8 APPLICATIONS OF 1ST ORDER DIFFENTIAL

E QUATIONS
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8.1 INTRODUCTION
Use of differential equations is of great importance in engineering and science because many
physical laws and relations appear mathematically in the form of differential equations.
Among applications of first order differential equations, linear differential equations are
used very frequently in solving problems related to electrical circuits, radio active decays, carbon
dating, population dynamics, mixture problems, Newton cooling etc.
To begin with, let us consider basic physical and geometrical applications that illustrates
the typical steps of modeling i.e. the steps which lead to form the physical situation or real
life problem to a Mathematical formulation and situation, and its interpretation.

8.2 GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS (CURVES)

(a) Cartesian Coordinates: Let the tangent and the normal at any point P(x, y) on the
curve f(x, y) = 0 meet the X-axis at T and N respectively. PM is the perpendicular to
X-axis (Fig. 8.1), then
Slope of the tangent at P(x, y) Y B

dy f(x, y) = 0
= tan ψ = = y1
dx P(x, y)
A s
(i) Equation of the tangent at P is ψ

dy
No

Y−y = (X − x)
t
en

...(1) y
rm
ng

dx
al
Ta

So that, the X intercept of the tangent, ψ Subtang Subnormal

O
T M N X
dx
OT = x − y (putting Y = 0 in (1)) .. (2)
dy T´
Fig. 8.1
the Y intercept of the tangent,
dy
OT ′ = y − x (putting X = 0 in(1)) ...(3)
dx

543
544 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

(ii) Equation of the normal at P is

dx
Y−y =− (X − x) ...(4)
dy
2
 
So that, the length of the tangent, PT = y cos ec ψ = y 1 +  dx 
 dy 
2
 dy 
the length of the normal, PN = y sec ψ = y 1 +  
 dx 
dx
the length of the sub-tangent, TM = y cot ψ = y
dy
dy
the length of the sub-normal, MN = y tan ψ = y
dx
2
ds
2
 dy  ds  dx 
the derivative of the arc length, = 1 +   , = 1+ 
dx dx dy  dy 
(b) Polar Coordinates: Let P(r, θ) be any point on the curve, r = f(θ), then
(i) ψ = θ + φ
dθ X
(ii) tan φ = r , p = r sinφ

)
,θ
dr

P( r
(iii) Polar sub-tangent, OT = r2 dθ φ
ψ
dr al
m S
or
(iv) Polar sub-normal, ON = dr N r Y
θ A
dθ

Ta
n
ge
p
φ

n
(v) Perpendicular from the pole on the tangent,

t
Subnormal Subtangent
2 N T
= 2 + 4  
1 1 1 dr O

p2
r r  dθ  Fig. 8.2

(vi) Derivative of the arc length,

2 2
dθ
= 1 +  r  , = r2 +  
ds ds dr
dr  dr  dθ  dθ 

Example 1: Find the curve whose sub-tangent is twice the abscissa of the point of contact
and pass through the point (1, 2).

dx dy dx
Solution: Given y = 2x implying = 2
dy y x
On integration, 2 logy = logx + logc or y2 = cx ...(1)
Now the curve pass through (1, 2) implying c = 4 ... (2)
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 545

Hence the required curves, y2 = 4x

Example 2: Show that the curve in which the portion of the tangent included between
coordinate axes, bisected at the point of contact is a rectangular hyperbola.

Solution: Let the tangent at some general point P(x, y) cut the axis at T and T' (Fig. 8.3).

Its X intercepts, OT = x − y dx and Y intercept OT ′ = y − x dy ;

dy dx

 dx   dy 
then the coordinate of T and T’ are  x − y , 0 ,  0, y − x  respectively.
 dy   dx 
Y
As P is the middle point of TT’, therefore,
 dx  T´
 x − y dy  + 0 dx
= x or x − y dy = 2x P(x, y)
2
Implying xdy + ydx = 0 i.e. d(xy) = 0
On integration, xy = c is the required equation of O T X
rectangular hyperbola. Fig. 8.3

Example 3: Find the curve whose tangent cut off intercept on coordinate axes, the sum of
which is 'a'.

Solution: See fig.8.3, the X intercept, OT = x − y dx ,

dy

the Y intercept, OT ′ = y − x dy ,
dx
dx dy y dy
Given that (x − y ) + (y − x ) = a or x− + y − xp = a , where p =
dy dx p dx

(p − 1) p
y = (p − 1)x + a implying, y = px + a
p p−1
ac
Which is a Clairaut’s equation. Hence its solution is y = cx + .
c−1
Example 4: Find the curve for which the polar sub-tangent is equal to the polar sub-
normal.

Solution: Given condition, r2 dθ = dr ⇒ r=

dr
dr dθ θ dθ
On integration, log r = θ + log c i.e. r = ce

Example 5: Obtain the curve for which the normal makes equal angle with the radius
vector and the initial line.
546 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

Solution: Let PT and PN be the tangent and the normal at some general point P(r, θ) of the
dθ
curve (fig.8.4), so that tan φ = r .
dr
But by the given conditions, ∠ONP = ∠OPN = (90 – φ)
∴ θ = ∠PON = (180 – (∠ONP + ∠OPN))° , θ)
P(r
= (180 – (180 – 2φ))º = 2φ
θ T φ
or = φ there by implying
2
r
θ
cos
θ dθ dr
= 2 dθ
tan = tan φ = r or
θ θ
2 dr r sin θ=0
2 O
N
X

On integration, log r = 2 log sin θ + log c Fig. 8.4

2
θ 1
r = c sin2 = c (1 − cos θ) , the required equation of the cardioid.
2 2
Example 6: Determine the curve for which angle between tangent and the radius vector is
twice the vectorial angle.
Solution: See the general fig. 8.2, given φ = 2θ
dθ dθ
Further, tan φ = r implying tan 2θ = r
dr dr

sin 2θ dθ dr 1  cos 2θ 
Rewrite as =r or = 2  dθ
cos 2θ dr r 2  sin 2θ 
On integration, 2 log r = log sin 2θ + log c or r2 = a2 sin 2θ, c = a2

Example 7: Obtain the equation of the curve for which the angle between the radius
vector and the tangent is the supplement of half the vectorial angle.
θ
Solution: See fig. 8.2, as a particular case when the given condition is φ = π −
2
θ θ
implying, tan φ = tan  π −  = − tan
 2 2

θ
dθ θ cos
= − tan dr 2 dθ
r or − =
dr 2 r θ
sin
2
θ
On integration, log c − log r = 2 log sin
2
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 547

c θ 2c
= sin2 i.e. = (1 − cos θ) , which is a parabola
r 2 r
Example 8: Find the equation of the curve in which perpendicular from the pole upon
the tangent at any point is λ times the radius vector of the point.

Solution: Let P(r, θ) be any general point on the curve r = f(θ), then by the given
condition, p = rλ ...(1)
Where p is the perpendicular distance of the tangent at P(r, θ) from the pole.
2
1 1 1  dr 
From the pedal equation, 2 = 2 + 4   ...(2)
p r r dθ
2 2
 dr  − r2 =  
1 1 1 r2 dr
Implying = 2 + 4   or
r λ
2 2
r r dθ λ2  dθ 
2
r2 (1 − λ2 )  dr  dr 1 − λ2
=  or = dθ
λ2  dθ  r λ
1−λ2
1 − λ2 θ
On integration, log r = θ + log c or r = ce λ
λ
Observation: This curve represents an equiangular spiral for λ = sin α.

