Circuit Breacker 1

EPRI Family of Multi-Functional Low Cost Solid State
Switchgear: Requirements Definition Phase
1010666
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EPRI Family of Multi-Functional Low
Cost Solid State Switchgear:
Requirements Definition Phase
1010666
Technical Update, December 2005
EPRI Project Manager

F. Goodman
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

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CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
EPRI PEAC Corporation

942 Corridor Park Blvd.
Knoxville, TN 37932
Principal Investigators
A. Maitra
T. Short
M. McGranaghan
Enertronics, Inc
2204 Hardwick Street
Blacksburg, VA 24060
Principal Investigator
J. Lai
This document describes research sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).
The publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following
manner:
EPRI Family of Multi-Functional Low Cost Solid State Switchgear: Requirements Definition
Phase, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1010666
iii
REPORT SUMMARY
This report describes the findings of the research performed to assess the requirements for a next
generation solid-state breakers ("all solid-state" as well as "hybrid" designs), identify the
application areas, and evaluate the economic and technical considerations for different
technologies and design options for a family of low-cost solid-state switchgears. The report
outlines a research roadmap for design and development of the proposed technology and
identifies the key functionalities and criteria that need to be met in order for this technology to
gain market acceptance.
Background
There are growing instances in utility distribution and transmission systems wherein the fault
current levels are exceeding the interrupting capability of existing substation circuit breakers.
This increase in fault current level either requires the replacement of large number of substation
breakers or the development of some means to limit the fault current. Also, many mechanical
circuit breakers are operating much more than originally intended in applications such as
capacitor switching. This continual use of mechanical breakers requires intensive maintenance
to be performed or periodic replacement of the whole breaker. Environmental problems are also
on the horizon with the use of both SF6 gas and oil within mechanical breakers, which may pose
long term problems for many utilities. The research behind this report was performed to assess
the requirements for a next generation medium and high voltage solid-state switchgears, identify
the application areas, and evaluate the economic and technical considerations for different
technologies and design options. This preliminary research is the first step before embarking on
development of the hardware and associated controls for development of a family of low-cost
solid-state switchgear for a range of distribution applications a prototype version of solid-state
switchgear.
Objectives
This phase of the project involves more detailed definition of requirements and evaluation of the
technology benefits for economic assessments. The requirements will form the basis for device
specifications that can be used to develop partnership arrangements with manufacturers for
development and commercialization of the technologies. This feasibility assessment will lead to
the development of a family of low-cost solid-state switchgear for a range of distribution and
transmission applications.
Approach
The overall objective of this multi-year project is to develop and commercialize a family of low-
cost, multifunctional, solid-state switchgear for distribution and transmission applications. The
objectives of the requirements definition phase delineated in this work statement are:
• Develop a detailed definition of the requirements for product development
v
• Appraisal of current switchgear technology and review the current state of the art in
conventional and solid-state switchgear to identify the technology gaps that must be filled to
meet the product family’s needs
• Identify the functions that the switchgear is to provide, such as 1) current interruption, 2)
current limiting, 3) fast fault clearing and detection, 4) distribution system condition
monitoring, and 5) remote communication linkage with automated distribution operating
systems
• Develop the cost/benefit perform feasibility analysis and the evaluate the projected costs for
the proposed approach
• Provide a EPRI long term technology roadmap for the development and commercialization
cycle for the next-generation solid-state switchgear family
Results
A new hybrid switchgear design is presented in this report which is an innovative, scalable and
offers a multi-functional approach to next generation medium and high voltage solid-state
switchgears. The topology proposed here is the first design that has the potential of achieving all
of the goals for a solid state circuit breaker such as rapid fault clearing, instantaneous fault
isolation, fast current limiting for downstream coordination, soft switching capabilities, rapid
load transfer, voltage and current monitoring, and a sale price of 5 to 7 times that of conventional
breakers and reclosers. This conceptual design appears to be a suitable candidate to the
development of a family of low-cost solid-state switchgear which can expand the capabilities of
existing switchgears to a modular “integrated electrical interface” and create new service
opportunities to meet the customers' requirement and is therefore a viable market opportunity.
The proposed approach is based on innovative, multi-functional, modular, and hybrid design of
power electronics based switchgear.
The intent here is not to make recommendations for a specific design or a specific semiconductor
device. The question is, “Is there a possibility that other designs may evolve that might meet the
need”? This decision will have to be made by the manufactures to come up with other innovative
designs that will meet the specification or through a competitive procurement process to select a
vendor/developer/partner. These designs will guide the development of the smart solid-state
switchgear.
EPRI Perspective
ADA represents the confluence point for power distribution industry change and challenges.
Examples of the forces being brought to bear on distribution utilities are: upgrades to aging
systems, availability of improved distribution system technology, optimized reliability, customer
outage intolerance, deregulation, need for improved customer service options, and management
of distributed generation. The brunt of these forces has not yet fully come to bear on the
industry, leaving operations on the brink of fundamental change. The EPRI ADA Program
envisions future distribution systems as highly automated, with a flexible electrical system
architecture operated via communication networks conforming to open industry standards. As
distribution systems adopt ADA, they will have improvements in energy throughput efficiency,
reliability, and customer service options. This project on solid-state switchgear for distribution
systems addresses a key development need in realizing the ADA vision.
Keywords
Advanced Distribution Automation Current Limiters
Circuit Breakers Static Transfer Switches Power electronics
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions received from the various engineers that
provided materials, reviewed drafts, and answered questions as part of developing this document.
These include, but are not limited to, the following:
Greg Reed Mitsubishi
Chris Larsen ABB
Brad Roberts S&C
Harshad Mehta Silicon Power
Vic Temple Silicon Power
vii
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1-1
Power System Functions that Drive the Requirements for Solid-State Switchgear ..........................1-2
Report Intent ...........................................................................................................................1-9
Report Organization...............................................................................................................1-12
2 STATUS AND NEEDS ASSESSMENT OF DISTRIBUTION SWITCHGEAR.........................2-1

Existing Switchgear .................................................................................................................2-1
Circuit Breakers ..................................................................................................................2-2
Reclosers............................................................................................................................2-6
Expulsion Fuses ..................................................................................................................2-7
Current-Limiting Fuses........................................................................................................2-7
Mitigation of Voltage Sags and Interruptions..............................................................................2-8
Power System Design..........................................................................................................2-9
Key Advantages of Solid-State ("All Solid-State" as well as "Hybrid" Designs) Switchgear..........2-10
Fault-Current Limiting ...........................................................................................................2-10
Advanced and Future Switchgear Needs ..................................................................................2-12
Control, Monitoring, and Communication ................................................................................2-12
Distribution Substation Control System Development ..........................................................2-13
Intelligent Substation and Feeder Monitoring.......................................................................2-13
Intelligent Distribution Communications .............................................................................2-13
Roles for Advanced Switchgear ..............................................................................................2-14
Relay Requirements for Solid State Switchgear in Current Limiting Application .........................2-15
Relaying of the Solid-State Switch......................................................................................2-15
3 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF STATIC TRANSFER SWITCHES .................................3-1

Application of Custom Power Devices.......................................................................................3-1
Source Transfer Switch ............................................................................................................3-5
Device Overview ................................................................................................................3-5
ix
Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) ........................................................................................3-6
Static Source Transfer Switch (Static STS) ............................................................................3-6
Thyristor (SCR) .............................................................................................................3-7
Gate-Turnoff (GTO) Thyristor.........................................................................................3-7
Super-GTO ....................................................................................................................3-8
High-Speed Mechanical Source Transfer Switch (HSMSTS)...................................................3-8
Hybrid Source Transfer Switch.............................................................................................3-9
Power System Requirements ..............................................................................................3-12
Independent Feeders .....................................................................................................3-12
Feeder Capacity for Load ..............................................................................................3-12
Synchronization ...........................................................................................................3-13
Source Availability.......................................................................................................3-13
Static STS Operation .........................................................................................................3-13
Break-Before-Make or Make-Before-Break Transfers......................................................3-14
Transferring the Load ...................................................................................................3-14
Single-Phase Transfer ..............................................................................................3-14
Three-Phase Transfer ...............................................................................................3-16
Transfer Time ..............................................................................................................3-17
Reducing the Transfer Time......................................................................................3-17
Functionality ...........................................................................................................3-17
Source Side Outage ......................................................................................................3-18
Single-Line-to-Ground Fault on Source ..........................................................................3-18
Balanced Three-Phase Fault on Source ...........................................................................3-18
Load-Side Fault............................................................................................................3-18
Out-of-Phase Transfers .................................................................................................3-18
Static STS Circuit Topologies ............................................................................................3-18
Detailed Specification and Device Review [32-35]...............................................................3-22
Cyberex Static STS.......................................................................................................3-23
InverPower Static STS ..................................................................................................3-24
Mitsubishi Solid-State Transfer Switch...........................................................................3-25
Silicon Power Corporation (SPCO) Static STS ................................................................3-27
S&C PureWave Static STS............................................................................................3-29
4 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF FAULT CURRENT LIMITERS .....................................4-1

Fault Current Limit Characteristics ............................................................................................4-2
x
"All Solid-State" Based Designs................................................................................................4-3
Hybrid Designs........................................................................................................................4-8
5 DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS FOR SOLID-STATE SWITCHGEAR...................................5-1

Solid-State Designs Using HV Power Electronic Switches and Diodes – A Key for Success ...........5-2
Switching Elements for Solid-State Switchgear ..........................................................................5-4
Thyristors (Silicon-Controlled Rectifier) ...............................................................................5-5
GTO and IGCT...................................................................................................................5-7
Emitter Turn-off-Thyristor ...................................................................................................5-9
Super GTO .......................................................................................................................5-11
HV-IGBT.........................................................................................................................5-12
Wide Band-gap Silicon Carbide Devices .............................................................................5-15
SiC MOSFET Static Characteristic ................................................................................5-18
SiC MOSFET Dynamic Characteristic ...........................................................................5-20
High-Voltage High-Power SiC Devices ..........................................................................5-22
DARPA High Power Electronics Program Roadmap ............................................................5-24
Summary ..............................................................................................................................5-25
6 PROPOSED DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR FAMILY OF SOLID-STATE

SWITCHGEAR..........................................................................................................................6-1
A Conceptual Design – Candidate for Developing a Family of Solid-state Switchgear....................6-5
The Proposed Universal Hybrid Switch.................................................................................6-5
Proposed Structure .........................................................................................................6-6
Operating under Fault Clearing Mode...............................................................................6-7
Operating under Linear Region........................................................................................6-8
Generic Specifications for Hybrid Solid-State Switchgear Design ................................................6-9
Design Considerations for Hybrid Solid-State Current Limiters and Breakers ..............................6-10
Basic Requirements for a 15KV, 600A Hybrid Design for a Circuit-Breaker / Recloser /
Current Limiter .................................................................................................................6-11
Optional Features (Scalable Implementation) ..................................................................6-14
7 ECONOMIC EVALUATION ..................................................................................................7-1

Economic Assessment – An Overall Comparison........................................................................7-3
8 EPRI SOLID-STATE SWITCHGEAR DEVELOPMENT – R&D ROADMAP ........................8-1

Following the General Trends to Support the Vision Direction.....................................................8-1
Overall Roadmap Timeline for the "Hybrid" and “Solid-State Switchgear” Designs – How to
Realize the Vision in the Future ................................................................................................8-3
EPRI’s Long-Term Roadmap....................................................................................................8-7
Generation 1: 115KV Class Distribution Switchgear Development ........................................8-10
Phase I: Proof of Concept Design Analysis of family of Switchgear Topologies
(Voltage Ratings: 15KV, 35KV, 138KV & Current Ratings: 600A, 1200A, 3000A) –
Year of Performance: 2006............................................................................................8-10
Phase II: Bench model Development and Testing of 15KV 600A Distribution
Switchgear (Circuit Breaker/Current Limiter Unit/Transfer Switch) Year of
Performance: 2006-2007 ...............................................................................................8-11
Phase III & IV: Field prototype development and testing of 15KV 600A distribution
switchgear (Circuit Breaker/Current Limiter Unit/Transfer Switch) Year of
Performance: 2008-2009 ...............................................................................................8-13
Phase V: Commercialization of a Family of Solid-State Switchgear (Circuit
Breaker/Current Limiter Unit/Transfer Switch) Year of Performance: 2010 ......................8-13
9 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................9-1
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Application Trends in High-Voltage, High-Capacity Power Devices .................................1-2

Figure 1-2 Application of Solid State Switchgear at Distribution Voltage Levels [8]...........................1-7
Figure 1-3 Application of Solid State Switchgear for Coupling New Generation.................................1-8
Figure 1-4 Solid-state Switchgear – A Cornerstone for Advanced Distribution Automation .................1-8
Figure 1-5 Realizing the Vision for Developing a Communication and Control Infrastructure for
Advanced Monitoring ...........................................................................................................1-9
Figure 3-1 Approximate Price Ranges for Reactive Power and Harmonic Compensation Devices ........3-4
Figure 3-2 Basic Diagram of a Static Transfer Switch ......................................................................3-5
Figure 3-3 Automatic Transfer Switch ............................................................................................3-6
Figure 3-4 3.6KV, 200A S-GTO AC Switch from Silicon Power [32] ...............................................3-8
Figure 3-5 Basic Configuration of Mitsubishi's Hybrid Switch Unit [33-34].....................................3-10
Figure 3-6 Working Principle of Mitsubishi's Solid State Hybrid Transfer Switch [33-34].................3-11
Figure 3-7 Basic Configuration for a Static Switch ........................................................................3-13
Figure 3-8 Basic Configuration for a Single-Phase STS..................................................................3-14
Figure 3-9 Example Waveform of STS Operation: Preferred Source Voltage and Current ................3-15
Figure 3-10 Example Waveform of STS Operation: Alternate Side Voltage and Current ...................3-15
Figure 3-11 Example Waveform of STS Operation: Load Side Voltage ...........................................3-15
Figure 3-12 Example Three-Phase Transfer...................................................................................3-16
Figure 3-13 Medium Voltage Static STS Topology Used by Mitsubishi...........................................3-19
Figure 3-14 Medium Voltage Static STS Topology Used by Silicon Power......................................3-20
Figure 3-15 Medium Voltage Static STS Topology – Split-Bus Configuration .................................3-21
Figure 4-1 Generalized fault current trace with FCL activated [8] .....................................................4-2
Figure 4-2 Solid-State Switch Operation without Having to Interrupt Immediately or Fault
Current Limiting...................................................................................................................4-3
Figure 4-3 Using GTO-Based Solid-State Circuit Breaker Allows Instant Fault Current Clearing.........4-3
Figure 4-4 Principle of a solid-state fault current limiting circuit breaker based on turn-off devices ......4-4
Figure 4-5 Solid-State Fault Current Limiter Using SCR and Force-Commutating Circuits..................4-5
Figure 4-6 These capacitor cans are connected in parallel to make up the large commutating
capacitors, the largest component in EPRI's SCR Based 15KV, 1200A Solid-
State Fault Current Limiter ..............................................................................................4-6
Figure 4-7 Solid-State Breaker Proposed by Westinghouse...............................................................4-7
Figure 4-8 A Hybrid Solid-State Switch Using Mechanical Switch for Regular Conducting and
PTC for current limiting. .......................................................................................................4-9
xiii
Figure 5-1 Application Trends in High-Voltage, High-Capacity Power Devices [11-13]......................5-3
Figure 5-2 HV Device Roadmap and Development Projection Based on DARPA’s R&D Program
[10-13] ................................................................................................................................5-3
Figure 5-3 Requirements for the Next Generation HV Semiconductor Switches and Diodes ................5-4
Figure 5-4 Thyristor: (a) Internal Sturcture; (b) Equivalent Circuit; (c) Schematic Symbol. .................5-5
Figure 5-5 ....................................................................................................................................5-6
Figure 5-6 Gate-Turn-Off thyristor: (a) Internal Structure; (b) Equivalent Circuit; (c) Schematic
Circuit Symbol. ....................................................................................................................5-7
Figure 5-7 Photograph of (a) Photograph of ABB 5SHY30L6010 Unidirectional IGCT; (b) ABB
5SHZ08L6000 Reverse Blocking Type IGCT [12-13]..............................................................5-8
Figure 5-8 Schematic circuit diagram of ETO .................................................................................5-9
Figure 5-9 Photograph of a 4kA/4.5kV ETO4045A [12-13]............................................................5-10
Figure 5-10 Turn-off voltage and current waveforms of the ETO at the bus anode voltage of 2 kV
and the anode current of 2 kA. .............................................................................................5-10
Figure 5-11 Toroidal air core used for the ETO snubber inductor ....................................................5-11
Figure 5-12 The di/dt limitation of the top switch current during turn-on period at 1.5kV bus
voltage...............................................................................................................................5-11
Figure 5-13 Comparison of SGTO and standard 4500V 85mm GTO design......................................5-12
Figure 5-14 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) Structure and Symbol: (a) Basic IGBT
Structure; (b) IGBT Equivalent Circuit and Symbol; (c) Schematic circuit symbol. ...................5-13
Figure 5-15 Photograph of ABB 5SNA0600G650100 High-Voltage IGBT. .....................................5-13
Figure 5-16 Voltage and Current Waveforms of a High-Voltage Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(HV-IGBT) Switching at 2-kV and 700-A Conditions: (a) turn-on and (b) turn-off. ..................5-14
Figure 5-17 SiC Potential for Wide Bandgap High Power Electronics.......................................5-16
Figure 5-18Cross-sectional structure of power MOSFET................................................................5-18
Figure 5-19 Static voltage and current characteristic of a 385V SiC MOSFET..................................5-19
Figure 5-20 Static Voltage and Current Conduction Characteristic of a newly Developed SiC
MOSFET Rated 10kV, 2A...................................................................................................5-19
Figure 5-21 Static Reverse Blocking Characteristic of the 10kV, 2A SiC Power MOSFET. ...............5-20
Figure 5-22 SiC MOSFET Gate Drive Voltage During Turn-off. ....................................................5-20
Figure 5-23 Turn-off Device Voltage for an SiC 10kV, 2A MOSFET..............................................5-21
Figure 5-24 Turn-off Device current for an SiC 10kV, 2A MOSFET...............................................5-21
Figure 5-25 RBSOA Characteristic of 10kV, 2A SiC MOSFET ......................................................5-22
2
Figure 5-26 4mm SiC GTO Current Density and Voltage Drop Characteristic. ................................5-23
Figure 5-27 SiC IGBT Internal Structure. .....................................................................................5-23
Figure 6-1 Circuit Diagram and Basic Operation Waveform of the Proposed Universal Hybrid
Switch .................................................................................................................................6-7
Figure 6-2 The Proposed UHS Operating Under Fault Clearing Mode ...............................................6-7
Figure 6-3 The Proposed UHS Operating Under Linear Region for Fault Current Limiting..................6-8
Figure 6-4 The Proposed UHS Adopting GTO or GTO-Derived Device as the Switching Device
for PWM Operation ..............................................................................................................6-9
xiv
Figure 7-1 Circuit Configuration of the Universal Hybrid Switch ......................................................7-3
Figure 7-2 Circuit Configuration of the 15kV, 600A HV-IGBT Based Universal Hybrid Switch. .........7-4
Figure 8-1 A Stage-Gate Approach for New Product Development ...................................................8-2
Figure 8-2 Closing the Device Design Loop – A Key for Building Optimal Application-Specific
Power Devices......................................................................................................................8-5
Figure 8-3 Trends in Semiconductor Device Advancement [DARPA HPE Program] ..........................8-6
Figure 8-4 A Generic Technology Roadmap to Realize a Family of Power Electronics Based
Switchgear Designs in Distribution and Transmission Applications ...........................................8-7
Figure 8-5 Projections of Possible Phases and Individual Tasks for Design and Development
(2006–2010).........................................................................................................................8-9
Figure 8-6 EPRI’s Long-Term Roadmap for the Proposed First Generation Medium Voltage
Solid-State Switchgear – Development Schedules and Important Milestones ............................8-10
Figure 8-7 Distribution Test Feeder at Hydro Quebec ....................................................................8-12
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Typical Indoor Distribution Circuit Breaker Ratings [18, Table 1] .....................................2-1
Table 2-2 Typical 15-kV class circuit breaker short-circuit ratings ....................................................2-3
Table 2-3 Typical Indoor Distribution Circuit Breaker Ratings [8, Table 1].......................................2-4
Table 2-4 Typical Outdoor Distribution Circuit Breaker Ratings [18, Table 2] ...................................2-5
Table 3-1 Summary of Custom Power and Related Customer-Side Power Conditioning Devices .........3-3
Table 3-2 Cyberex Static STS Specifications.................................................................................3-23
Table 3-3 InverPower Static STS Specifications ............................................................................3-24
Table 3-4 Overall System Ratings for Two Different Options .........................................................3-25
Table 3-5 Mitsubishi Static STS (Hybrid Unit) General Specifications ............................................3-26
Table 3-6 Voltage/Current Electrical Specifications for Silicon Power's MV-STS.............................3-27
Table 3-7 Silicon Power Static STS Detailed Specifications ...........................................................3-28
Table 3-8 S&C PureWave Static STS Specifications......................................................................3-29
Table 5-1. Comparison of three commercially available high-voltage high-power thyristors ................5-6
Table 5-2 Comparison of commercially available GTO and GTO derives devices...............................5-8
Table 5-3 Comparison of Four Commercially Available HV-IGBTs................................................5-15
Table 5-4 Key Properties of Wide-Band Gap Semiconductor Materials ...........................................5-16
Table 5-5 Overall Comparison of Different Commercially Available Devices ..................................5-25
Table 7-1 Estimates of Small-Quantity Production Cost for the Hybrid Universal Switch ....................7-5
xvii
1
INTRODUCTION
The electric power infrastructure is now caught in this post-revolutionary challenge of catching
up to the new demands placed upon it by a 24/7 digital world. Even a true visionary like Thomas
A. Edison could not have imagined the level of sophistication that would be required of
equipment used for the transmission and distribution of electric power a little more than a
century after its invention. Nor could he have anticipated all of the complex issues facing the
electrical industry as it moves into the twenty-first century.
Power switching technology in low and high power applications has followed a progression from
mechanical switches to vacuum/arc switches, and finally, to solid state switches. At low voltages
and power, virtually every electronic system uses solid state switching for power control. The
utility industry has followed this same progression in its distribution switchgears (circuit
breakers, transfer switches, fault current limiters). Mechanical switches and vacuum breakers are
common throughout the industry, and represent the vast majority of 15 kV-class switchgear
installations. Simple solid state switches (thyristors, GTOs, etc.) have been introduced for
medium voltage commutated and load transfer applications, and at very high voltage levels, such
as HVDC links.
Recently new designs of solid-state breakers ("all solid-state" as well as "hybrid" designs),
transfer switches, and fault current limiters using modern power electronics have captured the
attention of utilities as well as equipment producers. New designs for an intelligent "all solid-
state" as well as "hybrid" distribution and transmission switchgears have resulted from the
marriage of advanced power electronics ((Figure 1-1) and conventional switchgear technology.
The operating characteristic of solid-state switchgear is primarily dictated by the capabilities of
the semiconductor devices used. Voltage and current ratings of the breaker define the number of
power semiconductors required and, consequently, the cost and the operating losses of the
breaker.
What if this technology could provide a way where the delivery of service is a “smart” interface
device that enables utilities to provide power that can respond to and can literally meet the
changing dynamic needs of the equipment?
This approach would then radically alter the way electric utilities serve their respective
customers. The concept would then be one that is a scalable, configurable, programmable,
transformable, multi-functional approach to serving the customer. By integrating a smart device
to the main delivery point for most customers the utility can broaden the traditional service
offerings and satisfy a myriad of customer requirements for power quality and reliability. These
intelligent devices could then expand the capabilities of a conventional distribution and
transmission switchgears to an integrated electrical customer interface and at the same time
provide advanced distribution automation functionalities.
1-1
Introduction
This report summarizes the concept of solid-state, medium voltage, high power conversion
power electronics based switchgears, discusses the relevant solid-state switchgear topologies,
and presents the structure and benefits of the proposed switch and system designs for distribution
and transmission systems.
TRACTION INDUSTRIAL INTELLIGENT UNIVERSAL DISTRIBUTION

PULSE POWER
Application Line Voltage: DRIVES TRANSFORMER /TRANSMISSION
Line Voltage:
Line Voltage: Line Voltage: SWITCHGEAR
0.5 - 5 kV DC >10kV / 10MVA Line Voltage:
0.1-10MVA 2-5 kV AC 15-100kVA 15kV Class
0.1 – 10MVA 15Kv, 35Kv, 138kV Class
Standard Standard Series Connection 3-Level/ All-Solid State and

Design
Converter &Inverter Converter &Inverter/ Pulse Transformer 5-Level Circuit Hybrid Circuit
3-Level Circuit
VMAX
1- 6.5 kV 1 – 6.5 kV > 6.5 kV > 4.5 kV > 6 kV
Across
Semiconductor
> 4.5kV IGBT/GTO/"Super"-GTO/Thristor/SiC Modules
Figure 1-1
Application Trends in High-Voltage, High-Capacity Power Devices
Power System Functions that Drive the Requirements for Solid-State

