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Physics of Solids

All solids are made up of atoms and molecules but due to their different internal
arrangement of the molecules inside them, they have different classes:

Crystalline Solids
The solids in which the atoms are arranged in de nite, regular and long range
order are said to be crystalline.

Example

Quartz, mica, sugar, copper sulphate, sodium chloride etc.

Properties

They have long range symmetry, regular arrangement is extended over a

large volume of the crystal.

They possess uniform chemical composition.

The physical properties like thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity,

compressibility, refractive index etc, have different values in different
directions.

They have
at surface.

Amorphous Solids
The solids in which the atoms are arranged in inde nite, irregular and short range
order are said to be amorphous.

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Example

Glass, rubber, sulphur etc.

Properties

The distribution of atoms or molecules in these solids is random.

They are isotropic, ie. they have same physical properties in all directions.

Amorphous solids do not have sharp melting points.

They have no characteristic geometrical shape.

Polymorphic Solids
Polymorphic may be said to be more or less solid material with a structure that
is intermediate between order and disorder. They can be classi ed as partially or
poorly crystalline solids.

Example

Polythene, Polystyrene, nylon etc.

Properties

Polymers form a large group of naturally occurring and synthetic materials.

Polymers consist wholly or in part of chemical combinations of carbon with

oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other metallic or non-metallic elements.

Plastic and synthetic rubbers are termed 'Polymers' because they are
formed by polymerization reactions in which relatively simple molecules are
chemically combined into massive long chain molecules or 3D structures.

Crystal Lattice
A crystal structure is a periodic arrangement of points in space and is obtained
by associating with every lattice point a unit assembly or basis of atoms,

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identical in composition, arrangement and orientation.

Elasticity
Elasticity: When external forces are applied on a body, which is not free to
move, there is a change in its length, volume or shape. When these forces
are removed, the body tends to regain its original shape and size.

Deforming Force: The external force acting on a body on account of which

its size or shape or both changes is de ned as the deforming force.

Perfectly Elastic Body: If a body completely recovers its original shape and
size, it is called, perfectly elastic. Example is quartz.

Plastic Body: The body which does not have the property of opposing the
external deforming force, is known as a plastic body.
The bodies which remain in deformed state ever after removal of the
deforming forces are de ned as a plastic body. Wet clay is example of
plastic body.

 Note

Actually no body is perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic. All bodies behaves in between two
limits. We may consider quartz as almost perfectly elastic and putty or wet clay as almost
perfectly plastic.

Stress
The internal restoring force acting per unit are of a deformed body is called
stress.

Since in equilibrium, the magnitude of the external force is equal to the

restoring force stress in equilibrium is measured by the external force per
unit area.

If a force F is applied on area A, in equilibrium stress = F /A.

The stress developed in a body depends upon the way in which external
force is applied on the body.

Unit of stress in N m−2 and its dimension is M L−1 T −2

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Depending upon, how the external forces are applied on a body, the stress is
of three types:

Longitudinal Stress

When the stress is normal to the surface of the body, then it is known as
longitudinal stress.

This type of stress is produced due to deformation in length or volume of the

body.

Longitudinal stress is of two types

a. Tensile stress

b. Compression stress.

The longitudinal stress produced due to increase in length or volume of a

body is de ned as tensile strength.

The longitudinal stress, produced due to decrease in length or volume of a

body, is de ned as compression stress.

Volume Stress

If equal normal forces are applied on every surface of a body. then it

undergoes change in volume. The force opposing this change in volume per
unit area of cross-section is de ned as volumes stress.

It is numerically equal to the applied external force per unit area of cross-
section and acts outwards.

Shear Stress

When the stress is tangential or parallel to the surface of the body then it is
known as shear stress.

Due to this stress the shape of the body changes or it get twisted.

Strain

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When deforming forces are applied on a body it undergoes a change in shape or

size. The fractional (or relative) change in shape or size is called the strain. That
is,

Change in dimension
Strain =
Original dimension

The form of strain depends upon the directions of applied force.

Strain is ratio, hence it has no unit and no dimension.

Depending upon the way the deforming forces are applied on a body, strain
is of three types.

Longitudinal (linear) strain

It is the ratio of change in length (Δl) to the original length (l).