Miscellaneous Problem

Example 9: Elaborate the shape of a reflector such that light coming from a fixed source is
in parallel rays.
Solution: Let the origin be the fixed source of light and the reflected rays; so that X- axis
parallel to the reflector will be a surface generated by revolution of the curve f(x, y) = 0
about X-axis (Fig. 8.5).
From geometry, if TPT’ is the tangent at P(x, y), then the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection viz.
φ = ∠OPT = ∠P'PT’ = ∠OTP = ψ Y T´
dy ψ
Further, = tan ∠XOP = tan 2φ, P´
dx P(x, y)
φ
(as external ∠XOP = φ + ψ = 2φ)
ψ
y 2 tan φ 2p T
O
X
= =
x 1 − tan 2φ 1 − p2

y
or 2x = − yp ,
p
Fig. 8.5
which is solvable for x(y) ...(1)

2 1 y dp dp
On differentiating above equation with respect to y, = − 2 −p−y
p p p dy dy
548 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

1  11  dp 1  y dp 
 p + p + p  p + p y dy = 0
or  p + p  1 + p dy  = 0
      
dp dy c
From above, =− or log p = log c – log y or p = ... (2)
p y y
Elimination of p from (1) and (2) results in, y2 = 2cx + c2. This shows that reflector is a
member of the family of paraboloids z2 + y2 = 2cx + c2

ASSIGNMENT 1
1. Determine the curve in which the length of the sub-normal is proportional to the
square of the ordinate.
2. Find the curve which pass through the origin and is such that the area included between
the curve, the ordinate and the x-axis is twice the cube of the ordinate.
3. A curve is such that the length of the perpendicular from the origin on the tangent at
any point P of the curve is equal to the abscissa of P. Prove that the differential equation
dy
of the curve is y2 − 2xy − x2 = 0 , and hence find the curve.
dx
4. A plane curve has the property that the tangents from any point on the y-axis to the
curve are of constant length ‘a’. Find the differential equation of the family to which
the curve belongs and hence obtain the curve.
5. Find the curve whose
(i) Polar sub-tangent is constant.
(ii) Polar sub-normal is proportional to the sine of the vectorial angle.
6. Find the curve for which the tangent at any point P on it, bisects the angle between the
ordinate at P and the line joining P to the origin.
7. Find the curve for which the tangent, the radius vector and the perpendicular from
the origin on the tangent form a triangle of area kr2.
8. Find the curve in which the length of the arc measured from a fixed point A to any
point P is proportional to the square the abscissa of P.

8.3 ORTHOGONAL AND ISOGONAL TRAJECTORIES

Definitions

(a) Family of curves: The equation F(x, y, c) = 0, where c a parameter is called a family of
curves as for different values of c, we get different curves having the same property.
(b) Trajectory: Trajectory of a family of curves is the curve which intersects every member
of the other family according to a certain rule.
Orthogonal Trajectory: An orthogonal trajectory of a family of curves is the curve which
meets each member of the other family at right-angles (fig.8.6)
In other words, two families of curves are called orthogonal trajectories of each other if every member
of either family intersects each member of the other family at right-angles.
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 549

Y
Y

X
O X
O
Fig. 8.6 (a) Fig. 8.6 (b)

Note: When each member of a family cuts every other member of the same family orthogonally, then the
given system is self orthogonal.

Orthogonal trajectories are of immense importance in the study of certain practical problems
related to plane vector fields such as electric, magnetic, fluid flow and heat-flow fields. For
example, it is observed that the lines of equal potential, due to distribution of steady current
flowing in a homogenous medium, intersects the lines of current flow at right angles. Again
in the steady of fluid flow, the lines of flow (stream lines) are perpendicular to the lines of
constant velocity potential (equipotential lines or contour lines). Thus, with the application of
orthogonal trajectories, the lines of level can be obtained from the lines of flow or vice-
versa. Likewise, the lines of heat flow for a body are perpendicular to the isothermal curves
or loci of points at the same temperature.
Isogonal Trajectories (Oblique Trajectories): Lines intersecting all the curves of the given
family at a constant angle are called isogonal trajectories. In other words, oblique trajectories
of a family of curves are the curves which cut every member of the given family at certain
angle other than 90°.
dy
If = m = tan φ is the slope of the tangent to a member of the given family, then the
dx
tan φ − tan α
slope m' = tanψ of the trajectory is given by m′ = tan ψ = tan (φ − α) = or m and
1 + tan φ tan α
m' are related by the relation 
m − m′ 
= tan α = constant
 1 + mm′ 
Remarks: For trajectories, only those curves which have continuously turning tangent lines are considered. In
the neighbourhood of any point on such a curve, the curve can either be represented by y = f(x) or x = φ(y)
where f(x) and φ(y) are functions with continuous derivatives. For this purpose, a portion of the curves lying in
a particular region A : a ≤ x ≤ b, α ≤ y ≤ β is considered.
Working Rule: Finding Orthogonal Trajectories of the Family of Curves f (x, y, c) = 0
 dy 
(i) Form the differential equation of the family by eliminating c and let it be φ  x, y,  = 0
 dx 
dy dx
(ii) In this differential equation, replace by − so that the differential equation of
dx dy
 dx 
the desired family is φ  x, y, −  = 0
 dy 
(iii) Solve this differential equation to find the family of orthogonal trajectories.
550 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

Working Rule: Finding Oblique (Isogonal) Trajectories of the Family of Curves f(x, y, c) = 0.
 dy 
Form the differential equation of the family by eliminating c and let it be φ  x, y,  = 0
 dx 
dy
+ tan α
dy
Replace, in this differential equation by dx so that the differential equation
dx dy
1− tan α
dx

 dy
+ tan α 

of the desired family is φ  x, y, dx =0
dy
 1− tan α 
 dx 
Integrate the above differential equation to get required equation of oblique or isogonal
trajectories.
Working Rule: For Finding the Orthogonal Trajectories of the Polar Curve f(r, θ, c) = 0

 dr 
(i) By eliminating c form the differential equation of the given family as φ  r, θ, =0
 dθ 
dr dθ
(ii) Replace in this differential equation, by − r2 so that the differential equation of
dθ dr
 dθ 
the desired family is φ  r, θ, − r2 =0
 dr 

Fig. 8.7

dθ
As for any pt. P(r, θ) on the given system of curve (see Fig. 8.7), tan φ = r , where as in the orthogonal system,
dr

( )
tan φ2 = tan φ1 + 90° = − cot φ = −
1
dθ
=−
1 dr
r dθ
Thus, for getting the differential equation of the orthogonal
r
dr
dθ 1 dr dr dθ
system, r is to be replaced by − or is to be replaced by −r2
dr r dθ dθ dr
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 551

(iii) Solve the above differential equation to obtain the equation of orthogonal trajectories.

