8 SA6 Velocity and Acceleration 2015

Sensors & Actuators
Velocity and acceleration
2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

Outline
• Velocity sensors
• Gyroscopes
• Accelerometers
2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 1

Velocity and acceleration
• Position, velocity, and acceleration are all related.
– Velocity is how fast an object is moving: the first derivative
of the position.
dy d
vy  
dt dt
– Acceleration is how fast an object's speed is changing: the
second derivative of the position.
2 d  d 2

ay 
dv y d y
 2 a  2
dt dt dt dt
• In a noisy environment, taking derivatives may result in
extremely high errors.

Velocity measurement
• Velocity is a vector that consists of a magnitude (speed) and a

direction.
• Many velocity or acceleration sensors contain components that

are sensitive to a displacement.
• However, velocity can also be measured by direct sensors.

Linear velocity sensors
• Linear velocity of solids:

– Linear velocity transducers (LVT)
– Doppler radar sensors.
• Linear velocity of fluids:
– Particle image
– Laser Doppler
– Thermal anemometer
– Pitot probes

LVT (1)
coil 1 coil 2
• LVT consists of:
N S
– A core (a permanent magnet).
– Two electrical coils.
VT
• The two coils are wrapped with opposite polarity. The south pole of
the magnet induces a voltage primarily in coil 2, and the north pole
primarily in coil 1.
• Moving a magnet through a coil of wire will induce a DC voltage

(emf) in the coil according to Faraday's Law:
d
emf   N
dt
LVT (2)
• The induced DC voltage is proportional to the magnet's

velocity and field strength.
coil 1 coil 2
VT  B l v
N S
VT
[Source: Trans-tek]
B - component of the flux density normal to the velocity

l - length of the conductor
v - velocity

LVT (3)
[Source: Trans-tek]
• Working range: detection of velocity along a distance limited by the

size of the sensor
• The DC voltage is relatively independent of position within some
limited range near the center.

Commercial LVTs
[Source: Trans-tek]
• The core slides inside a hollow cylindrical tube.

LVT applications
• Shock Absorber Testing Machine
LVTs used to rate damper performance, which leads to a better shock
absorber design.
• Injection Molding Machine
LVTs used to monitor the injection rate of molten plastic flow.
• Glass Pipette Pulling
LVTs used to control the pull rate of molten glass to form pipettes used in
most laboratories.
PC Board Drilling
LVTs used to control velocity in PC Board drilling applications.

Doppler radar velocity measurement
• When radio waves strike a moving object, the frequency of the
reflected radio waves is altered.
2v cos 
f D 

f D 
v
[Source: J. M. Cimbala] 2 cos 
 – wavelength of RF incident waves in a moving object.

v – velocity of the moving object at angle  relative to the radar unit.
fd – shift in frequency of the reflected wave relative to the transmitted wave.

Particle image velocimetry (1)
• Velocity measured following tiny particles that move with the

fluid.
PIV
(Particle Image Velocimetry)
[Source: J. M. Cimbala]

• A double-pulse laser illuminates a region of flow under study,

and a digital camera records two images timed with the two
pulses of laser light.
• Illuminated particles appear as bright spots on the photographs

• With a double pulse two bright spots appear on the

photograph.
• The distance (displacement) d between the two bright spots is
measured.
• Speed is determined by
d
v
t
t - time interval between laser pulses.
• The direction of the particle movement is determined by image
processing.

Laser Doppler velocimetry (1)
• Velocity is measured at a fixed point in the flow, for tiny
particles that move with the fluid.
LDV
(Laser Doppler Velocimetry)
• The laser beam is split into two parallel laser beams of equal
intensity.

• Beams pass through a converging lens that focuses the

beams at a point in the flow.
• At the convergence point, the waves interfere, creating a

bright and dark fringe pattern due to constructive and
destructive interference.

• Bright and dark fringe pattern :
• Tiny particles that pass through the measurement volume

scatter laser light.
• The scattered light intensity is bright, then dark, then
bright, etc. as particle moves through the fringe pattern.