Switchgear
Today, pressures are increasing on electric service providers to provide a higher quality and
reliable product on demand when customers need it and at a price point that is acceptable to
customers. There are factors in today’s environment to consider, including increased sensitivities
of customer equipment and process to system faults, increase in fault current levels throughout
the power grid, implications of coupling distributed generations and new forms of generation to
the power grid, higher energy costs, increasingly stringent environmental regulations, and
diminishing energy reserves. In this environment, power producers need to mix and match their
electrical services offering to meet the customers’ changing requirements.
The first, the most important factor that we have to apply to the power system today is to make it
a digitally controlled system. We have a digital economy and we're still trying to provide power
to it through a mechanical design system that was designed over 50 years ago. It’s a marvelous
system, but we've been effectively borrowing against the future to pay for the present, and the
future has caught up with us; we need to build the system to serve the digital society of the 21st
century.
Over the past couple of years there has been a phenomenal increase in R&D activities towards
the development of technically feasible and economically viable technologies to design power
1-2
Introduction
electronics based applications (medium voltage and high voltage levels) in distribution and
transmission.
• EPRI's multi-year R&D activity to develop the distribution and transmission level fault
current limiter (2000-2005) – More details on these activities can be founded from references
[1] through [8].
• EPRI's multi-year R&D activity to develop high voltage universal transformer for
distribution application (2002-2005) – More details on these activities can be founded from
references [9] through [13].
• Mitsubishi's ongoing R&D efforts to develop distribution class solid-state breakers (15KV,
600A/1200A) and transfer switches
• Silicon Power Corporation's ongoing efforts (supported by EPRI, Office of Naval Research,
and Department of Energy) to investigate the feasibility of using Super-GTO technology for
medium and high voltage current limiters and transfer switches of the future
• DARPA High Power Electronics Program was also recently established with the goal to
revolutionize high power electrical energy control, conversion, and distribution by
establishing a new class of solid state power switching transistors employing wide bandgap
semiconductor materials.
Gunpowder, the printing press, the commercial generation of electricity, the personal computer,
and the Internet were all major paradigm shifts. Not surprisingly, they all swept away current
practice or modified it significantly. In each case, there was a present need, a confluence of
technologies, and a vision of how to combine technology and need for economic gain and
unprecedented advantage. The need for solid-state switchgear must be based on clearly defined
utility requirements to meet added functionalities and availability of power electronic
technology. Therefore, utility requirements drive the need for the development and deployment
of next-generation power electronics based solid-state switchgear. This understanding is vital to
the design, implementation, and acceptance in any utility.
Extensive literature review revealed that new ventures on "hybrid" and "all solid-state"
switchgear designs and research development efforts of high voltage semiconductor technologies
potentially have a significant value chain. Based on the preliminary results and on-going research
in these areas, solid state switchgear designs ("all solid-state" as well as "hybrid" designs) have
the potential to offer a myriad of advantages that prospective purchasers may find attractive and
may make them successful in the marketplace. While the potential benefits of solid-state
switchgear have long been apparent, potential high production costs have curtailed development
efforts. Advances in high power solid-state components now make possible solid-state
switchgear at a reasonable cost. The advantages of added functions that a conventional circuit
breaker cannot offer help to justify the higher cost associated with a solid state breaker.
Motivations for possible market transformation using next-generation family of universal power
electronics based switchgear designs, include:
• Rapid Load Transfer Capabilities – Solid-state transfer switches are the primary application
for distribution solid state switchgear at the present time. These designs are used to transfer
the power supply of sensitive loads, from a "normal" supply system to "alternate" supply
1-3
Introduction
system when a failure is detected in the "normal" supply. This transfer needs to be performed
in a very fast way (1/4 cycle) so that the load does not experience any power quality problem
• Circuit sectionalizing and reconfiguration – Solid state switches have the potential to
eliminate momentary interruptions for the great majority of customers on distribution
systems when a fault occurs. Solid state switches for reconfiguring systems can also allow
for optimizing performance through reconfiguration without imposing momentary
interruptions on customers
• Rapid Fault Current Solution Deployment – Solid state switchgear designs will enable
transmission and distribution entities (see Figure 1-2) to effectively deal with pressures to
add new transmission capacity, provide open access for distributed and aggregate generation
and deal with the challenges presented by new fault current sources.
• Rapid Fault Isolation and Aid Power Quality Improvements – With the flexibility of power
electronic switching, the solid state switchgear will achieve fault isolation and provide better
network protection and take care of most of the distribution system situations that result in
voltage sags, swells, and power outages
• Instantaneous Current Limiting – Solid state switchgear designs will provide instantaneous
(sub-cycle) current limiting. Solid State switchgear will alleviate the short circuit condition in
both downstream and upstream devices by limiting fault currents coming from the sources of
high short circuit capacity.
• Faster Fault Clearing and Shorten Recloser Interval - Utilities may wish to clear faults more
quickly than current circuit breakers allow
• Mitigating the Effects of New Generation Within Distribution System – New generation (see
Figure 1-3) will increase the available fault current of the network and may result in existing
equipment not being adequately rated to handle the new ratings. Upgrading the system to
accommodate the new fault current ratings may be expensive and create excessively high
prices and barriers to new generation. The solid state switchgear designs with current limiting
capabilities can be used to mitigate this situation.
• Interfaces with distributed generators – Solid state switches can facilitate implementation of
local islanding schemes for distributed generators and allow connection and disconnection
without concern for transients
• Repeated Operations With High Reliability and Without Wear-Out – High fault currents are
known to be a factor in reducing transformer life, so it is expected that an advantage from the
use of a current limiting breaker will be longer life with higher reliability for nearby
transformers
• Curtail Mechanical Wear and Tear in Equipment – Equipment in the fault current path will
not experience the high asymmetrical and symmetrical fault currents that would be possible
without the solid state switchgear
• Soft Start Capability – Limit the inrush current for capacitive loads, by gradually phasing in
the switching device rather than making an abrupt transition from an open to a closed
position
• Reduce Switching Surges – Solid state switches can prevent transient voltages during
capacitor switching and will allow capacitors to be switched in and out as often as needed.
1-4
Introduction
The result is better control of VAR flows, voltage, and flicker on the distribution system
without causing unacceptable transient voltages
• Standardization – Implementing “standardized” designs and provide alternative to large scale
power system breaker upgrades. There are fixed and variable costs in maintaining an
inventory of distribution switchgears. One of the primary functional specifications for the
solid state switchgear designs is standardization of product classes compared to the existing
practice based on multiple voltages and current rating. Realization of this primary functional
specification should result in significant reduction in inventory cost. It is possible to
significantly reduce inventory costs by introducing “standardized” switchgear designs.
• Avoid the Use Traditional (series reactor) Fault Current Limiting Solutions
• Improved operations and asset management – The operations-and-maintenance (O&M) cost
reduction are potentially achievable with solid state switchgears through significant reduction
of size and weight and improved communication capabilities by adopting the IEC 61850
communication architecture
• Minimize Environmental Impact – By minimizing the need for SF6 breakers, the new solid
state switchgear designs will help diminish the environmental impacts of greenhouse gas and
arced oil associated with breakers
• Other Advanced Distribution Automation Functions – Advanced distribution automation
provides opportunities to develop new applications for condition monitoring and asset
management purposes.
• Act as a Smart Sensor – One potential area is for the solid-state switchgear to act as a
sensor of voltage, current, and power factor and provide other advanced distribution
automation functionalities (see Figure 1-4). Solid-state switchgear can be automated to
record and transfer vital power quality and reliability information. Some of these
functionalities include:
– Capable of providing real time information about voltage magnitude, current
magnitude, power quality characteristics of the voltage and current, real and reactive
power, temperature, energy use, harmonic distortion, power factor, etc..
– Alarming functions with intelligence for processing data and identifying conditions
that require notification of the utility or utility automation system. These could
include outages, power quality conditions outside of specified thresholds, excessive
energy use, conditions characteristic of equipment problems, incipient fault detection,
equipment problem identification, fault location, performance monitoring of
protective systems, harmonic resonance conditions, etc.
– Real time state estimation and predictive systems (including fault simulation
modeling) to continuously assess the overall state of the distribution system and
predict future conditions, providing the basis for system optimization.
– Information systems that can integrate meter data with overall information systems
for optimizing system performance and responding to problems (outage management,
asset management, SCADA, loss analysis, customer systems, etc.)
– Integrate communications and control functions in order to optimize system
performance
1-5
Introduction
• Open, Standardized Communication Architecture – An open, standardized

communication architecture is needed to achieve the requisite central and local control by
which the flexible electrical system described above will be strategically operated using
predetermined algorithms. Key features include:
– Solid-state switchgear should conform to IEC 618501 and to be remotely accessible via a
communication system (see Figure 1-5) for remote control and use as a distribution
system condition monitoring node
– Provide procedures and protocols for communications technology in the meter with
appropriate protocols and information systems to support two-way communication
between an overall communication system and the individual customer facility meters.
1
IEC 61850 – This is the international standard document for substation automation systems developed under IEC
Technical Committee (TC) 57. It defines the standards for communication architecture in the substation and the
related system requirements. It supports all substation automation functions and their engineering. Different from
that of earlier standards, the technical approach makes IEC 61850 flexible and future-proof. Additional parts of
61850 are currently under development by working groups of TC-57 to address standards for communications in the
balance of the distribution system (feeder equipment)
1-6
Introduction
1 SSB
1 Generator feeder
2 Network coupling
3 Busbar coupling
4 Transformer feeder
5 Busbar connection / feeder
Transmission network 6 Coupling local generating units
7 Closing ring circuits
8 Capacitor Switches
2
Distribution Distribution Distribution
network SSB network network
3
SSB
SSB
SSB
3
SSB 4 SSB
SSB
7
SSB 5 8
Figure 1-2
Application of Solid State Switchgear at Distribution Voltage Levels [8]
1-7
Introduction
Wind (10 kW)

Photovoltaic (10 kW)
DC Level
Converter
SOLID STATE
SWITCHGEAR
Utility System Inverter

Primary (13.2
kV)
Distribution
Transformer
DC Level DC Level
Converter Converter
Energy Fuel Cell

Storage (25 kW)
Figure 1-3
Application of Solid State Switchgear for Coupling New Generation
Solid-state
switchgear
Solid-state
switchgear
Solid-state
switchgear
Figure 1-4
Solid-state Switchgear – A Cornerstone for Advanced Distribution Automation
1-8
Introduction
Power System Infrastructure
Central Plant Step-Up Transformer
Communication Infrastructure
Solid-state
Distribution Receiving Switchgear Distribution
Gas
Substation Turbine Station Substation Recip
Engine
Micro- Distribution
turbine Substation
Solid-state
Switchgear
Solid-state Commercial
Recip Switchgear Fuel
Photo Engine cell
voltaics
Batteries
Flywheel
Fuel Cells Commercial
Gas Turbine
Residential Industrial
Figure 1-5
Realizing the Vision for Developing a Communication and Control Infrastructure for
Advanced Monitoring
Report Intent
The opportunity to make significant improvements in asset utilization is typically found in

research and development of new technology or through radical design modifications. This
report recognizes the significant opportunity that exists to increase utilization of electro-
mechanical switchgears through fundamental improvements using a more sophisticated device;
power electronics based solid-state switchgear.
The research behind this report was performed to assess the requirements for a next generation
medium and high voltage solid-state switchgears, identify the application areas, and evaluate the
economic and technical considerations for different technologies and design options. This
preliminary research is the first step before embarking on development of the hardware and
associated controls for development of a family of low-cost solid-state switchgear for a range of
distribution applications a prototype version of solid-state switchgear. The first step towards
commercial utilization of the solid-state switchgears can be started with this project for a solid-
state switchgear feasibility assessment. This phase of the project involves more detailed
definition of requirements and evaluation of the technology benefits for economic assessments.
The requirements will form the basis of device specifications that can be used to develop
partnership arrangements with manufacturers for development and commercialization of the
1-9
Introduction
technologies. This is in keeping with EPRI’s mission of providing science and technology-based
solutions of indispensable value to our global energy customers and society.
This feasibility assessment will lead to the development of a family of low-cost solid-state
switchgear for a range of distribution and transmission applications. The solid state switchgear
will be appropriate for applications in existing distribution systems to improve reliability and
solve specific concerns. In addition, they will become an integral part of advanced distribution
automation (ADA) systems with coordinated monitoring and control of virtually all components
of the system. The project approach of developing a family of products will lower capital costs
for the technology to improve the economics of applying the technology in a wider variety of
applications. Variety of applications for the applicability of developing solid state switches was
investigated. Examples include:
• Circuit sectionalizing and reconfiguration. This is an important application as solid state
switches have the potential to eliminate even momentary interruptions for the great majority
of customers on distribution systems when a fault occurs. Solid state switches for
reconfiguring systems can also allow for optimizing performance through reconfiguration
without imposing momentary interruptions on customers. Solid state transfer switches are the
primary application for distribution solid state switchgear at the present time. This
technology provides a good starting point for the technology characterization effort in this
project.
• Capacitor bank switching. Solid state switches can prevent transient voltages during
The result is better control of var flows, voltage, and flicker on the distribution system
without causing unacceptable transient voltages.
• Interfaces with distributed generators. Solid state switches can facilitate implementation
of local islanding schemes for distributed generators and allow connection and disconnection
without concern for transients.
• Fault clearing and current limiting applications. Clearing faults quickly and/or limiting
the fault currents can have tremendous advantages for both the utility and for customers. The
utility benefits because the fault current impact on system components (cables, transformers,
switchgear, etc.) is reduced. Customers benefit because the voltage sag experienced
throughout the system due to the fault is basically eliminated.
The overall objective of this multi-year project is to develop and commercialize a family of low-
cost, multifunctional, solid-state switchgear for distribution and transmission applications. The
objectives of the requirements definition phase delineated in this work statement are:
• Develop a detailed definition of the requirements for product development
• Evaluation of present and existing designs that are either at the conceptual stage in
development, prototype level or at a more matured level
• Appraisal of current switchgear technology and review the current state of the art in
conventional and solid-state switchgear to identify the technology gaps that must be filled to
meet the product family’s needs
1-10
Introduction
• Review the future needs for switchgear equipment (with multiple functions), and provide
clarification of technology development requirements for the new family of multifunction
switchgear
• Based on literature review, identify current and expected future distribution switchgear
applications and will assess the needed characteristics for switchgear in these distribution
system applications
• Identify the functions that the switchgear is to provide, such as 1) current interruption, 2)
current limiting, 3) fast fault clearing and detection, 4) distribution system condition
monitoring, and 5) remote communication linkage with automated distribution operating
systems
• Detailed review of existing power semiconductor device technology and ability to build up
solid-state switchgear products of multiple ratings in a family which will have low cost in
volume production
• Evaluate a conceptual design candidate of solid-state switch concepts and conduct a
feasibility analysis (economic as well as technical)
• Identify a recommended selection of functions to be included in the switchgear products
based on the applications.
• Develop the cost/benefit perform feasibility analysis and the evaluate the projected costs for
the proposed approach
• Initiate discussion with various manufacturers to assure the technical feasibility of the
proposed approach is feasible
• Provide a EPRI long term technology roadmap for the development and commercialization
cycle for the next-generation solid-state switchgear family
A new hybrid switchgear design is presented in this report which is an innovative, scalable and
load transfer, voltage and current monitoring, and a sale price of 5 to 7 times that of conventional
breakers and reclosers. This conceptual design appears to be a suitable candidate to the
development of a family of low-cost solid-state switchgear which can expand the capabilities of
existing switchgears to a modular “integrated electrical interface” and create new service
opportunities to meet the customers' requirement and is therefore a viable market opportunity.
power electronics based switchgear.
The intent here is not to make recommendations for a specific design or a specific semiconductor
device. The question is, “Is there a possibility that other designs may evolve that might meet the
need”? The answer is… perhaps. This decision will have to be made by the manufactures to
come up with other innovative designs that will meet the specification or through a competitive
procurement process to select a vendor/developer/partner. These designs will guide the
development of the smart solid-state switchgear.
1-11
Introduction
Report Organization
This report describes the findings of the research performed to assess the requirements for a next
generation solid-state breakers ("all solid-state" as well as "hybrid" designs), identify the
application areas, and evaluate the economic and technical considerations for different
technologies and design options for a family of low-cost solid-state switchgears. The report
outlines a research roadmap for design and development of the proposed technology and
identifies the key functionalities and criteria that need to be met in order for this technology to
gain market acceptance.
Chapter 2 provides a general overview of current switchgear technology and reviews and
appraises the current state of the art in conventional and solid-state switchgear for identifying the
technology gaps that must be filled in current switchgear technology. The chapter includes
discussions outlining 1) future needs for switchgear equipment, 2) current and expected future
distribution switchgear applications, and 3) possible market drivers for this new device which is
expected to provide a range of functionalities beyond that available with conventional
switchgears
Chapter 3 provides the results of an in-depth literature review of the existing and emerging static
transfer switch designs. For each technology, the chapter provides a brief overview of the
working principle, proposed circuit topologies and configurations, potential application areas,
possible price ranges, pros and cons of the proposed designs, and, most importantly, maturity of
these technologies.
Chapter 4 provides the results of an in-depth literature review of the existing and emerging
power electronics based fault current limiters. For each technology, the chapter provides a brief
overview of the working principle, proposed circuit topologies and configurations, potential
application areas, possible price ranges, pros and cons of the proposed designs, and most
importantly maturity of these technologies.
Chapter 5 provides a detailed review of the state-of-the-art high-power commercial and research
power semiconductor device technology (Si and SiC) and their ability to build up solid-state
switchgear products of multiple ratings in a family which will have low cost in volume
production. Key considerations includes: 1) Technology availability (thyristors, GCT, IGBT,
SiC, etc.) 2) Current handling and current interrupting 3) Communication and control
considerations 4) Cooling requirements 5) Snubber requirements 6) Space requirements. It also
provides discussion on maturity of high-voltage power electronic devices, and research and
development recommendation for devices that can be utilized in the next generation "all solid-
state" as well as "hybrid" switchgear designs. It also documents the current status of wide-band-
gap semiconductor technology and its application areas. Comparisons of the Si technology with
wide band-gap technologies in the context of switchgear application area are documented. This
chapter also provides a consolidated summary of the key technology metrics, based on DARPA’s
R&D program, that are required to realize the development of high-voltage semiconductor
devices.
Chapter 6 evaluates a conceptual design candidate for the next generation solid-state switchgear
and defines the functionality requirement for this multi-functional switchgear
1-12
Introduction
Chapter 7 provides the overall economic assessment for new hybrid switchgear design proposed
in chapter 6. Preliminary production cost and benefit analysis are based on existing and
estimated component costs. Cost estimates are derived for two separate ratings 1) 15KV class
600A and 2) 35KV 1200A. Complete listing of all the parts and its individual costs are also
provided.
Chapter 8 provides EPRI's long term technology roadmap for the development and
commercialization cycle for the next-generation solid-state switchgear family in distribution and
transmission. This chapter provides a detailed description of the possible phases for design and
development of the chosen switchgear technology along with schedules, important milestones,
and commercialization cycle for the development work in 2006–2010 and field testing and
commercialization in 2011-2012.
1-13
2 STATUS AND NEEDS ASSESSMENT OF
DISTRIBUTION SWITCHGEAR
EPRI has undertaken the development of a family of power electronics based switchgear
applications at both distribution and transmission class voltages. Because this technology is
relatively new, there is a still lack of standards and procedures. Solid-state switchgears ("all
solid-state" as well as "hybrid" designs) will have many features that are significantly different
from today’s electromechanical circuit breakers and is certain to have a profound impact on
present practices in both transmission and distribution systems. It is essential to carefully
examine application areas, understand what parts of a system might be sensitive and possibly to
develop a detailed definition of the requirements for product development for the new device.
This chapter addresses the following:

• Provides a general overview of current switchgear technology and reviews and appraises the
current state of the art in conventional and solid-state switchgear for identifying the
technology gaps that must be filled in current switchgear technology,
• Determines the future needs for switchgear equipment (with multiple functions),
• Identifies current and expected future distribution switchgear applications (based on literature
review) and will assess the needed characteristics for switchgear in these distribution system
applications
• Attempts to identify possible market drivers for this new device which is expected to provide
a range of functionalities beyond that available with conventional switchgears by taking
advantage of advances in power electronics and other related technologies. Functions that the
switchgear needs to provide include: 1) current interruption, 2) current limiting, 3) fast fault
clearing and detection, 4) distribution system condition monitoring, and 5) remote
communication linkage with automated distribution operating systems
• Provides clarification of technology development requirements for the new family of
multifunction switchgear.
Existing Switchgear
A wide range of switchgear is used on medium-voltage distribution systems. Table 2-1

summarizes many of the common applications of distribution switchgear.
Table 2-1
2-1
Status and Needs Assessment of Distribution Switchgear
Typical Indoor Distribution Circuit Breaker Ratings [18, Table 1]
Location Purpose Typical devices Communication
Station bus Backup fault Circuit breaker Common (Scada)

interruption
Station Fault interruption and Circuit breaker or recloser Common (Scada)

feeder sectionalizing
Branch Fault interruption and Fuse, possibly a sectionalizer Rare

points sectionalizing or single-phase recloser
Feeder Sectionalizing and Nonload-break switch, load- Rare

mainline possibly break switch, recloser, or
switch possibly fuses
Feeder tie Sectionalizing Nonload-break switch, load- Rare

switch break switch, or recloser
Customer Fault interruption and Load-break switch, recloser, Rare

switch sectionalizing and/or fuses
Capacitor Fault interruption and Vacuum or oil switch plus Sometimes

switch sectionalizing expulsion and/or current-
limiting fuse
Transformer Fault interruption and Fuse, current limiting fuse Never

switch sectionalizing
Many different switching technologies are used because of the broad range of needs on
distribution primary. Fault currents can range widely on distribution circuits, from over 40 kA at
some urban substations to only hundreds of amperes at the ends of rural circuits. Some
switchgear has fault clearing capabilities, and some does not. Because of the high number of
switch locations, low cost is a major consideration. Fuses are so widely used because of cost and
simplicity. The differing characteristics of distribution switchgear can make coordination of
fault-clearing switchgear difficult.
Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers are often used in the substation on the bus and on each feeder. Circuit breakers
are available with very high interrupting and continuous current ratings. The interrupting
medium in circuit breakers can be any of vacuum, oil, air, or SF . Oil and vacuum breakers are
6
most common on distribution stations with newer units being mainly vacuum with some SF . 6
2-2
Circuit breakers are tripped with external relays. The relays provide the brains to control the
opening of the circuit breaker, so the breaker coordinates with other devices; and the relays also
perform reclosing functions.
Distribution circuit breakers are typically 500 to 1000 MVA (breakers are historically rated as
constant MVA devices). The symmetrical interrupting rating of a 100-MVA breaker is around 48
kA (see Table 2-2 for typical ratings and Table 2-3 and Table 2-4 for wider ranges of ratings
available). Load current ratings from 600 to 2400 A are available.
The circuit breaker interrupting time is defined as the interval between energizing the trip circuit
and the interruption of all phases. Most distribution circuit breakers are five-cycle breakers.
Older breakers interrupt in eight cycles.
Distribution circuit breakers are three-phase devices. When the trip signal is received, all three
phases are tripped. All three will not clear simultaneously because the phase current zero
crossings are separated. The degree of separation between phases is usually one half to one
cycle.
Table 2-2
Typical 15-kV class circuit breaker short-circuit ratings
500 750 1000
MVA MVA MVA
Rated voltage, kV 15 15 15
K, voltage range factor 1.3 1.3 1.3
Short circuit at max voltage rating 18 28 37
Maximum symmetrical interrupting, kA 23 36 48
Close and latch rating
1.6 K × rated short-circuit current, kA (asym) 37 58 77
2.7 K × rated short-circuit current, kA (peak) 62 97 130
2-3
Table 2-3
Typical Indoor Distribution Circuit Breaker Ratings [8, Table 1]
Rated Rated Continuous Rated Short- Typical Cost

Maximum Current, Circuit Current,
Voltage,
kV, rms A, rms kA, rms
4.76 1200, 2000 31.5
1200, 2000 40
1200, 2000, 3000 50
8.25 1200, 2000, 3000 40
15 1200, 2000 20
1200, 2000 25
1200, 2000 31.5
1200, 2000, 3000 40
1200, 2000, 3000 50
1200, 2000, 3000 63
27 1200 16
1200, 2000 25
38 1200 16
1200, 2000 25
1200, 2000, 3000 31.5
1200, 2000, 3000 40
2-4
Table 2-4
Typical Outdoor Distribution Circuit Breaker Ratings [18, Table 2]
Rated Rated Continuous Rated Short- Typical Cost

Maximum Current, Circuit Current,
Voltage,
kV, rms A, rms kA, rms
15.5 600, 1200 12.5
1200, 2000 20
1200, 2000 25
1200, 2000, 3000 40
25.8 1200, 2000 12.5
1200, 2000 25
38.0 1200, 2000 16
1200, 2000 20
1200, 2000 25
1200, 2000 31.5
1200, 2000, 3000 40
2-5
There are some opportunities to replace circuit breakers with competitive solid-state switches.
The main benefits are fault-current limiting, speed of operation, and reduced maintenance. The
main challenges are:
• Cost—Many utilities use reclosers in substations (where fault currents permit) mainly
because of cost.
• Compatibility—Switchgear must be compatible in size with other gear. It must be able to
work in standalone (with sufficient battery backup). The control operation must be testable
with relay test sets or other verifiable means.
Reclosers
A recloser is a specialty distribution protective device capable of interrupting fault current and
automatically reclosing. Like a circuit breaker, interruption occurs at a natural current zero. The
interrupting medium of a recloser is most commonly vacuum or oil. The insulating medium is
generally oil, air, a solid dielectric, or SF . The recloser control can be electronic,
6
electromechanical (the relay for tripping is electromechanical, and the reclosing control is
electronic) or hydraulic. A hydraulic recloser uses springs and hydraulic systems for timing and
actuation.
The interrupting rating of a recloser is based on a symmetrical current rating. The interrupting
current rating does not change with voltage. There is an exception that some reclosers have a
higher interrupting current if operated at a significantly lower voltage than the rating. Smaller
reclosers with a 50 to 200-A continuous rating typically have interrupting ratings of 2 to 5 kA
(these would normally by feeder reclosers). Larger reclosers that could be used in substations
have continuous current ratings as high as 1120 A and interrupting ratings of 6 to 16 kA.
Historically, reclosers with series coil types had coil ratings of 25, 35, 50, 70, 100, 140, 200, 280,
400 and 560 A (each rating is approximately 1.4 times higher than the next lower rating).
Reclosers are tested at a specified X/R ratio as specified in [15]. A typical test value is X/R = 16.
While a lower X/R ratio at the point of application does not mean you can increase the rating of a
recloser, the recloser must be derated if the X/R ratio is larger than that specified.
There are some other differences with recloser ratings versus circuit breaker ratings [25].
Reclosers do not have to be derated for multiple operations. Reclosers do not have a separate
closing and latching (or first-cycle) rating; the symmetrical current rating is sufficient to handle
the asymmetry during the first cycle as long as the circuit X/R ratio is lower than the tested value.
Reclosers have many distribution applications. We find reclosers in the substation as feeder
interrupters instead of circuit breakers. An IEEE survey found that 51% of station feeder
interrupting devices were reclosers [26]. Reclosers are used more in smaller stations and circuit
breakers more in larger stations. Three-phase reclosers can be used on the main feeder to provide
necessary protection coverage on longer circuits along with improved reliability. Overhead units
and padmounted units are available. Reclosers are available as single-phase units, so they can be
used on single-phase taps instead of fuses. Another common application is in autoloop
automation schemes to automatically sectionalize customers after a fault.
2-6
Since reclosers are devices built for distribution circuits, some have features that are targeted to
distribution circuit needs. Three-phase units are available that can operate each phase
independently (so a single-phase fault will only open one phase). Some reclosers have a feature
called sequence coordination to enhance coordination between multiple devices.
There are some opportunities to replace reclosers with competitive solid-state switches. The
main benefits are speed of operation and reduced maintenance. The main challenges are:
• Cost—Many utilities use hydraulic reclosers because of cost, even though electronic
reclosers offer more flexible control and coordination.
• Size—Reclosers are easily pole mounted and can be pad mounted.
Expulsion Fuses
Expulsion fuses are the most common protective device on distribution circuits. Fuses are low-
cost interrupters that are easily replaced (when in cutouts). Interruption is relatively fast and can
occur in a half of a cycle for large currents. An expulsion fuse is a simple concept — a fusible
element made of tin or silver melts under high current. Expulsion fuses are most often applied in
a fuse cutout. In a fuse tube, after the fuse element melts, an arc remains. The arc, which has
considerable energy, causes a rapid pressure buildup. This forces much of the ionized gas out of
the bottom of the cutout, which helps to prevent the arc from reigniting at a current zero. The
extreme pressure, the stretching of the arc, and the turbulence help increase the dielectric
strength of the air and clear the arc at a current zero.
The cutout is an important part of the fuse interrupter. The cutout determines the maximum
interrupting capability, the continuous current capability, the load-break capability, the basic
impulse insulation level (BIL), and the maximum voltage. Cutouts are typically available in 100,
200, and 300-A continuous ratings (ANSI standard sizes [14]).
Cutouts are rated on a symmetrical basis. Cutouts are tested at X/R ratios of 8 to 12, so if the X/R
ratio at the application point is higher than the test value, the cutout should be derated. The fuse
line holder determines the interrupting capability, not the fuse link.
Opportunities for replacing expulsion fuses with solid-state switchgear are likely to be limited
for some time. Fuses are small and low-cost. They are one-shot devices, but they are easily
replaced.
Current-Limiting Fuses
Current limiting fuses (CLFs) are another interrupter that has the ability to reduce the magnitude
of the fault current. Current-limiting fuses consist of fusible elements in silicon sand. When fault
current melts the fusible elements, the sand melts and creates a narrow tube of glass called a
fulgerite. The voltage across the arc in the fulgerite greatly increases. The fulgerite constricts the
arc. The sand helps cool the arc (which means it takes energy from the arc). The sand does not
give off ionizable gas when it melts, and it absorbs electrons; so the arc has very little ionizable
air to use as a conductor. Without ionizable air, the arc is choked off, and the arc resistance
2-7
becomes very high. This causes a back voltage that quickly reduces the current. The increase in
resistance also lowers the X/R ratio of the circuit that causes a premature current zero. At the
current zero, the arc extinguishes. Since the X/R ratio is low, the voltage zero and current zero
occur very close together, so there will be very little transient recovery voltage (the high arc
voltage comes just after the element melts). Because the current-limiting fuse forces an early
current zero, the fuse can clear the short circuit in much less than one half of a cycle.
Current-limiting fuses are mainly used on equipment in high-fault current areas to limit the
chance of equipment rupture. They are also occasionally used on taps. They have also been used
to reduce the impact of voltage sags.
Current-limiting fuses are noted for their very high fault-clearing capability. CLFs have
symmetrical maximum interrupt ratings to 50 kA; contrast that to expulsion fuses which may
have typical maximum interrupt ratings of 3.5 kA in oil and 13 kA in a cutout. Current-limiting
fuses also completely contain the arc during operation and are noiseless with no pressure
buildup.
Current-limiting fuses have some of the limitations:

• One-shot devices—Current-limiting fuses provide excellent current limitation, but they are
one-shot devices and so have no reclosing capability.
• Cost—Expulsion fuses are expensive relative to expulsion fuses.
Even given these limitations, the opportunities for using solid-state switchgear in place of
current-limiting fuses is limited, mainly because the places utilities now use current-limiting
fuses could not justify spending more on solid-state switchgear.
One possibility is that if a solid-state current-limiting switch is used upstream, it could allow the
utility to eliminate many downstream current-limiting fuses. This is especially applicable to 25-
and 35-kV distribution systems where fault currents are higher over a larger portion of the circuit
and transformers with internal fuses have less fault-current withstand at these voltages. On these
circuits, having a feeder-wide current-limiting switch could provide enough protection, so that
the utility could eliminate the need to use many (50 to 200) current-limiting fuses.
Mitigation of Voltage Sags and Interruptions
There are three levels of possible solutions to voltage sag and momentary interruption problems:
• Modifying the power system design to produce fewer faults
• Modifying equipment design to be more tolerant of rms variations
• Installation of equipment to condition the power
2-8
Power System Design
Faults on the power system are the ultimate cause of both momentary interruptions and voltage
sags. Any measures taken to reduce the likelihood of a fault will help reduce the incidence of
sags and interruptions to customers.
These measures can include the following remedies:
1. Converting overhead lines to underground cables
2. Trimming trees
3. Increasing application of surge arresters for lightning protection on overhead circuits
4. Increasing sectionalization of feeders and tap branches
The protection philosophy of the utility distribution system will also impact the problems
experienced by customers during fault conditions. With current practice, the entire distribution
feeder is typically interrupted for temporary faults. One way to reduce the number of customers
affected by the interruption is to install more fault-interrupting sectionalizing devices along the
feeder. The devices on the line can be set to respond faster than the substation breaker and will
only interrupt a smaller section of the feeder.
Reducing the fault clearing time leads to less severe voltage sags. This approach affects not only
the number of events but also their duration. Utilities could consider the opportunity to install
current limiting fuses or solid-state breakers which are able to clear the fault within a half cycle,
ensuring that no voltage sags will last longer in duration. An ideal application of a static breaker,
is at the tie-line location. In the event of a fault on a feeder downstream, it provides fast bus-
splitting after which the fault is cleared by a downstream protective device, thus reducing the
total fault current and the duration of the sag as seen by the loads supplied by the adjacent feeder.
Some caution has to be used, however, when applying these new protection devices in existing
distribution systems. If only some of the protective devices were replaced with static breakers
(on incoming transformer circuits or feeder circuits, for instance), it would not be possible to co-
ordinate them with previously existing downstream protective devices, due to their extremely
fast operation. If faster fault clearing is needed, then the whole system has to be redesigned and
all the protective devices have to be replaced with faster ones. This would greatly reduce the
grading margin between the breakers, thus leading to a significant reduction in fault-clearing
time. Fast devices can still be placed directly on the load, e.g. where there is no downstream
protective device with which they must co-ordinate. A current-limiting fuse (much cheaper than
a static circuit breaker) is very suitable in this case, since no re-closure is necessary: with a single
load, the fault is likely to be permanent and repair is needed before power restoring.
Another way of minimizing the effect of an interruption is to shorten the reclosing interval.
While industrial processes will be knocked offline regardless, many residential loads can pick up
without upset if the interruption is very brief. Clock resetting is one major problem that seems to
respond to reducing the reclosing interval. While there may not be much economic impact with
this, it is the source of many complaints. Florida Power Corporation (FPC) conducted an
experiment whereby the reclosing interval for the first breaker operation was reduced from 2
2-9
seconds to less than 0.5 seconds. In fact, it was reduced to as low as 0.3 seconds. It was found
that this virtually eliminated residential customer complaints. The suspected reason is that most
digital clocks will ride through an interruption of 0.5 seconds without losing time. One concern
with such fast reclosing is that the fault will not clear. At the 15 kV class, FPC engineers were
not able to notice an increase in breaker operations that would signify that faults were not
clearing.
Key Advantages of Solid-State ("All Solid-State" as well as "Hybrid"

Designs) Switchgear
Solid-state switchgear offers a number of possibilities [2-6]:

• Repeated operations with high reliability and without wear-out.
• Reduced switching surges.
• Faster clearing reduces the impact of voltage sags on adjacent circuits.
• Faster clearing reduces stress on distribution equipment and reduces damage at the fault
location.
• Limited inrush current (soft start), even for capacitive loads
Fault-Current Limiting
Fault-current limiting is a major reason to consider solid-state switchgear. The following are the
benefits of fault current limiters:
• Failures—Cable thermal failures are less likely, and violent equipment failures are less
likely.
• Conductor burndowns—At the fault, the heat from the fault current arc burns the conductor
enough to break it, dropping it to the ground. Faster clearing and lower magnitudes reduces
the chance of burndowns.
• Damage of inline equipment—The most common problem has been with inline hot-line
clamps. If the connection is not good, high-current fault arcs across the contacts can burn the
connection apart. Faster clearing and lower magnitudes reduces the chances of such damage.
• Evolving faults—Ground faults are more likely to become two- or three-phase faults with
longer, higher-magnitude faults; current-limiting will reduce this probability.
• Underbuilt—Faults on underbuilt distribution are less likely to cause faults on the
transmission circuit above due to rising arc gases with fault-current limiting.
• Equipment ratings—Some distribution stations have fault current levels near the maximum
ratings of existing switchgear; additional short-circuit current requires reconfigurations or
new technology. Fault-current limiting can solve this.
• Shocks—Step and touch potentials are less severe during faults.
2-10
• Conductor movement—Conductors move less during faults (this provides more safety for
workers in the vicinity of the line and makes conductor slapping faults less likely).
• Voltage sags—Current limiting reduces the depth of the voltage sag to customers on adjacent
circuits.
• Coordination—Fuse coordination is easier. Fuse saving is more likely to work with lower
fault currents.
Faster clearing (without actual current limiting) can also helps with some of these benefits, but
not to the degree that current limiting can.
Current limiting reduces the energy at the location of the fault. This provides safety to workers
and the public. Arc damage to life and property occurs in several ways:
• Pressure wave—The fault arc pressure wave damages equipment and personnel.
• Heat—The fault arc heat burns personnel and can start fires.
• Pressure buildup in equipment—An arc in oil causes pressure buildup that can rupture
equipment.
All of these effects are related to the arc energy and all are greatly reduced with current limiting.
While fault-current limiting has many advantages, there are several considerations to think about.
In particular, the use of an extremely fast acting current limiter raises many questions related to
relaying practices. It is important to address the following:
• Consider the implications of operating a current limiting device in the power grid
• Understand what parts of a system might be sensitive and possibly to learn some
requirements for the new device that may be driven by relaying considerations
• Analyze how the new modes of operation of the solid-state current limiter will affect relaying
and how relaying will affect the existing protective device.
An important question that needs investigation is "how will this new device coordinate with
upstream and downstream switchgear?" Coordinating two of these devices in series may be
tricky as they both try to limit fault current. The upstream device may need a delay or some sort
of slower response curve.
A fault-current limiting device would work quite well in a fuse saving scheme where the
substation device tries to operate before downstream fuses. Because of its speed and current-
limiting capability, a current-limiting switch is ideal for this. Most existing switchgear has
trouble with fuse saving because it is not fast enough and fault currents are too high for the
substation circuit breaker to clear before the fuse blows [27].
With fuse blowing or coordination with other downstream protective devices, it is more difficult
for a current-limiting device to coordinate. The upstream switch must wait before operating to
give a downstream device a chance to clear the fault. This means that the switch must be rated to
handle longer-duration fault currents. A fault-limiting device can still limit the current during the
2-11
fault, but it has to let sufficient current to flow for long enough to allow the downstream device
to operate.
Fault-current limiting may also allow a faster reclose. Fault-current limiting will reduce the
energy into the fault arc, so the arc should cool off faster and allow for a faster reclose. A fault
arc needs time to cool, or the reclose could retrigger the arc. Whether the arc strikes again is a
function of voltage and structure spacings. For 15-kV distribution, minimum de-ionization times
are on the order of 11 cycles [28]. Fault-current limiting may reduce that, possibly down to two
or three cycles. Such a fast reclose could allow many end-use devices such as computers to ride
through the event. The fast reclose would only work with lightning-caused faults because the
triggering impulse that causes the voltage breakdown can be complete in less than a millisecond.
For a temporary contact from a squirrel or other object, more time is needed for separation from
the “debris”.
Having readily available fault-limiting switchgear could fundamentally change the way
distribution circuits are protected. Having such gear could lead to more protection schemes based
on communication, as communication can allow devices to operate quickly while still
coordinating. Utilities may also use more current-limiting fuses, as these are faster than
traditional expulsion fuses and may coordinate better with a fault-limiting switch.
Advanced and Future Switchgear Needs
The following are areas where advanced control is needed:

• Networked primary
• Large penetration of distributed generation
These scenarios could be handled by existing switchgear with advanced communication and
controls. Solid-state switchgear could improve on existing switchgear by making switching so
fast that circuit reconfigurations are almost unnoticeable to end-use customers. Current-limiting
technologies would help control short circuit currents that could grow as multiple fault-current
sources are added to the system (distributed generators or other energy storage devices).
Other advanced switchgear has found some (but not widespread) applications on distribution
circuits:
• Fast vacuum transfer switches
• Solid-state transfer switches [21,22]
Control, Monitoring, and Communication
The control, monitoring and communication systems necessary to support high-speed

distribution switchgear has been addressed as part of the Advanced Distribution Automation
(ADA) project [29-31]:
2-12
Distribution Substation Control System Development
Substation automation is already widespread and many different substation control systems are
available. These systems use many different proprietary communication technologies but can be
integrated with other systems with appropriate gateways. Research projects should identify the
requirements for the substation controller of the future, taking into account the distributed control
system functionality of the ADA system. Interface and coordination requirements for the
substation control system will be substantial. The research should identify appropriate migration
paths from today’s substation control technologies to the integrated controls that will be used in
the future ADA systems.
Intelligent Substation and Feeder Monitoring
Intelligent substation and feeder monitoring efforts are already under way. Examples include the
Distribution Fault Anticipator (DFA) and intelligent applications being applied in conventional
PQ monitoring systems (PQRCM - EPRI Program 3). Asset management systems are also
employing intelligent monitoring systems.
Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) are already standard in substations and these can be
integrated with substation and feeder monitoring systems to provide more complete information
about substation conditions without expensive investments in additional monitors. These devices
include smart relays, reclosers, Digital Fault Recorders (DFRs) that are already being used in
substations, capacitor bank controllers, voltage regulators, etc.
Research should focus on standardizing applications and development of standard interfaces for
IEDs to allow convenient integration with monitoring systems. These efforts lead to very
convenient demonstrations that can have very fast paybacks. Carolina Power & Light has
demonstrated the value of these systems to improving reliability and reducing operating costs.
Intelligent Distribution Communications
Laying out a communications technology roadmap to support the incremental development and
deployment of advanced distribution automation functions involves several tasks:
• Identifying the core automation functions to be deployed
• Determining the communications system requirements to support these functions
• Determining the relative hardware cost of specific enabling components for these
functions
• Determining the software and systems engineering costs for each function
• Determining dependencies between functions
2-13
• Identifying standards that enable efficient, interoperable function implementation
• Pilot project identification
• Business case/model development
• Legacy management
In general, we need to answer the following basic question – What information do we need to
know at each point in the system to optimally control the distribution system? Answering this
question specifically for each power system component involved in the ADA system leads us to
a comprehensive set of requirements for data interchange and the key attributes associated with
that interchange.
Roles for Advanced Switchgear
The main applications (initially) of solid-state switchgear are expected to be:

• Substation applications—The main advantages of solid-state switchgear are current limiting
and speed. Fault-current limiting can allow switchgear to be used in areas where fault current
has (or will) grown past the fault-current duty of existing circuit breakers. Fast switches and
fault limiting will help reduce stress on distribution transformers and other distribution
equipment.
• Custom applications to large customer services—Switchgear to large customers is another
area that could be served by solid-state switchgear. They may have specialized needs that
could be met by high-tech switchgear, including harmonic reduction, fast transfer switching,
and possibly voltage-sag correction.
• Feeder applications—The main advantage of solid-state feeder switchgear is fast operation.
Fault-current limiting is not needed as often (fault currents are generally lower). Reliability
and flexibility in control and operation will help gain acceptance. Competitive cost is
paramount.
• Industrial applications—Large industrial facilities are a big market for medium-voltage
switchgear. Such applications could benefit from fault-current limiting for cases with high
short-circuit levels. Cost is a major driving force.
The following applications are not expected to be suitable for replacement with solid-state
switchgear, mainly for cost reasons:
• Tap fuses
• Transformer fuses
• Capacitor fuses
• Feeder no load-break switches
2-14
Relay Requirements for Solid State Switchgear in Current Limiting

Application
Solid state switchgear will have many features that are significantly different from today’s
electromechanical circuit breakers. For example it can be expected to have:
• Ability to clear faults in a time frame of 1/4 cycle from fault inception.
• Current limiting of high magnitude fault currents.
• Reclosing as rapidly as 1/2 cycle after clearing a fault.
• Soft reclosing by limiting current to the circuit until it has demonstrated to have returned to
normal integrity
An EPRI report [1] documents the initial investigation that was conducted to understand the
impact of current limiting by the solid-state switchgear designs on existing protective devices.
This work represented the first step toward understanding what the complex issues are clearly.
The next section provides some of the relaying issues and potential concerns that would need to
be investigated. Some of the issues raised here will have to be revisited in more details as
development of solid-state switchgear application progresses and as potential users provide real
world examples for study.
Relaying of the Solid-State Switch
As a solid state device, the solid state switchgear will have controls that will self protect.
Designing the solid state switchgear to respond properly to system abnormal conditions may
allow these controls to be integrated with conventional protective and relaying practices for
improved performance, thus promoting early acceptance of the new technology. Relaying
requirements of the solid state designs and adjustments that will have to be made include:
• Evaluate the benefit of having all relaying contained in the solid-state switchgear controls
versus the concern for a common mode failure.
– Determine the required minimum characteristics of a fully functional and testable
microprocessor relay package integral to the solid-state switchgear. This may be a
removable card or leads to a test connector.
– Quantify the requirements for independent, redundant relays to operate the solid-state
switchgear particularly in transmission applications.
• Evaluate the need and feasibility for an adjustable threshold for current limiting action.
– Determine the range of current limiting settings between solid-state switchgear needs and
power system needs to minimize circuit interruptions.
– Examine the restrictions on dI/dt detection, such as high frequency switching currents
cause by capacitor banks.
2-15
• Examine new features that may be required to gain full advantage of the high-speed reclose
capability.
– Explore testing for circuit integrity before full reclose.
– Explore testing for and establishing a re-synchronized reclose.
– Examine feasibility of non-trip current limiting for back-to-back capacitor switching.
• Evaluate the impact on existing protective devices with an solid-state switchgear functioning
in the fault current limiting mode.
– Determine at what level fault current limiting will slow fault clearing of devices in
adjacent protection zones.
– Explore how adjacent zone devices will respond to non-sinusoidal currents caused by the
SSCL in the fault current limiting mode.
• Evaluate the impact of using the inherent single pole tripping capability of the solid-state
switchgear.
– Explore feeder conditions and time windows where expanded possibilities may exist such
as lateral fuse saving.
– Establish limitations on single pole tripping such as downstream three phase transformer
connections.
• Evaluate coordination with high speed reclosing capabilities of the solid-state switchgear.
– Explore how gradual reclosing, if feasible, will impact arc extinction.
– Estimate the possibility of coordinating rapid re-synchronizing with intentional
distributed generation (DG) islands.
• Evaluate coordination/utilization of ultra high-speed fault clearing.
– Evaluate the tie breaker application.
– Evaluate application of DG on network service.
2-16
3 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF STATIC
TRANSFER SWITCHES
As discussed in the previous chapter, power electronic based switchgears ("all solid-state" as
well as "hybrid" designs) can be used for high speed load transfers, fault current interruption and
limiting, fast fault current limiting, tie breaker or solid state transfer switch. This chapter
provides an in-depth literature review of the existing and emerging static transfer switchgears for
transmission and distribution applications. Each technology is reviewed based on a brief
overview of the working principle, proposed circuit topologies and configurations, potential
application areas, detailed specifications, possible price ranges, pros and cons of the proposed
designs, and most importantly manufacturer's review and maturity of these technologies.
Application of Custom Power Devices
In the past, most of the electromagnetic-based industrial process equipment was fairly tolerant to
voltage disturbances such as sags, momentary interruptions, harmonics, spikes, and transients.
This is because these equipment was mechanical in nature; electrical energy was converted to
mechanical energy and motors were essentially connected directly to the mains. However, with
the drive towards higher production costs and increased energy efficiency and reliability in
today’s highly competitive market, modern industrial and large commercial facilities are
incorporating a vast array of semiconductor-based electronic devices. Examples of industrial and
commercial facilities that typically employ sensitive, power-electronics-based equipment include
pulp and paper, plastics, petrochemical, mining, textiles, machining, rubber, semiconductor, and
so on. However, even well maintained and reliable power electronic devices turn out to be very
sensitive to PQ variations.
Power-line disturbances—such as voltage sags and momentary interruptions—cost electric

utility customers billions of dollars every year. At one time, minor power disruptions would have
been noticed as a momentary flickering of lights. With today’s increased complexity of process
automation, even if only a small segment of a process is vulnerable, power disruptions may
interrupt the entire automated process. In response to this perceived market need, a broad range
of distribution-class, power-conditioning devices, commonly known as “custom power” devices
have been introduced in the market (see Table 3-1).
When a power conditioning device is applied in the medium voltage distribution system of an
electric utility, its purpose is to protect an entire plant, an entire feeder, or a block of customers
or loads. These devices generally have voltage input and/or output ratings between 1 to 32 kV
with load ratings in excess of 500 kVA. The concept of applying a power conditioning device at
this level is known as custom power
3-1
Technology Assessment of Static Transfer Switches
The concept of custom power is the employment of power electronic or static controllers in
medium voltage distribution systems for the purpose of supplying a level of reliability and/or
power quality that is needed by electric power customers that are sensitive to power quality
variations. Custom power devices, or controllers, are devices that include static switches,
inverters, converters, injection transformers, master control modules, and/or energy storage
modules that have the ability to perform current interruption and voltage regulation functions in a
distribution system to improve reliability and/or power quality.
For customers with sensitive loads, achieving the level of power quality and reliability necessary
to ensure trouble free operation can prove to be expensive. It is often possible to improve quality
through a systematic program that may include the following efforts:
• Improvements in line insulation and insulation coordination
• Rerouting of service to selected critical loads on the customer site
• Improvements to grounding arrangements
• Installation of passive filters
• Reprogramming of a sensitive load's controls
However, these measures may still not achieve the desired level of power quality. To gain
further improvement, a significant capital investment is required. For the case of voltage sags,
this may require a customer to install a UPS system or local generation, both of which may incur
high running costs. The burden on a utility would be to install a second feeder to the customer's
site from an alternate source. Custom power controllers provide another option, which allow a
utility or power provider with the ability to provide a power quality solution on its side of the
distribution network at a level that is deemed satisfactory to the customer. In many cases this
can provide the most economic solution to establishing the required level of power quality.
Custom power devices should be able to react in real time to the state of the distribution system
and rapidly adjust to maintain the required level of power quality. The key technology that has
made custom power devices possible is the turn-on/turn-off solid state switch. Developments in
power electronic technologies including the gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), the insulated gate
bipolar transistor (IGBT), and the integrated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT) mean that
devices with operational capabilities suitable for high power applications are now available at a
cost that makes them economically possible for distribution power levels. Also important to
realizing this technology have been the advances made in microcontrollers, signal processors,
fiber optic communications and techniques to series-connect solid state switches.
However, the customer response to these new lines of products has not been receptive mainly
because of their cost. Some of these traditional and emerging technologies, with their
approximate price ranges (see Figure 3-1), includes:
• Reactive power and harmonic compensation – Distribution series capacitor, Intellivar
pole-mounted, adaptive var compensator (AVC), S&C Electric static condenser
(DSTATCOM), active harmonic filter plus reactive compensator, and so on.
• Voltage sag and momentary interruption protection devices – Distribution series
compensation devices (for example, DVR, step-dynamic voltage restorer [S-DVR], medium
3-2
voltage dynamic voltage restorer [MVDVR], PQ VR, platform mounted dynamic voltage
restorer [PMDVR]), static shunt-off line compensation device, static tap-switching
transformer, static transfer switches for distribution voltage classes, and so on
Table 3-1
Summary of Custom Power and Related Customer-Side Power Conditioning Devices
Mitigation Capabilities
Manufacturer Device Name Device Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage
Category Application Sag Swell Interruption
ABB Power T&D Dynamic Voltage SSC MV √ √
Company Restorer (DVR)
ABB Power T&D Step-Dynamic Voltage SVR MV √ √
Company Restorer (S-DVR)
ABB Power T&D Dynamic UPS (DUPS) BSES MV √ √ √
Company
American Power PQ AC and PQ DC BSES LV √ √ √
Conversion
American Power PQ VR and PQ IVR BSES MV √ √
Conversion
Cyberex LLC Static Transfer Switch STS MV √ √ √
General Electric Static Series Voltage SSC LV/MV √ √
Regulator (SSVR)
Inverpower Static Voltage SVR MV √ √
Regulator (SVR)
InverPower Static Transfer Switch STS MV √ √ √
Mitsubishi Solid-State Transfer STS MV √ √ √
Electric Power Switch
Products, Inc.
Omnion Power PQ2000 Power BSES LV √ √ √
Engineering Protection System
Siemens Power Dynamic Voltage SSC MV √ √
T&D Company Restorer (DVR)
Siemens Power Platform Mounted SSC MV √ √
T&D Company Dynamic Voltage
Restorer (PMDVR)
Siemens Power Series Power SSC LV √ √
T&D Company Conditioner
(SIPCON-S)
Soft Switching ProDySC SSC LV √ √ √
Technologies
Soft Switching MegaDySC SSC MV √ √ √
Technologies
S&C Electric PureWave UPS BSES LV/MV √ √ √
S&C Electric PureWave Voltage SSC MV √ √
Company Support System
S&C Electric PureWave Source STS MV √ √ √
Company Transfer System
Silicon Power Subcycle Voltage SVR MV √ √
Corporation Regulator
Silicon Power ParaDigm Subcycle STS LV/MV √ √ √
Corporation Transfer Switch
3-3
Figure 3-1
Approximate Price Ranges for Reactive Power and Harmonic Compensation Devices
3-4
Source Transfer Switch
Source transfer switches have been used throughout the industry for many decades for protecting
critical loads from power system disturbances. However, within the last decade the technology
available for such devices has broadened the possibilities for applying such devices. Transfer
switches enable seamless transfer of energy from a primary source to an alternate source in order
to avoid service interruption upon a deficiency in power quality. As a result, power quality
problems become transparent to the critical or sensitive customer loads that the SSTS protects.
Solid-state switches can now be used for the switching operation, thus decreasing the switching
time, and allowing for a more seamless transfer of load from one source to the next.
This section focuses on the newer technology available to utilities, specifically the static source
transfer switch. In addition, traditional automatic transfer switches, high-speed vacuum-
switched transfer systems, and hybrid (both solid-state and electromechanical) systems will be
addressed.
Device Overview
A Source Transfer Switch (STS) is designed to protect critical loads from power system
disturbances. This is accomplished by transferring the critical load from a preferred feeder (e.g.
faulted) to an alternate feeder (e.g. un-faulted). The STS contains two or more “switches” that
allow a transfer from one source to another. Using ideal switches, a simple diagram of an STS is
shown in Figure 3-2. Under normal operation, S1 is closed and S2 is open. When a disturbance
is detected on Source 1, S1 opens and S2 closes, thus supplying the load through Source 2.
Figure 3-2
Basic Diagram of a Static Transfer Switch
3-5
Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS)
The automatic transfer switch (ATS) has often been used in applications requiring loads to be
switched to a backup power source (e.g. alternate feeder, backup generator, etc.) when
disturbances, such as outages, occur on the preferred feeder. Typically a rather inexpensive
device, the ATS (Figure 3-3) has been used for many years. Unfortunately, due to the nature of
the electromechanical switches used in the ATS, a “seamless” transfer is not obtainable. Typical
transfer times can range from a few seconds up to approximately ten seconds. Some work is
currently being done that involves incorporating vacuum switches in this type of application to
obtain approximate transfer times between 1½ and 2 cycles.
Figure 3-3
Automatic Transfer Switch
A list showing various manufacturers of the ATS is provided:

• ASCO: Florham Park, New Jersey
• G&W Electric Company: Blue Island, Illinois
• Russelectric Power Control Systems: Hingham, Massachusetts
• Westinghouse Electric Corporation: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
• Zenith Controls, Incorporated: Chicago, Illinois
Static Source Transfer Switch (Static STS)
The almost seamless transfer of the load from the preferred feeder to the alternate feeder is made
possible with the use of solid-state devices. The low voltage static STS has been used in the
industry for over 25 years. Due to the ratings associated with these devices, they were limited to
applications in the 480 V range up to about 1 MVA. Low voltage static switches have also been
standard devices in most UPS systems. Recently, due to the development of higher rated
3-6
thyristors, medium voltage static STS systems have found their way into the industry. These
types of devices can range up to 35 kV at 35 MVA, thus allowing the static STS to be a facility-
wide solution.
The most common solid-state device used in static STS systems is the thyristor, or silicon-
controlled rectifier (SCR). The thyristor was first developed in 1957 by General Electric
Research Laboratories and offers one of the highest power-handling capabilities of solid-state
devices. While a thyristor switch can be turned on at any time, removing the gate signal will not
immediately turn the thyristor off. The thyristor can only turn off when the current through the
device goes to zero. There are three ways to achieve a current zero:
1. Natural commutation where the current through reaches the zero crossing on the sinusoid,
2. Forced commutation where the opposite side thyristor switch is turned on when the opposite
side voltage is higher. This applies a reverse bias to the lower voltage conducting thyristor
switch and forces it off
3. Forced commutation via auxiliary solid-state switching devices, controls, and energy storage
components. This method is expensive and very rarely used.
The gate-turnoff (GTO) thyristor has also been tested for use in the static STS.
Thyristor (SCR)
The thyristor is one of the simplest of devices to control. The thyristor only requires two things
to operate: forward biasing and a gate current. Applying a positive voltage to VAC forward biases
the thyristor. Once the thyristor is forward biased, a gate signal can be applied and the thyristor
will begin to conduct. The current path during conduction is from the anode to the cathode.
Once the device begins to conduct, it is latched on and the gate signal can be removed. The
voltage drop across the thyristor during conduction is typically 2 to 3 V.
The thyristor can not be turned off from the gate. Only when the anode to cathode current tries
to go negative, under the influence of the circuit in which the thyristor is connected, does the
thyristor turn off.
Due to the high power ratings that have been available, thyristors have been the preferred solid
state device used in static STS systems. The thyristor is a proven device and the relative cost
with respect to other devices of similar type (GTO, MCT, etc.) is less.
Gate-Turnoff (GTO) Thyristor
The gate-turnoff thyristor, often called GTO, is very similar to the thyristor in that it requires a
gate signal and forward bias in order to conduct, and ceases to conduct when the anode to
cathode current tries to go negative. The difference lies in turning the thyristor off. Unlike the
thyristor, which is a line-commutated device, the GTO can be turned off with the gate. During
conduction, if a large enough negative gate signal is applied, the device will cease to conduct.
The gate signal required to turn the device off is typically one-fifth to one-third the amount of the
anode current.
3-7
Unfortunately, due to the nature of the device, such functionality sacrifices the availability of
high power ratings. GTOs are currently not available in ratings equivalent to that of the
thyristor, and in order to control when the GTO is turned off, a significant amount of power is
required. For these reasons, the GTO is not currently being used in stand-alone static solid-state
transfer switch (STS) systems, but has worked its way into the design of other protection
devices. For example, American Superconductor uses a GTO in the static switch of their SMES
devices.
Super-GTO
Silicon Power is developing the ‘Ultrafast’ LVSTS (UFLVSTS) that replaces the traditional
thyristor with an advanced gate turnoff thyristor the “Super”-GTO (S-GTO) to allow dramatic
increases in switching speed while also allowing for reductions in system size and cost. The S-
GTO takes an older device technology (the Gate Turn-Off Thyristor, GTO) and improves it by
using modern Integrated Chip (IC) technology. A typical 3600V, 200A S-GTO ac switch module
is shown in Figure 3-4.
Figure 3-4
3.6KV, 200A S-GTO AC Switch from Silicon Power [32]
High-Speed Mechanical Source Transfer Switch (HSMSTS)
Due to the increased cost of the medium voltage static STS, some manufacturers have decided to
reduce the cost of the device by replacing the traditional thyristor with a vacuum switch. The
objective of reducing the price of the switch is obtained but at the cost of increasing transfer
time. Typical transfer times associated with the HSMSTS are on the order of 1½ cycles, with no
crossover time (paralleling of the two sources). Therefore, this approach is only a viable solution
if the particular load in need of protection can withstand a 1½ cycle long system disturbance.
The efficiency of the device is also somewhat higher than the thyristor-controlled switch, at
approximately 99% or greater.
Cyberex, Inc. currently offers the HSMSTS as an alternative to the static STS at the medium
voltage level. By doing so, the total cost of the device is reduced significantly – on the order of
3-8
1/5 to 1/10 the price. ABB also recently unveiled a HSMSTS that offers this same functionality
at a similarly reduced price compared to the static STS.
Hybrid Source Transfer Switch
In a conventional solid state STS, line current flows in the thyristors continuously, causing a geat
deal of loss consumption and element heating during normal operation. As a result, relatively
large cooling equipment is required which imposes additional operating costs on the user in order
to maintain thyristor cooling. It also results in reduced efficiency and lower reliability in the
device.
Mitsubishi [33] uses an advanced solid-state transfer switching scheme using a novel hybrid
switch device, resulting in negligible loss consumption and eliminating the need for cooling
equipment. The hybrid switch device essentially consists of a pair of thyristors and a high-speed
mechanical parallel switch which has an opening time capability of less than 1 millisecond.
Mitsubishi uses a hybrid static switch in parallel with a vacuum switch. Figure 3-5 shows the
basic diagram of the hybrid switch unit. The switch unit consists of a pair of anti-paralleled
thyristors (“thyristor switch” or TS) and a parallel switch (PS) connected across the thyristor
switch. The thyristor switch consisting of anti-paralleled thyristors allows conduction in either
the positive or the negative half cycle of the AC sine wave when a gate triggering signal is
provided. The hybrid switch unit is enclosed in an air-sealed container immersed by SF6 gas.
This allows the thyristors and their accessories to be completely protected from any
environmental contamination.
Figure 3-6 illustrates the principle configuration of the hybrid switch to transfer energy between
two separate sources. During normal operation, the parallel switch (PS) is a specially designed
high-speed switch which conducts the load current in the normal operating state by by-passing
the thyristor switch so as to eliminate the conduction losses of the thyristors.
When the need for a transfer arises, the vacuum switch opens and the appropriate thyristor is
gated. The opening of the vacuum switch produces an arc voltage, which in turn forward biases
one of the preferred-side thyristors. A metal oxide gap-less surge arrester (AR) is connected
across the thyristor switch in order to protect the thyristors from transient overvoltages. Once this
occurs, the load current begins to conduct through the preferred-side static switch. The load is
then transferred to the alternate source similar to the standard static STS. Once the alternate-side
static switch picks up the load, it is then transferred to the alternate-side vacuum switch. This
method increases efficiency to almost 100% and also eliminates the need for cooling devices.
3-9
Figure 3-5
Basic Configuration of Mitsubishi's Hybrid Switch Unit [33-34]
3-10
Figure 3-6
Working Principle of Mitsubishi's Solid State Hybrid Transfer Switch [33-34]
3-11
Power System Requirements
Regardless of the specific STS technology that is employed, there are certain criteria that must be
met for proper operation of the devices.
Independent Feeders
In order for an STS to be effective in protecting critical loads from power system disturbances,
the two feeders must be independent of one another. For example, a system disturbance on the
preferred feeder should not cause the alternate feeder voltage to fall out of desired limits. If this
were the case, when a disturbance occurred on the preferred feeder, the STS would be
transferring the load to a feeder of poor quality power. This scenario would result in the load
being unprotected from the disturbance.
The following list describes preferred situations for STS installations.

