require excessive retention times to achieve stabilization; if heating is required,
aerobic digestion may not be cost-effective); (3) no useful byproduct such as methane
gas that is produced in anaerobic digestion; (4) variability in the ability to dewater to
reduce sludge volume; (5) less reduction in volatile solids; and (6) unfavorable
economics for larger wastewater treatment plants.

Source: http://www.mazzei.net/applications/wastewater/ww_sludge.htm
Figure 8.3 : Aerobic sludge digestion
8.5.1 Kinetics of aerobic sludge digestion

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Endogenous respiration and aerobic digestion can be considered as first order process
with respect to the active volatile solids concentration. The difficulty with using the
active sludge concentration as a parameter is that it cannot be measured directly.
Thus in order to evaluate the kinetics of aerobic sludge digestion, parameters must be
identified that will change during aerobic sludge digestion, that can be measured
easily, and that can be linked to the active sludge concentration.
The following parameters can be used:
• Volatile sludge concentration
• Mixed liquor alkalinity
• Nitrate concentration
• BOD of the digestion sludge
• Oxygen uptake rate
8.5.2 Aerobic digestion in the main activated sludge process (endogenous
respiration)
Having established a consistent model for aerobic digestion, the question emerges if
this model is also applicable in the activated sludge process itself. This is not a priori
evident as aerobic digestion was assumed to be a process by which cellular material
is oxidized to obtain the necessary energy to maintain the vital functions of the micro
organism. In an aerobic digester, the only source of organic matter for oxidation is
the protoplasm of the active sludge. In contrast in the activated sludge process there is
also extra cellular organic material present. It might be assumed that the bacteria
would rather save their protoplasm
and use preferentially the extra cellular material, so that endogenous respiration
would be substituted by exogenous respiration. In this section it will now be shown
that experimental results indicate that the endogenous respiration rate is needed
independent of the exogenous respiration rate.
Design of aerobic digesters
Aerobic digesters are usually constructed as completely mixed reactors. The reactor
may be fed continuously or intermittently with excess sludge. The objective of the

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digestion is to reduce the fraction of biodegradable organic material to such level that
the digested sludge can be disposed of without problems.
For the design of the aerobic digester the following factors are important:
• Flow and composition of the sludge to be digested
• Maximum allowable fraction of active sludge remaining after digestion
• Digestion temperature
• Configuration of the aerobic sludge digester
8.5.3 Optimization of aerobic sludge digestion
In general when aerobic sludge digestion is applied, a sludge thickener precedes the
digester in order to increase the sludge concentration and to reduce the flow of excess
sludge to the digester. The retention time in the digester, needed to effect the required
reduction of the active sludge fraction, is dependent on the excess sludge
composition, therefore for a given excess sludge composition, the volume of the
digester will be inversely proportional to the volume of the thickened sludge flow.
The objective of the optimization of the activated sludge system with aerobic
digestion is to minimize the total construction cost of the biological reactor, thickener
and digester while producing digested sludge with an active sludge fraction
below a certain specified maximum value.
The sludge age in the activated sludge process is defined by factors unrelated to
sludge stabilization: for instance by the requirements for nutrient removal. The sludge
age may be defined by the optimal value for sludge stabilization.
8.5.4 Operational parameters of the aerobic sludge digestion process
Once the optimal configuration of the aerobic sludge digester has been determined, it
is a relatively simple matter to calculate the main operational parameters. These are
• Reduction of the volatile sludge concentration
• Oxygen uptake rate
• Increase of the nitrate concentration
• Alkalinity demand skip
Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs)