• The scattered laser light is collected by a receiving lens

and photodetector.
• Fluctuations in light intensity are converted to a
fluctuating voltage signal.
• The spacing between fringe lines

λ  - wavelength of the laser light
d
2 sin  2   - angle between the two beams
• The speed of the moving particle is linearly

proportional to the frequency of the fluctuating light
intensity:
fλ
fd 
2 sin  2 
• The Bragg cell permits to shift slightly the beam frequency,

causing the fringe pattern to move. This permits to detect
direction.

Thermal anemometer (1)
• The rate of convective heat transfer from a hot object to the

surrounding fluid increases as the speed of the fluid flowing
around the object increases.
• Thermal anemometers consist of a heated (by electric current)

temperature sensor.
• The sensor tends to cool down as fluid velocity increases, but

electronic control maintains it to a constant temperature,
increasing the current.

Thermal anemometer (2)
• E is the voltage across the sensor.
E2
P  I 2 Rsensor 
Rsensor
• Speed can measured by E

E  a  bv n
a, b, and n are constants (calibrated for a given sensor).

Pitot tube (1)
• Velocity measurement based on pressure measurement.

• Pitot-static probe is a tube with stagnation pressure tap and
several circumferential static pressure taps.

Pitot tube (2)
2P1  P2 
v

 - fluid density

Angular velocity measurement
• Angular velocity sensors to measure shaft speed are many

times called tachometers (tacho means speed in greek).
• Gyroscopes (or gyros) can also be used to measure angular
velocity.
• Types of gyroscopes:
– Rotary: based on the principle of the conservation of
angular momentum.
– Vibratory: based on Coriolis acceleration.
– Optical gyroscope: based on Sagnac effect.

Rotary gyroscopes (1)
• Rotary gyroscopes are navigational tools.
• They are used in the stabilization devices, where a stable
directional reference is required, such as satellites, smart
weapons and robotics.
• The basic principle involved is the principle of conservation of
angular momentum.

spin axis
platform
[Source: J. Fraden, 2010]
input axis output axis
• A rotor (heavy disk/wheel).

• A platform with an inner and an outer gimbal that is free to
rotate about two axes.

spin axis
platform
• When the rotor freely rotates, it tends to preserve its axial

position

spin axis
platform
[Source: J. Fraden, 2010] output torque

applied torque
• If a torque is applied to the frame around one axis (input), the

platform develops a torque around a perpendicular axis
(output).

spin axis
platform
applied torque precession

• The spin axis turns around the output axis. This phenomenon
is called precession of a gyro.

spin axis
platform
applied torque [Source: J. Fraden, 2010] precession

• The precession becomes a measure of the applied torque and

can be used as an output to, for example, correct the direction
of a device.

spin
axis
applied torque [Source: J. Fraden, 2010]

precession
• Application of torque in the opposite direction reverses the

direction of precession.

• The relation between the applied torque and the angular

velocity of precession is:
T  I 
T is the applied torque

 the angular velocity of the spin axis
I moment of inertia of the rotating mass
 is the angular velocity of precession.

Mass Moment of Inertia
• Moment of Inertia of a rotating mass (I) is a measure of an

object's resistance to changes in a rotation direction
• Moment of Inertia of a rotating mass depends:
– on the mass of the object
– its shape
– and its relative point of rotation.
• For a circular disk is
2
Mr
T
M - mass of the disk
r - distance between axis and outside disk
2

• When the wheel (rotor) freely rotates, it tends to preserve its

axial position.
• If the gyro platform rotates around the input axis, the gyro will
develop a torque around a perpendicular (output) axis, thus
turning its spin axis around the output axis. This phenomenon
is called precession of a gyro.

Vibratory gyroscopes
• In MEMS gyroscopes the rotating mass is replaced with a

vibrating element: the mass moves linearly in simple harmonic
motion.
• Vibrating gyroscopes rely on the phenomenon of the Coriolis
acceleration.
• The resulting Coriolis acceleration can be detected and related
to the angular velocity.

