Energy and Environmental Engineering

Unit IV: Bio-energy, Geothermal
G. Suriya narayanan,
TF, DEE, NITT
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Definitions
Biomass
A renewable energy source and a material of biological origin, which derived form organic
matters of recently living biological materials and animal wastes.
*Different forms of bio-energy are bio-power, heat, solid, liquid and gas.
How it is a ‘Renewable energy source’ ?
Biomass is a form of renewable energy source, because the energy contained in the
biomass is energy from the sun captured through natural process of photosynthesis and
renewable CO2 and H2O.
If the biomass is a renewable energy source, then bio-energy → form of renewable
energy.
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• Bio energy
Photosynthesis - Energy derived from the ‘Sun’ – biomass –

large fraction of energy resource
CO2 + H2O → (CH2O)n + O2
Plants – leaves – mesophyll – chloroplast – chlorophyll
CO2 get reduced – water gets oxidation
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• Bio energy
Renewable – sources are renewable (sun light, water, CO2).
‘C-Neutral’
Energy is extracted
Biomass feedstock CO2 + heat;
Through photosynthesis
Biomass CO2 + H2O
Sun light
Biomass → biofuel → bioenergy.
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• Biomass – Formulation
C, O2, H, N, S + ‘inorg’ – bio molecules (carb, prot & fat) and H2O.
• Constituents of plant
Cellulose, Hemicelluloses and lignin
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Cellulose : Linear, un-branched, fibrous, tough, water
in-soluble polymer (homo polysaccharide, DOP-10k to 15k
units of D-glucose) – cell wall – 41-55%.
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Lignin: Rigid polymer - complex str - ‘phenyl alanine &
tyrosine; glucose’ – 2nd to cellulose – covalent crosslink to
cellulose, which complicates ‘cellulase’ degradation - 30%
of mass of wood.
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▪Hemicellulose: soluble ‘alkali & acid’ soln – yields simple sugars e.g.
mannose, glucose, xylose, hexauronic acid, galactose, arabinose, fructose –
more than one ‘monosac’ – DOP is b/w 100 to 200 – ‘polyuronides &
cellulosans’.
▪Starch – 2 types of ‘glucose’ polymer.
amylose – long, un-branched chain of ‘D-glucose’ linked by α1→4.
amylopectin – highly branched (24-30 res), α1→4 for successive ‘residue’,

α1→6 for ‘branched’ residue.
▪Lipids – ‘Fatty Acids’ – ‘Fatty Acid Methyl Ester’ – ‘Bio-diesel’ – similar

burning characteristics – e.g. soybean, oil palm, sunflower ‘seed crops’.
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▪ Bio-energy ‘Feedstock’ → biomass derived materials → energy containing
products - Thru’ - heat, chemical treatment, microbial activity.
▪ The feedstock – (i) forest (lingo-cellulosic or woody), (ii) agriculture
(woody/non-woody), (iii) waste sources, (iv) microalgae – emerging imp.
feedstock source of bioenergy.
▪ The biomaterials of interest – sugar/starch, cellulose/lignocellulose or
lipids/oils.
▪ 1st gen: ‘oils & sugars’ – food crops. e.g. bio-ethanol from corn, bio-diesel
from soybean
▪ 2nd gen: ‘non-food’ crops. E.g. perennial grasses, woody material, forest
harvests and non-food portion (left-over) of food crops.
▪ 3rd gen: algae – higher yields
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Forest based ‘feedstock’
•Provides → woody (lingo-cellulosic/cellulosic) in nature → source of fuel for cooking and
space heating.
•‘Extended-rotation’ forests – e.g. pine trees (Pinus resinosa, (red pine or Norway pine),
Pinus strobus (white pine), managed specially to provide ‘biomass’.
•Woody material available – barks (high energy density, K and Si), wood chips (used
directly as solid form of biofuel for combustion, or densified / pelletized).
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Agricultural based ‘feedstock’
• 1st generation biofuel feedstock
• Regarded as sources of sugars, starches, lipids, woody biomasses – the

feedstock – crops grown for ‘energy production’ (i.e dedicated bio-energy
crops), agricultural residues (non-edible, cellulosic materials remains after
harvesting of ‘edible’ portion.
• Dedicated ‘bio-energy’ crops – ‘annual crops e.g. corn’ – grown for their sugar,
starch or oil content, and ‘perennial herbaceous non-food’ plants, which grown
for ‘cellulose’.
• Bio-ethanol → e.g. sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum, prime feedstock in

