Buffelspoort TIME2008 Peer-reviewed Conference Proceedings, 22 – 26 September  2008

Modelling of telegraph equations in

transmission lines
CGJ LockĮ

University of Johannesburg, South Africa

JC Greeff and SV Joubert

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Tshwane University of Technology
Pretoria, South Africa

Abstract
It would be difficult to imagine a world without communication systems. A multitude of guided
fixed-line telephones as well as unguided systems to serve cellular phones are evident in our
environment. In order to optimize guided communication systems, it is necessary to determine or
project power and signal losses in the system, since all systems experience such losses. To
determine these losses and eventually ensure a maximum output, it is necessary to formulate
some kind of equation with which to calculate these losses. A mathematical derivation for the
telegraph equation in terms of voltage and current for a section of a transmission line will be
investigated. In the engineering literature consulted, the formulae for voltage and current involved
in the telegraphic equations are not explicitly and analytically derived, leaving a theoretical gap
seldom crossed by students in Electrical Engineering. The main aim is to address this theoretical
gap, and derive from basic principles, the equations for telegraphic transmission in a guided
system.

1 Introduction
Transmission media can be categorized into two groups, namely guided and
unguided transmission lines.

In guided transmission media there will be some form of conductor that provides
a conduit in which the signals are contained. Only devices that are physically
connected to this conductor can receive the signals that propagate down the
conductor. Copper wires and optical fibres are mostly used as guided
transmission media. When copper wires are used, the signals are transported by
means of an electrical current, but when optical fibres are used, the signals are
transported by means of electromagnetic waves.

Guided transmission media, specifically cable transmission media, are

investigated in this paper to address the problem of efficient telegraphic
transmission. A cable transmission medium can be classified as a guided
Į
corriel@uj.ac.za

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transmission medium, and represents a physical system that directly propagates
information between two or more locations.

Much of the literature referred to in Electrical and Communication Engineering,

such as [2], [3] and [5], states only general and standard transmission line
equations and equations for power transfer. As an exception, [6] provides some
mathematical derivations from first principles of how these equations were
obtained, yet clear analytical procedures have been omitted, leaving a gap in the
theoretical background of engineering students in their respective fields.
Reference [5] supplies the theoretical background on transmission and
transmission lines, including open-wire lines and cables. The derivations for
characteristic impedance are performed, but this work does not give any
derivations for telegraph equations. Reference [6] gives some derivations for
telegraph equations, although it does not give much information on Ohm’s law
and Kirchhoff’s law.

In summary, none of the sources consulted, discussed in full the theoretical

background essential for students in Electrical Engineering.

The author (in agreement with [1]), is of the opinion that students in Electrical and
Communication Engineering will be able to better understand the application of
the telegraph equation and other relevant equations if they know how these
equations have been derived and how a maximum output can be obtained, using
mathematical analysis in conjunction with a computer algebra system (CAS),
such as DERIVE®. Thus it is the primary objective of this paper to provide a
complete theoretical reference for students in the Engineering fields. The
secondary objective is to illustrate the applications of this theory to real-world
problems using a suitable computer algebra system.

2 Theoretical background
In order to be able to model telegraph equations, it is necessary to understand
the basic principles of electricity.

Ohm's law describes the relationship between voltage, current and resistance in
an electrical circuit. Ohm's law states that, if one volt is applied to a one-ohm
resistance, the current that flows will be one ampere (A).
It states that:
V I .R

where:
V = Voltage measured in Volts (V),
I = Current measured in Amperes (A),
R = Resistance measured in Ohms (ȍ).

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Kirchhoff’s first law states that the current flowing into a junction, in a circuit or
node, must be equal to the current flowing out of the junction or node.
The current flow is described by

I total I1  I 2  I 3

Kirchhoff’s second law states that, for any closed loop path around a circuit, the
sum of the voltage gains and voltage drops is equal to zero. This implies that no
energy can be lost or gained by the circuit, with result that the total voltage
change must be zero. The voltage in a closed circuit is described by:

Vin V1  V 2  V3

The challenge is to model an infinitely small piece of telegraph wire as an electric

circuit, since it has a load and a source as indicated by Ohm's law and Kirchhoff’s
laws. The characteristics of a small piece of telegraph wire and that of a long
transmission line are the same, thus it is sufficient to model an infinitely small
piece of telegraph wire to represent a transmission line over distance.

Assume that the cable is imperfectly insulated so that there are both capacitance
and current leakage to ground as shown in Figure 1. No two conductors can be
perfectly insulated, due to the current that flow through them as well as potential
differences in conductors.

Figure 1: Telegraph wire with leakage

Let
x = distance from sending end of the cable;
e(x,t) = potential at any point on the cable at any time;
i(x,t) = current at any point on the cable at any time;
R = resistance of the cable;
L = inductance of the cable;
G = conductance to ground; and
C = capacitance to ground.