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Aerobic treatment units are high-rate oxidizers of soluble organic and nitrogenous
compounds. From a biological perspective, ATUs do not employ any new processes
that are not already utilized in large-scale swastewater treatment plants. The
technology that is unique to ATUs is the design and packaging of these systems for
small flow situations. These devices are essentially miniature wastewater treatment
plants. In addition to the reduction of BOD by aerobic digestion and the conversion
of ammonia by nitrification, many commercially available ATUs have additional
chambers that promote the removal of nutrients, suspended solids and pathogens
from the effluent. Other unique aspects to the design of ATUs are the ease of
installation at remote locations and the ease of maintenance for semi-skilled
maintenance providers. ATUs installed at homesites and small commercial locations
must be dependable and maintenance-friendly.
Aerobic Wastewater Treatment
Most people consider bacteria and other microorganisms to be undesirable
components of wastewater. In fact, only a small fraction of the microbes found in
wastewater are truly pathogenic. Aerobic wastewater treatment encourages the
growth of naturally-occurring aerobic microorganisms as a means of renovating
wastewater. Such microbes are the engines of wastewater treatment plants. Organic
compounds are high-energy forms of carbon. The oxidation of organic compounds to
the low-energy form (carbon dioxide) is the fuel that powers these engines. To
understanding how to mix aerobic microorganisms, soluble organic compounds and
dissolved oxygen for high-rate oxidation of organic carbon is one of the fundamental
tasks of wastewater engineers.
Process Description
Primary treated wastewater enters the aeration unit and is mixed with dissolved
oxygen and suspended and/or attached microbes. The aerobic microbes convert
organic compounds into energy, new cells and residual matter. As the water moves
through the clarifier, a portion of the biological solids are separated out of the effluent
and are retained within the ATU. The biological solids settle back into the aeration

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chamber where they serve as seed for new microbial growth. Settled biomass and
residuals will accumulate in the bottom of the chamber and must be removed with
periodic maintenance. As the biomass creates an oxygen demand, clarification is an
important part of generating a high-quality effluent. Many ATUs have a conical-
shaped clarifier to promote separation of the biomass. As the cross-sectional area of
upflow increases, the fluid velocity decreases. Once the settling velocity of the
biomass is greater than the fluid velocity, the biomass will no longer move upward.
During periods of no flow, the biomass will settle back into the aeration chamber.
Other ATUs may incorporate inline filters to separate the biomass from the effluent.
Such filters require periodic maintenance to remove the solids.
In the aerobic process, organic nitrogen and ammonia are converted to nitrate. Under
anoxic conditions (no molecular oxygen), the nitrate is denitrified to nitrogen gas.
Some ATUs are designed to also provide denitrification as part of their operation.
Design modifications include intermittently supplying air and recirculate the nitrified
wastewater into the anoxic regions within the treatment unit.
ATU Influent
Influent to the aerobic treatment chamber must first pass through primary treatment,
provided by either a septic or some other type of primary tank. These tanks can
provide separation of easily settable and floatable solids before the influent enters the
ATU. A large portion of these solids are likely non-degradable or slowly degradable.
Manufacturers of ATUs will provide guidance as to the size of a primary tank
preceding their aerobic treatment device. Primary tanks also provide an element of
dilution to minimize the effects of chemical shocks to the microbial population in the
ATU. Bleaches and other disinfectants must be highly diluted before entering the
aerobic chamber. Medications, such as antibiotics and chemotherapy drugs, are
highly toxic to the microbial population. Most manufacturers have a list of products
that should not be added to the wastewater stream.
Natural Process

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Microorganisms responsible for the oxidation of complex organic compounds are
called "decomposers." They return the simple forms of carbon back to the soil, water
and atmosphere. When high concentrations of organic pollutants are available, these
decomposers flourish. Because these same microorganisms exist in natural water
bodies, wastewater being discharged back into surface water bodies must have a very
low organic strength. Natural aquatic systems must have an ample concentration of
dissolved oxygen to support advanced life forms (i.e., fish, macroinvertebrates, and
so on). Most decomposing microbes prefer aerobic conditions to anaerobic
conditions. When dissolved oxygen is available, the aerobic decomposition of
organic compounds consumes dissolved oxygen out of the water. If the rate of re-
aeration is not equal to the rate of consumption, the dissolved oxygen concentration
will fall below the level needed to sustain a viable aquatic system.
The concentration of soluble, bioavailable organic compounds in water is often
measured as carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand or cBOD. As described
above, oxygen demand is the result of the aerobic microorganisms consuming
dissolved oxygen as they decompose the organic carbon and nitrogenous compounds.
In the engineered biochemical oxidation of wastewater, oxygen is supplied to the
aerobic microorganisms so that they will consume the substrate (organic carbon) to
fuel their metabolism. The result is the conversion of organic pollutants into
inorganic compounds and new microbial cells. The net production of cells (creation
of new cells versus the die off of old cells) will form an accumulation of biological
material.
Typical organic materials that are found in residential strength wastewater include
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, urea, soaps and detergents. All of these compounds
contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Domestic wastewater also includes
organically bound nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus. During biochemical degradation,
these three elements are biologically transformed from organic forms to mineralized
forms (i.e., NH3, NH4, NO3, SO4, and PO4).
Range

