1.

Types of quay walls

Quay walls are retaining-structures at which ships, vessels could berth. The are
usually equipped with their additional elements such as bollards or fenders,
which to defense the walls as well as mitigate the impact of vessels when
berthing. They are used for the transshipment of goods, cargoes by crane or
complex systems of lifting equipment.

From the earliest days, quay walls have played an essential role in the
transshipment of freight. We could see ancient types of quay walls, mostly by
wood in coastal region in Netherlands.

By the time, the demand of using quay walls has been increased; therefore,
people have invented various types of quay walls.

In addition to providing berth facilities for ships, vessels, a quay wall must satisfy
the following functions:

 Retaining function: The quay wall must retain soil and water.
 Bearing function: The structure must be able to bear the loads induced
by cranes, cargoes,… during transshipment phase.
 Mooring function: Facilities for mooring process must be enough and
satisfied.
 Protection function: The quay wall also must protect the harbor from
highwater.
1.1. Gravity walls

This type of walls bases on their self-weight to create resistance for the structure.
When the soil is not suitable for sheet pile walls, gravity wall could be chosen.
However; we must be careful to make sure that the soil has enough bearing
capacity.

Block wall: The simplest type of gravity wall is the block wall, consisting of
blocks of concrete or natural stone piled on top of each other. The blocks are
placed on a foundation which consists of a layer of gravel or crushed stone.
After placing all of the blocks, they are covered by a reinforced concrete cap
that is cast in situ. Retaining height could be achieved to 20 metres. Blocks
walls are characterized by wide horizontal and vertical joints, which give good
drainages so that water overpressure behind the walls is limited. However; it
is essential to have a filter preventing the leakage of soil.
L-wall: In addition to their stability of the weight of the concrete structure, L-
wall has the weight of the earth that rests on them. The weight of the mass of
soil on the floor slabs enables to build up the shear stresses in the subsoil and
ensures a favourable opposing moment in relation to horizontal soil pressure.
The significant advantage of this structure is saving material when compare to
block wall. Besides that, if the bearing capacity of the subsoil is not sufficient,
engineers could consider it instead of block wall.

Caisson wall: Caissons are large hollow cellular concrete elements, which
are built in construction dock, on a floating pontoon or on a Synchro-lift. From
this they are floated to the site of the quay where they are then sunk onto the
firm subsoil. The caisson is economical in material, but labour expensive.

Cellular wall: Cellular walls are constructed by driving straight web profiles to
form cylindrical or partially cylindrical cells that are linked to each other.
Usually walls rest on the bottom of the harbor or extend only very little below
this level and for this reason they are included with the gravity wall. The cells
are constructed in land or water and filled with sand or other material, the
structure consists of soil enclosed by steel rings where only tensile stresses
occur. A disadvantage of this is that it is thin and vulnerable for collision and
corrosion.

Reinforced earth wall: This structure usually consists of vertical revetment

panels made of concrete, which are connected to horizontal tension elements,
e.g. steel, strips, rods, or polymers ( geogrid ). The horizontal force is
transferred by friction between the contact surfaces of the horizontal elements
and soils. During the backfill process the facing panels and strips are placed
in layers until the desired height is reached.
 Figure 2.1 Principles of several types of gravity wall.

1.2. Sheet pile walls

Sheet pile wall structures derive their soil retaining function and stability from the
fixation capacity of the soil, possibly in combinations with anchors. These walls
structures are used in places where the subsoil has poor bearing capacity and is
easily penetrable. Sheet pile walls consists of vertical elements that are driven
deep into the subsoil. The sheet pile wall may possibly be anchored. The sheet
piles are connected to each other by means of interlocks. The most important
requirement is that the ground can be easily penetrated.

Freestanding sheet pile walls: If a sheet pile wall is not anchored, the sheet
piles act like a beam to transfer soil pressure to the subsoil. The sheet pile
wall behaves as a cantilevered beam that is elastically fixed in the ground. On
 the base, the supporting pressure that is necessary for the equilibrium is
mobilized by the passive earth pressure.

