Electrolyte

An electrolyte is a substance that ionizes when dis- 1 Physiological importance

solved in suitable ionizing solvents such as water.
This includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases. In physiology, the primary ions of electrolytes are sodium
Some gases, such as hydrogen chloride, under con- (Na+ ), potassium (K+ ), calcium (Ca2+ ), magnesium
ditions of high temperature or low pressure can also (Mg2+ ), chloride (Cl− ), hydrogen phosphate (HPO4 2− ),
function as electrolytes. Electrolyte solutions can and hydrogen carbonate (HCO3 − ). The electric charge
also result from the dissolution of some biological symbols of plus (+) and minus (−) indicate that the sub-
(e.g., DNA, polypeptides) and synthetic polymers (e.g., stance is ionic in nature and has an imbalanced distri-
polystyrene sulfonate), termed polyelectrolytes, which bution of electrons, the result of chemical dissociation.
contain charged functional groups. A substance that dis- Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid
sociates into ions in solution and acquires the capacity and is involved in fluid balance and blood pressure con-
to conduct electricity. Sodium, potassium, chloride, cal- trol.
cium, and phosphate are examples of electrolytes, infor-
mally known as lytes. Electrolyte replacement is needed All known higher lifeforms require a subtle and com-
when a patient has prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, and plex electrolyte balance between the intracellular and
as a response to strenuous athletic activity. Commercial extracellular environment. In particular, the maintenance
electrolyte solutions are available, particularly for sick of precise osmotic gradients of electrolytes is impor-
children (solutions such as Pedialyte) and athletes (sports tant. Such gradients affect and regulate the hydration of
drinks, such as Gatorade). Electrolyte monitoring is im- the body as well as blood pH, and are critical for nerve
portant in treatment of anorexia and bulimia. and muscle function. Various mechanisms exist in liv-
ing species that keep the concentrations of different elec-
Electrolyte solutions are normally formed when a salt is trolytes under tight control.
placed into a solvent such as water and the individual
components dissociate due to the thermodynamic inter- Both muscle tissue and neurons are considered electric
actions between solvent and solute molecules, in a process tissues of the body. Muscles and neurons are activated
called solvation. For example, when table salt (sodium by electrolyte activity between the extracellular fluid or
chloride), NaCl, is placed in water, the salt (a solid) dis- interstitial fluid, and intracellular fluid. Electrolytes may
solves into its component ions, according to the dissocia- enter or leave the cell membrane through specialized pro-
tion reaction tein structures embedded in the plasma membrane called
ion channels. For example, muscle contraction is depen-
dent upon the presence of calcium (Ca2+ ), sodium (Na+ ),
and potassium (K+ ). Without sufficient levels of these
+ −
NaCl₍ ₎ → Na ₍ₐ ₎ + Cl ₍ₐ ₎ key electrolytes, muscle weakness or severe muscle con-
tractions may occur.
Electrolyte balance is maintained by oral, or in emer-
It is also possible for substances to react with water, pro- gencies, intravenous (IV) intake of electrolyte-containing
ducing ions. For example, carbon dioxide gas dissolves substances, and is regulated by hormones, in general
in water to produce a solution that contains hydronium, with the kidneys flushing out excess levels. In humans,
carbonate, and hydrogen carbonate ions. electrolyte homeostasis is regulated by hormones such
as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone and parathyroid
Note that molten salts can be electrolytes, as well. For
hormone. Serious electrolyte disturbances, such as
instance, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid con-
dehydration and overhydration, may lead to cardiac and
ducts electricity.
neurological complications and, unless they are rapidly
An electrolyte in a solution may be described as concen- resolved, will result in a medical emergency.
trated if it has a high concentration of ions, or dilute if it
has a low concentration. If a high proportion of the solute
dissociates to form free ions, the electrolyte is strong; if 1.1 Measurement
most of the solute does not dissociate, the electrolyte is
weak. The properties of electrolytes may be exploited us- Measurement of electrolytes is a commonly performed
ing electrolysis to extract constituent elements and com- diagnostic procedure, performed via blood testing with
pounds contained within the solution. ion-selective electrodes or urinalysis by medical technol-