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There are a variety of different technologies that can perform biological wastewater
treatment. Mechanical aerators, air diffusers, trickling filters and more can all form a
part of this process, depending on the facility. As technology advances, these systems
are becoming increasingly convenient, more efficient, and smaller in size. Our
biological wastewater treatment systems provide effective solutions to drinking water
odor control, BOD. When active sludge is kept in an aerobic environment without
feed, in time a reduction of the volatile solids concentration is observed, with a con
current consumption of oxygen. These phenomenons’s characterise aerobic sludge
digestion and are attributed to the oxidation of microbial protoplasm, which releases
the energy required to maintain vital cell functions. The oxidation of cellular matter is
called endogenous respiration, in order to distinguish it from the oxidation of extra
cellular organic material, which is called exogenous respiration.
Microbial Metabolism
Metabolism is the sum of the biochemical processes that are employed in the
destruction of organic compounds (catabolism) and in the building up of cell
protoplasm (anabolism). These processes convert chemically-bound energy into
energy forms that can be used for life-sustaining processes. Catabolism is the
oxidative, exothermic, enzymatic degradation process that results in the release of
free energy from the structure of large organic molecules. Some of the released
energy is available for the construction of new cellular material. Anabolism is a
synthesis process that results in the increase in size and complexity of organic
chemical structure (Benefield and Randall, 1985).
Biosynthesis
Biosynthesis is the most complex and vital energy requiring activity of all living
organisms. Biosynthesis is the formation of characteristic chemical components of
cells from simple precursors, and the assembly of these components into structures
such as the membrane systems, contractile elements, mitochondria, nuclei, and
ribosomes. Two kinds of ingredients are required for the biosynthesis of cell
components: (1) precursors that provide the carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and other

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elements found in cellular structures, and (2) adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and other
forms of chemical energy needed to assemble the precursors into covalently-bonded
cellular structure.

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Box 8.1 Fermentation and Respiration
Aerobic and anaerobic heterotrophic microorganisms use the fermentation
process to reduce complex organic compounds to simple organic forms.
Heterotrophs are microorganisms that use organic carbon for the formation of
new biomass. These organisms are consumers and decomposers, and therefore
depend on a readily available source of organic carbon for cellular synthesis and
chemical energy. They are the primary workhorses in the oxidation of soluble
BOD in wastewater treatment. In comparison, autotrophic microorganisms can
create cellular material from simple forms of carbon (such as carbon dioxide).
These organisms are at the bottom of the food chain. They do not depend on other
organisms for the creation of complex organic compounds.
Autotrophic microorganisms are important for the removal of nitrogen from
wastewater. Fermentation is the exothermic, enzymatic breakdown of soluble
organic compounds and does not depend on the presence of dissolved oxygen.
The fermentation process is often described in two stages. Acid and methane
fermentation. End products of the acid fermentation process include volatile fatty
acids (VFA) and alcohols. Little reduction in BOD occurs because the most of the
carbon is still in an organic form. During methane fermentation, a portion of the
acid-fermentation end-products are converted to methane and carbon dioxide gas.
The result of this conversion provides a reduction in BOD. Anaerobic
microorganisms are limited to the fermentation process. This is why methane can
only be produced with anaerobic conditions.
Through the process of respiration, aerobic microorganisms can further transform
the VFA (and other bioavailable organic compounds) into carbon dioxide, water
and additional energy (Lehninger, 1973). Respiration requires the presence of
oxygen. Oxygen acts as an electron acceptor for the catabolic degradation of the
VFA. Because aerobic microbes can readily convert bioavailable organic carbon
into inorganic carbon, aerobic systems can provide high-rate wastewater
treatment.