brazil), corn (Zea mays, in USA), Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris), potatoes
(Solanum tuberosum), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and cassava (Manihot
esculenta).
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Agricultural based ‘feedstock’
▪ About 60% of bio-ethanol prodn → Sugar cane & Corn (Brazil and USA).
▪ Bio-diesel production → crops contain high amt of lipid content – e.g. soybean (Glycine
max), Oil palm (Arecaceae), Rapeseed (Brassica napus).
▪ Soybean – primary feedstock for ‘bio-diesel’ production in USA, Brazil, Argentina,
European countries (World leaders in ‘bio-diesel’ production’)
▪Perennial crops (e.g. hybrid poplars, willows) → not a food crop → sources of
‘lignocellulosic’ biomass for 2nd gen biofuel → ‘long term yield potential’ not seasonal,
grown more than one season, don’t have to be planted → environmental benefits → soil
corrosion prevention, water quality improvement and wildlife habitat.
▪Perennial crops also includes herbaceous perennial plants (lacks woody ‘stem’) and
perennial ‘woody’ stem (e.g. Switch grass, Miscanthus)
▪Potential non-edible oil crops → Castor and Camelina (under ‘R&D’)
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Agricultural based ‘feedstock’ – ‘Perennial crops’
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Waste based bio-energy ‘feedstock’
‘organic matters’ → leftover or remains from industrial, agricultural,
agro-industrial processes or activity, municipal solid waste and animal
waste → potential feedstock → degradation & energy production.
▪ Industrial wastes → effluents from paper and cellulose mill (humid
sludge), distillery (Anaerobically digested Distillery Spent Wash),
textiles (org. dyes), tanneries, poultry and dairy, and materials from
wood processing industries like sawmill (sawdust, wood shavings).
▪ Agricultural waste → by-products e.g. bagasse (a fibrous material
from sugarcane which is used directly as solid fuel and/or feedstock for
bio-ethanol production), Corn stovers, Rice husk and Wheat straw.
▪ Animal wastes → effluent from Slaughter house industries, farm house
wastes (cow dung) → ‘anaerobic’ → biogas → heat & bioelectricity.
▪ Municipal solid waste → kitchen waste, clothes, other wastes of ‘org
mat’ origin → incinerated → ‘anaerobically fermented’ → biogas.
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Algal biomass as bio-energy feedstock
▪Challenges → meeting the demands for bio-energy feedstocks
includes competition for food, land, water and other resources
(nutrients) → ‘plant based biomass feedstock’.
▪‘Algae’ → photosynthetic microbe → e.g. ‘Chlorophyte’→
provides attractive option → doesn’t compete with ‘land, food,
water resources.
▪ Yield is ‘100 fold’ → high energy density (15 to 30 MJ Kg-1) →
desirable biofuel characteristics (fatty acids formulation) by ‘genetic
alteration or stress’.
▪All season → Ensures continuous supply → long term
sustainability is viable → added applications like wastewater
treatment, CO2 capture.
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Biomass conversion technologies
Biomass → Cooking, heating, steam generation, power generation, by-products.
Conversion methodologies
→ Thermo-chemical
(i) Combustion
(ii) Pyrolysis
(iii) Gasification
(iv) liquefaction
→ Chemical conversion
(i) FA → FAME → Bio-diesel
→ Bio-chemical Conversion
(i) Anaerobic digestion to methane
(ii) Ethanol production
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Nature of Lipids – Fatty acids, TAG (triacylglycerol)
lipids - chemically diverse group of compounds - the common and defining
feature - insolubility in water – biological functions are structural elements of
membrane (e.g. phospholipids, sterols), enzyme cofactor, e- carriers,
pigments, hormones.
Fats and oils, derivatives of FA – stored forms of energy. FA – ‘HC’ derivatives at
above the same oxidation state as the hydrocarbons in fossil fuel. The cellular
oxidation of ‘FA’ (CO2 + H2O) is ‘exergonic’ like in the ‘IC’ engines.
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Biomass conversion technologies - Lipids
Fatty Acids Are Hydrocarbon Derivatives
Carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon chains ranging from 4 to 36 carbons long