Example 10: Electricity steams across a flat plate are following the curves of the family of
parabolas y = ax2. Of what nature are the equipotential lines?
[NIT Kurukshetra, 2006; JNTU, 2006, 03; KUK, 2003-2009]
Or
Find the orthogonal trajectories of the system of parabolas y = ax2.
Solution: The given equation is y = ax2 … (1)
On differentiating it with respect to x, we get
dy 1 dy
= 2ax or a = … (2)
dx 2x dx
Substituting this value of the parameter ‘a’ in equation (1), we get
 1 dy  2 dy 2y
y=  x or = … (3)
 2x dx  dx x
which is the differential equation of the given family of system.
dy dx
Now, for finding the differential equation of the orthogonal system, replace by −
dx dy
in (3).
Y
dx 2y
∴ − = or xdx + 2ydy = 0
dy x
… (4)
On integrating (4), we have X
O
x2 y2 x2 y2
+ = c2 or + =1
2 1 ( 2c )
2
c2

This equation is the desired family of curves representing a Fig. 8.8

system of ellipses
Thus, the equipotential lines (the lines of level) of the given parabola are the family of ellipses with
centres at the origin, semi-major axis 2c along the x-axis, semi-minor axis c along y-axis and the
1
eccentricity , as shown in figure.
2
Note: The graph of the given family, above the initial axis is for positive values of ‘a’, where as below initial axis
is for negative values of a.

λy + c = 2, λ being
Example 11: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family x2 + y2 + 2λ
the parameter. [KUK, 2002]

Solution: Differentiating the curve

x2 + y2 + 2λy + c – 2 = 0 …(1)
552 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

dy
we get, 2x + 2yy1 + 2λy1 = 0, y1 =
dx
( x + yy1 )
i.e., λ=− …(2)
y1
Substituting the value of λ in equation (1), we get
− ( x + yy1 )
x2 + y2 + 2 y+c−2=0 …(3)
y1
1
Changing y1 to − in (3), we get
y1

 y 
x2 + y2 + 2 y1  x −  y + k = 0
 y1 

x2 + y2 + 2xyy1 – 2y2 + k = 0
dy 2 xydy − y2 dx
( x2 + k ) + 2 xy − y2 = 0 or ( x2 + k ) + =0
dx dx

 1 + k  dx + d  y  = 0
2
( x2 + k ) 2 xydy − y2 dx
dx + =0 or    
x2 x2  x2   x 
On integrating both sides, we get

x − k  + y  = K
2
   
 x  x 

which is the desired orthogonal family.

x2 y2
Example 12: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the confocal conics + = 1, λ
a2 + λ b2 + λ
being the parameter. [KUK, 2006; NIT Kurukshetra, 2010]
2
x2 y
Solution: The given family is + 2 = 1. …(1)
a +λ b +λ
2

2x 2 yy
Differentiating (1) with respect to x, + 2 1 =0
a +λ b +λ 2

x(b2 + λ) + yy1(a2 + λ) = 0
( b2 x + a2 yy1 )
λ(x + yy1) = –(b2x + a2yy1) ⇒ λ=− …(2)
( x + yy1 )

( b2 x + a2 yy1 ) ( a2 − b2 ) x
Now, ( a2 + λ ) = a2 − = …(3)
( x + yy1 ) ( x + yy1 )
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 553

( a2 − b2 ) yy1
SImilarly ( b2 + λ ) = − …(4)
( x + yy1 )
On using results (3) and (4) in (1), we get
x ( x + yy1 ) y ( x + yy1 )
+ =1
(a − b )
2 2
− ( a2 − b2 ) y1
( x + yy1 )  y
i.e. 2 
x−  =1 …(5)
(a − b ) 
2
y1 
Equation (5) is the differential equation of the given family.
1
In order to find the differential equation of the desired family, replace y1 by − in (5)
y1
 y 
x − 
 y1 
i.e.
( a − b2 )
2
[x + yy1 ] = 1 …(6)

Clearly equations (5) and (6) are the same. Hence the given system is self orthogonal.

Example 13: The electric lines of force of two opposite charges of the same strength at
(± 1, 0) are circles (through these points) of the form x2 + y2 – ay = 1. Find their equipotential
lines.

Solution: On differentiating the given family x2 + y2 – ay = 1 …(1)

dy dy
2x + 2y −a =0 …(2)
dx dx
On eliminating ‘a’ from (2), we get
dy (1 − x2 − y2 ) dy
2x + + =0 …(3)
dx y dx
Which is the differential equation of the given family.
dy dx in (3), we obtain
Replace by −
dx dy

dx ( x + y − 1) dx
2 2
2x − 2y + =0
dy y dy
dx ( x + y − 1) dx
2 2
i.e., 2x − 2y + =0
dy y dy
i.e. 2xy dy + (x2 – y2 –1)dx = 0 …(4)
which is comparable to M dx + Ndy = 0, where M = x2 – y2 – 1, N = 2xy
My − Nx −2 y − 2 y 2
Here, we see that = =− = f (x )
N 2 xy x
554 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

2
1 ∫ − dx
∴ I.F. = e∫ f (x)dx = e x =
x2
Now multiplying throughout by I.F. to equation (4), we get
 y2 1  y
 1 − 2 − 2  dx + 2 dy = 0
 x x  x

 y2 1  y2
∫
1
Hence is solutions is  1 − 2 − 2  dx = c i.e. x+ + =c
 x x  x x
( x − c )2  c2 
x2 + y2 + cx + 1 = 0 or − ( y − 0)2 =  1 +  …(5)
2  4
Hence, equation (5) represents the desired family of circles orthogonal to the given family.

Observations: The equation of the given family may be written like

( )
2
a a2
( x − 0 )2 + y − =1+ …5(a)
2 4

i.e. a family of circle with centre 0 ,

2
( )a
and radius 1+
a2
4
With x = ± 1, equation 5(a) becomes, y2 – ay – 1 = 0
For a = 0, y = ±1. r = 1.
5
For a = 1, y = 1.615, –0.615, r=
2
For a = 2, y = 2.414, –0.414, r = 2 and so on.
Thus, we see that for various value of ‘a’ the circles through
(x = ±1), get their centre shifted with an increases in value of Fig. 8.9
radius r.

Orthogonal trajectories of polar curves

θ).
Examples 14: Find the family orhtogonal to family F1 of cardiods r = a(1 + cosθ
[NIT Jalandhar, 2004; JNTU, 2006; KUK, 2008]

Solution: Given curve is r = a(1 + cosθ) …(1)

Differentiating it, dr + a sinθ dθ = 0 …(2)
On eliminating the parameter 'a' we get,
r sin θ −1 dr sin θ
dr + dθ = 0 or = …(3)
1 + cos θ r dθ 1 + cos θ
This is the differential equation of the direction field D1 for the given family F1.
dr
To find the differential equation of the direction field orthological to D1, we replace
dθ

by − r2 dθ as evident from the geometry.

dr
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 555

Where φ2 and Ψ2 are the angles for the orthogonal trajectory corresponding to the angles φ1
and Ψ1 for the given family (Fig. 8.7).
π π
Clearly, φ2 =  φ1 ±  , whence tan φ2 = tan  φ1 ±  = − cot φ1
 2  2

 r dθ  = −  1 dr 
   
dr  2 r dθ 1
Whence from (3), the differential equation for the orthogonal trajectories becomes

dθ sin θ θ
r = = tan …(4)
dr 1 + cos θ 2
which is a case of variable-separable, and on integration gives
θ
log r = 2 log sin + log 2c
2
This is the equation of the orthogonal family F2.
Since r = c(1 – cosθ) represents the same curve as r = c(1 + cosθ), the member of F2 with
label c is the same as the member of F1 with label a = –c. Thus the given family is self-
orthogonal.

F2 for c > 0 F1 for a > 0

Fig. 8.10
Remarks: Family F1 of this example is not a one-parameter family in any rectangle. However, if we restrict the
parameter ‘a’ to only positive value, then F1 is a one parameter family in any rectangle R not enclosing points
with θ = π. The parameter values c in F2 are then also restricted to positive values, and F2 is a one-parameter
family in any rectangle R not enclosing points with θ = 0.