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Under substrate-limited conditions, microbes will feed on each other at a higher rate
than new cells can be produced. The aerobic degradation of cellular material is
endogenous respiration. Endogenous respiration is not 100% efficient and thus there
is an accumulation of slowly-degradable cellular material and other residuals. As will
be described in Section Two, aerobic treatment units employed in the decentralized
wastewater management industry operate in the endogenous respiration phase.
Referred to as "extended aeration," this process provides plenty of aeration to ensure
that once the food is consumed, the microbes will start feeding on each other. This
effect minimizes the mass of accumulated biomass that must be removed by the
maintenance provider.
8.7 Operational Issues
• Start Up
Start up involves the establishment of a sufficient population of microbes within the
ATU to digest the soluble organic and nitrogenous components of the influent. In
most applications, a sufficient population of microbes will enter the ATU with the
wastewater to start the process. If needed, one method of inoculating the system is to
add a few gallons of mixed liquor from an operational ATU. While the biomass
concentration is increasing, the microbes tend to be dispersed and have not formed
flocs that will settle in the clarifier. Until the biomass becomes more flocculated and
can settle more readily, there is a greater potential for solids carry over especially
with high hydraulic loads. If solids are allowed to build up in the clarifier, gas will
form in the biosolids (from anaerobic conditions within the solids) and cause solids to
rise to the surface and form a scum layer. A good measure of how well the process is
proceeding is by judging the quality of the activated sludge. Generally, good quality
activated sludge will have a golden brown color, and an earthy smell if kept aerated.
• Typical Problems
Sludge bulking is a phenomenon that develops in the aeration tank when a growth of
filamentous bacteria (primarily sphaerotilus) attaches to the floc particles and impede
settling (Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998). Such microorganisms can tolerate large

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changes in dissolved oxygen and nutrients, a situation frequently occurring in small
aerobic treatment units. When these conditions occur, it leads to carryover of solids in
the University Curriculum Development for Decentralized Wastewater Management
Aerobic Treatment of Wastewater and Aerobic Treatment Units Buchanan and
Seabloom effluent. This phenomenon is particularly troublesome to smaller plants
where there may be considerable fluctuation in organic loading and lack of technical
support.
When an excessive growth of nocardia (a hydrophobic bacterium) occurs, foaming
and frothing on the liquid surface in the aeration chamber (and the clarifier) may
result. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that the baffles in the clarifier trap the
foam and foster more growth. Some ATU manufacturers provide froth spray pumps.
The froth spray serves to reduce the surface tension of the water and break down the
froth.
8.8 The advantages of aerobic digestion
Simplicity of operation and maintenance
• Lower capital costs
• Lower levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and phosphorus in the
supernatant Fewer effects from upsets such as the presence of toxic
interferences or changes in loading and pH
• Less odor
• Nonexplosive
• Greater reduction in grease and hexane solubles
• Greater sludge fertilizer value
• Shorter retention periods

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 Box 8.2 Potential for composting of controlled wastes in the UK
The UK currently landfills 27,000,000 tonnes a year of municipal solid waste
and that 60% of this is biodegradable. Under the 1999 EU Landfill Directive
the amount of biodegradable municipal solid waste landfilled must be reduced
to 75% of the amount produced in 1995 by the year 2010, to 50% by 2013,
and to 35% by 2020. Assuming an annual increase in municipal solid waste
production of 3% a year it is estimated that the UK will have to divert from
landfill 14,000,000 tonnes of the biodegradable fraction of municipal solid
waste in 2010, increasing to 20,900,000 in 2013, and 30,300,000 tonnes by
2020.
Not all of this biodegradable material would be suitable for composting, but it
is estimated that 4,900,000 tonnes of biodegradable waste appropriate for
composting will have to be diverted by 2010, 7,300,000 tonnes by 2013 and
10,600,000 tonnes by 2020. These figures do not include paper and cardboard.