Change in length
Strain =
Its original length

Volume strain

It is the ratio of the change in volume (ΔV ) to the original volume

ΔV
Volume strain =
V

Shearing strain

The angular deformation (θ ) in radians is called shearing strain. Since 0 is

small we may write,

Δx
Shear strain = θ = tan θ =
L

Types of Modulus of Elasticity

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Young's Modules Y Bulk Modulus K Shear Modulus η

The ratio of longitudinal stress The ratio of normal The ratio of the shearing
to the linear strain is called stress to the volume stress to the shearing strain
Young's Modulus Y strain is called bulk is called the modulus of
modulus K rigidity η

Linear stress Volume stress Shear stress

Y = K= η=
Longitudinal strain Volume strain shear strain

FL mgL F /A F
Y = = FV η= =
AΔL πr2 ΔL K= θ Aθ
AΔV

Young's modulus of elasticity For gases bulk The concept of shear applies
is numerically equal to that modulus is of two only to solids. The reason is
force which when applied on types that shear forces are required
the wire of the unit cross- to deform a solid and the
Isotermal bulk
section, doubles its length. solid tends to return to its
modolus
shear forces are removed.
Adiabatic bulk
modulus

Y is the characteristic The value of K is Shear modulus does not

property of solid materials maximum for solids apply on gases and liquid
only. and minimum for because gases and liquid do
gases. not have a de nite shape to
return to after deformation.

Hooke's Law
Within the elastic limits, the stress setup within an elastic body is
proportional to the which the body is subjected by the applied external force
i.e.

Stress
=E
Strain
E is called modulus of elasticity.

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The value of E depends upon the material of body and not on the values of
stress and strain.

The value of E , for the same material, are different for different types of
strains.

The value of E depends upon the type of stress and strain produced rather
than their values.

Unit of modulus of elasticity is N m2 or pascal.

Its dimensional formula is [M L−1 T −2 ]

Elastic Limit & Yield Strength

When stress is increased continuously, a point A is reached at which the
strain increases more, this point is called elastic limit.

Beyond elastic limit the material does not return to its original condition
when the deforming force is removed. It acquires what is called permanent
set.

On stressing a point B, is reached at which the material continues to strain

without increase in load i.e. the wire begins to
ow down the in spite of the
same constant load. This point is called yield point.

After large strain. It reaches the breaking point D occurs in the material is
called breaking stress or fracture stress.

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Strain Energy in Different Bodies

In any type of strain, the work done per unit volume i.e. potential energy or the
strain energy per unit volume.

1
U= × Stress × Strain2
2
1
U= × Young’s Modulus × Longitudinal Strain2
2
1
U= × Bulk Modulus × Volume Strain2
2
1
U= × Shear Modulus × Shearing Strain2
2

Energy Bands Theory

A solid can be treated as a densely packed obtained by bringing together
isolated single atoms. An isolated single atom possesses a number of discrete
energy levels that can be occupied by electrons of the atom. Generally the
electrons exist in the ground state, when excited electrons can shift to higher
energy levels. Usually only the valence electrons can participate in these
excitations.

An energy state, which cannot be occupied, is forbidden gap.

The band formed by a series of energy levels containing, the valence

electrons is known as valence band. The valence band may be partially or
completely lled up depending upon the nature of the crystal.

The next higher permitted band is called as the conduction band. This band
may be empty or partially lled. In conduction band the electrons can move
freely.

Metals have positive temperature coecient (αt ) of resistance while

semiconductors have negative (αt ).

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Electrical Classi韛�cation of Solids

All solids employed in electrical work may be classi ed into following three
groups:

Conductors

Insulators

Semiconductors

Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

In the case of a In case of an insulators, the forbidden In the case of

conductor, there energy band is very wide and hence an semiconductors, the
will be no electron cannot jump across, from the forbidden energy band is
forbidden energy valence energy band to the conduction comparatively small. For
gap. The energy band. Only when a very large example 0.7eV for (Ge)
conduction and amount of energy is supplied, an electron and 1.1eV for silicon. In
valence energy may be able to jumps across the these cases, when a
bands overlap forbidden band. This explains why certain small amount of energy
each other. materials which are perfect insulators is supplied, the electrons
Obviously, the behave as conductors only at very high can easily jump across
electrons from temperatures. In case of diamond, the the forbidden energy
the valence band forbidden energy gap is nearly 6eV . band and reach the
can freely enter conduction energy band.
the conduction
energy band.

In conductors, In insulators, no free electrons are Semiconductors has a

charge carries available for conduction. much smaller energy
responsible for gap (Eg ) between the
the conduction top of the highest lled
of electricity are band (called valence
free electrons. band) and the bottom of
the vacant band just
above it called the
conduction band.

The electrical The electrical conductivity of insulators is The conductivity of

−16
conductivity of very low in the range 10 to semiconductors is of the
conductors is of 10−6 Ωm−1 order of 1Ωm−1
the order of
108 Ωm−1

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Metallic In insulators, the valence band is Semiconductors have

conductors have completely lled while conduction band negative temperature
positive is completely empty. coecient of resistance.
temperature
coecient of
resistance.

The resistance Ionic crystal are insulators. The other The resistance of
of conductor examples are glass, wood, paper, mica, semiconductor
increases due to diamond, ceramic, plastic etc. decreases due to the
addition of addition of impurities. At
impurities. absolute zero
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors
temperature, conduction
band is completely
behaves as an
insulators.