Voltage drop across the resistor, according to Ohm's law, is given by

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Buffelspoort TIME2008 Peer-reviewed Conference Proceedings, 22 – 26 September  2008
V I .R (1)
According to Ohm's Law, voltage drop across the capacitor, where a capacitor
gives an integrator circuit, is given by

1
C³
V i dt (2)
and voltage drop across the inductor, where an inductor gives a differentiator
circuit, is given by
di
V L . (3)
dt

The potential at Q is equal to the potential at P, minus the drop in potential along
the element PQ, therefore if Equations (1), (2) and (3) are combined, the follow-
ing is obtained:
wi
e( x  'x, t ) e( x, t )  ( R'x)i  ( L'x) .
wt
Thus
wi
e( x  'x, t )  e( x, t ) ( R'x)i  ( L'x) . (4)
wt
Let 'x o 0 as for the definition of differentiation, and apply partial differentiation
with respect to x. The result will be
we wi
 Ri  L . (5)
wx wt
The current at Q is equal to the current at P minus the current loss through
leakage to ground. Using the equation for current through the capacitor,
de
i C (6)
dt
the equation for current now becomes
de
i ( x  'x, t ) i ( x, t )  (G'x)i  (C 'x) .
dt
Thus
de
i ( x  'x, t )  i ( x, t ) (G 'x)i  (C 'x) . (7)
dt
'x o 0 and by differentiating with respect to x, the following is yielded
wi de
Ge  C . (8)
wx dt
If Equation (5) is now differentiated with respect to x and Equation (8) with
respect to t, the respective results are
w 2e wi w 2i
 R  L (9)
wx 2 wx wxwt
and

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Buffelspoort TIME2008 Peer-reviewed Conference Proceedings, 22 – 26 September  2008

w 2i we w 2e
G C 2 . (10)
wtwx wt wt
w 2i w 2i
If the term in Equation (9) is now substituted with from Equation (10)
wtwx wtwx
the result will be

w 2e wi we w 2e
R  L(G C 2 ) (11)
wx 2 wx wt wt
wi wi
and if in Equation (11) is substituted by from Equation (8), the result is
wx wx
w 2e w 2e we
LC  ( RC  GL)  (GR)e . (12)
wx 2
wt 2
wt
Differentiating Equation (5) with respect to t and Equation (8) with respect to x,
and then eliminating the derivatives of e, a similar equation for i is obtained:

w 2i w 2i wi
LC  ( RC  GL)  (GR )i . (13)
wx 2
wt 2
wt
The two Equations (12) and (13) are known as the telegraph equations.

3 A theoretical example
An boundary value problem (BVP) of the form:

w 2u wu 2
2 w u
 4  4u 3 ,
wt 2 wt wx 2
­1 if S d x d 2S ½ wu
u (0, t ) 0; u (3S , t ) 0; u ( x, 0) ® ¾& ( x, 0) 0
¯0 if x  S or x ! 2S ¿ wt

is an example of the telegraph equation.

By assuming that
u ( x, t ) X ( x )T (t ) z 0,
then
XT ' '4 XT '4 XT 32 X ' 'T (14)

and since XT z 0 , division by XT results in

T ' ' 4T ' X ''
 4 9 (15)
T T X
The functions on the left hand side are functions of t only while those on the
right are functions of x only. This is only possible if both the left hand side and
right hand side are constant functions, say Z. Thus
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Buffelspoort TIME2008 Peer-reviewed Conference Proceedings, 22 – 26 September  2008
T ' ' 4T '
 4 Z (16)
T T
and
X ''
9 Z. (17)
X

It is possible to show that Z 9k 2 for some positive real number k . .Thus from
Equation (16) it follows that
T '' 4T '
  4 9 k 2 . (18)
T T
Therefore

T ' '4T '(4  9k 2 ) 0 . (19)

The characteristic equation is given by

m 2  4m  ( 4  9k 2 ) 0 (20)

and the roots, m, are

m 2 r 3ik . (21)
Hence the general solution T(t) is given by

T e 2t ( A cos 3kt  B sin 3kt ). (22)

But
X ''
9 9 k 2 . (23)
X
Thus
X ' ' k 2 X (24)
and
X ' ' Xk 2 0 (25)
which has roots
m 0 r ik . (26)
Therefore the solution X(x) is
X C cos kx  D sin kx. (27)
A solution to the BVP is thus given by

u ( x, t ) e 2t ( A cos 3kt  B sin 3kt )(C cos kx  D sin kx). (28)

Apply the condition boundary u (0, t ) to Equation (28), it follows that

0 e 2t ( A cos 3kt  B sin 3kt )(C cos(0)  D sin(0)), (29)