8.9 Conclusion
Aerobic treatment units can provide rapid oxidation of soluble organic compounds,
nitrification of ammonia, and reduction of suspended solids. These systems are
utilized to provide a high quality effluent in situations where the natural surrounding
has limited ability to renovate domestic wastewater. Whereas ATUs can effectively
oxidize organic compounds and remove suspended solids, the accumulation of these
wastewater constituents must be managed as part of a regularly scheduled
maintenance procedure. It is highly recommended that aerobic systems include
communication technologies that can notify maintenance provider in case of
equipment failure. If an aeration unit goes down, it is only a matter of a few hours
(depending on the organic loading) before the unit becomes septic. Maintenance
should be provided by personnel trained by the manufacturer to ensure long-term
success of the system.\

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8.9 References
• Bohlooli P, Taebi Amir. Calibration & Comparison of Aerobic Digestion
Models of Waste Activated Sludge Water and Wastewater, 2011
• Corbitt, R. A. "Wastewater Disposal." In Standard Handbook of
Environmental Engineering, edited by R. A. Corbitt. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1990.
• Gaudy Jr., A. F., and E. T. Gaudy. Microbiology for Environmental
Scientists and Engineers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980.
• Peavy, H. S., D. R. Rowe, and G. Tchobanoglous. Environmental
Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985.
• ASCE, 1977. Wastewater Treatment Plant Design, Manual of Practice No.
36. Lancaster.
• Benefield LD and Randall CW. 1985. Biological Process Design for
Waste Water Treatment. Ibis Publishing, Charlottesville, Virginia.
• Converse, 2001. Aeration treatment of onsite domestic wastewater,
aerobic units and packed bed filters. Small Scale Waste Management
Project, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
• Crites, R. and G. Tchobanoglous. 1998. Small and Decentralized
Wastewater Management. McGraw-Hill, Boston.
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of smallflows. Proceedings of the seventh Northwest on-site Wastewater
Treatment Short Course and Equipment Exhibition. University of
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• Henry, J.G. and G. Heinke. 1996. Environmental Science and
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• Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 2003. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
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• Novak JT, Banjade S, Murthy SN. Combined anaerobic and aerobic
digestion for increased solids reduction and nitrogen removal Water
Research, 2011, 45(2), 618–624
• Ohio EPA. 2000. Guide for owners of package extended aeration sewage
treatment plants, operation and maintenance. State of Ohio EPA, Division
of Surface Water.
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Engineering. PWS-KENT Publishing Company, Boston.
• U. S. EPA. 1986. Summary Report: Sequencing Batch Reactors. Office of
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 Chapter 9

Microbial consortia for waste management

It's probably something that just lives in the environment. We

forget that microorganisms rule the world. Now we're looking and
finding things we didn't know were there.

Tara O'Toole

9.1 Introduction
Aerobic and anaerobic process is extensive use as a means of treating organic wastes
including sewage sludge animal and agricultural residues and household refuse and
turn into a preferred technology for the removal of biodegradable pollutants from
wastewaters, waste slurries, waste gas streams and seriously polluted
environmental compartments, including soils, sediments, ground water and surface
waters, microorganisms and their enzymes play an important role in the
biodegradation of the pollutants and wastes. Enzyme activities have been indirectly
used as an index of microbial population on organic matter decomposition. Enzyme
activities are due to the enzyme present within a living or dead cells, cell debries and
free enzyme. Today microbes are collected from the waste water, dumping sites and
extreme environments are believed to have capability to degrade hazardous
compounds.
Therefore, study of relationship between, microorganism and enzymatic activities are
on demand which would lead to better understanding for the development of
microbial consortia for efficient multiple pollutant degradation. A microbial
consortium is two or more microbial groups living symbiotically. Members of the
consortium maintain metabolic and ecological compatibility, as long as