Example15: Find the orthogonal trajectory of the family of curve  r + k  cos θ = α,

2

 r 
α being the parameter. [NIT Kurukshetra, 2002, 2006]

 k2 
Solution: r = f(θ), is the given curve  r +  cos θ = α, … (1)
 r
556 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

Differentiating with respect to θ, we get

 dr k2 dr   k2 
 − 2  cos θ −  r +  sin θ = 0 … (2)
dθ r dθ r
In order to have the differential equation of the desired family of curves, change
dr dθ
to − r2 in equations (2)
dθ dr

(−r2 + k2 ) ddrθ cos θ −  r + kr  sin θ = 0

2

 k2 
 r + 
r
cot θ dθ = dr ... (3)
( − r 2
+ k2 )

which may be re-written as

1 (k + r ) 1 2r 
2 2
cos θ
cot θ dθ = dr or dθ =  + 2 2 
dr … (4)
r ( k2 − r 2 ) sin θ  r ( k − r ) 
(variable separable form)
Integrating both sides w.r.t. θ, we get
2r
log sin θ = log r + ∫ dr … (5)
k2 − r 2
Put k2 – r2 = z ⇒ 2rdr = – dz

1
∴ log sin θ = log r + ∫ − dz + logc
z

rc rc
⇒ log sin θ = log sin θ =
(k2 − r2 )
or …(6)
z
which is the desired system of family of curves.

θ.
Example 16: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the curves r2 = a2cos2θ [VTU, 2003]
2 2
Solution: Given r = a cos 2θ … (1)
θ = 45
On differentiating (1), we have
r 2 = c2sin2θ
dr
r = − a2 sin 2θ … (2)
dθ θ=π θ=0
Eliminate 'a' from (2), using (1) r 2 = a 2cos2θ
dr
r = − r2 tan 2θ
dθ
Fig. 8.11
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 557

dr
i.e. = −r tan 2θ … (3)
dθ
which is the differential equation of the given family.
dr dθ
To obtain the differential of the trajectories, replace by − r2 in equation (3).
dθ dr
dθ dr
i.e. −r2 = −r tan 2θ or cot 2θ dθ = … (4)
dr r
Integration of (4), gives the equation of the desired system.
log sin 2θ
∴ + log c = log r i.e. c2 sin2θ = r2 … (5)
2

Problems on Isogonal Trajectories

Example 17: Find the isogonal trajectories to a family of straight lines y = cx that cut the
lines of the given family at an angle α, the tangent of which equals k.

Solution: The equation of the family is y = cx … (1)

dy dy y
⇒ = c or = [using(1)] … (2)
dx dx x
which is the differential equation of the given family.
In order to obtain the differential equation of the desired family,
dy
dy + tan α Y
replace by dx in (2),
dx dy
1− tan α
dx

y X
dy + tan α
= x
we get, dx 1 − y tan α … (3)
x

y
dy +k Fig. 8.12
= x
or dx 1 − y k
x
It is a homogenous equation, take y = vx

dv k (1 + v )
2
 x dv + v  = v + k =
  or x
 dx  1 − vk dx (1 − kv )

(1 − kv) dv = dx
⇒ k (1 + v2 ) x
558 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

Integrating both sides, we get

1 1 1 2v dx
∫ dv − ∫ dv = ∫ +a
k 1+ v2
2 1+ v2
x

tan−1 v − log (1 + v2 ) = log x + log a

1 1
k 2
1
1 y  x2 + y2  2  y
tan−1 − log  = log x + log a  putting v = 
k x  x2  x
1 y
⇒ arc tan = log a x2 + y2 …(4)
k x

which is the desired family of curves.

In order to precisely define what curve equation (4) represents, we change it to polar
y dy
coordinates. We take = = tan φ, x2 + y2 = r, equation (4) reduces to
x dx
1 φ
log r = φ + log C or r = Ce k ... (5)
k
Whence, the family of isogonal trajectories of y = cx is the family of logarithmic spiral.

Example 18: Find the isogonal trajectories of the family of circles x2 + y2 = a2 which
intersects at 45°.
OR
Determine the 45° trajectories of the family of concentric circles x2 + y2 = a2

Solution: The given equation of the family is x2 + y2 = a2 … (1)

dy
Differentiating it, we get x + y =0 ... (2)
dx
which, being free from the parameter ‘a’ is the differential equation of the given family.
dy
In order to determine the differential equation of the desired family, replace by
dx
dy
+ tan 450
dx
dy in equation (2),
1− tan 450
dx
 dy 
 dx + 1  dy x + y
x + y = 0 or =
dy 
i.e.
1 −  dx x − y … (3)
 dx 
Equation (3) is a homogeneous differential equation of 1st order 1st degree.
dy dv
Put y = vx so that =v+x … (4)
dx dx
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 559

dv x + vx
Therefore, equation (3) becomes v+x =
dx x − vx
dv 1 + v2 1−v 
or 
dx
= dv =
 1 + v2 
i.e. x (case of variable separable)
dx 1 − v x
1 1 2v 1
On integration, we get ∫ dv − ∫ dv = ∫ dx
1 + v2 2 1 + v2 x

log (1 + v2 ) = log x + log C

1
⇒ tan−1 v − or tan−1 v = log Cx. (1 + v2 )
2

i.e. tan−1
y
x
(
= log C x2 + y2 )
ASSIGNMENT 2
1. Prove that the system of Confocal and Co-axial Parabolas y 2 = 4a(x + a) is self
orthogonal.
2. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the series of hyperbolas xy = k2 (or xy = c)
2 2 2
3. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the series of hypocycloids, x 3 +y 3 =a 3

x2 y2
4. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of confocal conics + = 1,
a2 b2 + λ
where λ is the parameter. [KUK, 2003-04, 06]
5. Find the family of curves orthogonal to the family of circles
Y
c 
x2 + y2 – cx = 0, centre  , 0 and y = 0 for x = 0 (fig. 8.13).
2
6. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the cardiod r = a (1 – cosθ).
[KUK, 2005; NIT, Jalandhar, 2005]
X
7. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves
rn = an sin nθ [KUK, 2001]
8. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of confocal
2a
and co-axial parabolas r = [Osmania, 2003]
1 + cos θ Fig. 8.13

aθ
9. Find the orthogonal trajectories of (i) = r (ii) rn sin nθ = an
1+ θ

8.4 SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

The formulation of differential equations in an electric circuit is governed by Kirchhoff’s
laws which are being of immense importance.
FIRST LAW: The algebraic sum of the voltage drop in a closed circuit is equal to the resultant
electromotive force in the circuit.
560 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

SECOND LAW: Algebraic sum of the currents flowing into any node is zero, if q(t) be the
charge at a time t on a condenser in a circuit containing a resistance R, an inductance L and
capacitance C in series, a known e.m.f. (electromotive force) E(t) is impressed across the
circuit. The magnitude of q, E, L, R, C are taken in some physically consistent set of units, let
these units be as Coulombs, Volts, Henrys, Ohms and Farads respectively. Then in different
acquisition of the above mentioned physical invariants, we generally, come across known
fundamental sets of equations. A simple Electric circuit is called L-R circuit, viz.
di di R E
Ri + L = E or + i=
dt dt L L
Then comes LC and LCR circuits, which are discussed under oscillatory electric circuits in
successeding sections.