(C4 to C36).
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Two conventions for naming fatty acids – (a) SFA, (b) PUFA
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Naturally occurring FA
12:0 CH3(CH2)10COOH n-Dodecanoic acid
14:0 CH3(CH2)12COOH n-Tetradecanoic acid
16:0 CH3(CH2)14COOH n-Hexadecanoic acid
18:0 CH3(CH2)16COOH n-Octadecanoic acid
20:0 CH3(CH2)18COOH n-Eicosanoic acid
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TAG – simplest lipid constructed from ‘FA’ (triglycerides, fats, or neutral fats)
TAG – 3 FA, with ‘ester’ linkage – simple TAG –
e.g. C16:0→tripalmitin, C18:0→tristearin,
C18:1→ triolein.
Most natural TAG – mixed - nonpolar, hydrophobic
molecules, essentially insoluble in water.
Specific gravity
Esterification: 2 routes
(i) direct esterification of FFA
(ii) Trans-esterification of TAG
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Thermo-chemical method
Combustion
The most direct process - req initial high temp (>550°C) – sufficient air
supply (O2) and not too high moisture – BM to residual ash – appln cooking,
heating and co-gen. essentials are BM, O2 and ignition source.
C and H reacts with O2 to form CO2+H2O, heat is liberated.
Combustors – designed in a way that the combustion mechanism/process are

controlled to release heat thr oxidation process of various chemical
constituents of ‘BM’ in the most practical optimal manner.
Type of Combustor used: (i) Fixed bed or grate fired combustors, (ii)
Suspension burners, (iii) fluidized bed system, (iv) Biomass stoves.
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Thermo-chemical method
Pyrolysis
Thermal decomposition of org.matter (in BM) in atm of inert – pyrolysis.
The pdt is charcoal, pyroligneous liquid, and some gaseous pdts.
The proportion of these products vary based on (i) operation condtn, (ii) type of
bm used.
‘BM’ pyrolysis → carbonization process.
Gasification
Thermo-chemical biomass gasification is process of converting ‘BM’ into

‘combustible’ gases (producer gas or syn gas) by means of ‘partial oxidation’
carried out in a reactor called ‘gasifier’.
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Bio-chemical method
‘BM’ & org.wastes are imp source of ‘elements’, that can be converted into useful pdts by
adopting suitable ‘bio-process’.
Waste material includes animal residues such as cattle dung, poultry litter, MSW (incl. food,
kitchen & market waste), industrial org waste (such as those from food processing industries,
sugar processing, distilleries, pulp & paper), agricultural waste (stover, husk, bagasse).
A bio-chemical conversion process of ‘BM’ & org. waste into ‘biofuel’, is comprises of
(i) hydrolysis of complex bio-materials like carb, proteins, fats, into simple monomers of C & N
sources,
(ii) the synthesis of complex molecules from the simple substances. The process is accompanied
by the release of energy used for the cell growth and maintenance and useful pdt.
Food (BM & Org. waste) + micro-organism → Energy + product
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Anaerobic digestion of ‘BM’ and Org. waste to produce Bio-gas
‘AD’ is multistep ‘biological’ and chemical process → waste removal and