• Preferred and alternate feeders fed from different substations – This configuration
allows the utmost protection. For example, if the preferred feeder substation trips, the
alternate feeder will not lose power. One possible source of failure for this configuration is if
the transmission system feeding both substations has a disturbance. This situation would
obviously result in both feeders experiencing the disturbance.
• Preferred and alternate feeders fed from different substation transformers – If both
feeders are fed from the same substation, using different substation transformers offers
increased isolation for each feeder. If both feeders are fed from the same transformer, a fault
on either feeder could cause the transformer circuit breaker to trip, resulting in a loss of both
feeders. Using two transformers allows the transformer feeding the fault to be taken off line
without affecting the unfaulted feeder.
• Different ROW for preferred and alternate feeders – Using different ROW (right-of-way)
increases the independence of system disturbances on the feeders. Assuming the same ROW
was being used, and a fault occurs on the line (downed pole, fallen tree, etc.), the probability
of both feeders experiencing the fault increases considerably.
Fault studies are essential in determining the independence of each feeder during system
disturbances. These studies are usually available from the utility. Fault data from previous years
can also offer insight into the dependence of parallel feeders.
Feeder Capacity for Load
One obvious requirement of the system is that both feeders have the capacity to supply the entire
load individually. For example, if two existing feeders are sharing a load, and an STS is to be
installed using each of these feeders as the preferred and alternate sources, it is quite possible
that the existing single feeder does not have the capacity to supply the entire load. Also, if the
STS transfers the load to a feeder with lacking capacity, the voltage level may drop considerably,
resulting in a voltage sag.
3-12
Synchronization
Synchronization of the two sources is not required but is recommended. Typical STS systems
can transfer the load when the two sources are out of phase, but particular loads may be
adversely affected by the phase change (e.g., motor loads). Therefore, it is recommended that
both sources be in phase to allow a more seamless transfer of the critical load.
Source Availability
The STS should not be used in applications where both sources are not available all of the time.
For example, a standby generator can not be used as the single alternate source because the
generator can not reach full speed in the required time. Startup time for typical diesel generators
can take up to 10 to 20 seconds.
Static STS Operation
A basic static switch consists of two thyristors connected back to back as in Figure 3-7. This
type of configuration provides a simple on or off capability for ac signals. During the positive-
half cycle of the voltage signal, SCR1 is forward biased and conducts current (gate signal is
applied). During the negative half-cycle, SCR1 is reverse-biased and SCR2 is forward-biased
(with gate signal).
Figure 3-7
Basic Configuration for a Static Switch
The above describes the basic operation that allows the switch to transfer a load. By connecting
another static switch in a similar manner to an “alternate” source, the static transfer switch is
derived. A single-phase diagram of a typical static transfer switch is shown in Figure 3-8. The
three-phase static STS is developed with the addition of four thyristor pairs.
3-13
Figure 3-8
Basic Configuration for a Single-Phase STS
Break-Before-Make or Make-Before-Break Transfers
The break-before-make transfer, which is sometimes referred to as open-transition, is a typical

capability of the static STS. A true break-before-make transfer means that during transfer, the
preferred and alternate sources are never paralleled; each phase of the two sources never feed the
load at the same time. This type of transfer allows the current to go to zero in each phase of the
preferred-side thyristors before the alternate side begins conducting. All three phases are
switched sequentially, 120° apart.
Depending upon how the static STS is controlled, it is possible to gate the alternate-side
thyristors before the zero-current crossing on the preferred side is reached, thus allowing the
alternate side to “force” the preferred side to commutate (turn off). This transfer is known as a
make-before-break transfer. Whether or not the two thyristor pairs produce crosscurrents (e.g.,
back-feeding a fault) is dependent upon voltage levels and phase and the control algorithm being
implemented. Depending upon the control algorithm, this method can result in either all three
phases being switched at the same time or each phase being switched separately (sequential
switching).
Transferring the Load
Single-Phase Transfer
Figure 3-9 through Figure 3-11 demonstrate a successful transfer of load from the preferred
feeder to the alternate feeder for a voltage sag on the preferred feeder. Phase A voltage and
current is shown for the preferred and alternate feeders along with the resulting voltage on the
load side.
3-14
Figure 3-9
Example Waveform of STS Operation: Preferred Source Voltage and Current
Figure 3-10
Example Waveform of STS Operation: Alternate Side Voltage and Current
Figure 3-11
Example Waveform of STS Operation: Load Side Voltage
3-15
Three-Phase Transfer
Figure 3-12 demonstrates a transfer for a balanced three-phase fault on the preferred feeder
(Source 1). The line-to-line voltages and line currents are given for the preferred, alternate, and
load sides.
Vertical Scale: 25,000 Volts per major division
SOURCE 1
VOLTAGE
3-phase fault applied
to Source 1
SOURCE 2
VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT Output Voltage Out-
of-Specifications for
approximately 2.4 msec
(approximately 1/8 cycle)
SOURCE 1
CURRENT
Vertical Scale: 5 Amps per major division
SOURCE 2
CURRENT
Output Current Out-

of-Specifications for
approximately 4msec
(1/4 cycle)
CURRENT
OUTPUT
Figure 3-12
Example Three-Phase Transfer
3-16
Transfer Time
The total transfer time consists of a detection time, decision time, and switching time. The
detection and decision times are reduced using advanced algorithms that characterize the
incoming waveforms and calculate the appropriate action to be performed. The total transfer
time of the static STS is dependent upon many factors such as the characteristics of the system
(voltage levels, phasing, power factor), control algorithm, and the type of disturbance, whether it
be a sag, swell, interruption, etc. The typical transfer time for a static STS is around ½ cycle.
According to the ITI (CBEMA) 1997 curve typical computer related devices can withstand a
total interruption up to 20 ms. The typical static STS transfer time is approximately 8.33 ms (60
Hz system). This translates to the static STS transferring the load from a “bad” source to a
“good” source well within limits of the ITI curve.
Reducing the Transfer Time
The transfer time can be reduced with the use of commutator circuits. These external circuits use
additional storage elements and power electronics to force the thyristor to turn off. This method
is usually employed in dc-dc converters and dc-ac converters that use thyristors. Due to the
increased complexity, price, and failure possibility, this method is usually not implemented in
static STS systems.
Another option for decreasing the transfer time is to use a GTO instead of a thyristor. The
reason the thyristor-controlled STS has varying transfer times is because the device cannot be
readily turned off. The GTO on the other hand offers the functionality of being turned off upon
command. This would allow the static STS transfer to be independent of the system.
Unfortunately, the GTO has many drawbacks such as (1) range of ratings available are limited,
(2) the price for such devices is significantly higher than the standard thyristor, and (3) the gate
drive requires significant amounts of power, thus reducing efficiency. For reasons such as these,
the GTO is not currently being manufactured with static STS systems.
A type of forced commutation is often used that can decrease the time it takes to transfer the
load. This is accomplished by firing the appropriate alternate-side thyristor while the preferred
side is conducting. When coordinated correctly, the alternate-side thyristor will begin
conducting, thus reverse-biasing the corresponding preferred-side thyristor.
Functionality
The typical STS should be capable of performing certain basic functions. These functions
basically consist of detecting certain anomalies and successfully performing the respected
operation to protect the load or the system supply. The basic scenarios that are of concern are
source-side outages, balanced three-phase faults on source, single-line-to-ground faults on
source, and load-side faults.
3-17
Source Side Outage
The most basic function is the operation due to a source-side outage. This represents a source-
side breaker opening, thus dropping the terminal voltage of the STS to zero. Under such
circumstances, the STS should successfully transfer the load from the source with the outage to
the alternate source. This capability should be available for both sources.
Single-Line-to-Ground Fault on Source
The single-line-to-ground fault is one of the most common causes of power system disturbances.
During such an event, the STS should successfully transfer the load from the faulted source to
the non-faulted source for all three phases. This capability should be available for both sources.
Balanced Three-Phase Fault on Source
Although not as common as the single-line-to-ground fault, the STS should successfully transfer
the load for a fault across all three phases of the preferred source. This capability should also be
available for both sources.
Load-Side Fault
For a load-side fault, the STS should inhibit a transfer to or from either source. By doing so, the
fault is not transferred from one source to the other. If the capability is not available, and the
fault was allowed to propagate to the other source, both sources could fail.
Out-of-Phase Transfers
The ideal situation is for both the preferred and alternate feeders to be in phase in order to create
an almost seamless transfer. Quite often, keeping the two sources in phase is not possible;
therefore the STS must be able to transfer the load with both sources out of phase.
Static STS Circuit Topologies
Medium voltage static STS systems are usually used to provide facility-wide protection. An
entire facility can be transferred to an alternate source without experiencing equipment failure.
Medium voltage static STS systems are currently available up to 35 kV at 35 MVA. Two
medium voltage static STS topologies are shown Figure 3-13 through Figure 3-14. The
difference between Figure 3-13 and Figure 3-14 is that the former is a hybrid design using ultra-
fast mechanical switches during normal conditions whereas the latter is an all-solid-state design.
In the configuration shown in Figure 3-13, one incoming feeder (which is designated “Feeder 1”)
is connected to a “preferred source” and the other incoming feeder (which is designated “Feeder
2”) is connected to an “alternate source.” Two separate switch units (SU1 and SU2) are used for
3-18
this application, where SU1 is used for connecting the load to Feeder 1 and SU2 is used for
connecting the load to Feeder 2.
During normal operation, SU1 (associated with Feeder 1) is in the on-state mode, and SU2
(associated with Feeder 2) is in the off-state mode as shown in Figure 3.6-a. In SU1, the parallel
switch PS1 is closed, and the load current is conducted through PS1 rather than through the
thyristors of TS1. This provides an ideal operating condition in the sense of negligible
conduction losses.
Upon sensing a failure in the preferred power source associated with Feeder 1, the controller
provides an opening command signal to the parallel switch PS1 and a gate triggering signal to
the thyristor switch TS1 to turn-on, simultaneously. The parallel switch PS1 breaks the bypass
circuit within 1 ms and transfers the load current to TS1 as shown in Figure 3.6-b. Immediately
after transferring the current to TS1, the gate triggering signal to TS1 is stopped, resulting in the
turn-off of TS1 when the current in TS1 reaches the first zero-crossing as shown in Figure 3.6-c.
After sensing current zero in Feeder 1, the controller provides a gate triggering signal to thyristor
switch 2 (TS2), followed by a closing command signal to parallel switch 2 (PS2). TS2 then
beings to conduct the load current from the alternate source immediately after breaking current
from Feeder 1 by TS1 as shown in Figure 3.6-c. After completion of the transfer from Feeder 1
to Feeder 2, parallel switch PS2 is closed in the steady state in order to eliminate the losses of
TS2 as shown in Figure 3.6-d. The total duration of energy transfer from Feeder 1 to Feeder 2
occurs in less than ¼ cycles on a 60 Hz basis, such that the transfer event is transparent to even
the most sensitive electrical or electronic loads.
Figure 3-13
Medium Voltage Static STS Topology Used by Mitsubishi
3-19
Figure 3-14
Medium Voltage Static STS Topology Used by Silicon Power
3-20
Figure 3-15
Medium Voltage Static STS Topology – Split-Bus Configuration
Figure 3-15 offers the benefit of supplying the load from both feeders during normal operation,
but with the added ability of switching to either source if the other voltage source exceeds the
programmed limits. During normal operation, Source 1 supplies Load 1 through SS1, while
Source 2 supplies Load 2 through SS3. SS2 does not conduct during normal operation. If, for
example, the voltage of Source 1 exceeds the programmed limits, SS1 transfers Load 1 to SS2
(Source 2).
3-21
Detailed Specification and Device Review [32-35]
The project team initiated discussions with leading manufacturers like Cyberex, InverPower,
Mitsubishi, ABB, Silicon Power, S&C, Siemens, GE, Diversified Technologies to gain insights
on the technical specifications and ratings of the existing and emerging static transfer switches.
The specifications provided in the subsequent sections were obtained from these manufacturers.
3-22
Cyberex Static STS
Cyberex LLC was founded in 1968 and has headquarters located in Mentor, Ohio. Cyberex has
been manufacturing static transfer switches for 27 years and has installed over 2500 static
transfer switches. Cyberex is a subsidiary of the Danaher Corporation.
Table 3-2
Cyberex Static STS Specifications
Characteristic Rating
Voltage rating 120V, 208V, 480V, 600V, 15kV, 25kV, 35kV
BIL rating 1kV - 150kV
Continuous Current rating 100A - 6000A
Maximum fault current 22kA - 65kA (symmetrical)
Efficiency 99.8% for medium voltage, 99.5% for low voltage
User-specified phase differential window Yes
Load power factor 0.7 - 1.0 for medium voltage, 0.0-1.0 for low voltage
Transfer Threshold user-defined
Solid state devices Thyristor for low voltage, vacuum switch for medium voltage
Number of input sources 2 or 3
Manual bypass switch Yes
Input Sensing digital, preferred and alternate voltages separately and input line
current from preferred and alternate
Configuration options preferred/alternate
Indoor/ outdoor installation Both
Remote control capabilities Yes
Remote monitoring capabilities Yes
Cooling Convection 100-600A, forced-air 800-4000A
Operating frequency (Hz) 50/60
User Interface LCD Panel
Environmental requirements 0-40ºC, 0-95% humidity
4-pole switching optional
Manual transfer capability Yes
Auto-retransfer capability user selectable
Mean-Time-Before-Failure 45 years
Battery backup Yes
Available in 1-phase or 3-phase Both
Year 2000 compliant Yes
Power supply for controls preferred, alternate, and load
Service life N/A
Warranty 5 years parts and service
Typical Price for 15kV-600A w/install $285,000
Typical Price for 208V-600A w/install $50,000
Website www.cyberex.com
Contact information (800)-CYBEREX
Note: Price does not include installation of additional feeder.
3-23
InverPower Static STS
InverPower Controls, Inc. was founded in 1981 and has headquarters and manufacturing
facilities located in Burlington, Ontario, Canada. InverPower has been manufacturing STS
systems since 1996.
Table 3-3
InverPower Static STS Specifications
Characteristics Rating
Voltage rating 15kV and 25kV
BIL rating up to 125kV
Continuous Current rating 300A, 600A
Maximum fault current 26kA peak asymmetrical.
Efficiency >99.7%
Load power factor 0.0 - 1.0
Transfer Threshold CBEMA or user-defined
Solid state devices Thyristor
Number of input sources 2
Input Sensing digital/analog approach for preferred and alternate phase voltages
and currents
Configuration options common or split load bus configurations
Cooling forced air
User Interface VFD , LED display based
Environmental requirements -10 to +40ºC, 0 to 100% humidity
4-pole switching No
Auto-retransfer capability Yes
Battery backup Yes
Available in 1-phase or 3-phase 3
Power supply for controls preferred and alternate
Service life 30 years
Warranty 1 year parts and service
Typical Price for 15kV-600A w/install $650,000
Typical Price for 208V-600A w/install -
Website www.inverpower.com
Contact information (905) 639-4693
3-24
Mitsubishi Solid-State Transfer Switch
Mitsubishi Electric Power Products, Inc. (MEPPI) is a US corporation with headquarters and
manufacturing facilities in Warrendale, Pennsylvania. MEPPI was founded in 1985 as a joint
venture between Mitsubishi Electric Corporation and Westinghouse Electric Corporation.
Beginning in 1990, MEPPI has installed a total of 16 medium voltage, solid-state switching
devices (7.2 kV level) in Japan. Since 1997, Mitsubishi Electric has offered custom power
equipment to the U.S.
Table 3-4
Overall System Ratings for Two Different Options
Item Equipment Rating Option 1 Option 2
1 Hybrid Switch Voltage 13.8KV 13.8KV
Current 600A 1200A
Short Circuit 12.5KA 23KA
Frequency 60HZ 60HZ
BIL 95KV 95KV
2 By-pass Switch Voltage 13.8KV 13.8KV
Current 600A 1200A
Short Circuit 23KA 23KA
Closing/Latching 60HZ 60HZ
BIL 95KV 95KV
3-25
Table 3-5
Mitsubishi Static STS (Hybrid Unit) General Specifications
Voltage rating 4kV - 35kV
BIL rating +/-95kV (1.2x50us) between terminals and ground
Continuous Current rating 200A-1200A
Maximum fault current 12.5 kA (symmetrical) or 25.0 kA (symmetrical)
Efficiency 99.9%
User-specified phase differential window Yes (factory set)
Input Sensing each phase voltage and current separately
Configuration options split-bus or preferred/alternate
Cooling Natural air cooling
User Interface LCD panel or personal computer
Environmental requirements 0 to 40ºC, 0 to 95% humidity
4-pole switching No
Mean-Time-Before-Failure N/A
Battery backup optional
Power supply for controls user specifiable
Service life 15 - 20 years
Warranty One year after installation standard / multi-year contracts
optional.
Typical Price for 15kV-600A w/install $500,000-$650,000
Website www.meppi.com
3-26
Silicon Power Corporation (SPCO) Static STS
Silicon Power Corporation was founded in 1994 from General Electric's Static Power
Component Operation. SPCO has its headquarters in Exton, Pennsylvania and has been
producing static transfer switches since 1995. Until 1998, SPCO static switches were marketed
by PowerDigm Systems. Silicon Power Corporation manufactures two classes of static transfer
switches (STS); low voltage class (LV-STS) up to 600VAC and medium voltage class (MV-
STS) from 5kV to 38kV. While these switches differ in voltage, they utilize technologies,
devices, and control algorithms, which are very similar.
Table 3-6
Voltage/Current Electrical Specifications for Silicon Power's MV-STS
Voltage Continuous Fault Current Withstand BIL 60 Hz Withstand

Class Current (A) (kV)
(kA) (kV)
Symmetrical Asymmetrical
5 kV 600 9/18 23/45 60 19
1400 18 45 60 19
15 kV 600 9/18 23/45 95/110 36
1200 18 45 95/110 36
27 kV 400 6/12 15/30 125 60
600 9/18 23/45 125 60
1200 18 45 125 60
38 kV 400 6/12 15/30 150/200 80
600 12 30 150/200 80
3-27
Table 3-7
Silicon Power Static STS Detailed Specifications
Voltage rating 600V, 5kV, 15kV, 27kV, 38kV
Maximum fault current 6-100 kA symmetrical, 15-230 kA asymmetrical.
Efficiency 99.5%
Input Sensing preferred and alternate voltages and currents, load side voltage(s)
Configuration options preferred/alternate or split-bus
Cooling forced air
User Interface Keypad and LCD Panel
Environmental requirements 0 to 40ºC, preset humidity
4-pole switching Optional
Battery backup Yes
Available in 1-phase or 3-phase 3-phase
Power supply for controls design dependent
Warranty 5 years parts and service
Typical Price for 15kV-600A w/install $430K - $750K
Typical Price for 208V-600A w/install N/A
Website www.siliconpower.com
3-28
S&C PureWave Static STS
S&C Electric Corporation is a privately owned company that was founded in 1911, with US
headquarters and manufacturing facilities located in Chicago, Illinois. S&C Electric's switchgear
has currently been installed in four medium voltage static transfer switching systems. Their
static transfer switch is still under development with a projected production date of January
1999.
Table 3-8
S&C PureWave Static STS Specifications
Voltage rating 4.16kV, 13.8 kV, 25 kV, 34.5 kV
Maximum fault current 12.5kA - 40kA symmetrical, 20kA - 64kA asymmetrical
Efficiency >99.5%
Load power factor 0.0 -1.0
Number of input sources 2
Input Sensing digital, phase voltage and current for preferred and alternate,
phase voltages of load
Configuration options preferred/alternate or split-bus
Cooling forced air
User Interface LCD
Environmental requirements -40 to +40ºC, 0 to 100% humidity
4-pole switching No
Battery backup No
Power supply for controls preferred and alternate
Warranty 2 year on parts
Typical Price for 15kV-600A w/install N/A
Website www.sandc.com
Contact information (773)-338-1000
Solid-state transfer switches are the primary application for distribution solid state switchgear at
the present time. Although, source transfer switches have been used throughout the industry for
3-29
many decades for protecting critical loads from power system disturbances, within the last
decade the technology available for such devices has broadened the possibilities for applying
such devices. These designs are used to transfer the power supply of sensitive loads, from a
"normal" supply system to "alternate" supply system when a failure is detected in the "normal"
supply. This transfer needs to be performed in a very fast way (1/4 cycle) so that the load does
not experience any power quality problem
This chapter focused on the newer technology available to utilities, specifically the static source
transfer switch. An in-depth literature review of the existing and emerging static transfer
switchgears for transmission and distribution applications was covered. Each technology was
reviewed based on a brief overview of the working principle, proposed circuit topologies and
configurations, potential application areas, detailed specifications, possible price ranges, pros and
cons of the proposed designs, and most importantly manufacturer's review and maturity of these
technologies.
3-30
4 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF FAULT
CURRENT LIMITERS
With the growth of the electricity demand, utilities have been upgrading their systems
continuously for higher power transfer capability and, consequently, for higher fault current
handling capability. A more closely coupled system not only exhibits reduced source impedance
values from parallel paths but also an increased number of sources possibly contributing to a
fault. There are growing instances in utility distribution and transmission systems wherein the
fault current levels are exceeding the interrupting capability of existing substation circuit
breakers. This increase in fault current level can cause significant challenges for utilities as it
either requires the replacement of large number of substation breakers or the development of
some means to limit the fault current. Also, the process of replacing circuit breakers of
adequately high fault current interruption capability can become an expensive affair.
It has been a long lasting desire of power system operators to have a means of reducing fault
current levels while retaining the stiffness and continuous operability of the system. Utilities are
seriously re-assessing fault current mitigation methods. They consider emerging new
technologies as vital alternatives to existing methods, provided these technologies prove to be the
most cost effective means of fault current management.
Over the years many R&D programs have investigated on ways to develop technically feasible
and economically viable new technologies to build so-called fault current limiters (FCLs). Use of
power electronics based solid-state current limiters has triggered a new wave of effort in this
direction. Solid state current limiters will enable transmission and distribution entities to
effectively address the challenges presented by high available fault current.
Recently, there has been a phenomenal increase in R&D activities towards the development of
technically feasible and economically viable technologies to design a range of medium voltage
and high voltage solid-state switchgears for fault current limiting applications in distribution and
transmission. As a part of this effort the project team conducted an in-depth literature review of
the existing and emerging power electronics based fault current limiters to understand the
existing and emerging fault current limiting technologies, implementation issues that needs to be
realized, and understand the application specific attributes that these technologies can offer.
While there is a chance that we have not been aware of a specific project, the following R&D
activities (besides the list of numerous literatures that were reviewed on this subject) have been
carefully studied during the course of this investigation:
• EPRI's multi-year R&D activity to develop the transmission level fault current limiter (2000-
2005) – More details on these activities can be founded from references [1] through [8].
• Mitsubishi's ongoing R&D efforts to develop distribution class solid-state breakers (15KV,
600A/1200A)
4-1
Technology Assessment of Fault Current Limiters
• Silicon Power Corporation's ongoing efforts (supported by EPRI, Office of Naval Research,
and Department of Energy) to investigate the feasibility of using Super-GTO technology for
medium and high voltage current limiters of the future [36-37]
• Siemens efforts to develop a new FACTS based short circuit fault current limiter [38]
• R&D efforts on other power electronic based fault current limiters (for example
superconducting FCLs [8, 39-41])
• R&D efforts on other non-power electronic based fault current limiters (for example
superconducting FCLs [8,42-45])
Fault Current Limit Characteristics
The behavior of a FCL in the power grid can be characterized by a set of parameters such as
those defined in the two references [8, 47]. Figure 4-1 depicts principal waveforms and indicates
the three basic operating regions:
• Normal operation where no limiting action takes place
• Fault condition during which the FCL is active
• Recovery period while the FCL resets and regains normal operating condition.
I Normal
II Fault condition III Recovery
operation
Fault Inception Fault Clearing
current Îm ax W ithout FCL
Î fol W ith FCL
Îp
În
Îm in
time
ta
td tr
td
rated system îm in : minimum initiating current recovery time tr

voltage (Un) time between
îm ax : maximum limited current
(î n ):rated current current interruption
î p : peak (prospective) short circuit current and return of the
(peak) î fol : peak value of the follow current FCL to its (initial)
ta : action time: from t = 0 until î m ax low impedance
td: fault duration time state
Figure 4-1
Generalized fault current trace with FCL activated [8]
4-2
The switch turn-off operation without having to interrupt current immediately or to limit the fault
current can be delayed until zero crossing. Figure 4-2 shows the schematic circuit diagram and
the waveform associated with the switch operation. In this case, the silicon-controlled rectifier is
used as the switch.
Vs
Thyrsitor-based
Solid-state
Vs circuit breaker
Sss
Sss
Fault tclear
occurs <8.3ms
Figure 4-2
Solid-State Switch Operation without Having to Interrupt Immediately or Fault Current
Limiting
If the immediate fault clearing is needed, then the switch needs to be gate-controlled devices
such as GTO or IGBT or "Super" GTO. The schematic circuit diagram and the waveform
associated with the switch operation are shown in Figure 4-3. The use of GTO or IGBT may
allow current limiting, but their conduction voltage drop is too high that it is not practical to use
these gate-controlled devices alone in the 100% continuous conducting duty.
Vs
GTO-based
Solid-state
Vs circuit breaker
Sss
Sss
Fault tclear <1ms
occurs
Figure 4-3 Using GTO-Based Solid-State Circuit Breaker Allows Instant Fault Current
Clearing.
"All Solid-State" Based Designs
The SCR based fault current limiting switch has been proposed in the past [2-8, 47]. Technology
options of using other nonlinear impedance methods can also be found in the literature [8].
The most straightforward soli-state fault current limiter (SSFCL) is the solid-state fault current
limiting circuit breaker (SSFCL-CB). Figure 4-4 depicts the basic phase module of such a device
built by SIEMENS using turn-off devices such as IGBTs or IGCTs. These devices are placed in
the DC branch of a full-bridge diode rectifier circuit. Therefore, only one unipolar turn-off
device is required for AC line current operation (iLINE). The second device shown in this figure is
4-3
for increased voltage withstand capability and adequate reliability to meet the “N-1” failure
mode criteria. In addition to the turn-off device there must exist an over voltage protection
element such as a metal oxide varistor (MOV) in order to limit the voltage build-up caused by
the AC line inductance (or upstream transformer) during the hard turn-off by the IGBT.
Typically, such a SSFCL-CB is designed to develop 2-3 times the rated system voltage during
turn-off which forces the fault current very rapidly (within 1 ms or less) down to zero. One
module may typically develop up to 6 kV and turn-off up to 5.6 kA [39]. A medium voltage
SSFCL-CB may consist of several modules connected in series. Similar systems have also been
developed by other companies but no economically viable solution could be made available for
the commercial market.
i LINE
Balancing
Snubber resistors
circuit
Turn-off Over-voltage
devices protection (MOV)
Figure 4-4
Principle of a solid-state fault current limiting circuit breaker based on turn-off devices
An alternative circuitry for a solid-state fault current limiter (circuit breaker) based on SCR
thyristors with commutation circuitry rather than turn-off devices is currently under development
for EPRI by Powell Electronics Inc. The initial goal in this program was to develop a 15 kV class
device for 1200 A continuous current and prospective fault current levels of 80 kA.
Subsequently, a 138 kV class device would be developed. Figure 4-5 shows the schematic circuit
diagram of an EPRI's SCR-based fault current limiter. Thyristors S1, S2, S3, and S4 are the main
conducting switches.
During normal operation, if the current Iline is positive, then S1 and S3 are conducting. If Iline is in
negative cycle, then S2 and S4 are conducting. The commutating capacitors C4 and C5 are pre-
charged with the polarity shown in the figure from previous resonant cycle operation. To turn
off S1 and S3, thyristors S5, S7, S9, and S10 are fired. The current going through S1 and S3 is
decreased down to zero, and the line current shifts to the commutating circuit S5, S7, C4, L1, C5, L2,
S9, and S10. The LC resonance swings the voltage from discharge mode back to charge mode, and
the capacitor voltages are recharged to the initial polarity. During resonant mode, the MOV
voltage rises to its “knee” point and above the line voltage, which eventually commutates SCRs
off. Thus the MOV serves as dual purposes of commutation and transient surge protection.
4-4
During resonance, the capacitor voltage eventually reverses at certain point that makes D1 and D2
conducting. During which period, power resistors R1 and R2 serve as the current limiting
function. After resonance, the current limiting function is performed by firing the main SCRs
with a large phase-shift angle to provide the required let-through current. After the fault is
cleared, the phase-shift angle can be reduced to zero, and the SCRs return to normal operation.
Main thyristors Over-voltage