Coriolis acceleration (1)
rotation

v
linear motion
ax
Coriolis acceleration
• The Coriolis acceleration appears, whenever a body moves

linearly in a frame of reference that is rotating about an axis
perpendicular to that of the linear motion.

rotation

aCoriolis  2 v
v
aCoriolis
aCoriolis 
2v
• If the sensor is rotated in the plane perpendicular to the linear

vibration, an acceleration is obtained, proportional to the
angular velocity .

MEMS vibratory gyroscope (1)
[Source: Mems Mechanical Sensors, 2004]
• MEMS gyroscopes rely on a mechanical structure that is

driven into resonance and excites a secondary oscillation, due
to the Coriolis force.

[Source: Mems Mechanical Sensors, 2004]
• Inertial mass (gyro element).

• Two-gimbal (inner and outer gimbals) platform supported by
torsional flexures.
• The external gimbal is driven into oscillatory motion with a

constant amplitude.
• This oscillatory motion is transferred to the inner gimbal,
setting up an oscillating in the gyro element.
• In the presence of an angular rotational rate normal to the

plane of the device, the Coriolis force will cause the inner
gimbal to oscillate about the secondary axis.
• The frequency is equal to the drive frequency and with an
amplitude proportional to the inertial input rate.
• Frequency in the secondary axis is sensed by two pairs of

electrodes making up a (differential capacitor.)

Optical Gyroscopes
• Used extensively for guidance and control.
• No moving components.
• Based on the Sagnac effect: based on propagation of light in
optical fibers.
• There are different types of optical gyros.
• Example: coil fiber gyroscope.

Sagnac effect (1)
• Two beams of light generated by a laser propagate within an

optical ring in opposite directions.
• The two beams are received by the receiver at the same time.

Sagnac effect (2)
• If the optical ring is rotating, the beam travelling against the

rotation experiences a slightly earlier than the other beam.

Sagnac effect (3)
2R  l1
t1  c
v v
n
2R  l2
t2 
v
• t1 time the beam travel in the direction of rotation before being

detected.
• t2 time the beam travel in the direction opposite to rotation
before being detected.
• n is the refraction index.

Sagnac effect (4)
2R  l1
t1 
v
l1  R t1
t1v  Rt1  2R
2R 2R 2R

t1   t2 
v  R  R   R 
v1   v1  
 v   v 

Sagnac effect (5)
4R 2 1 4R 2
t1  t 2  v  R t1  t 2 
 R 
2
v2 v2
1  
 v 
v2 v2
vt1  t 2 
 t v
 t 
4R 2
4R 2
4R 2
v
 l
4R 2
• Angular velocity determined measuring l difference.

Accelerometers (1)
• An accelerometer is a sensor that measures the linear

acceleration experienced by an object.
• Accelerometers employ a moving mass in one form or another.
• Modern accelerometers are often small implemented as

MEMS.

Working principle (1)
• Conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a seismic mass (or proof
mass) connected to a spring of stiffness (k) attached to the housing. .
[Source: Fraden, 2010]
• When the accelerometer is subjected to acceleration a, a relative

displacement x of the seismic mass is produced by inertia.

• Considering the:
– acceleration of the accelerometer body a
d 2x
– horizontal acceleration of the mass dt 2
• The equation of the movement is given by equation

d 2x dx
M 2  b  kx  Ma
dt dt
Damper force Spring force

• Laplace transform
X s  M 02 k b
 0  20 
As 
,
k s 2  20 s  02 M M
b b
  
2 M 0 2 kM

• The accelerometer output signal may have an oscillating

shape.
<1
=1
>1

• Flat frequency response where the most accurate measurement

can be made.
• Care shall be taken not to use the accelerometer close to its
natural frequency.

k
X s  M  2
0 
 0
M
As  k s 2  20 s   02
b b
  
2 M 0 2 kM
• A large mass increases the sensitivity (M/k), but reduces the natural
frequency and the damping ratio.
• Stiffness (k) increases the natural frequency but reduces the
sensitivity and the damping ratio.
• MEMS accelerometers are very stiff and have small mass: they have
a large natural frequency, but small sensitivity and damping ratio.