Energy production. 4 steps
(i) hydrolysis,
(ii) acidogenesis – NH3, H2, CO2 and H2S
(iii) acetogenesis - creation of acetate from carbon source
(iv) methanogenesis – methane formation
Throughout the process, large polymers of ‘BM’ and waste → smaller molecules
by chemical and MO → upon completion ‘BM’ is converted into ‘Bio-gas’
(CO2+CH4), as well as digestate and waste water.
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Chemistry and Biochemistry of
biomass
Biomass pre-treatment methods – Fractionation of Cellulose/Hemi/Lignin
▪ Chemical Pre-treatment
▪ Acid based
▪ Alkali based
▪Ozonolysis
▪Ultrasonic methods
▪Radiative degradation (Microwave)
▪Organic solvents
▪Ionic liquids
▪Biological methods (enzymatic pre-treatment)
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biomass
Biomass pre-treatment – Chemical – Acid
▪ Acid hydrolysis of ‘hemicellulose and lignin’ → cellulose.
▪ conc. acid is less att → inhibiting compounds-e.g. furfural
(heterocyclic+formyl), phenolic acids.
▪ For industrial scale, ‘dil. Acid’ is feasible
▪ Reactors used (percolation, pfr, current). 2 types – 180°C for shorter period
(5-10 min and 120° for longer period (30-90 min) of time.
▪ Most widely used ‘H2SO4’ – others were HCl, H3PO3, HNO3, C2H4O3,
C2H2O4, HCOOH and CH3COOH.
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biomass
Biomass pre-treatment – Chemical – Acid
▪ e.g. Corn pretreatment by oxalic acid 13% yield with low level inhibitors – yield
is 10% when maleic acid.
▪ ‘Rice husk’ pretreatment – aq.NH3 (96%) & H2SO4 (90%) – combined better
removal of ‘lignin & hemi’.
▪ Eulaliopsis binate (a perennial plant) with H2SO4 @opt condtn – 21% tot. sug+
3.2% lignin+3.3% acetic acid with low inh.
▪ ‘Corn stover’ pretreated with ‘steam+dil. H2SO4’ → 78% yield.
▪ Acid treatment is cheap – but req high temp – high energy input – costly –
corrosive – req spl reactor vessel – must be resistant – acid treatment generates
inhibitors that must be removed.
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biomass
Biomass pre-treatment – Chemical – Alkali
▪ ‘BM’ treated → hydroxides of Na, K, Ca, NH3 @ normal temp & p.
▪ eff removal for lignin than acid → high acc of enz., towards ‘hemi’ becoz.,
removal of ‘acetyl & uronic’ acid grp on hemi.
▪ Ester linkage b/w xylan & hemi is hydrolyzed.
▪ NaOH – more eff – Ca(OH)2 – widely used alkali which also removes ester link
b/w lignin & carbs, and acetyl grp, which enh ‘cellulose’ digestibility.
▪ Wheat straw, Poplar wood, switchgrass, corn stover.
▪ Add benef: low reagent cost & less safety req, but need huge amt of water for
washing salts of alkali.
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biomass
Biomass pre-treatment – Ozone
▪ ‘Ozonolysis: O3 powerful Ox. Agent → reacts preferably reacts with
‘lignin’ than ‘carbs’, and deg ‘lignin’ by attacking the ‘aromatic’ ring.
▪ Used to disrupt str of ‘LC’ materials such as ‘bagasse, pine, peanut, cotton
& wheat straw’.
▪ Performed @ mild operating conditions (room t & p), and doesn’t produce
toxic residues. Short-chain carboxylic acids are the main inhibitory
compounds generated → properly removed by water washing.
▪ furfural and HMF (5-hydroxymethylfurfural), are not found in
ozone-pretreated hydrolysates.
▪ Process factors: moisture, particle size, reactor design, pH, conc., flow, and
time.
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biomass
Biomass pre-treatment – Ozone-Advantages
▪ Low generation of inhibitory compounds, and specially the no generation of furfural and HMF
(which might hinder following downstream stages).
▪ Selective lignin degradation with minimal effects on cellulose and hemicellulose.
▪ Operation at ambient temperature and pressure.
▪ On-site ozone generation and direct utilization (avoiding problems related to chemical supply and
storage).
▪ Ability of microorganisms and animals to metabolize most Ozonolysis sub products.
▪ Reduction of environmental pollution with a suitable process design, decomposing residual ozone
at the end of the process.
▪ Absence of liquid phase, avoiding problems related to product dilution.
▪ No requirement of chemical additives during all the pretreatment process.
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biomass
Biomass pre-treatment – Ozone
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biomass
Biomass pre-treatment – Ozone- Dis-advantages
▪ Highly reactive, flammable, corrosive and toxic characteristics of ozone,
leading to potentially dangerous processes
▪ Exothermic characteristics of process may require cooling systems
▪ Special – construction materials, capable of resisting ozone high-oxidative
condition: austenitic stainless steel, glass and other ceramics, Teflon,
Hypalon and concrete
▪ High generation costs due to large energy demand (oxygen and electric
energy costs around 0.135 € (11 Rs.) per kg of generated ozone. (ozone
generator equipment maintenance costs not included)
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biomass
Biological pre-treatment (for lignocellulosic BM)
Enzymatic pre-treatment – Degradation of lignocellulose by fungi and bacteria –
degradation of lignin – the role of peroxidases – degradation of cellulose –
Trichoderma cellulases
▪ Enzymes
▪ Enzymatic pre-treatment
▪ Properties imp in terms of microbial or enzymatic attack
▪ Conclusions.
▪ Fungal degradation of lignocelluloses- white, brown and soft rot fungi
▪ Fungal degradation of wood polysaccharide.
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biomass
Biological pre-treatment - Introduction
▪ Self-replication and catalysis. Catalysis → energy from environment. Reaction catalyst of
biological systems → enzymes (proteins, e.RNA), high power than inorg, specificity,
functions in aq.sys, central to every BC process.
▪ Deg nut mol → conserve and transfer → make use to building. Cat.act is integrity, Small
sub.
▪ co-factors, co-enzymes (carries spl grp), prosthetic grp, holoenzymes, apo-enzymes.