Iline protection MOV
D1 R1 D2 R2
S1 S2
S5 S8
S7 C4 L1 C5 L2 S10
– + – +
S6 S3 S4 S9
Commutating circuit Commutating circuit
Figure 4-5
Solid-State Fault Current Limiter Using SCR and Force-Commutating Circuits
Notice that for a regular solid-state switch; only one set of anti-paralleled SCRs is needed. For
force-commutated circuit that needs to turn off the device without waiting for zero crossing, two
sets of switches are needed. This arrangement indeed increases the conduction loss and
decreases the efficiency significantly. The critical component is not the thyristor which could
handle significantly higher currents. Instead, the limiting component is the commutating
capacitor bank, which must produce more current than the fault at the time of commutation. This
commutating capacitor is large, heavy (see Figure 4-6) and represents a noticeable segment of
the cost of the entire system. One major drawback for "all-solid state" designs is that thyristor
based design will have substantial losses during normal operation serving the load. In EPRI's
SCR based fault current limiters the thyristors will have per phase conduction losses of about
14.4KW, and Three Phase Losses = 2V(drop)*6(in series)*1200A*3(phase) = 43.2KW, when
carrying the rated current of 1200 amperes. Another problem with this circuit is the component
counts and their associated reliability issues. Also, thyristors are a mature and technology. It will
be difficult to drive the component cost down even with the wide spread potential market for
distribution switchgears.
4-5
Figure 4-6
These capacitor cans are connected in parallel to make up the large commutating
capacitors, the largest component in EPRI's SCR Based 15KV, 1200A Solid-State Fault
Current Limiter
Westinghouse in association with EPRI developed a prototype (see Figure 4-7) of an "all solid-
state" distribution breaker where a SCR-GTO combination is used. As Figure 4-7 suggests, this
design consists of two parallel connected circuit branches: a solid-state switch composed of
GTOs (and their associated snubber and over-voltage protection metal oxide arresters (ZNOs))
and another solid state switch using SCRs (and their associated components). A unit was built for
13.8KV by series grounding of six GTO modules per phase each one rated for 3000A and
4.5KV.
Pairs of anti-parallel connected GTO devices are used in series in the GTO section of the SSB.
The GTO switch is the main circuit breaker and it is conducts load current in the steady state.
The GTO switch is used to clear source-side faults. It is rated for the maximum normal line
current, but not rated for fault currents. It is normally closed and conducts current until the
magnitude of the current reaches a pre-set level at which point it opens rapidly interrupting the
current flow. To achieve the required SSB voltage for application to the utility 13.8-kV primary
distribution voltage, six GTO modules are required in series for each phase.
The SCR switch is normally open and has no continuous current rating. Its function is to conduct
fault current to facilitate operation of conventional protective devices on the load side of the
SSB. For this purpose it is rated for short duration fault surge currents. Its operation is
coordinated with the GTO breaker.
4-6
In contrast to the GTOs where the current can be interrupted at any point in the cycle, SCRs can
interrupt currents when the current waveform goes to zero. Thyristor breakers, unlike GTO
breakers, can be designed to maintain fault current to satisfy the required time-current
characteristics for typical overcurrent protection coordination schemes. The SCR section will be
able to conduct fault currents for a period of time (10 to 15 cycles), repeatedly.
The advantage of the GTO switch is its capability to interrupt current with negligible delay. The
advantage of SCR switch compared to GTO switch of the same wafer size is its ability to handle
considerably higher currents. SCRs are also available commercially with higher nominal current
rating (required for distribution voltages above the 15-kV class).
One major drawback for "all-solid state" designs is that thyristor based design will have
substantial losses during normal operation serving the load. One problem with EPRI's SCR-GTO
configuration is the component counts and their associated reliability issues. Also, thyristors are
a mature and technology. It will be difficult to drive the component cost down even with the
wide spread potential market for distribution switchgears.
Figure 4-7
Solid-State Breaker Proposed by Westinghouse
4-7
Hybrid Designs
The operating characteristic of solid-state switchgear is primarily dictated by the capabilities of

the semiconductor devices used. Voltage and current ratings of the breaker define the number of
power semiconductors required and, consequently, the cost and the operating losses of the
breaker. Since a closed mechanical contact still exhibits the least amount of conduction losses
amongst all “switching” elements it is most desirable to utilize mechanical contacts in fault
current limiters for carrying the continuous operating current. However, mechanical contact
systems alone will not develop enough arcing voltage drop to limit fault currents in medium or
high voltage systems.
One possible solution to archive sufficiently high arcing voltage at least for a medium voltage
(distribution) class FCL is the method of a “driven arc” described in a recent reference [48].
Similar to the technique used in low voltage current limiting circuit breakers the switching arc
magnetically driven into a special chamber where it is divided into a large number of sub-arcs.
Subsequently, these sub-arcs are driven along metallic rails of high resistivity in order to produce
a voltage drop across the switch large enough to commutate the fault current into a parallel
resistor. The device, rated 7.2 kV/400 A has been tested successfully in the field for over 2 years
in Japan. No information is available on any further developments of this technique, especially
not with respect to higher voltage applications.
A hybrid solid-state switch that can also perform current limiter function was proposed [41] at
the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and patented by ABB Switzerland. Figure 4-8 shows
the hybrid switch that utilizes an ultra fast mechanical switch Sm1 for the normal conducting
path, an IGCT-based solid-state switch for a short conducting period to prevent arcing, and a
positive-temperature-coefficient (PTC) resistor for current limiting. A 10kV/ 1kA prototype was
tested successfully in ABB Switzerland. The main problem with this circuit is the need for a
very high-voltage high-current PTC, which requires a substantially stacking effort with the
commercially available low-power PTC products. Furthermore, the use of three mechanical
switches indicates the problem of economical design issue. In fact, if the mechanical switch Sm1
is fast enough, and the PTC is available, the solid-state switch Sss and its associated mechanical
switch Sm2 can be eliminated.
A wide range of materials, mostly ceramics, exhibit a highly non-linear positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) of the resistivity above room temperature. A sharp increase in resistance can
be used for fault current limitation. In fact, PTC resistors are commonly used for fault current
limitation in (low power) electronic circuits. To extend this functionality into the medium
voltage range for possible applications in power systems was the goal of a project [40] by ABB.
The project concluded with the successful testing of a 12 kV class stack of PTC elements (at
very low rated current of only 10 A, however)
4-8
Sm1 ultrafast switch
mechanical
Sss switch
Sm2
GTO MOV
load
PTC Sm3 switch
Figure 4-8
A Hybrid Solid-State Switch Using Mechanical Switch for Regular Conducting and PTC for
current limiting.
The increase in available fault current levels (due to added distributed generation and increased
load) has stressed many transmission and distribution substations to their limits. Also, there are
growing instances in utility distribution and transmission systems wherein the fault current levels
are exceeding the interrupting capability of existing substation circuit breakers. This increase in
fault current level either requires the replacement of large number of substation breakers or the
development of some means to limit the fault current. Also, many mechanical circuit breakers
are operating much more than originally intended in applications such as capacitor switching.
This continual use of mechanical breakers requires intensive maintenance to be performed or
periodic replacement of the whole breaker. Environmental problems are also on the horizon with
the use of both SF6 gas and oil within mechanical breakers, which may pose long term problems
for many utilities.
The solid-state switchgear undoubtedly provides a quantum leap compared to traditional

mechanical breakers, reclosers, and transfer switches. An in-depth literature review of the
existing and emerging power electronics based fault current limiters is provided here. For each
technology, the chapter provides a brief overview of the working principle, proposed circuit
topologies and configurations, potential application areas, possible price ranges, pros and cons of
the proposed designs, and most importantly maturity of these technologies. While a number of
candidate technologies have been discussed and reviewed in this chapter, the first generation of
solid-state switchgears should use reliable and field-proven technologies. Also, it is desirable that
the next generation family of power electronics based switchgears be scalable, be multi-
functional, and be capable of being easily tailored to meet specific application requirements
without major changes to the baseline design.
4-9
5 DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS FOR SOLID-STATE
SWITCHGEAR
Although the availability of the semiconductor device dictates its development, history indicates
that the success of a semiconductor device depends heavily on the success of the application.
Examples are power MOSFETs in switching-power-supply applications and IGBTs in variable-
frequency drive applications. Blind development of semiconductor devices without a proper
guidance of application and circuit design would be a wasteful effort. Failure to bring the MOS-
controlled thyristors (MCTs) to the market is the most recent and obvious example. Market
demand triggers the need for power electronics equipment such as power supply and adjustable-
speed drives, but the right choice and development of semiconductor devices enables the
development of power electronic equipment.
Recently, new "all-solid" state as well as "hybrid" designs have captured the attention of end
users as well as equipment producers. These new designs have resulted from the marriage of
modern power electronics and advanced solid-state switching technologies. The solid-state
switchgear undoubtedly provides a quantum leap compared to traditional mechanical breakers,
reclosers, and transfer switches. Although, the risks involved in the solid-state/hybrid switchgear
design is much higher; the upside potentials are also enormous.
This chapter provides a detailed review of the state-of-the-art high-power commercial and
research power semiconductor device technology (Si and SiC) and their ability to build up solid-
state switchgear products of multiple ratings in a family which will have low cost in volume
production. Key considerations includes: 1) Technology availability (thyristors, GCT, IGBT,
SiC, etc.) 2) Current handling and current interrupting 3) Communication and control
considerations 4) Cooling requirements 5) Snubber requirements 6) Space requirements. It also
documents the current status of wide-band-gap semiconductor technology and its application
areas. Comparisons of the Si technology with wide band-gap technologies in the context of
switchgear application area are documented. This chapter also provides a consolidated summary
of the key technology metrics, based on DARPA’s R&D program, that are required to realize the
development of high-voltage semiconductor devices.
The subsequent sections will report basic operating principle and recent progress in many high-
voltage and high-power Si and SiC switches that are suitable for HV operation. The emerging
SiC devices are also introduced. From fundamental device characteristics, key features of these
high-power devices related to circuit breaker operation are compared in individual device
categories.
5-1
Device Characteristics for Solid-State Switchgear
Solid-State Designs Using HV Power Electronic Switches and Diodes – A

Key for Success
There has been tremendous advancement in HV power electronics devices in the past several
years primarily led by high-power application for traction and FACTS devices. Currently, HV
2 3
power electronic devices high power (gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) , IGBTs , integrated gate
4 5
commuted thyristors (IGCTs) , emitter turn-off thyristors (ETOs) ) are available at 6-kV level
and R&D work is being conducted for achieving the holy grail of higher switching speed, lower
losses, and increased reliability using either IGBT, GTO, ETO, IGCT, or other technologies.
Moreover, industry and other consortium in the field of SiC and Diamond are also conducting
considerable research work.
Recently, numerous power devices made using SiC material have exceeded the fundamental
capability of Si, leading to an acceleration in the research and development of high voltage SiC
devices. The DARPA High Power Electronics Program was also recently established with the
goal to revolutionize high power electrical energy control, conversion, and distribution by
establishing a new class of solid state power switching transistors employing wide bandgap
semiconductor materials. This program as well as other research efforts has demonstrated many
of the power device structures previously made in Silicon but with much higher voltage
capability. These devices include: SiC BJT, SiC JFET, SiC MOSFET and SiC IGBTs.
These high-voltage, high-power power electronics, once they mature, will result in a significant
reduction in the overall cost of solid-state switchgear designs.
A pictorial representation of the available HV semiconductor devices and their applications are
shown in Figure 5-1. The overall technology roadmap characteristics, based on DARPA’s R&D
program (shown in Figure 5-2), provide a consolidated summary of the key technology metrics
that are required to realize the development of high-voltage semiconductor devices. Figure 5-3
outlines the key requirements for these next-generation semiconductor devices. Two EPRI report
[12-13] provides details for the next generation semiconductor devices and lays the foundation
for EPRI’s HV solid-state electronics program.
2
Gate turn-off thyristors. The capacity of the state-of-the-art GTO device has reached 6 kV and 6000 A.
3
Insulated gate bipolar transistors. Today, 1.2-kV, 1.7-kV, 2.5-kV, 3.3-kV, and 6.5-kV, 600-A IGBTs are
commercially available.
4
Integrated gate commuted thyristors. These have reached the same power level as that of the GTOs.
5
Emitter turn-off thyristors. These have reached the same power level as that of the GTOs.
5-2
Electric
Electric Ship
Ship
More
MoreElectric
Electric Aircraft
Aircraft
TRACTION INDUSTRIAL INTELLIGENT UNIVERSAL
PULSE POWER
Application Field Line Voltage: DRIVES TRANSFORMER
Line Voltage:
Line Voltage: Line Voltage:
0.5 - 5 kV DC >10kV / 10MVA
0.1-10MVA 2-5 kV AC 15-100kVA 15kV Class All
All Electric
ElectricCombat
Combat
0.1 – 10MVA Vehicle
Vehicle
Standard Standard Series Connection 3-Level/

PE Design
Converter &Inverter Converter &Inverter/ Pulse Transformer 5-Level Circuit
3-Level Circuit
Max. Voltage Across

1 – 6.5 kV 1 – 6.5 kV > 6.5 kV > 4.5 kV
Semiconductor
Wide-Band-Gap Based HV Semiconductor

> 4.5kV IGBT Modules Devices
Figure 5-1
Application Trends in High-Voltage, High-Capacity Power Devices [11-13]
Devices 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

1. Si IGBTs • 6.5 kV HV-IGBT available
• 6.5 kV IGBT matured with cost reduction
2. SiC diodes • reduce forward voltage degradation
• 13 kV PIN diodes available for research
• further improvement on forward voltage degradation
• 13 kV diode available
• 6.5 kV available for sampling
• 13 kV diode available for sampling
• 25 kV diode available for sampling
4. SiC power • 6.5 kV research device available
MOSFETs • 13 kV MOSFET research device available
• P-channel MOSFET available
• 6.5 kV MOSFET technology matured with cost reduction
• 6.5 kV MOSFET available for sampling
• 13 kV MOSFET technology matured with cost reduction
5. SiC IGBTs • Thick EPI material resarch starts
• IGBT research starts
• P-type wafer available
• 13 kV IGBT research device available
• 6.5 kV IGBT available for integration
• 25 kV IGBT research device available
• 13 kV IGBT available for system integration
Figure 5-2
HV Device Roadmap and Development Projection Based on DARPA’s R&D Program [10-
13]
5-3
Properties Results
• Large Band Gap • High Power Capability
• Higher Carrier Mobility • High Frequency
• High Electrical Conductivity • Low Conduction Drop
• High Thermal Conductivity • High Junction Temperature
Ideal Switch is still a dream !!

Switch Requirements
• High Input Impedance • Integrated gave driver
• Low on-state drop • Minimize conduction loss
• Infinite “off” resistance • Zero leakage
• Fast turn-off & turn-on • Minimize switching losses
• Ability to withstand high V & I • Snubber-less operation
• High current density • Reduced size
• High temperature Capability • Reduced heat-sink
• Less device count
Figure 5-3
Requirements for the Next Generation HV Semiconductor Switches and Diodes
Switching Elements for Solid-State Switchgear
Since we want to provide sub-half cycle current limiting, based on the switching characteristic,
there are three major semiconductor device technologies: (1) silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
with a forced commutation circuit, (2) current-driven gating devices such as gate-turn-off (GTO)
and GTO derived thyristor devices, and (3) voltage-driven gating devices such as insulated-gate-
bipolar-junction-transistor (IGBT). These devices have been all developed at high-voltage levels
and can be all used for solid-state circuit breakers. The latter two options offer the advantage of
using a simple power circuit and very high speed operation. The current can be switched into an
energy absorber in a few micro-seconds. However, these devices have both a lower voltage
rating then SCRs have (6500 V vs. 8500 V) and a lower current carrying capability, the result of
a more complex structure.
The highest voltage level achieved with silicon is a 12-kV SCR. The highest voltage rating for
all gate-driven devices is 6.5kV. The technology for silicon (Si) devices is nearly matured, and
the rooms for further improvement are limited to packaging and the compromise between
switching and conducting characteristics. The emerging wide-bandgap semiconductor devices
have been reported at higher than 10kV in its early development stage. The field-effect-
transistor (FET) in traditional Si technology has been limited to low-voltage (<600V)
applications, but the silicon carbide (SiC) JFET has been reported at 5kV level [49], and
MOSFET has been report at 10kV level [50]. The major limitation with SiC device is its material
defect, and thus their current rating is always limited to very low level. Recent DARPA high-
power electronics (HPE) program has pushed the SiC wafer size from 2” to 3” and continued
improving the material defect problem. It is expected in a near future, the SiC devices will have
a significant presence in high-voltage applications.
5-4
Thyristors (Silicon-Controlled Rectifier)
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is the oldest conventional power device. The SCR has a
simple structure that allows the device to be easily fabricated, and thus the cost is lowest among
all high power devices. Shown in Figure 5-4(a), the SCR consists of four alternate P and N
layers, i.e., PNPN structure, between anode (A) and cathode (K). Its equivalent circuit is shown
in Figure 5-4(b).
The operation of SCR can be considered in terms of a pair of tightly coupled transistors, NPN
transistor Q1 and PNP transistor Q2. The NPN transistor Q1 can be turned on by a positive current
applied to the gate (G). Once Q1 is turned on, Q2 is supplied with a based current that allows Q2
to be turned on. The collector current of Q2 then in turn supplies a current to Q1 base. Thus even
if the gate current is removed, Q1 and Q2 remain conducting by mutually supplying the base
current to each other with the collector current. This is a well-known “latch” mechanism. After
device is latched on, it cannot be turned off except by applying a negative current to the anode or
a negative voltage against anode-to-cathode. Thus SCR is mostly used in line commutation type
circuit that it has to wait for the negative voltage through next zero crossing to naturally turn off
the device.
The voltage drop during turned off is equivalent to a PN-junction diode under forward biased
condition. Under reverse biased condition, the SCR is also similar to diode that it can block the
reverse voltage.
Cathode (K) Gate (G)
A
A
n p n Q2
n−
Q1 G G
p
Anode (A) K K
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5-4 Thyristor: (a) Internal Sturcture; (b) Equivalent Circuit; (c) Schematic Symbol.
Figure 5-4(c) shows the SCR schematic circuit symbol with symbols (A, K, G) representing a
three-terminal device. Figure 5.5 shows the photograph of the world’s highest voltage rated
semiconductor device – a 12kV SCR made by Mitsubishi. The package is a popular “hockey
puck” type that allows heat sinks applied to both sides for effective cooling.
5-5
Figure 5-5
Photograph of the World’s Highest Voltage Semiconductor Device – Mitsubishi FT1500AU-

240 [12-13]
Key features of SCR related to circuit breaker operation can be summarized as follows.
1. Highest blocking voltage level: 12kV is available commercially
2. Lowest voltage drop: less than 2V for 6.5kV device and less than 4V for 12kV device
3. High surge current capability: half-cycle surge current is typically 20 times the average
current
4. Reverse blocking: an inherent capability similar to diodes
5. Slow turn-off speed: typically larger than 500µs for large device, not suitable for high-
frequency pulse-width-modulation (PWM)
6. Lack of gate turn-off capability: it relies on the negative voltage with line commutation or an
external commutation circuit to force the controlled turn-off
7. Low dv/dt capability: typically less than 2kV/µs, thus requires voltage snubber if the device
is not turned off at zero crossing
8. Low di/dt capability: typically less than 200A/µs, thus requires current snubber if the device
is used in voltage source converters
Table 5-1 compares three commercially available high-voltage high-power SCRs made by three
different companies. The Mitsubishi FT1500AU-240 is rated at 12kV blocking voltage, 1.5kA
continuous current capability and 34kA surge current capability. The ABB 5STB18U 6500 has a
unique design that contains two anti-paralleled thyristors in one wafer and allows reverse
conducting. Thus one single device can be used as a standalone circuit breaker. Its current
rating is also high enough for typical circuit breaker rated at 600A and 1200A. The SPCO
SPT401 has a diameter size of 125mm and a current rating of 5kA, high enough for most circuit
breakers.
Table 5-1. Comparison of three commercially available high-voltage high-power thyristors
Manufacturer Mitsubishi ABB SPCO
FT1500AU - 5STB18U SPT401

Model
240 6500 125mm
Reverse blocking yes yes Yes
5-6
Reverse conducting no yes No
Blocking voltage 12kV 6.5kV 5kV

Average current Iav 1.5kA 1.58kA 5kA
Surge current Ipk 34kA 31.8kA 70kA
Voltage drop 4V at 3kA 1.93V at 1.6kA 1.8V at 4kA
Turn-off speed n.a. 800us 400µs

Critical di/dt 100A/µs 250A/µs 100A/µs
Critical dv/dt 2000V/µs 2000V/µs 1000V/µs
GTO and IGCT
The general term for a PNPN latched semiconductor device is normally referred to as the
“Thyristor.” The gate-turn-off thyristor (GTO), shown in Figure 5-6, is an improvement over the
SCR that it can be turned off by applying a negative current pulse to the gate, thus it does not
need to wait for zero crossing condition. Shown in Figure 5-6(a), the GTO has n+ layer diffused
into anode region to allow thinner wafer while maintaining low voltage drop. Its equivalent
circuit is shown in Figure 5-6(b). With proper adjustment of current gains for the two transistors
Q1 and Q2, the GTO can be turned off by a large negative current to the gate.
Cathode (K) Gate (G) A

A
n p n Q2
G
n− Q1 G
+ +
p+ n p+ n p+ K
Anode (A) K
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5-6 Gate-Turn-Off thyristor: (a) Internal Structure; (b) Equivalent Circuit; (c)
Schematic Circuit Symbol.
The gate current to turn off GTO needs to be excessively high, typically 20% to 100% of the
device conducting current. For the device with thousands of amperes, the control becomes a
major problem. Thus some GTO derived devices were developed recently. The most well-
known one is the integrated-gate-commutated-thyristor (IGCT) made by ABB. The same
technology is called GCT by Mitsubishi. The IGCT is to integrate the gate drive circuit and the
device together with very low inductance between the gate drive and the device to accelerate the
turn-off process. The cathode current has to be turned off in less than 1µs to avoid device going
5-7
into instability. For a 5kA switching, this turn-off diG/dt corresponds to 5kA/µs. The voltage
needed for the gate circuit needs to be high, and the gate-circuit inductance needs to be
sufficiently low. Thus the integrated package is necessary to achieve effective switching.
The GTO can be designed to have reverse-blocking capability, and the device is normally
referred to as “symmetrical GTO.” Similarly, IGCT can adopt respective GTO to become
symmetrical IGCT. Figure 5-7(a) shows the photograph of the ABB 5SHY30L6010
unidirectional IGCT. This IGCT is capable of operating at 1.3kA average current and 27.5kA
surge current. It does not have reverse blocking capability, thus a series diode is needed for
circuit breaker operation. The Mitsubishi GCU15CA-130 GCT, shown in Figure 5-7(b), has the
reverse blocking capability, but its average current capability is only 500A.
Similar to thyristors, the GTO is also a latch on device that does not have linear operation region.
In other words, it is either fully on or fully off. Varying gate voltage or current cannot change
the conduction characteristic.
(a) (b)
Figure 5-7 Photograph of (a) Photograph of ABB 5SHY30L6010 Unidirectional IGCT; (b)
ABB 5SHZ08L6000 Reverse Blocking Type IGCT [12-13]
Table 5-2 compares five commercially available GTOs and IGCTs. The highest voltage rating is
6.5kV. The Mitsubishi FG6000AU-120D is rated 6kV, 6kA switching, but its average current
rating is only 2kA. The rated current is based on the repetitive turn-off capability, but the
average current is based on continuous conduction condition.
Table 5-2 Comparison of commercially available GTO and GTO derives devices
Device type GTO GTO GCT IGCT IGCT

Manufacturer Mitsubishi ABB Mitsubishi ABB ABB
FG6000AU- 5SGT30J GCU15CA- 5SHY30L 5SHZ08F
Model
120D 6004 130 6010 6000
Rev. blocking No no Yes no yes
5-8
Blocking voltage 6kV 6kV 6.5kV 6kV 6kV

Rated current 6kA 1.5kA 3kA 3kA 800A
Average Iav 2kA 1kA 500A 1.3kA 290A
Surge current Ipk 40kA 24kA 8kA 27.5kA 800A
Voltage drop 6V at 6kA 3.5V at 3kA 6V at 800A 3V at 3kA 8.4V at 800A
Turn-off speed 30µs 28µs n.a. 14µs delay n.a.