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biogeochemical and environmental gradients allow for individual niches to exist in
close proximity. Microbial biodegradation is carried out by different organisms like
Bacteria, Fungus, and Algae Microbial mats typify these conditions and, accordingly,
are the focus of research on consortia growth strategies in extreme environments.
Biodegradation by microbial consortia mainly comprises the biochemical pathways
and co metabolism study, kinetic relationships and unseen mixed cultures,
particularly quasi stable consortia.
9.2 Characteristics of microbial consortia
In microbial consortia ability of secreting different extra cellular and intracellular
enzymes like lipase, protease, amylase by different microorganisms have been exploit
for the reduction of the concentration and/or toxicity of various chemical substances,
such as petroleum derivatives, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, industrial
solvents, pesticides and metals. Degradation ability of single microorganism limited
to certain types of compounds, but a mixed population – microbial community
enables a higher level of degradation due to their coalesce effect. The use of
microbial consortia is totally depending upon their potential of existence in extreme
conditions. Synthetic biologists are shaping their ability to program the behavior of
individual microbial populations, forcing the microbes to focus on specific
applications, such as the production of drugs and fuels. Given that microbial
consortia can perform even more complicated tasks and endure more changeable
environments than monocultures can, they represent an important new frontier for
synthetic biology
9.3 Microbial consortia in waste management
9.3.1 Biodegradation of hydrocarbons.

Contamination of soil and water is mainly due to the release of hydrocarbons into the
environment which damage the local system since accumulation of pollutants in
animals and plant tissue may cause death or mutations.

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Biodegradation of complex hydrocarbon generally requires the collaboration of more
than a single species. This is particularly true in pollutants that are made up of many
different compounds such as crude oil or petroleum and complete mineralization to
CO2 and H2O is desired. Individual microorganisms can metabolize only a limited
range of hydrocarbon substrates, so assemblages of mixed populations with overall
broad enzymatic capacities are required to bring the rate and extent of petroleum
biodegradation further
Typical bacterial groups already known for their capacity to degrade hydrocarbons
include Pseudomonas, Marinobacter, Alcanivorax, Microbulbifer, Sphingomonas,
Micrococcus, Cellulomonas, Dietzia, and Gordonia groups. Molds belonging to the
genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Amorphoteca, Neosartorya,
Paecilomyces, Talaromyces, Graphium and the yeasts Candida, Yarrowia and Pichia
have been reported in hydrocarbon degradation.

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Box 9.1: Oilzapper: eliminate crude oil spills, manage oily sludge
In the year 1997, TERI initiated the research on crude oil and oil sludge
degrading bacterial consortium. After seven years of research work, TERI
developed the Oilzapper (crude oil and oily sludge degrading bacterial
consortium). Oilzapper was produced in bulk and immobilized on to a carrier
material (organic powder material). Carrier based Oilzapper was used for clean up
of crude oil spills and treatment of oily sludge.More than 40,000 tonnes of oily
sludge/oil contaminated soil and drill cuttings have been treated at various
locations. More than 30,000 tonnes of oily sludge/oil contaminated soil is under
treatment at different locations in India and the Middle East countries.With the
application of Oilzapper, crude oil contaminated agricultural lands were cleaned
up in the north-eastern and western parts of India.

Before bioremediation After bioremediation

Crude oil contaminated water before and after application of
Oilzapper

Before bioremediation After bioremediation

185
9.3.2 Biodegradation of herbicides, pesticides and insecticides
Agrochemicals refer to a broad range of insecticides, fungicides and herbicides, and
among them atrazine, a herbicide is extensively used in sugarcane, corn and sorghum
cultures. Atrazine is one of the most widely used herbicides all over the world. In
India it is also the herbicide of choice and hence there is a high possibility of soils
and water contamination in various parts of the country. Although several countries
gave up the use
of atrazine because of its toxicity, it is still one of the most popular herbicide in many
countries. Many microorganisms were isolated and studied for their abilities to
mineralize atrazine including the members of genera Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter,
Agrobacterium, Arthrobacter, Rastonia and Norcardioides. For atrazine degradation,
bacterial consortia appeared to be the more common and more efficient than
individual species.