Example 19: Find the current in the simple circuit with C = ∞ (condenser absent) and
Et = E0 sin wt (if initially there is no current in the circuit) [KUK, 2010]

Solution: By Kirchhoff’s First Law, we know that the governing equation of the current
flow in an L-R circuit:
di di R E
L + Ri = E or + i = 0 sin wt, when E = E0sin wt …(1)
dt dt L L
R R
This is a Leibnitz’s linear equation with integrating factor, I.F. = e∫ L = e L
dt t

R
E0 RL t
∫
t
Whence solution, i(t) e L = e sin wt dt + C
L L

R sin wt − wL cos wt
R R
t
= E0 e L +C
( R2 + w2L2 ) E

i ( t ) = E0
( R sin wt − wL cos wt ) + Ce− RL t Fig. 8.14
…(2)
or
(R2
+wL 2 2
)
E0 wL
when t = 0, i = i0 implying i0 = − +C
(R + w2L2 )
2 …(3)

(R sin wt − wL cos wt) +  i E0 wL  − RL t

and thus, i ( t ) = E0 0+ 2
( R + w2 L2 )
e
(R2 + w2L2 )  …(4)

Equation (4) can be put in a more useful form as follows:

wL
Let φ be that acute angle for which tan φ =
R , … (5)

R wL
then cos φ = and sin φ = … (6)
R + w2 L2
2 R + w2L2
2

And (4) may be written as:

 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 561

E0  E0 wL  − RL t
i (t ) = sin ( wt − φ ) + 

i + e … (7)
R2 + w2 L2 
0
R2 + w2 L2
which gives the current at any time t.
Observations: We see that the current is a sum of two terms:
i(t)

sin ( wt − φ)
E0
iS ( t ) = Exponential term In i (t)
R2 + w2L2 
R 
 E WL  − … (8)
iT (t ) =  i0 + 2 0 2 2  e L 
t
 R +w L   4π
2π
In (7), as t increases indefinitely, the exponential term will π 3π 5π ωt
approach zero and after some time the current i(t) will execute
nearly harmonic oscillations only (see Fig. 8.15). Fig. 8.15
Thus, it is clear that after sufficiently long span of
time, the second term is very small and negligible in comparison with the first term. We call
iS the steady-state and iT the transient current.
E wL E0
If i0 = − 2 0 2 2 = sin ( −φ) = iS (0 ) … (9)
R +wL R + w2 L2
2

i.e. i0 is simply iS(t) at t = 0, then there is no transient current. Thus, the transient is due to the
fact that the initial value that we have assumed for the total current does not agree with
steady-state value. We can see from (8), that there is no transient current, if L = 0, which
corresponds to idealized condition in which the circuit is inertia-less and can jump from the
arbitrary initial value i0 to its steady-state value iS(0). This reflects the fact that if L = 0, then
(1) is not a differential equation and assigning an initial value to it is meaningless.
The steady-state current is a pure harmonic oscillation of the same circular frequency ω
(no. of oscillations per 2π seconds) as the electromotive force (e.m.f). Its ‘amplitude’ is
E0 E0
2 2 , whereas it would be if no inductance were
R +wL
2
R
E
present. Thus, the inductance L adds an effective resistance
to the (ohm) resistance R and this resistance depends on the
frequency ω. The total resistance R2 + w2L2 is called the
E0
‘impedance’. The steady-state current and voltage are out of
phase by the phase angle, φ. The e.m.f. has its maximum
π 3π 5π
‘amplitude’ at t =
t0 t
, , ,.... whereas the current has
2w 2w 2w
maxima at Fig. 8.16

π 3π 5π
(wt − φ) = , , , − − −, i.e. when t =  π + φ / w,  3π + φ / w, …
2w 2w 2w 2   2 
φ
In other words the current lags behind the voltage by a time .
w
The simplest and most important e.m.f. is a simple sine wave, in many circuit problems it
is necessary to consider more general e.m.f.’s and even discontinuous one. One of the types,
562 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

for example, could be generated by connecting a battery in the circuit and closing or opening
the switch. If the battery has a constant e.m.f. of E0 and the switch is closed at time t = t0
after the initial time t = 0, then the graph of E appears as shown.

Example 20: The equation of an electromotive force in terms of current i for an electric

circuit having resistance R and a condenser of capacity C in series is E = Ri + ∫ i dt . Find

C
the current at any time t, when E = E0 sin wt.
[NIT Kurukshetra, 2007; PTU, 2006; KUK, 2002, 2003-04]

Solution: The given equation can be written as

i
Ri + ∫ dt = E0 sin wt (³ E = E0 sinwt) … (1)
C
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) w.r. to t,
di i di i wE0
R + = E0 w cos wt or + = cos wt, …(2)
dt C dt RC R
1 t
∫ dt
The equation (2) is Leibnitz’s form, I.F. = e RC = e RC
Therefore, the solution of the equation (2) is
t t
wE0 RC
i(t) e RC = ∫ e cos wt dt.
R
t

=
wE0 e RC  1 cos 
 wt + w sin wt + k , k is constant of integration
R 1 
2 2
+ w2 RC
RC
t
( )
E0 wC −
or i= cos wt + RCw sin wt + k e RC , is required current.
1 + R2C2w2
Note: If conditions are given, k can be evaluated.

Example 21: In a circuit containing resistance R and inductance L, the voltage E and the
current i are connected by the equation E = Ri + L  di  . Given that L = 640, R = 250,
 dt 
E = 500 and i = 0 when t = 0. Find the time that elapse, before it reaches 90 percent of its
maximum value.

di R E
Solution: The given equation can be written as + i= ... (1)
dt L L
R Rt
∫ L dt
It is Leibnitz’s linear equation with I.F. = e =e L

Rt R t Rt
L = E E L
∴ ie ∫ e L dt +A= e +A (A is an arbitrary constant) ... (2)
L R
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 563

Initially, when t = 0, i = 0
E E
From (2), 0 = A + or A= −
R R

E L  E − 
Rt Rt Rt
∴ i. e L =  e − 1 or i=  1 − e L

R  R 
Rt
− E
As t → 0, e L → 0 and i →
which is the maximum value of i(t).
R
If t1 is the time required to reach 90% of maximum value,
− R t1
9 E E  −
R t1
1
then = 1 − e L  or e L = ;
10 R R   10

R t1
Rt1
e L = 10 or = loge 10
L

Implying t1 = L loge 10 = 64 loge 10

R 25
Example 22: Discuss the growth of current of zero initial value in a single circuit containing
a resistance R, an inductance L and an electrostatic force E sinwt and no capacitor. In the
above equation, show that if i = 0 at time t = 0, then
 −R t 
i(t) =
E
 sin ( wt − φ ) + e L sin φ
 , where tan φ = Lw [KUK, 2004-05]
R2 + w2L2   R
Solution: Since there is no capacitor in the circuit, the governing equation is
di di R E
L+ Ri = E sin wt i.e. + i = sin wt
dt dt L L
On solving the above linear differential equation, we have
Rt Rt
E
i(t) e L = ∫e L sin wt dt + k
L
  b  
eax sin bx − tan−1   
1
 on using ∫ e sin bx dx =
ax

 a +b
2 2
  a  
Rt
E e L
= sin ( wt − φ ) + k ,
L R2
+ w2
L2

where tan φ = Lw and k is an arbitrary constant.

R
Initially when t = 0, i = 0
564 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

sin ( −φ) = k +
E 1 E
0=k+ sin(−φ)
∴ L R2 R2 + w2 L2
+w2
L2
Eliminating k and simplifying, we get the required answer.