1
2 3
ogists. The interpretation of these values is somewhat
meaningless without analysis of the clinical history and is
often impossible without parallel measurement of renal
function. Electrolytes measured most often are sodium
and potassium. Chloride levels are rarely measured ex-
cept for arterial blood gas interpretation, since they are
inherently linked to sodium levels. One important test
conducted on urine is the specific gravity test to deter-
mine the occurrence of electrolyte imbalance.
1.2 Rehydration
In oral rehydration therapy, electrolyte drinks containing
sodium and potassium salts replenish the body’s water and
electrolyte levels after dehydration caused by exercise,
excessive alcohol consumption, diaphoresis (heavy sweat-
ing), diarrhea, vomiting, intoxication or starvation. Ath-
letes exercising in extreme conditions (for three or
more hours continuously, e.g. marathon or triathlon)
that do not consume electrolytes risk dehydration (or
hyponatremia).[1]
A home-made electrolyte drink can be made by using
water, sugar and salt in precise proportions.[2] Pre-made
preparations are also available commercially,[3] and also
for veterinary use, like Electrovite.
Electrolytes are commonly found in fruit juices, coconut
water, sports drinks, milk, nuts, and many fruits and
vegetables (whole or in juice form) (e.g., potatoes,
avocados).
2 Electrochemistry
Main article: electrolysis
When electrodes are placed in an electrolyte and a voltage
is applied, the electrolyte will conduct electricity. Lone
electrons normally cannot pass through the electrolyte;
instead, a chemical reaction occurs at the cathode, con-
suming electrons from the anode. Another reaction oc-
curs at the anode, producing electrons that are eventually
transferred to the cathode. As a result, a negative charge
cloud develops in the electrolyte around the cathode, and
a positive charge develops around the anode. The ions
in the electrolyte neutralize these charges, enabling the
electrons to keep flowing and the reactions to continue.
For example, in a solution of ordinary table salt (sodium
chloride, NaCl) in water, the cathode reaction will be
2H2 O + 2e− → 2OH− + H2
and hydrogen gas will bubble up; the anode reaction is
2NaCl → 2 Na+ + Cl2 + 2e−
SOLID ELECTROLYTES
and chlorine gas will be liberated. The positively charged
sodium ions Na+ will react toward the cathode, neutraliz-
ing the negative charge of OH− there, and the negatively
charged hydroxide ions OH− will react toward the anode,
neutralizing the positive charge of Na+ there. Without the
ions from the electrolyte, the charges around the electrode
would slow down continued electron flow; diffusion of H+
and OH− through water to the other electrode takes longer
than movement of the much more prevalent salt ions.
Electrolytes dissociate in water because water molecules
are dipoles and the dipoles orient in an energetically fa-
vorable manner to solvate the ions.
In other systems, the electrode reactions can involve the
metals of the electrodes as well as the ions of the elec-
trolyte.
Electrolytic conductors are used in electronic devices
where the chemical reaction at a metal/electrolyte inter-
face yields useful effects.
• In batteries, two materials with different electron
affinities are used as electrodes; electrons flow from
one electrode to the other outside of the battery,
while inside the battery the circuit is closed by the
electrolyte’s ions. Here, the electrode reactions con-
vert chemical energy to electrical energy.[4]
• In some fuel cells, a solid electrolyte or proton con-
ductor connects the plates electrically while keeping
the hydrogen and oxygen fuel gases separated.
• In electroplating tanks, the electrolyte simultane-
ously deposits metal onto the object to be plated,
and electrically connects that object in the circuit.
• In operation-hours gauges, two thin columns of
mercury are separated by a small electrolyte-filled
gap, and, as charge is passed through the device,
the metal dissolves on one side and plates out on the
other, causing the visible gap to slowly move along.
• In electrolytic capacitors the chemical effect is used
to produce an extremely thin 'dielectric' or insulating
coating, while the electrolyte layer behaves as one
capacitor plate.
• In some hygrometers the humidity of air is sensed
by measuring the conductivity of a nearly dry elec-
trolyte.
• Hot, softened glass is an electrolytic conductor, and
some glass manufacturers keep the glass molten by
passing a large current through it.
3 Solid electrolytes
Solid electrolytes can be mostly divided into three groups:
 3

• Gel electrolytes - they closely resemble liquid elec- 6 External links

trolytes. In essence, they are liquids in a flexible lat-
tice framework. Various additives are often applied • electrolyte mixtures
to increase the conductivity of such systems.[4][5]
• multicomponent electrolyte diffusion
• Dry polymer electrolytes - they differ from liquid
and gel electrolytes in the sense that salt is dis-
solved directly into the solid medium. Usually it is
a relatively high dielectric constant polymer (PEO,
PMMA, PAN, polyphosphazenes, siloxanes, etc.)
and a salt with low lattice energy. In order to in-
crease the mechanical strength and conductivity of
such electrolytes, very often composites are used,
and inert ceramic phase is introduced. There are
two major classes of such electrolytes: polymer-in-
ceramic, and ceramic-in-polymer.[6][7][8]
• Solid ceramic electrolytes - ions migrate through the
ceramic phase by means of vacancies or intersti-
tials within the lattice. There are also glassy-ceramic
electrolytes.

4 See also
• Strong electrolyte
• ITIES (Interface between Two Immiscible Elec-
trolyte Solutions)

5 References
[1] J,Estevez E,Baquero E,Mora-Rodriguez R (2008).
“Anaerobic performance when rehydrating with water or
commercially available sports drinks during prolonged
exercise in the heat”. Applied Physiology, Nutrition and
Metabolism 33 (2): 290–298. doi:10.1139/H07-188.
PMID 18347684.

[2] “Rehydration drinks”. Webmd.com. 2008-04-28. Re-

trieved 2010-08-20.

[3] “Oral Rehydration Salt Suppliers”. Rehydrate.org. 2014-

10-07. Retrieved 2014-12-04.

[4] Kamil Perzyna, Regina Borkowska, Jaroslaw Syzdek, Al-

dona Zalewska, Wladyslaw Wieczorek (2011). “The ef-
fect of additive of Lewis acid type on lithium–gel elec-
trolyte characteristics”. Electrochimica Acta 57: 58–65.
doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2011.06.014.

[5] “The Roll-to-Roll Battery Revolution”. Ev World. Re-

trieved 2010-08-20.

[6] Syzdek, Jaroslaw, et al., Journal of Power Sources, 173,

2007, p712-720 doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.05.061

[7] Syzdek, Jaroslaw, et al., Electrochimica Acta, 55, 2010,

p1314-1322, doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2009.04.025

[8] Syzdek, Jaroslaw, et al., Journal of Power Sources, 194,

2009, p66-72, doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.01.070
4 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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