Type of Semiconductors
There are two types of semiconductors:

N-type Semiconductor

P-type Semiconductor

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N-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of
Pentavalent Impurity (Examples:
Phosphorus, antimony etc) is added
to an intrinsic semiconductor, we
obtain an N-type extrinsic
semiconductor.
In the N-type semiconductor, the
number of electrons in the
conduction band > number of holes
in the valence band
The impurities atoms in N-type
extrinsic semiconductor are called
donor atom as they donate as extra
electrons to pure semiconductor or
host lattice.
In the N-type semiconductor,
electrons are called as majority
charge carriers, whereas holes are
called minority charge carriers.
In N-type semiconductor, the Fermi
level shift towards the conduction
band.
There is no charge on N-type
semiconductor because it is formed
by the combination of free
negatively charges electrons and
xed majority carrier.
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P-type Semiconductor
When a small amount or trivalent Impurities
(Examples: gallium, Indium, boron, etc) is added to an
intrinsic semiconductor, we obtain a P-type extrinsic
semiconductor are called acceptor atoms, as they
accept an electron from the host lattice.
In the P-type semiconductor, the number of holes in
the valence band > number of electrons in the
conduction band.
The impurities in P-type extrinsic semiconductor are
called acceptor atoms, as they accept an electron
from the host lattice
In P-type semiconductor holes are majority charge
carriers while electrons are minority charge carriers.
There is no charge on P-type semiconductor also,
because it is formed by the combination of free
positive charged holes and xed negatively charges
acceptor ions.
There is no charge on P-type semiconductor also,
because it is formed by the combination of free
positively charged holes and xed negatively charged
acceptor.
The energy level of the hole can also be calculated
approximately using Bohr model.
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Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Feromagnetism

Diamagnetic substances Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic substances arc

are feebly repelled by substances are feebly strongly attracted by the magnet.
the magnet. attracted by the magnet.

Atoms do not have any Atoms have permanent Atoms have permanent dipole
permanent dipole dipole moments which moments which are organized in
moment. are randomly oriented. domains.

Magnetization is small, Magnetization is small, Magnetization is very large,

negative an varies positive and varies positive and varies non-linearly
linearly with eld. linearly with eld with eld.

Susceptibility is small, Susceptibility is small, Susceptibility is very large,

negative and positive and varies positive and temperature
temperature inversely with dependent.
independent. temperature.

Relative permeability is Relative Permeability is

slightly greater than much greater than unity.
unity.

This property is This property is exhibited This property is exhibited by

exhibited by solids, by solids, liquids and solids only that too crystalline.
liquids and gases. gasses.

It is practically It decreases with rise in It decreases with rise in

independent of temperature. temperature and above curie
temperature. temperature become
paramagnetic.

Bl, Cu, Ag , Hg , P b, N a, K , M g , M n, Al, F e, Cc, N i and their alloys are

water hydrogen, He, N e Cr, Sn and liquid ferromagnetic.
etc are diamagnetic. oxygen are
Paramagnetic.

Super Conductors

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Temperature at which material losses its resistivity and becomes super

conductor is called critical temperature.

The rst super conductor was discovered in 1911.

= 1.18K ), tin (Ie = 3.72K ), lead (

Critical temperature of Al (Te
Te = 7.2K ) & Hg(Te = 4.2K )
Complex crystalline structure known as yttrium barium copper Oxide (
Y Ba2 Cu3 O7 ) is super conductor at 163K i.e, at −110°C .
Any superconductor with a critical temperature above 77k . the boiling point
of liquid nitrogen, is referred as a high temperature superconductor.

Uses

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Magnetic Levitation trains

Powerful but small electric motors

Faster computer chips

Concentrating U 235 gas in centrifuge system.

Hysteresis Loop
Magnetic hysteresis

The value of
ux density for any value of current is always greater when the
current is decreasing, than when it is increasing i.e. magnetism lags behind the
magnetizing current.

Saturation

The magnetic
ux density increases from zero and reaches a maximum value. At
this stage the material is said to be magnetically saturated.

Remanence or Retantivity

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When the current is reduced to zero, the material still remains strongly
magnetized. It is due to the tendency of domains to stay partly in line, once they
have been aligned.

Coercivity

To demagnetize the material, the magnetizing current is reversed and increased

to reduce the magnetization to zero; this is known as coercive current. * Once
the material is magnetized. its magnetization curve never passes through the
origin. * The Coercivity of steel is more than iron, so it requires more current to
demagnetize.

Area of loop

The area of Hysteresis loop is a measure of the energy needed to

magnetize. and demagnetize the specimen during each cycle. This is the
energy required to do work against internal friction of domains. This work is
done against friction, is dissipated as heat. It is called Hysteresis loss.

A material with high retentively and large coercive force, would he most
suitable to make a permanent magnet.

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