▪ Reactions they catalyze → OTHLIL. (E.C → 1 to 6). Cellobiohydrolases (CBHs, EC
3.2.1.91)
▪ Named after its substrate or phrase describing their activity. –ase– .
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biomass
▪ Annual production → 200b tonne. Uncertainty in basic structure conformation, determine
molecular weight, polydispersity, amorphous, new bonding pattern.
▪ Important Prop in terms of microbial or enzymatic attack:
▪ Lignin polymers have compact structures that are insoluble in water.
▪ The inter-monomeric linkages that account for the rigidity of lignin comprise many kinds of C–C
and C–O bonds with the β-aryl ether linkage being the most significant.
▪ Inter-monomeric linkages in lignin are not hydrolysable.
▪ A conclusion from the above concern

▪ Polymeric lignin degradation requires extracellular enzymes and/or small molecular weight
mediators or factors such as radicals,
▪ The lignin degrading system must be unspecific and
▪ The enzymes must be oxidative, not hydrolytic.
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biomass
▪ White, Brown and Soft-rot fungi.
▪ White-rot fungi → derived from appearance of wood after deg → basidiomycetes

(sub.K / phylum / Division, pseudo White-rot → ascomycetes). The ligninolytic
enzymes of white-rot fungi → broad substrate specificity → structural similarities
to lignin → deg by oxidative aerobic pathway.
▪ lignin degradation → rate-limiting step → no net energy gain → secondary
metabolism, becoz main aim is to access the Cellulose.
▪ WRF → extracellular enzymes (LMEz)
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biomass
LMEz
▪ 2 glycosylated heme-containing peroxidases,
▪ Lignin peroxidase (LiP, E.C 1.11.1.14),
▪ Mn dependant peroxidase (MnP, E.C. 1.11.1.13)
▪ copper-containing phenoloxidase, laccase (Lac, E.C. 1.10.3.2)
▪LiP
▪ EC 1.11 - Acting on a peroxide as acceptor
▪ EC 1.11.1 - Peroxidases
▪ EC 1.11.1.14 – Lignin peroxidase.
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biomass
LiP → Endo.gen H2O2 → Oxidation of veratryl-OH (low mol REDOX mediator) → e-
oxidation of non-phenolic aromatic nuclei → aryl cation radicals → aromatic &
aliphatic comp → mineralized intracellularly. Carbon-Carbon bond.
MnP → H2O2 → oxidation of Mn2+ (Mn3+ oxalate) → oxidizes phenolic comp in
lignin.
Lac → generate radicals from low mol mediator (3-hydroxyanthranilate) → H 2O2
indept. Mediator comp. 1-hydroxybenztriazole (HBT) and
2,2′-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6 sulfonic acid) (ABTS) are also capable of
acting as Lac mediators.
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biomass
Enzymes → LMEz but unable to deg alone → Glyoxal oxidase and superoxide
dismuatase → H2O2 req by LiP and MnP.
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biomass
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biomass
Biological pre-treatment – Brown Rot fungi
▪ Also basidiomycetes (7%) → yield → brown, shrunken → cubical cracks → easily
integrated. Mostly Gymnosperm – BM recycler.
▪ Evolved from WRF by ‘selective loss’. Strength loss → weight loss.
▪ Decrease avg. chain length of Wood polysac (abt 4-fold @ only 10%)
▪ Mechanism of action: during rotting, fungal uses low.mol.wt sp (free radicals) that penetrates
the lignin → carbonyl and carboxylic acid grp (oxidative component) → hemi is deg more
rapidly → cellulose is removed (depolymerization) → leaving → complex, aromatic ring
containing polymer derived from the original lignin → oxidized, (i) demethylation of
aromatic rings (increases –OH), (ii) intro of carboxyl and carbonyl grps.
▪ Lignin still polymeric, and intact → 2 concl (i) little cap to deg, (ii) the low molwt sp they
use are oxidants (●OH-centered free radicals, Prime candidates).
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biomass
▪ endurance of lignin after rot → radical plays central role but perplexing →
fungi produce –ases → operate only if lig is deg.
▪ R&D → inter.m link is disapp, during brown rot.
▪ Suggests that, the lignin may be transiently depolymerized, which might
facilitate the access of polysaccharide hydrolases.
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biomass
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biomass
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biomass
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biomass
Postia placenta
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biomass
Biological pre-treatment – Soft-Rot fungi
▪ Soft-rot, the wood → brown, soft and wet → cracked (dry).
▪ Ascomycetes and mitosporic (A large and heterogenous group of fungi