Critical di/dt 500A/µs 400A/µs 1kA/µs 1kA/µs 1kA/µs
Critical dv/dt 1kV/µs 1kV/µs 3kV/µs 1kV/µs 1kV/µs
Emitter Turn-off-Thyristor
Similar to IGCT, the emitter-turn-off thyristor (ETO) is being developed to ease the gate drive
design for system designers. The device has not been commercially available, and thus is not
compared with other commercial GTOs and IGCTs. Figure 5-8 shows the schematic diagram of
ETO [51]. It connects low-voltage power MOSFET in series with high-voltage GTO, and turns
off the main power-path power MOSFET off before the GTO is turned off to achieve MOS turn-
off type operation. There are two sets of power MOSFETs: (1) emitter switch QE and (2) gate
switch QG. During the normal forced turn-off operation, QE is turned off and QG is turned on. The
GTO’s cathode current is totally bypassed via switch QG before the anode voltage begins to rise.
In this way, the thyristor latch-up is broken and the ETO is turned off under the hard-driven
condition. During the turn-on transient, QE is turned on, and QG is turned off. A high-current
pulse is injected into the GTO’s gate to reduce the turn-on delay time and to improve the turn-on
di/dt rating.
Anode
GTO
Gate1
QG QE
Gate3 Gate2
Cathode
Figure 5-8 Schematic circuit diagram of ETO
Compared to the gate power requirement of the GTO, the ETO gate driver requires much lower
power. Furthermore, the integrated ETO gate driver provides minimum on-time and off-time
5-9
control, flexible controller interface, and on-board power supply and current protection. Figure
5-9 shows photograph of a 4kA/4.5kV ETO with integrated gate driver. Depending on the turn-
off current requirement, the number of power MOSFETs needed in parallel varies. The picture
shows two rings of power MOSFETs are placed on top of the device to serve as QG and QE. A
short bus bar connects the device to an integrated gate driver to ensure low inductance in
between.
Figure 5-10 shows the turn-off voltage and current waveforms at 2-kV, 2-kA condition. The
turn-off tail time is long and the associated loss is a concern.
Figure 5-9 Photograph of a 4kA/4.5kV ETO4045A [12-13]
Anode Voltage
(500 V/div)
Anode Current
(500 A/div)
7.5 us
Figure 5-10 Turn-off voltage and current waveforms of the ETO at the bus anode voltage of
2 kV and the anode current of 2 kA.
In order to limit the turn-on di/dt, the inductor snubber and associated diode-resistor components
need to be connected in series with the device. For high-current applications, there is a concern
with core saturation. Thus air core is typically used. Figure 5-11 shows the structure of a toroidal
air core inductor sued for ETO snubber inductor [51].
5-10
Figure 5-11 Toroidal air core used for the ETO snubber inductor
Experimental turn-on waveform with inductor snubber is shown in Figure 5-12. It can be seen
that the di/dt has been limited to 100 A/µs. This number is nearly two orders of magnitude less
than MOS-gated devices such as power MOSFET and IGBT.
Top Switch Voltage

(500 V/DIV)
Top Switch Current

(100 A/DIV)
Figure 5-12 The di/dt limitation of the top switch current during turn-on period at 1.5kV bus
voltage
Super GTO
Another GTO derived device is the super-GTO (SGTO), which combines the deep diffused GTO
technology with the planar IC technology for high blocking capability and good junction
termination. The SGTO is being developed by Silicon Power for pulse-power applications.
Figure 5-13 compares the SGTO and standard GTO designs. With better tooling in the modern
2
IC foundry, the SGTO demonstrates 3000 times more cells per given area – 160000 cells/cm
2
versus 50 cells/cm . Devices using this technology have demonstrated the ability to turn off over
2000A/cm2 in an inductive without snubbers.
The SGTO has been evaluated for pulse power applications at 7kV, 80kA condition using 2
devices in series. Test results indicated a fast rise time of 25kA/µs and high peak current of
80kA [52].
5-11
Similar to ETO, the device has not been commercially available, and thus is not compared with
other commercial GTOs and IGCTs. Further evaluation is needed for its potential application in
solid-state circuit breakers.
SGTO GTO
One cell
160,000 cells/cm2 50 cells/cm2
Figure 5-13 Comparison of SGTO and standard 4500V 85mm GTO design.
Key features of GTO related to circuit breaker operation can be summarized as follows.
1. High Blocking voltage level: 6.5kV is available commercially
2. Voltage drop: less than 3V for 6kV device
3. High surge current capability: half-cycle surge current is typically 20 times the average
current
4. Possible reverse blocking: some GTO devices have reverse blocking capability, so do the
GTO derived devices. However, these devices tend to have smaller current capability and
higher voltage drop
5. Acceptable turn-off speed for low switching-frequency operation: typically less than 50µs for
large device; limited to 1kHz or lower frequency switching.
6. Low dv/dt capability: typically less than 1kV/µs, thus requires voltage snubber if the device
is not turned off at zero crossing
7. Low di/dt capability: typically less than 1kA/µs, thus requires current snubber if the device is
used in voltage source converters
HV-IGBT
Figure 5-14(a) shows the basic structure of an IGBT. Without the bottom p-layer, the structure is
similar to a power MOSFET that has an n-channel to connect the current. When a positive
voltage is applied in between the gate and the n-channel, the electric field will create a
–
conduction channel between n and n layers. Adding a p-layer on the bottom allows the device to
block a higher voltage. The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 5-14(b). A PNP transistor is
formed by the collector p-layer, the internal n–-layer, and the body p-layer form. The metal gate
5-12
along with the insulated oxide layer and the emitter n-layer form a power MOSFET. With power
MOSFET shorting the base and collector of the PNP transistor, the voltage drop of the IGBT is
the sum of the PNP emitter-base voltage and the MOSFET resistive voltage. Larger silicon area
allows smaller resistive drop, but the emitter-base voltage drop tends to be constant. The
schematic circuit symbol shown in Figure 5-14(c) indicates that the IGBT is represented by three
terminals: collector (C), emitter (E), and gate (G).
The punch-through (PT) technology was introduced to show that HV blocking could be achieved
with the addition of an n+ buffer along with the local lifetime control, the optimization of p-
collector layer and an improved wafer processing [53]. With the improved PT technology, high-
voltage IGBT (HV-IGBT) is now available at 3.3 kV, 4.5 kV, and 6.5 kV levels.
Metal Gate
Emitter
Oxide SiO2
C
IC C
n n
p p G
n− G
IMOS
p IE
Collector E E
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5-14 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) Structure and Symbol: (a) Basic IGBT
Structure; (b) IGBT Equivalent Circuit and Symbol; (c) Schematic circuit symbol.
IGBT typically has smaller silicon die size. Most commercial IGBTs are packaged in a plastic
module with multiple dies in parallel internally. Figure 5-15 shows the photograph of ABB
5SNA0600G650100, 6.5kV, 600A IGBT. Three pairs of (C,E) terminals can be paralleled by
external power bus bars.
Figure 5-15 Photograph of ABB 5SNA0600G650100 High-Voltage IGBT.
5-13
Figure 5-16 shows test results of a Mistubishi 2.5-kV, 1.2-kA HV-IGBT operating at 2-kV and
700-A conditions [54]. The turn-on process is less than 1.5µs, and the turn-off process is about
3µs. Measured turn-on and turn-off energies are 1.88 J and 0.86 J, respectively. The main reason
for high turn-on loss is due to slow diode reverse recovery. If it were the low-voltage IGBT, the
diode can be much faster, and the turn-on process can be one order magnitude faster.
It is worth of comparing the turn-on di/dt characteristic between HV-IGBT and GTO-derived
devices here with the experimental waveforms. With limited FBSOA capability, the GTO-
derived devices need to be limited to nearly 100 A/µs di/dt during turn-on by using external
snubbers. Here the HV-IGBT operating without any snubber shows 1500 A/µs di/dt during turn-
on. Such a number would have destroyed most GTO derived devices.
Overshoot current due to

diode reverse recovery
Vce (500V/div) Vce (500V/div)

Ic (200 A/div)
Ic (200 A/div)
Time: 400 ns/div Time: 400 ns/div
(a) (b)
Figure 5-16 Voltage and Current Waveforms of a High-Voltage Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor (HV-IGBT) Switching at 2-kV and 700-A Conditions: (a) turn-on and (b) turn-off.
Table 5-3 compares four commercially available HV-IGBTs. The standard IGBT current rating
is the continuous average current, which looks much smaller than what GTO is rated. Its peak
current rating, however, can be much higher than its continuous current rating. Most IGBT
modules limit its peak current rating to twice the continuous current rating. The ABB
5SNA0600G650100 provides half-pulse peak current rating, which is 10 times the continuous
current rating.
The IGBTs tend to have higher voltage drop than that of thyristor devices. The 6kV devices
typically have a voltage drop of 5V at 600A condition, and the 4.5kV devices have a voltage
drop of 3.3V at 900A. The turn-off speed depends on the gated drive resistor value. Smaller
gate resistance has less delay time, and the overall turn-off speed is faster. The ABB
5SNA0600G650100 shows 2.5µs turn-off time when the gate-drive resistance is 2.7Ω. Other
HV-IGBTs using 10Ω or higher gate resistance have a much slower turn-off speed that is similar
to GTO derived devices.
5-14
Table 5-3 Comparison of Four Commercially Available HV-IGBTs

Manufacturer Mitsubishi ABB EUPEC Powerex
CM600HG - 5SNA 0600
Model FZ600 R65KF1 CM900HG -90H
130H G650100
Blocking voltage 6.5kV 6.5kV 6.5kV 4.5kV
Average current Iav 600A 600A 600A 900A
Peak current Ipk 1.2kA 6kA (8.3ms) 1.2kA 1.8kA
Voltage drop 5V at 600A 5.4V at 600A 5.3V at 600A 3.3V at 900A
10µs at 2.5µs at 6.5µs at 7.2µs at

Turn-off speed
Rg=10ohm Rg=2.7ohm Rg=25ohm Rg=10ohm
Short ckt current n.a. 2.7kA 3kA n.a.
Short ckt period n.a. 10µ n.a. n.a.
Key features of HV-IGBT related to circuit breaker operation can be summarized as follows.
1. High Blocking voltage level: 6.5kV is available commercially
2. Voltage drop: about 5V for 6kV devices and 3.3kV for 4.5kV devices
3. High surge current capability: The half-cycle surge current is typically 10 times the average
current
4. Gate drive controllability: The gate resistance affects the turn-off speed significantly. In fact,
the gate voltage can also be controlled to drive the device into or out of saturation.
5. No reverse blocking capability: Today’s HV-IGBT does not have reverse blocking
capability. Although it is possible to design with reverse blocking, the voltage drop may be
compromised.
6. Fast turn-off speed that can be controlled by the gate resistance: typically less than 10µs turn-
off for large device; and the frequency switching can increased to as much as 10kHz.
7. High dv/dt capability: there is no need for the voltage snubber if the device is not turned off
at zero crossing
8. High di/dt capability: there is no need for the current snubber if the device is used in voltage
source converters
Wide Band-gap Silicon Carbide Devices
Presently, almost all of the power electronics converter systems used silicon (Si)-based power
semiconductor switches. However, SiC with superior properties compared to Si is a good
candidate to be used in the next generation of power devices, especially for high-voltage
applications. The emergence of SiC-based power semiconductor switches, with superior features
compared with the Si-based switches, could bring in substantial improvement in the performance
of power electronic converter systems.
5-15
SiC has a unique combination of a high critical electrical breakdown field, good majority carrier
transport, long minority carrier lifetimes due to its indirect bandgap, and high thermal
conductivity. These attributes combine to give SiC the potential to significantly exceed the
current-carrying density, temperature and voltage-blocking capabilities of existing silicon power
semiconductor devices (Figure 5-17)
Figure 5-17
SiC Potential for Wide Bandgap High Power Electronics
Materials that have received the most interest for the development of power semiconductors
include, but are not limited to gallium-arsenide (GaAs), gallium-nitride (GaN), aluminum-nitride
(AlN), silicon carbide (SiC), and diamond. Three types of SiC polytypes have been studied: 3C,
4H, and 6H. The 3C-form has a cubic lattice structure while the others are hexagonal. The
number indicates how many basic layers of 0.251 nm spacing from the elementary cell. The
cubic form has isotropic porperties , whereas the hexagonal forms have anisotropic properties.
This means that material properties like carrier mobility and electrical permittivity take the form
of tensors, and the carrier drift velocity and the dielectric polarization may take up directions that
differ from that of the applied electric field. Table 5-4 compares physical properties of silicon
and wide band-gap materials [41].
Table 5-4
Key Properties of Wide-Band Gap Semiconductor Materials
5-16
Si GaAs GaN 3C-SiC 6H-SiC 4H-SiC Diamond

Band Gap (eV) 1.12 1.42 3.4 2.2 2.9 3.2 5.5
Electron Saturation Velocity 1 2 2.5 2.5 2 2.7 2.7

(107cm/s)
Dielectric Constant 11.8 12.9 10 9.7 10 9.7 5.5
Breakdown Field (MV/cm) 0.3 0.4 3.3 1.5 2.2 3.0 5.6
Thermal Conductivity (W/cm/K) 1.5 0.46 1.3 5 5.0 4.9 22
Electron Mobility µn (cm2/V⋅s) 1350 8500 900 100 460 800 1900
Electron Mobility µp (cm2/V⋅s) 470 90 150 50 50 120 1200
Some of these advantages compared with Si-based power devices are as follows:
• SiC unipolar devices are thinner and have lower “on” resistances. At low breakdown
voltages (~50 V), these devices have specific on resistances of 1.12 µΩ, around 100 times
less than those of their Si counterparts. At higher breakdown voltages (~5000 V), the on
resistance goes up to 29.5 mΩ, which is still 300 times less than that of the comparable Si
devices. With lower on resistance, SiC power devices have lower conduction losses;
therefore, the converters have higher overall efficiency.
• SiC-based power devices have higher breakdown voltages because of their higher electric
breakdown field; for example, Si Schottky diodes are commercially available at voltages
lower than 300 V, but the first commercial SiC Schottky diodes are already rated at 600
V.
• SiC has a higher thermal conductivity (4.9 W/cm ·K for SiC and 1.5 W/cm ·K for Si), and
SiC power devices have a lower junction-to-case thermal resistance, Rth-jc (0.02K/W for
SiC and 0.06 K/W for Si). Therefore, temperature increase of the device is slower.
• SiC devices can operate at high temperatures. SiC device operation at up to 600°C
(1112°F) is mentioned in the literature [1]. Si devices, on the other hand, can operate at a
maximum junction temperature of only 150°C (302°F).
• SiC is extremely radiation hard; that is, radiation does not degrade the electronic
properties of SiC.
• Forward and reverse characteristics of SiC power devices vary only slightly with
temperature and time; therefore, they are more reliable.
• SiC-based bipolar devices have excellent reverse-recovery characteristics. With less
reverse-recovery current, the switching losses and EMI are reduced, and there is less or
no need for snubbers.
• Because of low switching losses, SiC-based devices can operate at higher frequencies
(>20 kHz), which is not possible with Si-based devices in power levels of more than a
few tens of kilowatts.
SiC power MOSFET has been considered as the excellent candidate for high-voltage
applications device because the early devices have demonstrated impressive current density
5-17
figure [55-58]. The blocking voltage level of the SiC power MOSFET was reported at 10 kV.
Further development is needed in larger die size for higher current handling. Cree is clearly the
leading manufacturer in making high-voltage SiC based power MOSFET.
Figure 5-18(a) shows the cross-sectional structure of a typical power MOSFET. There is an
oxide layer separating the gate and the drain-source channel. The electric field applied to the gate
allows the channel to be open and thus the current to be flowed through. Since there is no
junction between drain and source, the voltage drop is directly proportional to the on-resistance,
a feature same as JFET. The p-body is typically connected to the source, and thus creating an
anti-paralleled diode. The external connection sees three terminals: drain (D), source (S), and
gate (G). Figure 5-18(b) shows the symbol with inclusion of the body diode. The body diode
across source and drain is normally very slow reverse recovery, which prevents the power
MOSFET being widely used in high power inverter applications. The initial development of SiC
based power MOSFET, however, is not known for its body diode reverse recovery characteristic
and needs additional further test.
S G
oxide
n n B D
p+ p+
n− epitaxial B
G
n+ substrate
D S
(a) (b)
Figure 5-18Cross-sectional structure of power MOSFET
SiC MOSFET Static Characteristic
The static characteristic of SiC MOSFET is similar to SiC JFET. The device reported by R.
Singh with 3mm × 3mm 4H-SiC ACCUFET device has voltage and current ratings of 385-V and
20-A with 15 mΩ-cm2 current density. Figure 5-19 shows the static voltage and current
characteristic of the 385V SiC based power MOSFET at different gate voltages. It can seen that
the gate-to-source voltage is now at 20 V for full current rather than a typical 10-V seen in Si
MOSFETs. The threshold voltage is also much higher now. The Si-based MOSFET has a
threshold voltage less than 5V, but the SiC-based MOSFET appears to have a threshold voltage
higher than 10V.
5-18
20 VGS = 20
15
VGS = 15
ID (A)
10
VGS = 10
5
VGS = 5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
VDS (V)
Figure 5-19 Static voltage and current characteristic of a 385V SiC MOSFET.
A recently reported 10-kV, 2A 4H-SiC based power MOSFET is reported [55]. The voltage level
is clearly what IUT and utility needs. The current level is also close to IUT requirement. Figure
5-20 shows the static conduction characteristic of the 10-kV, 2A power MOSFET. Similar to the
385V device, this device needs a high gate voltage to turn on. The gate voltage of 18 to 20V is
required for sufficiently low conduction voltage drop. Consider an 8V drop for 10kV bus, the
conduction loss is less than 0.1%. Figure 5-21 shows the static reverse blocking characteristic of
the 10kV, 2A SiC power MOSFET. Under zero gate voltage condition, the device clearly blocks
10kV with less than 0.1mA leakage current. Under Vgs = 3V, the blocking capability is
deteriorated, but remains about 0.1mA at 6kV.
5
VG = +20 V
4.5
2 18 V
4 Area = 0.048 cm
25 C 16 V
Drain Current (A)
3.5
14 V
3
2.5 12 V
2
200 W/cm
2
1.5 10 V
1 8V
0.5 6V
4V
0
0 10 20 30 40
Drain-Source Voltage (V)
Figure 5-20 Static Voltage and Current Conduction Characteristic of a newly Developed
SiC MOSFET Rated 10kV, 2A.
5-19
1.8E-04 2
Area = 0.048 cm
1.6E-04
1.4E-04
Drain Current (A)
1.2E-04
1.0E-04 Vgs = 0 V #2
Vgs = 1V
8.0E-05
Vgs = 2V
6.0E-05 Vgs = 2.25 V
1mA/cm2
Vgs = 2.5 V
4.0E-05
Vgs = 2.75 V
2.0E-05 Vgs = 3V
0.0E+00
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Drain Voltage (V)
Figure 5-21 Static Reverse Blocking Characteristic of the 10kV, 2A SiC Power MOSFET.
SiC MOSFET Dynamic Characteristic
The advantage of power MOSFET over IGBT is its switching speed. The MOSFET does not
incur tail current during turn off, thus the turn-off speed is very fast, and the turn-off loss is very
small as compared to IGBT. Figure 5-22 shows the above described 10-kV, 2A SiC power
MOSFET gate drive voltage during turn-off condition. The gate resistance significantly affects
the gate voltage discharge rate, which subsequently will affect the turn-off delay and turn-off
current fall time.
25
25
20
20
Gate Voltage (V)
G a te V o lta g e (V )
15
15
10
10
101
55
25 48
00 Rg = 12 Ω
–5-5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (µs)
Figure 5-22 SiC MOSFET Gate Drive Voltage During Turn-off.
5-20
Figure 5-23 and Figure 5-24 show the SiC power MOSFET drain-source voltage and drain
current under turn-off conditions, respectively. The current fall time and thus the turn-off loss is
much reduced with small gate resistance. Depends on turn-off dv/dt limit, which is typically due
to the load not the device itself, the turn-off speed or gate resistance can be determined. The
dv/dt in the previous HV IGBT case was seen at 20kV/µs range at 2kV, 30A condition. Here the
SiC HV power MOSFET shows about 30kV/µs range at 5kV, 3A condition. The switching speed
of SiC power MOSFET is apparently much faster, and the switching loss is expected to be much
lower, but the switching speed impact to the load remains unknown. Today’s industrial drive
operates at 4 to 8kV/µs, and the motor bearing failure has been the major issue. With nearly one
order of magnitude increase, the dv/dt impact to the inductor and capacitor will need additional
attention.
6000
6000
5000
5000
Device Voltage (V)
Rg = 12Ω
D rain Voltage (V)
4000
4000
25Ω
3000
3000
48Ω
2000
2000
101Ω
1000
1000
00
–1000
-1000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (µs)
Figure 5-23 Turn-off Device Voltage for an SiC 10kV, 2A MOSFET
4.0
4.0
Device Current (A)
3.0
3.0
Drain Current (A)
101Ω
2.0
2.0
48Ω
1.0
1.0
25Ω
Rg = 12Ω
0.0
0.0
–1.0
-1.0
0.E+00
0 2.E-07
0.2 4.E-07
0.4 6.E-07
0.6 8.E-07
0.8 1.E-06
1.0
Time (s)
Time (µs)
Figure 5-24 Turn-off Device current for an SiC 10kV, 2A MOSFET
5-21
Figure 5-25 shows the reverse-biased safe operating area of the 10kV, 2A SiC MOSFET. Under
2.5× over-current condition, the device can withstand 60% of the breakdown voltage. The device
apparently has substantial over-current capability if the bus voltage is lower than the rated
voltage.
6 7000
5 6000
60 % of BV @ 2.5 X Current
Drain Voltage [V]

Drain Current [A]
4 5000
3 4000
2 3000
1 2000
0 1000
-1 0
-2 -1000
0.0E+00 1.0E-07 2.0E-07 3.0E-07 4.0E-07
Time [s]
Figure 5-25 RBSOA Characteristic of 10kV, 2A SiC MOSFET
High-Voltage High-Power SiC Devices
The SiC device at its initial development stage has demonstrated superior performance in voltage
blocking capability even with the power MOSFET, which is normally limited to 300V in Si
devices. Now with 10kV blocking voltage, the 30× performance improvement is a major
leapfrog jump. To further increase the power density, the development needs to move to SiC
IGBT or SiC thyristors.
Currently small-size SiC GTO has been under development for pulse power applications. The
reported 2mm×2mm GTO can be switched at a maximum current of 1.4kA with a rise time of
2.4kA/µs [59]. The larger size 4mm×4mm GTO was successfully tested at 850V, 3.1kA, and
2
3.9kA/µs [60]. Figure 5-26 shows the 4mm SiC GTO current density and voltage drop
characteristic. The wide band-gap device has a higher inherent voltage drop. At low current
condition, the voltage drop is between 2 and 3 V, depending on the temperature condition. At
100A/cm2, which is similar to the current density of the matured Si devices, the voltage drop
remains below 3.4V. The current density exceeds 1kA/cm2 at 5V drop condition.
5-22
Figure 5-26 4mm2 SiC GTO Current Density and Voltage Drop Characteristic.
The SiC IGBT has not been developed because it requires a p-type wafer, which is not available
today. However, the SiC IGBT is considered very promising for next generation high-power
electronics applications. There are some conceptual designs that show different internal
structure from the traditional Si IGBT. As shown in Figure 5-27, the SiC IGBT design has a
JFET implant near the P-body and gate area for improvement of current density.
Gate
Emitter
n+ n+
p p
p+ p+
“JFET” implant
n-
n+
p+
Collector
Figure 5-27 SiC IGBT Internal Structure.
5-23
DARPA High Power Electronics Program Roadmap
There exists a critical need for solid state switching devices and integrated circuits that can meet
the high-current, high-voltage, and speed requirements of electric components and sub-systems
in emerging military applications. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
under Department of Defense wide bandgap semiconductor technology (WBST) high power
electronics (HPE) program started in 2002. The objective of the program is to revolutionize high
power electrical energy control, conversion, and distribution by establishing a new class of solid
state power switching transistors employing wide bandgap semiconductor materials.
The HPE program is investigating novel technical approaches to enable high-power solid-state
electronics, with the main focus being on power electronics technologies for 10 kV class devices.
Applications include power distribution and electro-magnetics weapons in future hybrid-electric
combat vehicles, naval ship propulsion, and electric aircraft.
The leading candidate semiconductor material for 10 kV class high power devices and circuits is
SiC in the 4H polytype. Research in HPE is concentrated in the following technical areas: (1) 4H
SiC semiconductor materials and processes, (2) high-power device structures, or (3) high power
integrated circuit technology.
Although SiC has these advantages compared with Si, the present disadvantages limit its
widespread use. Although the basic properties of the wide band-gap semiconductor materials can
be used to show the figure of merits for making power semiconductors, the degree of difficulty
of making them available is indeed the most crucial factor for us to consider. For solid-state
switch development, possible use of the wide band gap materials can be summarized as follows.
• Silicon material is simple to make, and with 50 years experience of making them, the Si
power semiconductor devices have approached their theoretical performance limit.
• The wide band-gap semiconductors, especially the well-known silicon carbide (SiC) and
Galliom Nitride (GaN), are showing significant better material properties. With 10 times
blocking voltage capability, SiC can be easily made to have blocking voltage level higher
than 10 kV or 20 kV for immediate application at thr distribution voltage level. However,
the material defect and degree of difficulty of making them are high, and thus the SiC
devices are not yet made available for the voltage level we need.
• GaN and diamond are much more difficult material to process than SiC. Theoretically,
GaN and diamond have better material properties than SiC. However, the degree of
difficulty of using even SiC is several orders of magnitude higher than that of making Si
devices.
• SiC devices have not been mass-produced. Currently, only alpha-version devices are
available for high-voltage applications, and some beta-version diodes are available for
low-voltage applications. SiC Schottky diodes, showing zero reverse-recovery
characteristics, are available in beta version by Cree and in quantity by Infineon. The
quantity availability is only up to 600-V rating. How long the technology will take to
mature is difficult to predict, and with this uncertainty, it use is limited.
5-24
How long the technology can be matured is difficult to predict and with this uncertainty it is
prudent to move with 1st generation solid-state breakers/reclosures/currentlimiters development
using HV Si technology (GTO, IGBT, "Super" GTO) while closely following the development
of wide band gap technologies.
Summary
This chapter reviews the state-of-the-art high-power commercial and research Si devices. The
emerging SiC devices are also introduced. From fundamental device characteristics, key features
of these high-power devices related to circuit breaker operation were compared in individual
device categories. Table 5-5 compares basic features of different commercially available
devices. Although the SGTO is listed here, it is more of a research device but close to
commercially available. The other devices can all be ordered through their company websites or
catalogs.
Table 5-5 Overall Comparison of Different Commercially Available Devices
Device type SCR Dual SCR GTO IGCT Sym. IGCT SGTO HV-IGBT
Manufacturer Mitsubishi ABB Mitsubishi ABB Mitsubishi SPCO ABB
FT1500AU 5STB18UT 5SGT30J 5SHY30L GCU15CA 5SNA 0060
Model SGTO-24
-240D 6500 6004 6010 -130 G650100
Rev. blocking Yes Yes No No Yes No No
Rev. conducting No Yes No No No No No
Blocking voltage 12kV 6.5kV 6kV 6kV 6.5kV 6kV 6.5kV
Rated current 2.35kA 2.48kA 6kA 3kA 3kA 6kA 600A
Average current 1.5kA 1.58kA 2kA 1.3kA 500A n.a. 600A
Surge current 34kA 31.8kA 40kA 27.5kA 8kA 55kA 6kA
1.93V at 5.4V at
Voltage drop 4V at 3kA 6V at 6kA 3V at 3kA 6V at 800A 2V at 3kA
1.6kA 600A
Turn-off speed n.a. 800µs 30µs 14µs delay n.a. n.a. 2.5µs
Critical di/dt 100A/µs 250A/µs 500A/µs 1kA/µs 1kA/µs 600kA/µs Not limited
Critical dv/dt 2kV/µs 2kV/µs 1kV/µs 1kV/µs 3kV/µs n.a. Not limited
The distinct features of each device category for solid-state switchgears can be summarized as
follows:
• The SCR device voltage level has been pushed to 12kV. For 15kV circuit breaker, the
number of stacking devices is only 2. For all gate-controlled devices, the maximum voltage
level is 6.5kV, and the number of stacking devices is 4. Less number of stacking devices is
desired for better voltage balancing. For pure solid-state switch, the voltage drop and reverse
5-25
blocking are the most important factors. In this case, the SCR is the best choice among all
different devices. However, lack of gate turn-off capability makes SCR difficult to be used
in fault current limiting applications.
• For pure solid-state switch, the voltage drop and reverse blocking are the most important
factors. In this case, the SCR is the best choice among all different devices. Lack of gate
turn-off capability makes SCR difficult to be used in fault current limiting applications.
• For hybrid switch where the solid state switch conducts a limited period, then the switching
speed and snubberless operation become the most important factors. In this case HV-IGBT
is the best choice. From the numbers given by the manufacturer, SGTO seems to be a good
candidate for the hybrid switch. For availability of high-voltage high-power gate-controlled
devices with hybrid configuration, GTO and GTO derived devices can also be the candidate.
• For availability of high-voltage high-power gate-controlled devices with hybrid
configuration, GTO and GTO derived devices can be the candidate.
• The voltage rating of wide band-gap SiC devices has shown very promising in its early stage
development. However, the material defects will limit the current rating at least for
sometime until the material problem is solved. Continuing monitoring of SiC material and
device development is necessary. In terms of when to really cut in for evaluating SiC
devices for solid-state switchgear application, it is difficult to say.
• Based on the DARPA schedule of DARPA HPE Program, it is possible to start evaluating
SiC in 4 to 5 years for high-voltage high-power solid-state switchgear applications.
5-26
6 PROPOSED DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FAMILY OF SOLID-STATE SWITCHGEAR
The increase in available fault current levels (due to added distributed generation and increased
load) has stressed many transmission and distribution substations to their limits. Also, there are
growing instances in utility distribution and transmission systems wherein the fault current levels
are exceeding the interrupting capability of existing substation circuit breakers. This increase in
fault current level either requires the replacement of large number of substation breakers or the
development of some means to limit the fault current. Also, many mechanical circuit breakers
are operating much more than originally intended in applications such as capacitor switching.
This continual use of mechanical breakers requires intensive maintenance to be performed or
periodic replacement of the whole breaker. Environmental problems are also on the horizon with
the use of both SF6 gas and oil within mechanical breakers, which may pose long term problems
for many utilities.
The first, the most important factor that we have to apply to the power system today is to make it
a digitally controlled system. We have a digital economy and we're still trying to provide power
to it through a mechanical design system that was designed over 50 years ago. It’s a marvelous
system, but we've been effectively borrowing against the future to pay for the present, and the
future has caught up with us; we need to build the system to serve the digital society of the 21st
century.
While the potential benefits of power electronics based switchgear designs ("all solid-state" as
well as "hybrid" designs) have long been apparent, potential high production costs have curtailed
development efforts. Advances in high power solid-state components now make possible solid-
state switchgear at a reasonable cost.
Key benefits include:

• Rapid Load Transfer Capabilities – Solid-state transfer switches are the primary application
for distribution solid state switchgear at the present time. These designs are used to transfer
the power supply of sensitive loads, from a "normal" supply system to "alternate" supply
system when a failure is detected in the "normal" supply. This transfer needs to be performed
in a very fast way (1/4 cycle) so that the load does not experience any power quality problem
• Circuit sectionalizing and reconfiguration – Solid state switches have the potential to
eliminate momentary interruptions for the great majority of customers on distribution
systems when a fault occurs. Solid state switches for reconfiguring systems can also allow
for optimizing performance through reconfiguration without imposing momentary
interruptions on customers.
• Rapid Fault Current Solution Deployment – Solid state switchgear designs will enable
transmission and distribution entities to effectively deal with pressures to add new
6-1
Proposed design and Specifications for Family of Solid-State SwitchGear
transmission capacity, provide open access for distributed and aggregate generation and deal
with the challenges presented by new fault current sources.
• Rapid Fault Isolation and Aid Power Quality Improvements – With the flexibility of power
electronic switching, the solid state switchgear will achieve fault isolation and provide better
network protection and take care of most of the distribution system situations that result in
voltage sags, swells, and power outages. Fast isolation of faulted sections of the minimum
size will significantly contribute to improved reliability performance characteristics (SAIDI -
System Average Interruption Duration Index and SAIFI - System Average Interruption
Frequency Index).
• Instantaneous Current Limiting – Solid state switchgear designs will provide instantaneous
(sub-cycle) current limiting. Solid State switchgear will alleviate the short circuit condition in
both downstream and upstream devices by limiting fault currents coming from the sources of
high short circuit capacity.
• Faster Fault Clearing and Shorten Recloser Interval - Utilities may wish to clear faults more
quickly than current circuit breakers allow
• Mitigating the Effects of New Generation Within Distribution System – New generation will
increase the available fault current of the network and may result in existing equipment not
being adequately rated to handle the new ratings. Upgrading the system to accommodate the
new fault current ratings may be expensive and create excessively high prices and barriers to
new generation. The solid state switchgear designs with current limiting capabilities can be
used to mitigate this situation.
• Interfaces with distributed generators – Solid state switches can facilitate implementation of
local islanding schemes for distributed generators and allow connection and disconnection
without concern for transients
• Repeated Operations With High Reliability and Without Wear-Out – High fault currents are
known to be a factor in reducing transformer life, so it is expected that an advantage from the
use of a current limiting breaker will be longer life with higher reliability for nearby
transformers
• Curtail Mechanical Wear and Tear in Equipment – Equipment in the fault current path will
not experience the high asymmetrical and symmetrical fault currents that would be possible
without the solid state switchgear
• Soft Start Capability – Limit the inrush current for capacitive loads, by gradually phasing in
the switching device rather than making an abrupt transition from an open to a closed
position
• Reduce Switching Surges – Solid state switches can prevent transient voltages during
The result is better control of VAR flows, voltage, and flicker on the distribution system
without causing unacceptable transient voltages
• Standardization – Implementing “standardized” designs and provide alternative to large scale
power system breaker upgrades. There are fixed and variable costs in maintaining an
inventory of distribution switchgears. One of the primary functional specifications for the
solid state switchgear designs is standardization of product classes compared to the existing
6-2
practice based on multiple voltages and current rating. Realization of this primary functional
specification should result in significant reduction in inventory cost. It is possible to
significantly reduce inventory costs by introducing “standardized” switchgear designs.
• Avoid the Use Traditional (series reactor) Fault Current Limiting Solutions
• Improved operations and asset management – The operations-and-maintenance (O&M) cost
reduction are potentially achievable with solid state switchgears through significant reduction
of size and weight and improved communication capabilities by adopting the IEC 61850
communication architecture
• Minimize Environmental Impact – By minimizing the need for SF6 breakers, the new solid
state switchgear designs will help diminish the environmental impacts of greenhouse gas and
arced oil associated with breakers
• Other Advanced Distribution Automation Functions – Advanced distribution automation
provides opportunities to develop new applications for condition monitoring and asset
management purposes. One potential area is for the solid-state switchgear to act as a sensor
of voltage, current, and power factor and provide other advanced distribution automation
functionalities. Solid-state switchgear can be automated to record and transfer vital power
quality and reliability information. Solid-state switchgear should conform to IEC 61850 and
to be remotely accessible via a communication system for remote control and use as a
distribution system condition monitoring node (sensor for voltage, current, etc.). It is
therefore necessary to identify IEC61850 logical nodes for each switchgear function, each
application module, and each sensor. After a straw-man system configuration has been
selected for the secondary system, there is one remaining loose end. The set of IEC-61850
logical nodes (LNs) associated with each device, each application module, and each
switchgear function must be documented. Only then will there be a firm basis for specifying
IEC61850 communications. Logical nodes are the source and destination of all IEC61850
substation communications. Once the available LNs are known and documented, the
communications system can be evaluated to determine which modes for information flow are
most appropriate. Some key characteristics for the required sensors and communication
infrastructure enhancements are listed below:
– Key Sensor Characteristics
Reliable / Fail Safe
Economical
Gradual displacement of analog devices
New digital equipment capabilities
Intelligent alarm processing
Additional data used for contingency and security analysis
Real time state estimation and predictive system
Compatible with existing infrastructure
– Key Communication System Characteristics
Open-system standardized communication architecture (object modules, protocols
and services)
6-3
Establish standardized self-describing object modeling

Capable of supporting distributed computing
Replacement of discrete station wiring with flexible communication networks
Advanced and secure communication media
Reliable / Fail Safe
Economical
Compatible with existing infrastructure
The project team initiated discussions with leading manufacturers like Mitsubishi, ABB, Silicon
Power, S&C, Siemens, GE, Diversified Technologies to gain insights on the technical as well as
economic feasibility of developing a family of low cost distribution and transmission
switchgears.
Discussion with Silicon Power Corporation revealed at they are proposing to design a range of
medium voltage and high voltage Hybrid Solid State Circuit Breakers (HSSCBs). A hybrid
mechanical/electronic approach is being proposed in their earlier designs to limit the on-state
losses and to minimize the cooling requirements of the semiconductor switches. The use of a
hybrid approach allows the semiconductor junction to operate from a lower starting temperature
and allows the interruption of higher fault currents than a completely solid state unit.
Silicon Power proposes to use its advanced ultra-switch technology (Super Gate Turn-Off) which
consists of planar, high voltage, high turn-off current semiconductor switches with integral
current sensing. This device development effort (which is also partially funded by EPRI) is in a
quest to obtain a fast switching, high peak current, low-loss, solid state switch. This GTO
thyristor, termed the “Super-GTO”, is fabricated using Integrated Circuit (IC) processing
technology. When compared to the traditional deep-diffused thyristor, IC processing technology
enables the optimization of the thyristor for:
• Lower conduction losses
• Higher switching speed.
• Higher peak current turn-off capability
• Lower manufacturing cost.
Using the ultra-switch modules, the current can be commutated at any point before the natural
zero crossing; this allows much faster performance than with the use of typical thyristors. The
use of forced commutation power electronic switches allows the hybrid designs to interrupt
current at a preset current level and limit fault current let through into the protected load.
Silicon Power also proposes to develop a range of medium voltage and high voltage Solid State
Circuit Breakers (SSCBs) as well. Silicon Power already has "all-solid" state based transfer
switches.
6-4
Discussion with Mitsubishi Electric Power Products Inc. revealed that they already have an "all
solid-state" based 15KV, 600A breaker which provide ½ cycle current interruptions. This is
termed as "Light Speed SSBs." This device at present uses thyristor technology for switching.
Mitsubishi also has a hybrid transfer switch ("Light Speed SSTS").
A Conceptual Design – Candidate for Developing a Family of Solid-state

Switchgear
A new hybrid switchgear design is presented in this chapter which is an innovative, scalable and
load transfer, and a sale price of 5 to 7 times that of conventional breakers and reclosers. This
conceptual design is a suitable candidate to the development of a family of low-cost solid-state
switchgear which can expand the capabilities of existing switchgears to a modular “integrated
electrical interface” and is therefore a viable market opportunity.
power electronics based switchgear which will offer important advantages during design, testing,
manufacturing and service stages [3-8] namely:
• Design is simplified because within the module one is dealing with comparatively low
voltages
• Testing is also simplified because of the reduced voltage level.
• The same modules can be applied to many different voltage ratings and applications
• One can use the same modules for different voltage breakers by stacking the appropriate
number of modules depending on the voltage level of the breaker. This way we reap the
benefits of mass production even further by:
• Having the same building block for different voltage breakers, thus simplifying
manufacturing, testing and repair costs.
The Proposed Universal Hybrid Switch
A universal hybrid switch is proposed here for multi-purpose circuit breaker and fault current
limiting applications. Although the requirements for fault clearing, recloser, transfer switch, and
current liming are different, the most difficult task is to turn the device off without going through
zero crossing. Thus the first design criterion for a universally used switch is to be able to
interrupt the current any time. In this case the gate controlled device is the best choice. For the
cost and reliability concerns, the circuit must be as simple as possible to avoid excessive bulky
passive components. In this case the pure SCR based switch needs to be excluded. Even though
SCR can be force-turned off by external commutation circuits for fault current limiting, the
added components are simply not justifiable. Unfortunately all gate-controlled switches have
high voltage drop that significantly degrades the efficiency. Thus the proposed switch is a
6-5
hybrid version that utilizes fast mechanical switch for regular conducting and gate-controlled
switch for fault clearing and current limiting.
Advantages of this design include:

• Sub-cycle operation
• Long Breaker cost life and Reduced Maintenance Costs
• SF6, is not required
• Lower Losses
• Less Expensive than "All solid-state" designs
• Cooling not required
• Reduced Switching Transients
• Current Limiting Capabilities
Proposed Structure
Figure 6-1 shows the circuit diagram and basic operation waveform of the proposed universal
hybrid switch (UHS) under fault current limiting condition. The switch consists of a fast
mechanical switch Sm and a solid-state switch Sss. The solid-state switch Sss consists of a diode
bridge and a PWM controlled IGBT or other gate-turn-off device to form a bidirectional switch.
When the fault occurs, Sm is turned off, and Sss is turned on to allow current flowing through the
bidirectional switch. This fault current magnitude can be controlled by the PWM switching.
Vs
ultrafast
current Sm
Is switch
Sm
Fault
TVS
Is
Sss fully PWM
off control Vs
MOV
vge
Snubber
Ts IGBT
Vs
Sss
Is
Fault
current limit
occurs
6-6
Figure 6-1 Circuit Diagram and Basic Operation Waveform of the Proposed Universal
Hybrid Switch
The proposed switch has current and voltage sensors, Is and Vs, that can also serve as the
monitoring purpose. A temperature sensor Ts is also fed back to the controller for device
protection. The gate-drive circuit has a transient-voltage suppressor (TVS) to allow gate
triggered under over-voltage condition to protect the device from instantaneous over-voltage
failure. A metal-oxide-varistor (MOV) is also added to absorb transient over voltage coming
from the system. When the switch is operating in PWM condition, the snubber circuit serves as
the energy buffer that allows current magnitude to be regulated.
Operating under Fault Clearing Mode
The fault clearing mode can be controlled by simply turning off the switch without PWM
operation. Figure 6-2 shows the UHS associated waveform under fault clearing mode operation.
When the fault occurs, the mechanical switch Sm turns off, and the solid-state switch Sss turns on
to avoid the arc. Once the current is flowing in Sss, then it can be turned off any time to clear the
fault. Similar operating procedure can also be applied to static transfer switch operation. In that
case, two UHS’s are needed.
Vs
ultrafast
current Sm
Is switch
Sm
Fault
TVS
Sss fully fully fully Is

off on off Vs
MOV
vge
Snubber
Ts IGBT
Vs Sss
Is
Figure 6-2 The Proposed UHS Operating Under Fault Clearing Mode
6-7
Operating under Linear Region
The fault current limiting mode can also be controlled by operating the device in linear region
without PWM operation. The operation is simply to reduce the gate drive voltage so that the
device goes into high impedance mode. Figure 6-3 shows the waveform associated with linear
mode current limiting operation. In this case, a large amount of power needs to be consumed in
the device, and the temperature can shoot high very quickly. Thus this mode of operation is not
recommended for a long-term current limiting condition. It would require the temperature
feedback to ensure device junction temperature stays below the limit.
Vs
ultrafast
current Sm
Is switch
Sm
Fault
TVS
Sss fully fully current Is
off on limiting Vs
MOV
vge
Snubber
Ts IGBT
Vs
Sss
Is
Fault
occurs
Figure 6-3 The Proposed UHS Operating Under Linear Region for Fault Current Limiting
Note that the linear region operation cannot be achieved with all thyristor devices because they
are the latch-on devices. However, the GTO and GTO (ETO, Super-GTO) derives devices can
all be used in PWM operation with a lower switching frequency. Figure 6-4 shows the circuit
diagram and associated PWM waveform using GTO or GTO-derived devices for current limiting
operation. The use of GTO does not have over-voltage protection function provided by the gate
drive circuit, but the same function can be performed with MOV. The voltage snubber is needed
for the energy buffer as well as the dv/dt protection. The current snubber function may be
obtained by the line inductance.
6-8
Vs ultrafast
current Sm
Is switch
Sm
Fault
Is
Sss fully PWM
Vs
GTO
off control
MOV
Snubber
vge
Ts
Vs
Sss
Is
Fault
current limit
occurs
Figure 6-4 The Proposed UHS Adopting GTO or GTO-Derived Device as the Switching
Device for PWM Operation
Generic Specifications for Hybrid Solid-State Switchgear Design
The specification is intended to provide designers with a set of functionalities that are desirable
in the context of solid-state switchgear rather than an exhaustive list of requirements. The
functional specification is written in a technology-neutral manner so as to provide designers with
maximum flexibility in achieving the desired functionalities. At a minimum, the functionality of
the proposed design should meet the basic functionality of conventional distribution breakers and
reclosers (for example for 15KV, 600A class).
The proposed design should also adhere to the relevant requirements for operating environment,
structural design, insulation level, short circuit protection, surge withstand and other issues that
are described in the C37 series of ANSI/IEEE standard for breakers and reclosers. Specific C37
series standards that are relevant to distribution switchgears are as follows:
• ANSI C37.42-1989, American National Standard Specifications for Distribution Cutouts and
Fuse Links.
• ANSI/IEEE C37.60-1981, IEEE Standard Requirements for Overhead, Pad Mounted, Dry
Vault, and Submersible Automatic Circuit Reclosers and Fault Interrupters for AC Systems.
• Cooper Power Systems, "Comparison of Recloser and Breaker Standards," February, 1994.
• IEEE Working Group on Distribution Protection, "Distribution Line Protection Practices
Industry Survey Results," IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 176-86,
January 1995.
6-9
• ANSI C37.06-2000, AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current

Basis--Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities.
• ANSI C37.42-1989, American National Standard Specifications for Distribution Cutouts and
Fuse Links.
• ANSI/IEEE C37.60-1981, IEEE Standard Requirements for Overhead, Pad Mounted, Dry
• Cooper Power Systems, "Comparison of Recloser and Breaker Standards," February, 1994.
• IEEE Working Group on Distribution Protection, "Distribution Line Protection Practices
January 1995.
• Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Applied Protective Relaying, 1982.
• ANSI/IEEE C37.90.1-IEEE Surge Withstand Capability (SWC) Test for Protective Relays
and Relay Systems.
• ANSI/IEEE C37.90.2 - IEEE Standard Withstand Capability of Relay Systems to Radiated
Electromagnetic Interference from Transceivers.
• Three phase and ground time over-current protection with timing in accordance with IEEE
Std. C37.112 (Distribution Requirement)
• Hi-set instantaneous over-current protection (Distribution Requirement)
• Low-set instantaneous overcurrent protection, enabled/disabled by state of reclosing cycle
(Distribution Requirement)
• Auto-reclosing function, settable for 0-3 reclosing attempts, 0-60 seconds adjustable delay
per attempt, lockout after last attempt, 0-60 seconds reset delay after lockout reset
(Distribution Requirement)
• Three-zone phase and ground distance protection (Transmission Requirement)
• Directional ground instantaneous and time overcurrent protection with timing per C37.112
(Transmission Requirement)
• Auto-reclosing function, as for distribution applications, but also with synchronism checking
capability (Transmission Requirement)
Design Considerations for Hybrid Solid-State Current Limiters and

Breakers
While a number of candidate technologies have been discussed and reviewed in previous
chapters, the first generation of solid-state switchgears should use reliable and field-proven
technologies. Also, it is desirable that the next generation family of power electronics based
switchgears be scalable, be multi-functional, and be capable of being easily tailored to meet
specific application requirements without major changes to the baseline design.
6-10
A thorough design and performance analysis therefore should be conducted on any prospective
design of solid-state switchgear to evaluate, which one of the functional specifications can be
achieved with the particular design and what will be tradeoff in cost, efficiency and reliability to
achieve additional functionalities. It is feasible that many of the functionalities listed below can
be programmed into the solid-state switchgear in different modes of operation. For example,
transfer switch capabilities and fast fault clearing and instantaneous current limiting could be two
different modes of operation that can be integrated within the same hardware platform and
depending on the controller operating mode any one of the feature could be activated.
Basic Requirements for a 15KV, 600A Hybrid Design for a Circuit-Breaker /

Recloser / Current Limiter
• Steady-state current rating
600 A, continuous
• Emergency overload capability
800 A, 1 hour
700 A, 8 hours
• Short-circuit current rating
6
12.5 kA, symmetrical (for one second)
• Voltage rating
15.5 kV line to line

• Low-frequency withstand voltage
50 kV, one minute

• BIL
110 kV
• Losses
Less than 10 kW
• Independent phase operation
Each phase can open and close independently

• Speed
Clears faults within 1/2 cycle
6
20KA peak 1/2 cycle rating
6-11
• Control connections
The switch must have a connector to the controller. It is desirable to have an industry
standard connection that could be used with other controllers (Schweitzer for example),
but this setup may not be fast enough to achieve desired operational speeds. Another
option is to have the controller built-in to the switch; then, an external connector must be
available to communicate with the controller to program settings and download data.
• Controller capabilities
The controller must provide standard functionality of digital relays, comparable to the
SEL 351 relay.
• Powering and backup
Should operate from a supplied external 120 VAC source. Should operate for up to 8 hours
on battery backup.
• Smart Sensor and Monitoring System
– Develop a list of what parameters needs to be monitored. Some of these functionalities
could include:
Capable of providing real time information about voltage magnitude, current
power, temperature, energy use, harmonic distortion, power factor, etc..
Alarming functions with intelligence for processing data and identifying conditions
that require notification of the utility or utility automation system. These could
include outages, power quality conditions outside of specified thresholds, excessive
energy use, conditions characteristic of equipment problems, incipient fault detection,
equipment problem identification, fault location, performance monitoring of
protective systems, harmonic resonance conditions, etc.
Real time state estimation and predictive systems (including fault simulation
modeling) to continuously assess the overall state of the distribution system and
predict future conditions, providing the basis for system optimization.
Information systems that can integrate meter data with overall information systems
for optimizing system performance and responding to problems (outage management,
asset management, SCADA, loss analysis, customer systems, etc.)
Integrate communications and control functions in order to optimize system
performance
Capable of providing real time information about voltage magnitude, current
power, temperature, energy use, harmonic distortion, power factor, etc.
– Determine the type of sensor equipment and support equipment for the sensors
6-12
• Communication and Control Infrastructure7

– Develop an open communication architecture to facilitate the system monitoring and
control functions
– Conform to IEC 61850 and to be remotely accessible via a communication system for
remote control and use as a distribution system condition monitoring node
– Provide procedures for Communications technology8 in the meter with appropriate
protocols and information systems to support two-way communication between an
overall communication system and the individual customer facility meters. The
procedures include:
Determine functional requirements
Determine the communication system requirements to support these functions
Identify IEC61850 logical nodes for each switchgear function, each application
module, and each sensor
Develop IEC61850 data exchanges within the solid-state switchgear
Develop IEC61850 data exchanges with external systems
Specify conformance testing
Specify IEC61850 configuration tools
– Communication infrastructure for integrating customer meter data with a real time system
data manager. This might involve local concentrators and data processing depending on
the specific architecture and design.
• Enclosure
Must fit in enclosures for overhead pole mounting (like a recloser), padmounted
application, and installation in draw-out metal-clad switchgear. This requires a size of
approximately: 28”W × 32”H × 14”D
7
As the distribution system becomes more automated, opportunities exist to improve the utilization of distribution
switchgears. More sophisticated automation integrated with solid-state switchgear can serve as an outage
notification and outage management device, remotely control the different mode of the functionality of the breaker
and monitor condition of the breaker and the power system in real time. The proposed design should evaluate
centralized control, decentralized control, and combination approaches for automation. Realizing the full potential of
an solid-state switchgear will require more sophisticated communication architectures. A promising platform is the
IEC 61850 architecture that is an open industry standard developed from EPRI’s Utility Communications
Architecture (UCA). A wide variety of equipment can plug into this architecture. The proposed design should
provide the flexibility to integrate the IEC 61859 architecture within the switchgear.
8
In general, the communication architecture will be comprised of two major elements, object models and protocols.
An object model is a detailed data template for the information exchange needed for monitoring and controlling a
device within the architecture of a power distribution system (or other system). The object model makes the device
recognizable and controllable (i.e., interoperable) to the power system. This is analogous to hooking up remote
devices to a computer. The remote devices are interrogated by the operating system of the computer and an
interoperable interface is established. The other principal component of the communications architecture is the
communication protocols. Protocols are the “rules for transfer of the data” within the communication system. For
example, the protocols are the rules for taking the information from the switchgear (as represented in its object
model) and transferring it to a SCADA or other device.
6-13
• Insulation
It could be oil, SF6, or solid insulation.

• Price
Manufacturing cost should be compared with US$20,000 (three-phase) for a conventional

breaker
Optional Features (Scalable Implementation)

• Current limiting Threshold
For example, for short circuits to 50 kA, limit current to 10 kA peak. The ability of power
electronic based switchgear to limit the magnitude of fault currents is one of its most
valuable features.
Maximum fault currents on electric power systems tend to grow over time because of
reinforcement of the system to handle larger loads. Switchgear designs which can limit
maximum fault currents, may avoid the need to replace large amounts of expensive
equipment whose fault current capability has been outgrown. Typical distribution system
fault currents range from 20KA to 64KA. Having a current-limiting threshold that can be
adjustable, rather than fixed, might be desirable.
• Short-circuit current rating
23 kA, symmetrical
• Steady-state current ratings
800, 1200, 2000, 3000 A

• Voltage
25 and 35 kV models
• Gang operation
It is desirable that the switches can be applied in modules in parallel or series to increase
voltage and/or current ratings.
6-14
7 ECONOMIC EVALUATION
We have a digital economy and we're still trying to provide power to it through a mechanical
design system that was designed over 50 years ago. It’s a marvelous system, but we've been
effectively borrowing against the future to pay for the present, and the future has caught up with
us; we need to build the system to serve the digital society of the 21st century.
Gunpowder, the printing press, the commercial generation of electricity, the personal computer,
and the Internet were all major paradigm shifts. Not surprisingly, they all swept away current
practice or modified it significantly. In each case, there was a present need, a confluence of
technologies, and a vision of how to combine technology and need for economic gain and
unprecedented advantage. One of the objectives for this year’s effort was to conduct a
comprehensive feasibility assessment for next generation solid-state switchgear.
The need for solid-state switchgear must be based on clearly defined utility requirements to meet
added functionalities and availability of power electronic technology. Therefore, utility
requirements drive the need for the development and deployment of next-generation power
electronics based solid-state switchgear. This understanding is vital to the design,
implementation, and acceptance in any utility.
Variety of applications for the applicability and feasibility of developing solid state switches was
investigated. Examples include:
• Circuit sectionalizing and reconfiguration. This is an important application as solid state
switches have the potential to eliminate even momentary interruptions for the great majority
of customers on distribution systems when a fault occurs. Solid state switches for
reconfiguring systems can also allow for optimizing performance through reconfiguration
without imposing momentary interruptions on customers. Solid state transfer switches are the
primary application for distribution solid state switchgear at the present time. This
technology provides a good starting point for the technology characterization effort in this
project.
• Capacitor bank switching. Solid state switches can prevent transient voltages during
The result is better control of var flows, voltage, and flicker on the distribution system
without causing unacceptable transient voltages.
• Interfaces with distributed generators. Solid state switches can facilitate implementation
of local islanding schemes for distributed generators and allow connection and disconnection
without concern for transients.
• Fault clearing and current limiting applications. Clearing faults quickly and/or limiting
the fault currents can have tremendous advantages for both the utility and for customers. The
utility benefits because the fault current impact on system components (cables, transformers,
7-1
Economic Evaluation
switchgear, etc.) is reduced. Customers benefit because the voltage sag experienced
throughout the system due to the fault is basically eliminated.
In a recent study [7], EPRI conducted a comprehensive survey to assess utility needs and
perceptivities with respect to power electronics based solid state switchgear9 that can limit fault
currents. Some of the key findings that are relevant to the outcome of the economic assessment
presented in this chapter include:
• Survey results indicate that up to 20% of utilities expecting to replace 5 to 10% of their
circuit breakers in the next 10 years would use a fault current limiting devices that are priced
at 1 to 5 times a circuit breaker
• Utilities having a greater expectation for circuit breaker replacement are even more likely to
use a solid-state fault current limiter – the percentage increases to 30% of utilities when the
range of circuit breaker replacement need expands to 5 to 30%
• Cases where breakers with the required ratings are not available, or where excessive fault
current levels carry more than only cost of a breaker upgrade alone, 50% of the utilities value
a solid-state fault current limiter at 2-5 times the cost of a breaker
While a number of candidate technologies have been discussed and reviewed in previous
chapters, the first generation of solid-state switchgears should use reliable and field-proven
technologies. Also, it is desirable that the next generation family of power electronics based
switchgears be scalable, be multi-functional, and be capable of being easily tailored to meet
specific application requirements without major changes to the baseline design.
A new hybrid switchgear design is presented in the previous chapter which is an innovative,
scalable and offers a multi-functional approach to next generation medium and high voltage
solid-state switchgears. The topology proposed here is the first design that has the potential of
achieving all of the goals for a solid state circuit breaker such as rapid fault clearing,
instantaneous fault isolation, fast current limiting for downstream coordination, soft switching
capabilities, rapid load transfer, voltage and current monitoring, and a sale price of 5 to 7 times
that of conventional breakers and reclosers. This conceptual design appears to be a suitable
candidate to the development of a family of low-cost solid-state switchgear which can expand
the capabilities of existing switchgears to a modular “integrated electrical interface” and create
new service opportunities to meet the customers' requirement and is therefore a viable market
opportunity. The proposed approach is based on innovative, multi-functional, modular, and
hybrid design of power electronics based switchgear.
The next section provides the overall economic assessment for new hybrid switchgear design
proposed in chapter 6. Preliminary production cost and benefit analysis are based on existing and
estimated component costs. Cost estimates are derived for two separate ratings 1) 15KV class
600A and 2) 35KV 1200A. Complete listing of all the parts and its individual costs are also
provided.
9
It is assumed that the solid-state switchgear is equivalent to the circuit breaker in all other respects (e.g., reliability,
compatibility with protection, ease of installation, operation and maintenance, etc.) as outlined in the previous
chapter
7-2
Economic Evaluation
Economic Assessment – An Overall Comparison
The proposed universal hybrid switch (UHS) can be implemented with any gate-controlled high-
voltage devices. Since the efficiency relies on the mechanical switch, the selected device simply
needs the ease of the controllability and high interrupting current capability. The IGBT is thus
chosen for the first cut cost estimate. The cost difference with the use of other types of device
should not be significant.
ultrafast
Iline Sm switch
TVS
Is
Sensor Vs
MOV
Conditioning, v
Snubber
ge
Control, &
Gate Drives Ts IGBT
Sss
Figure 7-1 Circuit Configuration of the Universal Hybrid Switch
To start with, a 15kV, 600A hybrid universal switch is used as the example for the estimation of
system cost. In order to have 600A continuous and 12.5kA short-circuit current rating, we need
two of 5SNA0600G650100, or other 6.5kV, 600A IGBTs. The BIL rating can be achieved with
the selection of MOV or arrester. With 15kV line-to-line, the phase-to-neutral is 8.66kV or
12.2kV peak. By designing with twice voltage margin, we need four devices in series to give
26kV total voltage rating. Thus total number of devices per phase is 8. Figure 7-2 shows the
circuit configuration of the 15kV, 600A HV-IGBT based UHS that requires 4 solid-state
switches in series, Sss1 – Sss4.
7-3
Economic Evaluation
Iline Sm
TVS
Is
V1
MOV
vge1
Snubber
Ts1
IGBT
Sss1
Sensor
Conditioning,
Control, &
Gate Drives
TVS
V4
MOV
vge4
Snubber
Ts4
IGBT
Sss4
Figure 7-2 Circuit Configuration of the 15kV, 600A HV-IGBT Based Universal Hybrid
Switch.
For 35kV, 1200A hybrid universal switch, the desired current rating needs 4 devices in parallel,
and the desired voltage blocking needs 9 in series. Thus the total number of devices per phase is
36.
Based on a small quantity purchase, the production cost of the above two designs can be
estimated as shown in Figure 7-1. The estimated cost of the 15KV, 600A design is
approximately 7 times higher than a conventional recloser/circuit breaker of similar rating.
7-4
Economic Evaluation
Table 7-1
Estimates of Small-Quantity Production Cost for the Hybrid Universal Switch
15kV, 600A UHS 35kV, 1200A UHS