Figure 2.2 Principle of a sheet pile wall without anchors

Anchored sheet pile walls: For higher retaining heights, it soon becomes
necessary to anchor the upper side to bear the horizontal forces. In principle,
the anchored wall behaves as a girder on two supports: on the underside the
soil and on the upper side the anchor. The support on the underside in the soil
can be totally free or entirely or partly fixed.

Figure 2.3 Principle of an anchored sheet pile wall

1.3. Sheet pile walls with relieving structure

A method to reduce the horizontal loads on the retaining structure is the relieving
structure. A relieving is basically a concrete structure founded on piles that
transmits the loads that act on the quay surface directly into the subsoil. It
consists of a concrete structure (relieve floor), retaining structure, bearing piles to
transmit the vertical loads into the subsoil and tension piles (or anchors) to
increase resistance against horizontal pressure. The relieving platform can be
installed at various heights.

High relieving platform: By this method of construction, the horizontal load of

the soil is carried out by a pile trestle system with tension and bearing piles, or
batter piles under the superstructures. The high relieving platform usually lies
above low water level, so in a tidal area it can be constructed over a slope at low
tide.

Figure 2.4 Principle of a structure with a high relieving platform

Low relieving platform: Structures with a relieving platform have been further
developed for high retaining heights. The relieving platform is positioned deeply
so that pile-driving problems are prevented or reduced to a minimum. The
platform is supported by the foundation elements: on the water side a retaining
and bearing sheet pile structure and on land side one or two rows of
prefabricated concrete bearing piles and one row of tension piles. With heavy
loads and a low-lying relieving platform the pile group may work as screen. In this
way the working of the relieving platform is reduced, which may lead to
undesirable deformation.
 Figure 2.5 Principle of a structure with a low relieving platform

1.4. Open berth quay

This type of structure differs from all other types because the difference in height
is not bridged by a vertical wall, but a slope. It consists of a horizontal deck
parallel to the shore and anchored if necessary. The deck is founded on vertical
and inclined piles. The slope under the deck must be protected against currents,
erosion due to bow thrusts, main propellers and waves. This structure is mainly
used when:
 Construction takes place above water;
 There is sufficient space in the water side;
 There is a relative poor subsoil;
 There are existing protected slopes.

These structures are vulnerable for collisions and maintenance under the deck is
difficult.
 Figure 2.6 Principle of an open berth quay with retaining wall

2. Anchors
Anchors are used to increase the resistance of the quay wall against the
horizontal pressure. It is known that material used in the wall can be saved by
applying in a sheet pile wall. Three main categories can be distinguished:

2.1. Horizontal Anchorage

Conventional horizontal anchors consist of a deadman anchorage that is
connected to the sheet piling by a tie rod with an anchor head. The decision of
which horizontal anchor will be used depends on the soil conditions. In soft soil
sheet piling as anchor head can be used, in rock conditions rock bolts and in soft
rocks pile trestles. Also horizontal screw anchors exist, this type of anchor does
not have a big anchor wall, the restraint is provided by the threaded rod that is
into the soil horizontally. Also two types of tie rod are recognized: bars and
cables.
 Figure 2.7 Horizontal Anchorage

2.2. Anchorages with a grout body

There are also anchorages that consist of cement grout elements that are made
in situ, such as grout anchors and screw injection anchors.
 Grout anchor: These are pre-stressed anchorage consisting of an anchor
head and a tendon, part of which is bonded to the ground by grout that has
been injected under pressure. The bars are provided with a trapezium
screw thread along the whole anchoring length. Grout anchors must be
pre-stressed to prevent large deformations. The steel is protected against
corrosion and the tensile capacity is derived from the friction between soil
and grout body.
 Screw injection anchors: These anchors are made with a hollow stem
auger with a perforated tube that is a few meters long. During drilling, a
grout mixture is forced through the perforation in the tube and injected into
the soil, thus forming a layer with high strength capabilities.

Figure 2.8 Anchorages with grout bodies