2π
Note1: i has the same period as the periodic impressed e.m.f.
w
E
Note2: Maximum current = (from the value of i), where R2 + w2L2 is called impedance and E
R2 + w2L2
Maximum e.m.f.
is the maximum e.m.f. Hence maximum current =
impedamce.

Example 23: A condenser of capacity C is discharged through the inductance L and a

resistance R in series and the charge q at any time t satisfies the equation
d2 q dq q
L 2
+R + =0
dt dt C
Given that L = 0.25 Henry, R = 2.50 Ohms, C = 2 × 10–6 Farads and that when t = 0 the
dq
change q is 0.002 coulombs and the current = 0 . Obtain the value of q in terms of t.
dt
[KUK, 2002]

Solution: For the given values of L, R and C, we get

d2 q dq
2
+ 1000 + 2 × 106 q = 0.
dt dt
The auxiliary equation is
D2 + 1000 D + 2 × 106 = 0 implying D = − 500 ± 1323 i
∴ The solution is q = e−500t ( A cos1323t + B sin 1323t ) … (1)
Initially when t = 0, q = 0.002 and, hence A = 0.002. ... (2)
Differentiating (1),

= −500 e−500t ( A cos1323 t + B sin 1323 t ) + 1323 e−500t ( − A sin 1323 t + B cos1323 t )
dq
dt
dq
When t = 0, = 0; 0 = −500 A + 1323 B … (3)
dt
Giving B = 0.0008 nearly (on using (2)
Hence q = e−500t ( 0.002 cos1323 t + 0.0008 sin 1323 t )

Example 24: An e.m.f. Esinpt is applied at t = 0 to a circuit containing a condenser C and

dx 1
inductance L in series. The current x satisfies the equation L + ∫ x dt = E sin pt.
dt C
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 565

1
If p2 = and the initially the current and charge q are zero, show that the current in the
LC
E dq
circuit at time t is given by t sin pt , where x = − [NITK, 2008; KUK, 2005-06]
2L dt

dq dx d2q
Solution: Since x=− ; = − 2 and ∫ x dt = − q … (1)
dt dt dt
d2 q 1
The equation becomes, L 2 + q = −E sin pt … (2)
dt C
2
dq E  1
= p2 
i.e. + p2q = − sin pt  given 
dt2 L LC
The auxiliary equation is D2 + p2 = 0; D = ± ip ... (3)
∴ C.F. = c1 cos pt + c2 sin pt ... (4)

P.I. =
1  − E sin pt = − E 1
sin pt =
Et
cos pt.
And 2 
… (5)
D +p
2
L  LD +p
2 2 2pL
Et
∴ q = c1 cos pt + c2 sin pt + cos pt … (6)
2pL
Initially t = 0, q = 0 implying c1 = 0
E
∴ q = c2 sin pt + t cos pt
2pL
dq
Differentiating and putting −x for ,
dt
E
−x = p c2 cos pt + cos pt − pt sin pt 
2pL  … (7)
When t = 0, x = 0.
E E
∴ 0 = p c2 + i.e. c2 = − … (8)
2pL 2p2 L
Hence from (7)
E E
−x = − cos pt +  cos pt − pt sin pt 
2pL 2pL 
Et sin pt
or x= Hence the result.
2L

Miscelaneous Problems
Example 25: A resistance R in series with inductance L is shunted by an equal resistance
R in series with capacitor C. An alternating e.m.f. E sinpt produces currents i1 and i2 in
the two branches. If i1 and i2 are zero when t = 0, determine i1 and i2 from the equations
di i2 di
L 1 + Ri1 = E sin pt and + R 2 = pE cos pt.
dt C dt
566 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

E
Verify that if R2C = L, the total current i1 + i2 will be sin pt.
R

di1 R E
Solution: The first equation is + i1 = sin pt
dt L L
R R
∫ dt t
I. F. = e L = eL
Hence the solution is
Rt Rt

∫
E
i1 e L = e L sin pt dt + c1 , c1 is an arbitrary constant
L
 R sin pt − p cos pt 
E  L Rt

= e L + c1
L R 2
2 … (1)
+
 2 p 
L
ax (
 a sin bx − b cos bx ) 
 using ∫ e sin bx dx = e
ax

 a2 + b2 
When t = 0, i1 = 0
E L2(−p) ELp
implying 0 = c1 + or c1 = 2
LR +pL
2 2 2
R + p2 L2
Substituting value of c1 in (1) and simplifying.
Rt
i1 =
ELp
e
−
L +
EL  R sin pt − p cos pt 
2 2   … (2)
R +pL
2 2 2
R + p L L
2

Note: The first term on the r. h. s. is called the transient non periodic current.
i2 di di2 1 pE
The second equation, + R 2 = pE cos pt or + i2 = cos pt.
C dt dt RC R
1 1
∫ dt t
I.F. = e RC = e RC
Hence the solution is
t t

∫
pE RC
i2 e Rc = c2 + e cos pt dt , c2 is an arbitrary constant
R
t

= c2 +
pE  1 cos pt + p sin pt 
e RC
2  
+ p  RC
R 1 … (3)
2 2
RC
 
 using ∫ e cos bx dx = a2 + b2 ( a cos bx + b sin bx )
ax eax

pERC2 1
when t = 0, i2 = 0 implying 0 = c2 + .
1 + p R C RC
2 2 2

pEC
c2 = −
or (1 + p2R2C2 )
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 567

Substituting above value of c2 in (3) and simplifying

t
−
pERC2  1
cos pt + p sin pt 
pEC e RC
i2 = − + … (4)
1 + p2 R2C2 1 + p2 R2C2  RC 
Equation (2) and (4) give i1 and i2. By adding both and using the equation R2C = L, we can
prove the second part.

di1 i di
Verification: Given L + Ri1 = E sin pt. and 2 + R 2 = pE cos pt. Since we can write the
dt C dt
second differential equation as
R2 di di
i2 + R 2 = pE cos pt. i.e. L 2 + Ri2 = L pE cos pt.
L dt dt R
On adding the above two equations, we get the joint equation as:
d(i + i2 )
+ R (i1 + i2 ) = E sin pt + p cos pt 
L
L 1   … (5)
dt  R
If we take (i1 + i2) = i, (5) becomes,

+ i = sin pt + p cos pt 
di R E L
dt L L R  ... (6)

I.F. = e∫
R R
dt t
Here L
= eL
E  Lt
{ 
}
R R

∫
t L
∴ i(t) e L  e = sin pt + p cos pt dt 
L R 
E L t 
R R

∫ ∫
L t
=  e sin pt dt + p e L cos pt dt 
L R 
(Integration by parts in I st integral and keeping 2nd integral unchanged)
 R
t
R
t 
E 
R

∫ ∫
eL eL L t
= sin pt − p cos pt dt + p e L cos pt dt  + A
L R R R
 
 L L 
R
E − t
i(t) = sin pt + Ae L … (7)
R
Initially i = i1 + i2 = 0 when t = 0. implying A = 0
E sin pt
∴ i1 + i2 = i =
R

ASSIGNMENT 3
1. Show that the differential equation for the current i in an electrical circuit containing
inductance L and a resistance R in series and acted on by an electromotive force Esinwt

satisfies the equation, L di + Ri = E sin wt. [PTU, 2006, 2007]

dt
568 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

2. When a switch is closed in a circuit containing a battery E and an inductance L, the

di
current i build up at a rate given by L + Ri = E . Find i as a function of t. How long
dt
will it be before the current has reached one-half its final value if E = 6 volts, R = 100
Ohms, L = 0.1 Henry?
3. When a resistance R ohm is connected in series with an inductance L henries, an e.m.f. of

E volts, the current i in amperes at a time t is given by L di + Ri = E .

dt
If E = 10 sint volts and i = 0 when t = 0, find i as a function of t.
4. An inductance of 1 henry and a resistance of 2 ohms are connected in series with an
e.m.f. of 100 e–t volts. If the current is initially zero, what is the maximum current attained.