Methyl parathion (O,O-dimethyl-O-(p-nitro-phenylphosphorothioate) is one of the

most used organophosphorus pesticides. This product is widely used throughout the
world and its residues are regularly detected in a range of fruits and vegetables.
Investigation of microbial degradation is useful for developing insecticide
degradation strategies using microorganisms. Investigation of microbial degradation
is useful for developing insecticide degradation strategies using microorganisms.

Figure 9.1: Biodegradation of methyl parathion by microbial consortia pathway

proposed by Zhang et al., 2008)

186
Organochlorine is the other pesticides are known to be highly persistent in the
environment. This class of pesticides includes the chlorinated derivatives of diphenyl
ethane. DDT is the most well known pesticide from the organochlorine group and has
proven to be recalcitrant. Consequently, they remain in the environment for a long
time and accumulate into food chains for decades after their application to the soil.
Among microorganisms, bacteria comprise the major group involved in
organochlorine degradation, especially soil habitants belonging to genera Bacillus,
Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter and Micrococcus. In nature the the microbial
degradation of DDT in soil apparently proceeds by successive reductive
dechlorination reactions of DDT to yield 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (DDNU),
which is then oxidised to 2,2- bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethanol (DDOH). Further
oxidation of DDOH yields bis(pchlorophenyl) acetic acid (DDA) which is
decarboxylated to bis(p-chlorophenyl) methane (DDM). DDM is metabolized to
4,4’dichlorobenzophenone (DBP) or, alternatively, may undergo cleavage of one of
the aromatic rings to form p-chlorophenylacetic acid (PCPA). Several isolated
microorganisms have been proven to be capable to degrade DDT present in
environment.

Figure 9.2: Bacterial metabolism of DDT, pathway proposed by Aislabie et al.,

1997

187
The microbial consortium adapted in the environment changes their proteomics and
genomics character and becomes versatile for the bioremediation of the compounds.

9.3.3 Biodegradation of paints and dyes.

Volatile organic compounds and additives like emulsifiers, texturizers in paint are
considered harmful which can be degraded by different means like chemicals (water
as solvent), hygroscopic stresses and microbial sources. Microorganisms participate
in the mineralization of paints through biofilm formations on the surfaces like stone
buildings causing aesthetic and structural damage. Various types of organisms are
involved in paint spoilage and they include bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa. The
interactions between these organisms can enhance or retard the overall rate of paint
biodegradation.
Azo dyes, the largest chemical class of dyes with the greatest variety of colors, have
been used extensively for textile dyeing, and paper painting. These dyes cannot be
easily degraded, and some are toxic to higher animals. Over 7 × 105 metric tones of
synthetic dyes are produced worldwide every year for dyeing and printing, and out of
this, about 5% - 10% are discharged with wastewater. Dye agglomeration is the major
cause for the persistence of xenobiotics and their presence in aquatic bodies will
affect photosynthetic activity in aquatic life due to reduced light penetration even at
low concentrations. Number of industrial processes, such as textile industries, paper
printing and photography uses synthetic dyes extensively, which usually have
complex aromatic molecular structures. Azodyes (Black B, Turq Blue GN, Yellow
HEM, Red HEFB and Navy HER), anthraquinone and phthalocyanine dyes are
commonly used dyes in these industries. The degradation of these dyes produces
aromatic amines, which may be carcinogenic, and mutagenic. Microorganism (living
or dead biomass) has ability, not only to decolorize dyes but also detoxify it, by
adsorption of dyes on microbial surfaces because of the presence of negatively
charged ligands in cell wall components. Microbial degradation and decolorization of