whose common characteristic is the absence of a sexual state. Many of
the pathogenic fungi in humans belong to this group.) → cavities.
▪ Knowledge is limited abt asco, lit knowm abt mech.
▪ Daldinia, Hypoxylon and xylaria are known fungi sp. Grp’ed as

‘Soft-Rot’.
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biomass
Daldinia concentrica
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biomass
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biomass
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biomass
Biological pre-treatment – Enzymatic degradation of Wood-Polysac
▪ Trichoderma reesei – Soft-rot fungi → source of hemi and cellulases →

also as model org.
▪ Deg is catalyzed by Caz (cazy.com)
▪ CBHz, E.C: 3.2.1.91
▪ EGz, E.C: 3.2.1.4
▪ β-glucosidaces, E.C: 3.2.1.21
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Feedstock pre-processing and treatment methods
Biological pre-treatment of lignocellulosic biomass

Fungal degradation of ‘cellulose’ is catalyzed by
(i) Cellobiohydrolase (CBH)- EC 3.2.1.91 – cleave polymeric cellulose
(ii) Endoglucanase (Egs) – EC 3.2.1.4 – endo wise along glucose chain
(iii) Extra or intracellular beta glucosidase – 3.2.1.2 – which hydrolyze the
resulting cellobiose or cello-oligosaccharides to glucose.
(iv) The hydrolysis products can also be ‘oxidized’ by ‘cellobiose-
dehydrogenase’
These carbohydrate active enzymes are termed as ‘CAZy’
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Geothermal energy, OTECs and Tidal energy
Geothermal energy resources
Heat – radiated – earth’s surface → space. Solar energy, absorbed by the earth’s soil, rock,
ocean → re-emitted as ‘infrared’ radiation, in which 1% of the radiation comes from
earth’s interior.
The energy (in the form of heat), that is present at a few thousand of feet below the earth’s
surface, is more than enough to satisfy the energy needs of every nation of the world
many times. The ‘heat’ energy → ‘Geothermal’ energy.
The heat energy is available from (i) the planet’s past history (during the big bang 4.6x109
yrs ago) i.e. the hot inner and outer core (ii) radioactive decay of naturally occuring
radioactive isotopes of Th232, K238 and U40.
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So, this energy is perpetual (continuing forever), inexhaustible and renewable form (when
compared with the non – renewable energy sources on the basis of ‘resource depletion’)
of energy.
The average heat flux of the geothermal energy over the earth’s surface is 87mW/m2 (global
surface area of earth is 5.1x108 km2 → 4.4x1013 W of renewable energy potential).
For comparison, the estimated ‘total power consumption’ by all human activity in 2006 was
~1.57x1013 W (2.8 times). This data clearly says that, the heat in the earth has the
potential to significantly contribute to the ‘energy needs’.
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The interior of earth : Crust (6-90km) → Mantle → Outer core → Inner core. Only the tiny
fraction of the heat can be extracted from earth’s crust, and the ‘maximum exploitation
depth’ is 5km. To this depth the temp of the crust increases @ an avg rate of 30 to 35°C
per km (mean geothermal gradient).
Becoz of the thermal gradient, natural heat rises (heat flow) by conduction (and by convection
in some places).
The conductive component of ‘heat flow’ also varies → varying ‘heat flux’ from min of
30mW/m2 to 500mW/m2, and the avg. heat flux is ‘few thousand times’ less than the
‘mean solar radiation’ striking the earth’s surface.
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The viability of ‘geothermal energy’ conversion is apparent only in places where its heat
dissipates into earth’s surface through a ‘carrier fluid’ such as ‘warm water’ that flows
from ‘geyser’, or through the release of ‘hot gases’, or ‘volcanic eruption’.
Accessible resource base – The amount of heat energy that could be theoretically be
taped (or utilized) within the ‘maximum exploitation depth’ is 14x1025 J, however
only a fraction of it could be used.
At the boundaries b/w the ‘tectonic plates’(where, the molten rock – magma@1000°C,
reaches the surface), the heat flux are high as 300mW/m2.
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High heat flows → over the time, these flows resulted in large quantities of heat being stored
in rocks at shallow depths, and these rocks forms the ‘source’ of geothermal energy
extraction.
High enthalpy region – the region at which ‘highly concentrated heat flow (heat flux)’
occurs, and where the heat is available in the forms of steam and hot water (100-200°C).
These regions are suitable for ‘power generation’
Low enthalpy region – temp is low, heat → warm water. Suitable for ‘heating and drying’
application.
Heat mining – heat extraction for ‘useful’ purpose.
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The Himalayan
geothermal belt,
Eastern china,
Russia, Japan, the
Philippines,
Indonesia, etc.,
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Any ‘geothermal resource site’ should have ‘three’ important characteristics
An aquifer (which is porous rock that can store water, and flow of water is possible
inside it), it can be accessed by ‘drilling’.
A cap rock to retain the geothermal fluid (seal for the fluids)
Heat source (three different types of heat source (i) volcano – related heat source, (ii)
sedimentary basins and (iii) hot-dry rocks).
A geothermal aquifer must be able to ‘sustain’ a flow of geothermal fluid so that even highly
porous rocks are suitable only if the pores are interconnected.
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The velocity of a fluid moving through a porous medium, ‘v’ can be described by ‘Darcy’s
law’
v = KW.(H/L); KW – hydraulic conductivity, H/L – hydraulic gradient