8.5 PHYSICAL APPLICATIONS

Under physical applications, we broadly discuss Newton’s Law, Planetary and Satellite
motions and Hooks Law,.
(i) Particle under Newton’s law of motion follows:
dv d2 x
F = mass × acceleration = ma = m = m 2 , for x as displacement.
dt dt
Further, if the body mass moves along a curve through a distance s in time t, its
ds d2 s
velocity and acceleration are given by , respectively.
dt dt2
(ii) Under Newton’s laws of gravitations:
(a) Resistance varies as the velocity of the particle falling under gravity.
(b) Resistance varies as the velocity of the particle projected upward under gravity in
resisting medium.
1
(c) In velocity of escape from the earth, gravitational force is proportional to 2 , where
r
r is the distance from the centre to the projectile.
Note: In reaching other planets, it is essential that velocity v of a spaceship be so large that v does
not become zero in no case to rule out the possibility to pull back of the ship towards the earth.

(iii) Problem following Hook’s Laws: Tension of an elastic string (or a spring) is
proportional to the extension of the string (or a spring) beyond its natural length i.e.,
x
T = λ , x is the extension beyond the natural length a and λ is the modulus of elasticity.
a
Example 26: Resisted Upward Motion: – A particle of mass m is projected vertically under
gravity. The resistance of the air being mk times the velocity. Show that the maximum

height attained by the particle is

V2
g
[ λ − log(1 + λ)] , where V is the terminal velocity and
λ is the initial velocity of the particle.
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 569

Solution: Equation of the particle at any time t is given by

d2 x dx
m 2
= −mg − mk …(1)
dt dt
where x is the height of the particle at time t from the initial position.
dv  d2 x d dx d dv dx dv 
mv = −mg − mkv ;  2 = = v= =v 
dx dt dt dt dt dx dt dx 
dv
or v = − g − kv …(2)
dx
dv
When acceleration is downward, v = 0 and v = V (the terminal velocity)
dx
g
From above equation, 0 = g – kV or k= …(3)
V
dv g g
∴ v = − g − v = − (V + v)
dx V V
v g
dv = − dx  1 − V  dv = − g dx
or  
v+V V v +V V
g
On integration  v − V log(v + V ) = − x + c , where c is an arbitrary constant …(4)
V
Initially, for x = 0, v = λV giving, c = λV –V log(V + λV)

x + ( λ V − V log(V + λ V ))
g
∴ v − V log(v + V ) = − …(5)
V
If x is the highest height of the particle, then for x = x , v = 0
Hence from the above equation,
g
0 − V log(V + 0) = − x + λV − V log V(1 + λ)
V
g
x = −V log V(1 + λ) + V log V + λ V
V
g
x = −V log V + log(1 + λ) + V log V + λV
V
g
x = V  λ + log(1 + λ) 
V
V2
x=  λ + log(1 + λ)
g  …(6)

Example 27: Problem on Resisted Downward Motion:- A body of mass m is falling under
gravity and facing air resistance proportional to the square of the velocity (i.e. k2v). If
570 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

after falling through a distance x, it possesses a velocity v at that instant, prove that
x a2
2k = log 2 , where k is the constant of proportionality.
m a − v2

Solution: By Newton’s Law of Motion,

d2 x dx , mg is the weight of the object
m 2 = mg − kv2 , v =
dt dt
d2 x d dx d dv dx dv
Here in above equation, = = v= =v
dt2 dt dt dt dx dt dx
dv
∴ mv = mg − kv2
dx
dv dz
Taking, v2 = z so that 2v = , above equation reduces to
dx dx
1 dz m dz mg mg
m. = mg − kz or = − z = a2 − z, when = a2
2 dx 2k dx k k
dz 2k
Implying = (a case of variable-separable)
a −z m
2

On integration − log(a2 − z) + log c = 2k x , c is an arbitrary constant and z = v2

m
Initially, v = 0 at x = 0 ⇒ c = log a2
 a2  2k mg
Hence, log  2 2 
= x, a2 =
a −v  m k

d2 r gR2
Example 28: Problem on Velocity of Escape:- If = − where R is the radius of the
dt2 r2
earth and r( ≥ R) is the distance of an object at any time t, projected upwards from the
centre of the earth with velocity v0 = 2 gR , show that the object will never return to the
earth.

d2r d dr d dv dr dv
Solution: As = = v= =v
dt2 dt dt dt dr dt dr
Therefore from the given relation,
dv R2 2
v = −g 2 or 2v dv = −2g R dr
dr r r2

2gR2
Integrating, v2 = +c
r
2 gR2
Given, v = v0 = 2 gR when r = R implies 2gR = + c or c = 0
R
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 571

2gR2 2g
∴ v2 = or v = R
r r
Thus, the object will not come to rest as v = 0 only when r = ∞. Meaning thereby that the
object will never come back to the earth.

Example 29: Problem on Motion of ship/boat across a stream:- A ship is moving in water
with uniform velocity v0. Suddenly the engine is switched off. Prove that the time in
which the speed comes down to one half of its original value, is equal to
w  abv 
tan −1  2 02 2  where w is the weight of the ship and g is the acceleration due to
abg  2a + b v 
gravity, assuming that the resistance to the movement of the ship is of the form (a2 + b2v2).

Solution: Equation of motion is

w dv w
= − (a2 + b2 v2 ), where is the mass of the ship
g dt g
w
dt = − dv
g(a2 + b2 v2 )
Integrating under given limits,
v0
t 2
w 1
∫ dt = − ∫ 2 2 2 dv
0 g v0 ( a + b v )
v0

w 1  v 
2

t = − 2 . a  tan−1 a 
gb ( b )  ( b ) v0
w  bv b 
= − tan−1 0 − tan−1 v0 
abg  a 2 a 
b v0 b
− v0
w −1 a 2 a
=− tan
abg b v0 b
1+ ⋅ v
a 2 a 0
w  abv 
=− tan−1  2 02 2 
abg  2a + b v 

Example 30: Problem on Atmospheric pressure:- Find the atmospheric pressure p lb. per ft.
at a height h ft. above the sea level, both when the temperature is constant or variable.

Solution: Let a vertical column of air of unit cross-section, with an element of it bounded
by two horizontal planes at height h and h + δh above the sea level, and p, p+ δp be the
pressure at h, h + δh respectively. Let ρ be the average density of the element.
Here the thin air column δh is in equilibrium under the action of the pressure (p + δp) and
the weight (ρgδ h), both download.
572 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

Hence p = (p + δp) + ρg δh
δp
Implying δp = – ρg δh or = − ρg
δh
In the limiting case, when δh → 0 p + δp z + δz

dp
= −ρg … (1) g ρδz
z
dh p

This is the differential equation of atmospheric pressure at height h.