Types of accelerometers (1)
• Acceleration sensors can be classified according to the

physical principle they use:
– a direct measurement of a force:
(force strain) F
a
m
– an indirect measurement, by means of displacement or
deformation of a sensing element.
(force displacement) kx
a
m

Types of accelerometers (2)
F  ma
F kx
a a
m m
Piezoresistive Capacitive
Thermal
F x
Other:
Piezoelectric Potentiometric,
Optical,
Inductive, hall effect
Piezoelectric accelerometers (1)
• In a piezoelectric accelerometer the seismic mass is directly

connected to the piezoelectric crystal.
• When the accelerometer is subjected to an acceleration, the
mass moves on the crystal and the compression of the crystal
produces a proportional electric signal.

• The mass is enclosed between two piezoelectric crystals.
F
Q V const  coef piezo F a
m
[Source: Halit Eren]
• The measured electric signal (Q) is equal to the force (F)

applied on a crystal, due to the acceleration of the mass,
multiplied for the piezoelectric coefficient.

• Single ended compression accelerometer: the piezoelectric

crystal is sandwiched between the case and the proof mass.
F
a
m

Piezoresistive accelerometer (1)
• In piezoresistive accelerometers the seismic mass is supported

by elastic elements, which incorporates semiconductor strain-
gauge as sensing elements.
• The measured strain is related to the magnitude and rate of
mass displacement and, subsequently, with the acceleration.
F R 1 F
 E  E a
A R G m
• Most piezoresistive accelerometers use two or four active

gauges arranged in a Wheatstone bridge

• Cantilever design: proof-mass suspended by a “spring”, which

in MEMS is usually a cantilever or beam.
[Source: A. Albarbar] [Source: Chang Liu]

• Bulk-micromachined silicon accelerometer: motion perpendicular to
the wafer plane.
[Source: Chang Liu]
[Source: R.P. vanKampe, 1995]
• When the accelerometer is subjected to an acceleration, the mass

moves up and down, causing the piezoresistances to change.

Capacitive accelerometer (1)
[Source: Nathan Ida]

• An internal mass, supported by four silicon springs, is sandwiched
between the upper cap and the base:
– The upper plate and the mass, at distance d1, define a capacitance
C1.
– The base and the mass, at distance d2, define a capacitance C2.
upper plate
d1 C1
d2
C2
base [Source: J. Fraden, 2010]

upper plate
d1  d C1 
d 2  d C2 
base
kx
x  C C
te
a
m

• When the accelerometer is subjected to an acceleration, the mass
moves and the distance d1 and d2 and capacitances C1 and C2
change..
upper plate
d1  d C1 
d 2  d C2 
base
A A
C1    C1  C C2    C 0  C
dx dx
A A
C1  C2  2C   
dx dx
x
C  A 2
d x 2
• For small displacements: x 2  d 2
d2
x  C
A

• ADXL78 (MEMS):
– single-axis accelerometer with signal conditioned voltage
outputs that are on a single monolithic IC.
[Source: Analog devices]

Thermal accelerometers (1)
sealed
chamber Heater
detector 1 detector 2
Substrate [Source: Yu ZHANG]
• Gas is the seismic mass.

• A resistive heating element at the centre heats gas molecules.
• When subjected to acceleration, the less dense (heat) gas molecules
move in the direction of acceleration and denser molecules (cool)
move in the opposite direction, creating a temperature difference.
• Acceleration lead to a forced convection of the gas within sealed
chamber, creating a temperature difference.
sealed
chamber Heater
detector 1 detector 2
Substrate
• Temperature sensors (detector 1 and detector 2) measure the

temperature difference.
• The difference of temperature is proportional to acceleration.

• Under zero acceleration, a temperature distribution across the

gas cavity is symmetrical about the heat source.
acceleration
[Source: MEMSIC]

• MX2125 dual axis accelerometer: a chamber of gas with a

heating element in the center and four temperature sensors
around its edge.
[Source: MEMSIC]

Other types of accelerometers (1)
• Other accelerometers: inductive (LVDT), Hall effect, optical,

etc.