188
dyes is an environment friendly and cost-competitive alternative to chemical
decomposition processes.
Table 9.1 Different microbial consortium involved in degradation of pesticides,
herbicides, hydrocarbons, paints and dyes
Pesticides Microbial consortium References
Methyl parathion Acinetobacter sp, Nancy Pino and
Pseudomonas putida, Gustavo Peñuela,
Bacillus sp, 2011
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Citrobacter freundii,
Stenotrophomonas sp,
Flavobacterium sp,
Proteus vulgaris,
Pseudomonas sp,
Acinetobacter sp,
Klebsiella sp
Proteus sp
DDT Pseudomonas Jaka darma jaya
Pseudomonas 2009
Moraxella
Pseudomonas
Pseudomonas
2-4 DNT P. aeruginosa sp. Snellinx et al 2003
Sphingomonas sp.
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia
P. viridiflava
Herbicides Microbial consortium References
2,4Dichloropheno Pseudomonas putida, Comamonas E. Marro´n-Montiel
xyacetic acid sp, et al., 2006

189
 Klebsiella oxytoca
Acinetobacter sp. Acinetobacter
lwofii
Atrazine Agrobacterium tumefaciens Smith et al., 2005
Caulobacter crescentus,
Pseudomonas putida,
Sphingomonas yaniokuyae,
Nocardia sp.
Rhizobium sp.
Flavobacterium oryzihabitans
Variovorax paradoxus
Hydrocarbons Microbial consortium References
Alkanes Bacillus sp F.M. Ghazali et al.,
P. aeruginosa 2004
Micrococcus sp
Dyes Microbial consortium References
Orange II Enterococcus casseliflavus Chan et al., 2011
Enterobacter cloacae

Green HE4BD Proteus vulgaris NCIM-2027 Saratale et al., 2010

Micrococcus glutamicus NCIM-216
Paints Microbial consortium References
components
Mono Ethylene Alcaligens faecalis CK221 P.D. Ghogare and
Glycol Bacillus niacini Pm1 S.G. Gupta 2012
Oliptrichum macrosporum
Aspergillus terreus
Streptomyces sp-1

190
Thinner Bacillus subtilis, Conde et al., 2001
B sphaericcus,
B schleggelli,
B. brevis,
Micrococcus luteus
Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes

9.4 Conclusion
Degradation of waste by microbial consortia is highly significant. It reduces the time
span of degradation and produces no foul odour. Members of microbial consortia
communicate and differentiate; consortia can perform more complex tasks and can
survive in more changeable environments than can uniform populations. To date,
engineers have successfully constructed microbial consortia by implementing cell–
cell communication and differentiation of function in traditional, laboratory microbes.
As on date the most reliable strategy is biodegradation by eco-friendly microbes,
which is generally accepted as an environmentally sound and economically feasible
protocol for the treatment of hazardous waste and effluents. Hence microbes are the
tribute for clean environment.

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 9.5 References
• Abigail Evy Alice, M. & Das Nilanjana. 2012, Microbial
degradation of atrazine, commonly used herbicide, International
journal of advanced biological research. Vol. 2(1) 2012: 16-23
• Abdel-Megeed Ahmed and Mohamed El-Nakieb Fatma Aly
Microbial consortia as a unique approach for degradation and
bioremediation of dimethoate in egyptian contaminated water 4th
european bioremediation conference
• M. Geetha and M. H. Fulekar, 2008 Bioremediation of pesticides
in surface soil treatment unit using microbial consortia African
Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Vol. 2 (2),
036-045.
• Brenner Katie, You Lingchong and Arnold Frances H, 2008
Engineering microbial consortia: a new frontier in synthetic
biology Trends in Biotechnology Vol.26 No.9
• Margarita stoytcheva (Ed) Pesticides in modern world –pesticides
use and management ISBN 978-953-307-459-7, published
October 21 2011
• Ghazali F M, Rahman R N Z A, Salleh A B, Basri Mahiran 2004
Biodegradation of hydrocarbons in soil by microbial consortium,
International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 54 (2004) 61 –
67

• Saratale RG, Saratale GD, Chang JS, Govindwar SP 2010

Decolorization and biodegradation of reactive dyes and dye
wastewater by a developed bacterial consortium. Biodegradation.
21(6):999-1015

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