1. When temperature is constant: Here v is the volume of 1 kg of
air, supposed to move about any expansion or contraction in its
volume will follow Boyle’s law.
pv = k, k is constant.
O Sea level
1 p
or p = k ⇒ p = ρk ⇒ ρ = Fig. 8.17
v k
dp p dp g
From (1), = − g or = − dh
dh k p k
On integrating,
gh
gh −
log p − log c = − or p = ce k … (2)
k
At sea level, h = 0, p = p0 (say) so that c = p0 … (3)
gh
−
Hence (2) becomes p = p0 e k … (4)
2. When temperature is variable: As generally temperature of atmosphere varies greatly
with the change of altitude, in this case we take the relation
pvn = k, n ≠ 1
1
1  p n
Implying p = n k or p = vnk ⇒ ρ=   ,n≠ 1 … (5)
v  k
1/n
dp  p dp
=−
g
From (1), = −  g or dh … (6)
 k ( p) n (k )
1 1
dh n

On integration,
1
1− 1
p n −
= ghk n + C1
1
1−
n
1 1
n 1− n −
or p = ghk n + C1 … (7)
n−1
At the sea level h = 0, p = p0 (say)
1
n 1−
∴ C1 = p0 n
n−1
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 573

n  1− n 1− 
1 1 1
−
p − p n = ghk n
n − 1  
Hence Eq. (7) becomes, 0

This is the desired relation between p and h when the temperature is variable.

Example 31: Problem on Rotating Cylinders:- A cylindrical tank of radius r filled with
water to a depth h is rotated with angular velocity ω about its axis, centrifugal force tends
to drive water outwards from the centre of the tank. Under the steady conditions of uniform
rotation, show that the section of the free surface of the water by a plane through the axis,
is the curve
ω2  2 r2 
y=  x −  + h
2g  2

Solution: Forces acting on a particle of mass m cut out from the free surface of water at P(x, y)
on the curve are the weight of the particle acting vertically downwards and the centrifugal
force acting upwards (Fig. 8.18 (b)).
In case of steady motion, the particle P(x, y) will move on the free surface of the water and
hence no tangential force will be acting there upon, as shown in figure 8.18 (a).
Y Y
r
r

x P
m ω2
ψ
A R
H T
mg y
h

O O X
Steady state Rotating state
Fig. 18 (a) Fig. 8.18 (b)

∴ R cosφ = mg and Rsinφ = mω2x

dy mω2 x ω2 x
Implying = tan φ = = … (1)
dx mg g
which is the differential equation of the surface of rotating fluid mass. On integration,

ω2 ω2 x2
∫ dy =
g ∫ xdx + C or y=
2g
+C … (2)

From (2); when x = 0, y(=OA) = C … (i ) 


ω2r2
x = r , y( = H ) = +C ...(ii) … (3)
2g 
574 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

w2x2 w2r2
∴ y= −
2g 2g
Volume of the fluid mass in the non rotating state = πr2h … (4)
H
Whereas in the rotating state = πr2 H − ∫ πx2 dy
OA

2πg H
= πr2 H − ∫ (y − C)dy (using (2))
ω2 C
πg
= πr2H − (H − C)2
ω2
2
 ω2r 2  π g  ω2r 2 
= πr 
2
+ C − 2 
 ω  2 g 
(using 3(ii))
 2g
ω2 r4 π g ω4 r4
=π + π r 2C − 2
2g ω 4 g2
 ω2 r2 
= πr2  C +
 4g  … (5)
But the volume in the two states should be equal viz. expression (4) and (5) must equate,
 ω2r2 
πr2 h = πr2  C +
 4g 
ω2r 2
Implying C=h− …(6)
4g
ω2 x2 ω2 r2 ω2  2 r2 
Therefore Eq. (2) gives, y = +h− or y=  x −  + h
2g 4g 2g  2
which is the desired equation of the curve.

ASSIGNMENT 4
1. A particle is projected vertically upwards in the gravitational field under a resistance
equal to k times the square of its velocity per unit mass. If V0 is the initial velocity, find
the maximum height attained.
2. The differential equation for the motion of a particle moving in a central orbit is
d2 x  a4 
= −µ  x + 3 
dt 2  x 
If it starts from rest at a distance ‘a’, find the time it will take to arrive at the origin.
3. A particle of mass m moves under gravity in a medium whose resistance is k times its
velocity, where k is a constant. If the particle is projected vertically upwards with a
velocity v, show that the time to reach the highest point is
m  kv 
loge  1 +
k  mg 
 Applications of 1st Order Differential Equations 575

4. A body of mass m falls through a medium that opposes its fall with a force proportional
to the square of its velocity so that its equation of motion is
d2 x
m 2 = mg − kv2 , v = x
dt
where x is the distance of fall and v is the velocity. If at t = 0, x = 0 and v = 0, find the
velocity of the body and the distance it has fallen in t seconds.
5. A particle is projected with velocity v along a smooth horizontal plane in the medium
whose resistance per unit mass is µ times the cube of the velocity. Show that the distance
it has described in time t is
(
1
µv
)
1 + 2µ v2t − 1

6. When a bullet is fired into a sand tank, its retardation is proportional to the square root
of its velocity. How long will it take to come to rest if it enters into the sand tank with
velocity v0?
7. Show that a particle projected from the earth’s surface with velocity of 7 miles/sec will AS
not return to the earth. (Take earth’s radius = 3960 miles and g = 32.17 ft / sec2)
8. A chain coiled up near the edge of a smooth table just starts to fall over the edge. The
velocity v when a length x has fallen is given
dv
xv + v2 = gx . Show that v = 8 3 ft /sec.
dx x
9. Upto a certain height in the atmosphere, it is found that the pressure p and the density
ρ are connected by the relation p = kρn, (n > 1). If this relation continued to hold upto
any height, show that the density would vanish at a finite height.
10. A canonical cistern of height h and semi vertical angle α is filled with water and is held
in vertical position with vertex downwards. Water leaks out from the bottle at the rate
of kx2 cubic constant per second, k is a constant and x is the height of water level from
 πh tan2 α 
the vertex. Prove that the cistern will be empty in   seconds.
 k
11. The rate at which water flows from a small hole at the bottom of a tank is proportional
to the square root of the depth of the water. If half the water flows from a cylindrical
tank (with vertical axis) in 5 minutes, find the time required to empty the tank.

ANSWERS

Assignment 1
1. y = a ecx 2. x = 3y2
 a − a2 − x2 
4. y = a − x + a log   + c
2 2
3. x2 + y2 = cx
 x
5. (i) r(θ – α) = c (ii) r = a + b cos θ
576 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

6. c2x2 = 2cy + 1 7. r = a eθcotα

x k2
8. y + c = a sin + ax − x2 , a =
−1
a 4

Assignment 2
2. x2 – y2 = a 3. x4/3 – y4/3 = C
4. x2 + y2 = 2a2 log x + c 5. x2 + y2 – cy = 0

6. a(1 + cos θ) 7. rn = bn cos nθ

2b
8. r =
1 − cos θ
1 1
9. (i) ln .r + θ2 + θ3 = d, (ii) rn cos nθ = d
2 3

Assignment 3

0.1  −
R
t
2. 0.0006931 seconds 3. 2 2 
R sin t − L cos t + Le L

L +R 
4. 25 Amp.

Assignment 4

1  kV02 
log  1 +
1. 2k g 

 dv  a4  µ(a4 − x4 ) dx 
π  Hint: v = −µ  x + 3  with solution v = = 
2. 2 µ  dx  x  x dt 
 Retain the -ve sign as the motion is down towards origin 

mg  gk  m  gk 
4. tan h  t and log  t
k  m  k  m 

6. 2 v0 11. 17 minutes 4 seconds

k