H/L – the change in the ‘head’ per meter of distance ‘L’ along the direction of flow
Q = A.KW.(H/L); A – Cross sectional area
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Technology for utilization of geothermal resources
Examination of locating the site → chemical investigation → Resistivity surveying (for

brine) → once located →drilling → exploration → production.
1. Direct way – use the geothermal fluid directly
Dry steam PP, Single-flash steam PP and double-flash steam PP
2. Indirect way – heat is extracted from the site by using heat exchangers
Binary cycle PP, also known as ‘Organic Rankine cycle’ ORC
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Dry steam power plants
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Single-flash steam power plants
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Double-flash steam power plants
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Binary cycle power plants
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Ocean thermal energy conversion
Tropical ocean – surface water → 25 to 27°C – deepwater below (1000m) → 5°C. The difference
(around 20°C) is used to make ‘energy’ is called ‘OTEC’.
Upper layer → vast ‘reservoir’ of heat held @ temp near 27°C by a balance b/w ‘the absorption of
heat (from the sun)’ and ‘the loss of heat (by evaporation, heat transfer loss and re-radiation).
Fact : on an avg day, the water near the surface absorbs more heat from the sun in one square mile of
ocean area than the heat that could be produced by burning 7000 barrels of oil.
OTEC system needs supply of ‘warm’ and ‘cold’ water with the temp diff of 20°C, and a
‘inexpensive and efficient’ heat engine for extracting work from the heat supply – heat sink
combination, and a reasonable methods for delivering the output to users.
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Ocean thermal energy conversion
The Rankine (closed) cycle heat engine with a typical refrigerant as working fluid (liquid
NH3) will be boiled using warm water’s heat → the vapor expand thr the turbine →
cycle work → condensed by cold water → pumped back into the boiler.
For modest yield of output work, large quantities of heat was req, for which large boilers and
condensers were req.
Overall less output → 6 to 20kW
2 types of OTEC process (i) Closed – cycle systems and (ii) open – cycle systems
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Ocean thermal energy conversion - Closed cycle system
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Ocean thermal energy conversion - Open cycle system
2/25/2019 Unit-IV 72
Tidal power
Use of tides (not waves) to provide energy – turbines mounted in large barrages (low dam
structures), which are artificial barriers build across a river or estuary.
Upstream tide (flood tide) flows towards the barrages are trapped. As the tide declines →
level of water on the other side (downstream) of the barrages ‘reduces’ → Head of water
(water body at a certain height, called ‘Head’) develops → potential energy to kinetic
energy.
Power, P (kW) = H.Q.γ; H – head in m, Q – discharge in m3/s and γ – sp. wt of water