• A rod connected and moving with the mass links to a coil. The
inductance of the coil is proportional to the position of the
mass
• An LVDT may be used

• Acceleration changes distance to hall element

• Hall element output is calibrated as acceleration
• The magnet may be on the hall element side (biased hall
element)

• Optical accelerometers use fiber optics.

Bibliography (1)
• Jacob Fraden, “Handbook of modern sensors: physics, designs, and applications”, Springer,
third edition, 2010
• John M. Cimbala, Linear Velocity Measurement, Penn State University. Available at:
https://www.mne.psu.edu/me345/Lectures/Velocity_measurement.pdf
• Charles P. Pinney, William E. Baker, Velocity Measurement, Measurement, Instrumentation,
and Sensors Handbook, CRC Press, 1999
• Chang Liu, Foundations of MEMS, Prentice Hall, 2012
• Stephen Beeby, Graham Ensell, Michael Kraft and Neil White, Mems Mechanical Sensors,
Artech House, 2004.
• Linear Velocity Transducer Technology, Trans-tek Inc. Available at:
http://www.transtekinc.com/assets/files/Catalog_PDFs_04C/LVTs/LVT_tech04c.pdf
• John M. Cimbala, Linear Velocity Measurement,Penn State University. Available at:
http://www.mne.psu.edu/me345/Lectures/Velocity_measurement.pdf
• Fabien Napolitano, Fiber-Optic Gyroscope key tchnological advanatges, IXSEA, 2010.
Available at: http://www.ixsea.com/pdf/fog-key-advantages.pdf
• Greg Chase, Sagnac Interferometer, Phys 517 Qunatum Mechanics 2. Available at:
http://einstein.drexel.edu/~bob/Term_Reports/Chase_2012.pdf

Bibliography (2)
• Steps to selecting the right accelerometer, Meggitt’s Endevco Corporation.
Available at: https://www.endevco.com/news/newsletters/2012_07/tp327.pdf
• National Instruments, Accelerometer Principles. Available at:
http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/ph/p/id/12
• Craig, Kevin C., Mechatronics in Design: That fictitious force, EDN
Europe, Issue 11, p17, November 2012. Available at:
http://www.edn.com/electronics-blogs/mechatronics-in-
design/4397081/That-fictitious-force

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Sensors & Actuators

Velocity and acceleration

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 1

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 2

• Velocity is a vector that consists of a magnitude (speed) and a

• Many velocity or acceleration sensors contain components that

• However, velocity can also be measured by direct sensors.

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 3

• Linear velocity of solids:

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 4

• Moving a magnet through a coil of wire will induce a DC voltage

• The induced DC voltage is proportional to the magnet's

B - component of the flux density normal to the velocity

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 6

• Working range: detection of velocity along a distance limited by the

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 7

• The core slides inside a hollow cylindrical tube.

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 8

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 9

 – wavelength of RF incident waves in a moving object.

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 10

• Velocity measured following tiny particles that move with the

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 11

• A double-pulse laser illuminates a region of flow under study,

• Illuminated particles appear as bright spots on the photographs

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 12

• With a double pulse two bright spots appear on the

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 13

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 14

• Beams pass through a converging lens that focuses the

• At the convergence point, the waves interfere, creating a

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 16

• Bright and dark fringe pattern :

• Tiny particles that pass through the measurement volume

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 17

• The scattered laser light is collected by a receiving lens

• The spacing between fringe lines

• The speed of the moving particle is linearly

• The Bragg cell permits to shift slightly the beam frequency,

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 20

• The rate of convective heat transfer from a hot object to the

• Thermal anemometers consist of a heated (by electric current)

• The sensor tends to cool down as fluid velocity increases, but

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 21

• E is the voltage across the sensor.

• Speed can measured by E

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 22

• Velocity measurement based on pressure measurement.

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 23

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 24

• Angular velocity sensors to measure shaft speed are many

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 25

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 26

[Source: J. Fraden, 2010]

input axis output axis

• A rotor (heavy disk/wheel).

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 27

[Source: J. Fraden, 2010]

input axis output axis

• When the rotor freely rotates, it tends to preserve its axial

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 28

[Source: J. Fraden, 2010] output torque

• If a torque is applied to the frame around one axis (input), the