Component per Phase qty unit price ext. price qty unit price ext price
Solid-State Switch
IGBTs 8 $ 1,500 $ 12,000 36 $ 1,250 $ 45,000
Rectifier Diodes 16 $ 200 $ 3,200 72 $ 200 $ 14,400
Transient Voltage
Suppressor 4 $ 200 $ 800 9 $ 200 $ 1,800
Snubber Circuit 4 $ 250 $ 1,000 9 $ 250 $ 2,250
MOV 4 $ 200 $ 800 9 $ 200 $ 1,800
Heat Sink and Cooling 4 $ 350 $ 1,400 9 $ 350 $ 3,150
Voltage Sensors 4 $ 1,000 $ 4,000 9 $ 1,000 $ 9,000
Current Sensor 1 $ 400 $ 400 1 $ 400 $ 400
Gate Drives 8 $ 150 $ 1,200 36 $ 150 $ 5,400
Auxiliary Power Supplies 8 $ 100 $ 800 36 $ 100 $ 3,600
DSP Controller 1 $ 400 $ 400 1 $ 1,000 $ 1,000
Conditioning Circuit 1 $ 200 $ 200 1 $ 500 $ 500
I/O Interface 1 $ 200 $ 200 1 $ 500 $ 500
Mechanical and Assembly 1 $ 1,500 $ 1,500 1 $ 4,500 $ 4,500
Subtotal $ 27,900 $ 93,300
Mechanical Switch
Switch 1 $ 7,500 $ 7,500 1 $ 23,500 $ 23,500
Bushing 2 $ 400 $ 800 2 $ 1,400 $ 2,800
Bus and Wiring 1 $ 400 $ 400 1 $ 1,000 $ 1,000
Subtotal $ 8,700 $ 27,300
Others
Housing 1 $ 5,000 $ 5,000 1 $ 12,500 $ 12,500
Design Engineering 1 $ 5,000 $ 5,000 1 $ 12,000 $ 12,000
Installation and Testing 1 $ 5,000 $ 5,000 1 $ 15,000 $ 15,000
Subtotal $ 15,000 $ 39,500
Total per Phase $ 51,600 $ 160,100

Total per Three-Phase $ 154,800 $ 480,300
The cost for the solid-state switch portion is more than 50% of the entire UHS. However, this
percentage will come down in large quantity production. Also it can be seen that the cost of
IGBT is about 25% of the entire UHS. Even if other lower cost gate-turn-off devices are used,
the entire system cost may not see a noticeable difference. There are some other non-production
related costs such as initial design and engineering, tooling, overhead, and inventory, etc.
7-5
8 EPRI SOLID-STATE SWITCHGEAR DEVELOPMENT
– R&D ROADMAP
Following the General Trends to Support the Vision Direction
One approach, commonly known as the stage-gateTM model, whose chief characteristic is a
hierarchical flow of possible milestones that would have to be realized during the various phases
for the development of any new technology is shown in Figure 8-1. Stage gate breaks the
innovation process into a predetermined set of stages, each consisting of prescribed,
multifunctional, and parallel activities. Many leading companies and research organizations have
developed a systematic stage-gate process for moving a new product through the various steps
from “idea” to “launch.” Most importantly, they have built the key lessons into the roadmap for
new product success in order to improve the effectiveness and timeliness of their product.
8-1
EPRI Solid-State Switchgear Development – R&D Roadmap
Concept Design, Development, Market Launch

Definition and Testing
Adaptive Process
Degree of
Uncertainty
in Product
Definition
Traditional Process
Time
Full Production &

Market Launch
Testing & Validation
Prototype
Development
Detail Design
Analysis
Market Analysis
&
Feasibility Study
&
Conceptual Design
STAGE GATE APPROACH
Figure 8-1
A Stage-Gate Approach for New Product Development
8-2
Traditional stage-gate or PACE® processes (shown on the left in Figure 8-1 where the gates are
“transparent”) assume that there is little uncertainty associated with the technologies to be
utilized for product development. The gates can be identified, clearly defined, and planned for,
and their outcomes are known right from the beginning of the development process. In simple
terms, the product development team can “see” all the deliverables at the gates, because most of
product-development stages are predictable. It should be noted that even though this curve varies
with individual application areas and technologies, it does convey a trend relative to the effects
of realizing the ultimate vision.
The distribution as well as transmission system has been identified to be the next major target for
solid-state power conversion. The overall objective of this study is to lay the foundation for
EPRI’s multifunction solid-state switchgear program and define the subsequent phase for multi-
year effort of this project. This chapter provides a detailed description of the possible phases for
design and development of the chosen hybrid switchgear technology along with schedules,
important milestones, and commercialization cycle for the development work, field testing and
commercialization. Distribution and transmission switchgear development effort has been broken
down into two distinct product families; namely:
• Generation 1: 15KV Class Distribution Switchgear Development (breaker, a current limiter,
DG isolation switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker, and transfer switch)
– Detailed design analysis and functionality verification (2006)
– Bench model development and testing (2006-2007)
– Field prototype development and deployment (2008-2009))
– Field testing and debugging of field prototype (2008-2009)
– Finalization of design, packaging and preparation of product family specification and
subsequent commercialization (2010)
• Generation 2: 35KV/138KV Class Distribution/Transmission Switchgear Development
(breaker, a current limiter, DG isolation switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker, and transfer
switch)
– Bench model development and testing (2011-2012)
– Field prototype development and deployment (2013)
– Finalization of design, packaging and preparation of product family specification and
subsequent commercialization (2014)
Overall Roadmap Timeline for the "Hybrid" and “Solid-State Switchgear”

Designs – How to Realize the Vision in the Future
Power electronics will be a key element in the next generation switchgear designs. Long-term
research should have the application in mind and the power electronics circuit as the core to
guide the development of semiconductor devices and other peripherals. Blind development of
8-3
semiconductor devices without a proper guidance of application and circuit design would be a
wasteful effort.
History indicates that the success of a semiconductor device is heavily dependent on the success
of the application. Examples are power MOSFETs in switching-power-supply applications and
IGBTs in variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications. Failure to bring the MOS-controlled
thyristors (MCTs) to the market is the most recent and obvious example. Market demand triggers
the need for power electronics equipment such as power supply and adjustable-speed drives, but
the right choice and development of semiconductor devices enables the development of power
electronics equipment.
In most cases, power electronics researchers have to choose off-the-shelf power devices with the
specifications that best fit their applications. They usually do not have a say about how they
would like the device parameters to be changed. On the other hand, materials and device
researchers build switching devices for the power electronics researchers to use in their circuits,
but they rarely know how and where the devices are going to be used. Also, the availability of
the semiconductor device dictates the circuit development.
As represented in Figure 8-2, a “barrier” still exists between the people who design and build
power devices and the people who use them in their circuits and systems. Close interaction
between the both sides of the barrier is needed to obtain the most performance for devices and
systems. With this interaction, the design loop will be closed and the possibility for building
optimal application-specific power devices will arise.
From the information provided in the earlier chapters, it is evident that significant opportunity
exists for continual development efforts to build power electronics based switchgear in
distribution and transmission systems. With the recent advances in power electronics, especially
in the areas of high-voltage power electronics (see Figure 8-3); solid-state-based switchgear
designs are well within the realm of possibility.
8-4
Circuit Design, Bench Model Development

Develop Functional Specifications, Fabrication, & Testing
Develop Hardware Requirements,
Define Physical layout and Package Requirements
Si/SiC Processing
Basic R&D for Power Semiconductor Devices

Device Design, Research Activities should focus on possible
Fabrication, & Testing improvements in technology
• Reduce conduction and switching losses
• Faster switching
• Improvement in efficiencies
• Improvement in short-circuit capability
• Improvement in thermal management to
handle high temperature
• Reduce possible voltage balancing
• Reduce EMI Levels
• Optimize isolation designs to satisfy HV
applications
• Low saturation level
• Improved Gate design to reduce
noiseSnubber-less operation
• Fast turn-on and turn-off capabilities
• Ability to withstand high V&I
• Improvement in current density
Figure 8-2
Closing the Device Design Loop – A Key for Building Optimal Application-Specific Power
Devices
8-5
Simplified circuits and

High
Voltage
expanded capability
(1-25 kV)
High Current High Duty Smaller, lower loss, active

Density Cycle and passive components
(>1kA/cm2) (>100 kHz)
Smaller cooling
High Temperature (>250 °C) systems
Silicon
Carbide
Mi T h l Offi
Figure 8-3
Trends in Semiconductor Device Advancement [DARPA HPE Program10]
The primary activity of this year’s research was to develop a comprehensive feasibility
assessment and verify the functionality of the solid-state based switchgear technologies and their
applications in transmission and distribution systems. This preliminary research is the first step
before embarking on development of the hardware and associated controls for a prototype solid-
state switchgear. This is the most critical stage because the commitment to a certain design
topology will ultimately lead to hardware and controller development and lab prototype. The
next section adopts the traditional stage-gate approach to provide a more refined EPRI long-term
roadmap for the development of the chosen switchgear designs and schedule for the development
work, field testing, and commercialization.
Unlike the "all solid-state" designs which use power electronics in its entity as the enabling
technology, the hybrid design is based on using a conventional electromechanical switches and
seamless integration of power electronics systems that are capable of interrupting load or fault
currents in critical load applications or be applied as a transfer switch, tie breaker, or fault current
interrupter.
10
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) under Department of Defense wide bandgap
semiconductor technology (WBST) high power electronics (HPE) program started in 2002. The objective of the
program is to revolutionize high power electrical energy control, conversion, and distribution by establishing a new
class of solid state power switching transistors employing wide bandgap semiconductor materials.
8-6
The overall technology roadmap characteristics, as shown in Figure 8-4, provide a consolidated
summary of the key technology metrics that are required to realize the development of any “all-
solid-state” and "hybrid" based switchgear designs.
Roadmap Technology Watch

Short-
Short-Term Technology: Hybrid solid-state design using mechanical switch and gate turn-off technology
Level: Distribution System
Iline Sm
ultrafast
switch
Ratings: 15KV / 35KV class 600A / 1200A / 3000A
Maturity: Concept stage; Risk - Low
TVS
Is
Sensor Vs Product Development: 1-3 years
MOV
Conditioning, v
Snubber
ge
Control, &
Gate Drives Ts IGBT Field Application: 3 years
Sss
Potential Market Drivers: Act as a breaker, current limiter, a transfer switch, tie breaker
Mid-
Mid-Term Technology: All electronics (solid-state) based design
Ratings: 15KV / 35KV class 600A / 1200A / 3000A
Maturity: Concept stage; Risk - Intermediate
Product Development: 4-6 years
Field Application: 6 years
Long-
Long-Term Technology: All electronics (solid-state) based design OR Hybrid solid-state design using mechanical switch
and gate turn-off technology
Ratings: 138KV class 600A / 1200A
Maturity: Conceptual Stage in development; Risk – High
Product Development: 6-9 years
Field Application: 9 years
Figure 8-4
A Generic Technology Roadmap to Realize a Family of Power Electronics Based
Switchgear Designs in Distribution and Transmission Applications
EPRI’s Long-Term Roadmap
The distribution as well as transmission system has been identified to be the next major target for
solid-state power conversion. Lack of strong initiative and proper long-term research plan has
always been a barrier in new technology development. EPRI, as the leading research institute in
the power industry, is ideally suited to take the first step to initiate the research in this direction
based on a long-term research plan targeting the development of medium and high voltage, high-
power semiconductor switches and parallel development of circuit topology, controller, and
prototype of solid-state distribution switchgear. The following research plan provides a brief
description of the possible different phases of the “intelligent universal transformer”
development effort with estimated time and milestones.
This section adopts the traditional stage-gate approach discussed earlier and provides a detailed
description of the possible phases (shown in Figure 8-5) for design and development of the solid-
state switchgear technology along with schedules and important milestones (see Figure 8-6) for
the development work, field testing, and commercialization. Distribution and transmission
switchgear development effort has been broken down into two distinct product families as
indicated before. The two product families and possible phases for development, testing, and
commercialization include:
8-7
• Generation 1: 15KV Class Distribution Switchgear Development (breaker, a current limiter,

DG isolation switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker, and transfer switch)
– Phase I: Detailed design analysis and functionality verification of family of "All Solid-
State" and "Hybrid" Switchgear Topologies (Voltage Ratings: 15KV, 35KV, 138KV &
Current Ratings: 600A, 1200A, 3000A) which can be used as a breaker, a current limiter,
DG isolation switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker, and transfer switch (2006)
– Phase II: Bench model development and testing of 15KV 600A distribution switchgear
using hybrid technology which can be used as a breaker, a current limiter, DG isolation
switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker, and transfer switch (2006-2007)
– Phase III: Field prototype development, deployment, and testing of 15KV 600A
distribution switchgear using hybrid technology which can be used as a breaker, a current
limiter, DG isolation switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker, and transfer switch (2008-
2009))
– Phase IV: Field testing and debugging of field prototype (2008-2009)
– Phase V: Finalization of design, packaging and preparation of product family
specification and subsequent commercialization (2010)
• Generation 2: 35KV/138KV Class Distribution/Transmission Switchgear Development
(breaker, a current limiter, DG isolation switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker, and transfer
switch)
– Phase I: Bench model development and testing of 35KV 600A distribution switchgear
using either "all solid-state" OR "hybrid" technology which can be used as a breaker, a
current limiter, DG isolation switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker, and transfer switch
(2011)
– Phase II: Bench model development and testing of 138KV 600A distribution switchgear
using either "all solid-state" OR "hybrid" technology which can be used as a breaker, a
current limiter, DG isolation switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker, and transfer switch
(2012)
– Phase III: Field prototype development, deployment, field testing and debugging (2013)
– Phase IV: Finalization of design, packaging and preparation of product family
specification and subsequent commercialization (2014)
8-8
Finalize design Design controller with Refinement of bench

Integrate and test
Specification basic functions model Design Based on
bench model
Test Results
Bench Model
Development
Schedule
Design circuit for proof-of- Design communication

Evaluate the performance
concept prototype interface
of the bench model
Figure 8-5
Projections of Possible Phases and Individual Tasks for Design and Development (2006–
2010)
8-9
Field Protype Development and Testing

35KV,600A (Circuit Breaker/Current
Bench model Development and Testing
Current Ratings: 600A,1200A,3000A)
15KV,600A (Circuit Breaker/Current
Commercialization of a Family of
(Voltage Ratings: 15KV,35KV,138KV
Limiter Unit/Transfer Switch)

Limiter Unit/Transfer Switch)
Initiate Competitive Procurement
Solid-State Switchgear
Process to select Vendors
Design Analysis
1/08 - 12/09
8/06 - 12/07
1/10 - 12/10
1/06 - 8/06
Figure 8-6
EPRI’s Long-Term Roadmap for the Proposed First Generation Medium Voltage Solid-
State Switchgear – Development Schedules and Important Milestones
Generation 1: 115KV Class Distribution Switchgear Development
Phase I: Proof of Concept Design Analysis of family of Switchgear Topologies (Voltage

Ratings: 15KV, 35KV, 138KV & Current Ratings: 600A, 1200A, 3000A) – Year of
Performance: 2006
The first phase of the research should include a comprehensive design analysis to verify the
functionality that can be achieved with the conceptual design and estimation of efficiency, cost
and reliability of such a proposed design. This is the most critical stage since the commitment to
a certain design topology will ultimately lead to hardware and controller development and lab
prototype. Critical issues that should be addressed during the design analysis include:
• Selection of the circuit topology for designs with can be used as a switchgear that can be
used as a breaker/current limiter/tie breaker;
• Selection of the circuit topology for designs with can be used as a switchgear that can be
used as a transfer switch;
8-10
• Selection of active devices and passive components and calculation for semiconductor device
voltage and current ratings;
• Simulation of the performance using industry accepted design packages for power electronics
design analysis;
• Estimation of the cost of the proposed system based on existing component costs and
estimated component cost for different degrees of market penetration;
• Determination of design packaging and thermal management systems.
• Evaluation of the design with respect to its ability to meet the different desired functionalities
that are addressed in the generic functional specification
Phase II: Bench model Development and Testing of 15KV 600A Distribution Switchgear
(Circuit Breaker/Current Limiter Unit/Transfer Switch)
Year of Performance: 2006-2007
The second phase of the research will proceed after selection of the preferred design topology
and semiconductor device based on Phase I design analysis. The Phase II research will lead to
development of the hardware, controller and packaging of a laboratory prototype (Bench model)
of 15KV 600A distribution switchgear using hybrid technology which can be used as a breaker, a
current limiter, DG isolation switch, capacitor switch, tie breaker and transfer switch. It is
suggested that the initial bench model be based on 15-kV system so that the existing device can
be used and high-voltage experience can be gained. The successful rate of concept proofing is
much higher. Once the switchgear is fully designed and proven to be working, the high-voltage
SiC device or an HV-IGBT or an HV- Super-GTO can be used to move the voltage level higher.
The bench model serves a number of purposes, including determining that the product will work.
The prototype also serves to highlight design flaws and defects that need to be resolved. Key
research tasks that should be accomplished during this phase include:
• Design circuit for proof-of-concept prototype (2006)
The complete switchgear including devices, active and passive components, heat sink,
sensors, and bus bar should be designed and packaged for laboratory demonstration. Gate
drivers and auxiliary power supplies need to be designed with proper isolation and minimum
noise susceptibility. It is desirable to have the device protection at the gate-drive level to
ensure highly reliable operation. Voltage and current and heat sink temperature should be
monitored for both control and protection purposes.
• Design controller with basic functions (2006-2007)
The controller will likely be designed with a digital signal processor (DSP) for digital
control. Hardware should include sufficient PWM and analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-
analog (D/A) channels. The interface from PWM channels to the gate drivers would
preferably be isolated by optical fibers. Software should be designed to perform basic control
functions such as voltage balance and power transfer.
• Design communication interface (2006-2007)
8-11
The bench model shall be designed for easy mapping to open architecture communication
standards for distribution switchgear, when they become available in the IEC 61850 series. It
is not known at this time when those IEC standards will be written. However, the product
development shall include a communication interface with a non-proprietary object model
for the device, which can be provided to IEC to aid in development of a standard
• Integrate and test the laboratory prototype (2006-2007)
The entire power circuit and controller should be integrated for laboratory testing. Hydro-
Québec built a distribution test feeder (see Figure 8-7) to test equipment, control cabinet,
software for advanced distribution system which could be used for the purpose of testing
• Evaluate the performance of the proof-of-concept prototype (2007)
The performance such as load current interruption, fault current limiting capabilities, ability
to clear fault instantaneously, operation as a tie breaker, provide DG isolation, ability to
provide soft start capability, ability to reduce switching surges, system efficiency over entire
power range, heat sink temperature, total harmonic distortion (THD) of voltage and current,
power factor, and so forth need to be evaluated.
• Refinement of Prototype Design Based on Test Results (2007)
Based on initial test results the prototype design should be modified and retested in order to
verify the performance of the proof-of-concept prototype. The results from the lab testing
should be compared with Phase I design analysis results and any discrepancies should be
accounted for before moving to the next stage of field demonstration.
Figure 8-7
Distribution Test Feeder at Hydro Quebec
8-12
Phase III & IV: Field prototype development and testing of 15KV 600A distribution
switchgear (Circuit Breaker/Current Limiter Unit/Transfer Switch)
Year of Performance: 2008-2009
The fourth phase of the research will lead to development of 15KV, 600A field demonstration
unit to obtain real life field experience and verification of the performance. The field
demonstration units need to be designed and packaged to address the entire range of
environmental and operational scenarios that may be encountered in a distribution system.
Refinement of the lab prototype should address these operational and environmental issues
before developing field prototypes. Utility demonstration sites will be selected and identified
through competitive bids. Field demonstration prototype will be built and delivered to the
selected demonstration sites for field-testing. The performance such as load current interruption,
fault current limiting capabilities, ability to clear fault instantaneously, operation as a tie breaker,
provide DG isolation, ability to provide soft start capability, ability to reduce switching surges,
operation as transfer switch, system efficiency over entire power range, heat sink temperature,
total harmonic distortion (THD) of voltage and current, power factor, and so forth need to be
evaluated. Reliability and performance information will be recorded during the demonstration
period for product improvement. Key issues that need to be addressed during this stage of the
development effort include:
• Package the power circuit and component. (2008)
• Design controller with advanced functions (2008)
• Design communication interface (2008-2009)
• Integrate and test the field demonstration prototype (2008-2009)
• Demonstrate and test in selected sites (2008-2009)
Phase V: Commercialization of a Family of Solid-State Switchgear (Circuit

Breaker/Current Limiter Unit/Transfer Switch)
Year of Performance: 2010
The final phase is technology commercialization. EPRI will work with the developer,
manufacturer, and utilities for large-quantity manufacturing and commercialization.
Development of a commercialization plan will be the initial step in this phase. The
commercialization plan will address the strategies for transferring this technology to the
marketplace and development of a business plan centered on specific application areas. The
commercialization plan will also identify the important characteristics required for successful
commercialization. For example, the commercialization plan will identify essential
manufacturing capabilities required to build the transformer and optimal channels to market and
distribution strategies. It is anticipated that the initial phases of the research will be conducted by
EPRI with cost sharing from organizations involved in the development of the hardware and
field demonstration units. These organizations will also play a key role with EPRI and member
utilities in identifying the best strategy for commercialization of the family of solid-state
switchgears that are capable of interrupting load or fault currents in critical load applications or
be applied as a transfer switch, tie breaker, or fault current interrupter.
8-13
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9-1
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Power System Information Modeling Standard (EPRI Report 1008688, 2004)
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Cycle Static Transfer Switch, July 2003
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Hybrid Switch Device and Applications to a Solid-State Transfer Switch, IEEE PES 1999
35. Custom Power Primer – Power Quality Solutions for Energy Delivery Systems (EPRI Report
1999)
36. White paper on Super-GTO Promises Leapfrog capability
37. White paper on Employing Super-GTO to develop Advanced Automatic Bus Transfer
System as well as Hybrid and Solid state circuit breakers for medium and high voltage
applications
38. V. Gor, D. Povh, L. Yichuan, E. Lerch, D. Retzmann, K. Sadek, G. Thumm, “SCCL - A New
Type of FACTS based Short-Circuit Current Limiter for Application in High-Voltage
Systems”, Proc. of the CIGRE Session, Paris, 2004, Paper No B4-209
9-2
39. Kunde, K.; Kleimaier, M.; Klingbeil, L., “Integration of Fast Acting Electronic Fault Current
Limiters (EFCL) in Medium - Voltage Systems”, 17th International Conference on
Electricity Distribution – CIRED, Barcelona, May 2003 (SIEMENS)
40. Strumpler, R.; Skindhoj, J.; Glatz-Reichenbach, J.; Kuhlefelt, J.H.W.; Perdoncin, F., “Novel
medium voltage fault current limiter based on polymer PTC resistors”, IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery, Volume 14, Issue 2, April 1999 Page(s):425 - 430
41. M. Steurer, K. Fröhlich, W. Holaus, and K. Kaltenegger, “A Novel Hybrid Current-Limiting
Circuit Breaker for Medium Voltage: Principle and Test Results”, IEEE Trans. PD, Vol 18,
No. 2, April 2003, pp. 460-467
42. S. Schoft, J. Tepper, K. Niayesh, “Short Circuit Current Limitation by means of Liquid Metal
Technology”, Proc. of the Conference on Switching Arc Phenomena, Lodz, Poland, 19-22
Sept 2005 (ABB)
43. “SC Power to Install 2 HTS Fault Current Controllers”, Superconductor Week, Vol. 19,
No.11, pp. 1, 6-8, June 27, 2005
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Superconductors-Enabled Saturable Magnetic Core-Type Fault Current Limiter”,
Superconducting Science And Technology, Vol. 18 (2005) Page(s): 255 – 259
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Results (EPRI Report 1008697, 2004)
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Systems”, CIGRE Technical Brochure, No. 239, 2003
47. C. Abi. Samra, et. all, "Application of the new distribution class solid-state breaker," Custom
Power conference, December 1997
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State and Future Plans of Fault Current Limiting Technology in Japan”, CIGRE 2000
Session, Report 13-208, Paris, 2000
49. K. Asano, Y. Sugawara, T. Hayashi, S. Ryu, R. Singh, J. Palmout, and D. Takayama, “5kV
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4H-SiC SEJFET with Low RonS of 69mΩcm ,” Proc. Of the 14 International Symposium
on Power Semiconductor Devices (ISPSD), June 2002, Kyoto, Japan, pp. 61 – 64
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Power Inverter Applications,” to be appeared in Conf. Rec. of IEEE Industry Applications
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9-4
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EPRI Family of Multi-Functional Low Cost Solid State

Switchgear: Requirements Definition Phase

Technical Update, December 2005

EPRI Project Manager

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

This report was prepared by

EPRI PEAC Corporation

 Greg Reed Mitsubishi

 Chris Larsen ABB

 Brad Roberts S&C

 Harshad Mehta Silicon Power

 Vic Temple Silicon Power

2 STATUS AND NEEDS ASSESSMENT OF DISTRIBUTION SWITCHGEAR.........................2-1

3 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF STATIC TRANSFER SWITCHES .................................3-1

4 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF FAULT CURRENT LIMITERS .....................................4-1

5 DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS FOR SOLID-STATE SWITCHGEAR...................................5-1

6 PROPOSED DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR FAMILY OF SOLID-STATE

7 ECONOMIC EVALUATION ..................................................................................................7-1

8 EPRI SOLID-STATE SWITCHGEAR DEVELOPMENT – R&D ROADMAP ........................8-1

Figure 1-1 Application Trends in High-Voltage, High-Capacity Power Devices .................................1-2

TRACTION INDUSTRIAL INTELLIGENT UNIVERSAL DISTRIBUTION

Standard Standard Series Connection 3-Level/ All-Solid State and

> 4.5kV IGBT/GTO/"Super"-GTO/Thristor/SiC Modules

Power System Functions that Drive the Requirements for Solid-State

• Open, Standardized Communication Architecture – An open, standardized

Wind (10 kW)

Utility System Inverter

Energy Fuel Cell

Power System Infrastructure

Central Plant Step-Up Transformer

The opportunity to make significant improvements in asset utilization is typically found in

This chapter addresses the following:

A wide range of switchgear is used on medium-voltage distribution systems. Table 2-1

Typical Indoor Distribution Circuit Breaker Ratings [18, Table 1]

Location Purpose Typical devices Communication

Station bus Backup fault Circuit breaker Common (Scada)

Station Fault interruption and Circuit breaker or recloser Common (Scada)

Branch Fault interruption and Fuse, possibly a sectionalizer Rare

Feeder Sectionalizing and Nonload-break switch, load- Rare

Feeder tie Sectionalizing Nonload-break switch, load- Rare

Customer Fault interruption and Load-break switch, recloser, Rare

Capacitor Fault interruption and Vacuum or oil switch plus Sometimes

Transformer Fault interruption and Fuse, current limiting fuse Never

Rated Rated Continuous Rated Short- Typical Cost

4.76 1200, 2000 31.5

1200, 2000, 3000 50

8.25 1200, 2000, 3000 40

1200, 2000 31.5

1200, 2000, 3000 40

1200, 2000, 3000 50

1200, 2000, 3000 63

1200, 2000, 3000 31.5

1200, 2000, 3000 40

Rated Rated Continuous Rated Short- Typical Cost

15.5 600, 1200 12.5

1200, 2000, 3000 40

25.8 1200, 2000 12.5

38.0 1200, 2000 16

1200, 2000 31.5

1200, 2000, 3000 40

Greg Reed Mitsubishi

Chris Larsen ABB

Brad Roberts S&C

Harshad Mehta Silicon Power

Vic Temple Silicon Power