9.81kN/m3
*Regularly varying heads of water
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Tidal power
The formation and variation in tidal height → gravitational interaction b/w earth and moon/sun.
As the earth rotates in its axis → gravitational force produce → twice-daily rise and fall in sea level
→ modified by gravitational pull of the sun → interaction is complex
Gravitational pull of moon draws → sea on earth ‘nearest’ to moon bulge (high tide pattern) → as
earth rotates, this bulge maintains → two high tides per day (moon’s rotational time). This
pattern is modified by ‘pull’ of the sun.
Spring tides → very high tides → when sun and moon pull together in line
Neap tides → low tides → when sun and moon are apart (90 )
Tidal power availability is site specific → tidal potential is 120GW
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Tidal power
2/25/2019 Unit-IV 75

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Unit IV: Bio-energy, Geothermal

Photosynthesis - Energy derived from the ‘Sun’ – biomass –

CO2 + H2O → (CH2O)n + O2

Plants – leaves – mesophyll – chloroplast – chlorophyll

CO2 get reduced – water gets oxidation

Renewable – sources are renewable (sun light, water, CO2).

Biomass → biofuel → bioenergy.

Cellulose, Hemicelluloses and lignin

▪Starch – 2 types of ‘glucose’ polymer.

amylose – long, un-branched chain of ‘D-glucose’ linked by α1→4.

amylopectin – highly branched (24-30 res), α1→4 for successive ‘residue’,

▪Lipids – ‘Fatty Acids’ – ‘Fatty Acid Methyl Ester’ – ‘Bio-diesel’ – similar

• Regarded as sources of sugars, starches, lipids, woody biomasses – the

• Bio-ethanol → e.g. sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum, prime feedstock in

lipids - chemically diverse group of compounds - the common and defining

feature - insolubility in water – biological functions are structural elements of

membrane (e.g. phospholipids, sterols), enzyme cofactor, e- carriers,

Fats and oils, derivatives of FA – stored forms of energy. FA – ‘HC’ derivatives at

oxidation of ‘FA’ (CO2 + H2O) is ‘exergonic’ like in the ‘IC’ engines.

Carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon chains ranging from 4 to 36 carbons long

12:0 CH3(CH2)10COOH n-Dodecanoic acid

14:0 CH3(CH2)12COOH n-Tetradecanoic acid

16:0 CH3(CH2)14COOH n-Hexadecanoic acid

18:0 CH3(CH2)16COOH n-Octadecanoic acid

20:0 CH3(CH2)18COOH n-Eicosanoic acid

TAG – 3 FA, with ‘ester’ linkage – simple TAG –

e.g. C16:0→tripalmitin, C18:0→tristearin,

Most natural TAG – mixed - nonpolar, hydrophobic

molecules, essentially insoluble in water.

(i) direct esterification of FFA

(ii) Trans-esterification of TAG

C and H reacts with O2 to form CO2+H2O, heat is liberated.

Combustors – designed in a way that the combustion mechanism/process are

Thermal decomposition of org.matter (in BM) in atm of inert – pyrolysis.

The pdt is charcoal, pyroligneous liquid, and some gaseous pdts.

‘BM’ pyrolysis → carbonization process.

Thermo-chemical biomass gasification is process of converting ‘BM’ into

‘AD’ is multistep ‘biological’ and chemical process → waste removal and

(ii) acidogenesis – NH3, H2, CO2 and H2S

(iii) acetogenesis - creation of acetate from carbon source

(iv) methanogenesis – methane formation

▪Radiative degradation (Microwave)

▪Biological methods (enzymatic pre-treatment)

▪ co-factors, co-enzymes (carries spl grp), prosthetic grp, holoenzymes, apo-enzymes.

▪ Named after its substrate or phrase describing their activity. –ase– .

▪ A conclusion from the above concern

▪ White-rot fungi → derived from appearance of wood after deg → basidiomycetes

▪ EC 1.11.1.14 – Lignin peroxidase.

▪ Soft-rot, the wood → brown, soft and wet → cracked (dry).

▪ Ascomycetes and mitosporic (A large and heterogenous group of fungi

▪ Daldinia, Hypoxylon and xylaria are known fungi sp. Grp’ed as

▪ Trichoderma reesei – Soft-rot fungi → source of hemi and cellulases →

▪ EGz, E.C: 3.2.1.4

▪ β-glucosidaces, E.C: 3.2.1.21

Biological pre-treatment of lignocellulosic biomass

Geothermal energy resources

Geothermal energy resources

Geothermal energy resources

Geothermal energy resources

Geothermal energy resources

Heat mining – heat extraction for ‘useful’ purpose.

Geothermal energy resources

Geothermal energy resources

Any ‘geothermal resource site’ should have ‘three’ important characteristics