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Buffelspoort TIME2008 Peer-reviewed Conference Proceedings, 22 – 26 September  2008
and thus
0 e 2t ( A cos 3kt  B sin 3kt )C. (30)

But from Equation (22)

T e 2t ( A cos 3kt  B sin 3kt ),
And so
C 0.
From Equation (28) it follows that
u ( x, t ) e 2t D sin kx( A cos 3kt  B sin 3kt ). (31)

Now apply the boundary condition u (3S , t ) 0 to Equation (31) (where E AD ,

and F BD ):
0 e 2t sin 3S k ( E cos 3kt  F sin 3kt ). (32)
But T z 0 , thus
sin 3S k 0. (33)
Therefore
3Sk nS , n 1,2,3........, (34)
giving
n
k . (35)
3
Therefore
nx (36)
un sin ( Ee 2t cos nt  Be 2t sin nt ).
3
wu
Applying the initial condition ( x,0) 0 to Equation (36) yields
wt
0 E (ne 2t sin nt  2e 2t cos nt )  F (ne 2t cos nt  2e 2t sin nt ), (37)

thus
0 2 E  nF , (38)
and
nF
E . (39)
2
Therefore, for each n
nx n (40)
u n ( x, t ) Fn e 2t sin ( cos nt  sin nt ).
3 2
Is a solution. By superposition, as explained in [6], the following is the general
solution:
nx n (41)
u ( x, t ) 6 fn 1 Fn sin ( e 2t cos nt  e 2t sin nt ).
3 2
Now apply the initial condition
­1 if S d x d 2S ½
u ( x, 0) ® ¾
¯0 if x  S or x ! 2S ¿
to Equation (41). This results is

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Buffelspoort TIME2008 Peer-reviewed Conference Proceedings, 22 – 26 September  2008

nFn nx
u ( x, 0) 6 fn 1 sin . (42)
2 3

The values of Fn are still unknown, and have to be calculated. Now refer to the
general definition of the half-range Fourier series for an odd function f(x). Let f(x)
be a continuous function defined in the interval (-l, l), that is, f(x) has the period
2l. Then
nSx
f ( x) 6 fn 1bn sin
l
where
l
2 nSx (43)
bn ³
l l
f ( x) sin
l
dx .

Therefore
2S
nFn 2 nx
2 2S  S l S³ 1sin dx.
3

Consequently, the solution is given by:

12 ª nS 2 nS º nx n  2t 2t
u ( x, t ) 6 fn 1 «cos 3  cos 3 » sin 3 ( 2 e cos nt  e sin nt ). (44)
n 2S ¬ ¼

Using DERIVE® to plot the Solution (44), Figure 2 (below) is obtained. This
graphical solution confirms what was expected from a transmission line. The
input exhibits a rapid rise as it enters the circuit, and as time elapses, the value
decreases as it moves along the transmission line, due to resistance and other
leakages along the line. The importance of having an equation to do calculations
in a transmission line is relevant since should such equations not exist, it would
be impossible to simulate and determine the necessary input to a line in order to
deliver a required output.

4 Accuracy
According to [4], “Many computer algebra systems (CAS) include ready-to-use
solvers. Many users have fallen into the trap of using these solvers without
questioning the accuracy of the solutions generated.” In the field of engineering,
where applications are often more important than theory, this could be fatal. It is
therefore essential to investigate the accuracy with which a numerical solver will
present solutions. However, DERIVE® is incapable of solving partial or ordinary
differential equations. At most, it can represent the solution to a differential
equation visually, when the analytical solution is provided.

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Buffelspoort TIME2008 Peer-reviewed Conference Proceedings, 22 – 26 September  2008
The final Solution (44) from the previous example will be used as an example to
illustrate the number of terms supposedly used by DERIVE® in its graphical
representation of the solution u(z,t), and to verify the accuracy of the grid co-
ordinater ("cross” co-ordinate) displayed on the 3D graphs generated by
DERIVE®.

5 Comparison of analytical and CAS results

In order to draw a conclusion on the accuracy which can be expected when using
a CAS, in this case DERIVE®, equation (44) is used. Equation (44) can be
simplified to:
f
u ( x, t ) ¦ A ( x, t ),
k 1
k

where
(2 k  1)S 2(2 k  1)S
u ª« cos ºu
12
Ak ( x , t )  cos
 2 k  1 S ¬
2
3 3 »¼
(2 k  1) x ª (2 k  1) º 2 t
sin u« cos(2 k  1)t  sin(2 k  1)t » e
3 ¬ 2 ¼

Table 1 Difference in consecutive terms of the

truncated series of Equation (44)
N uN u N 1  u N
1 0.5720061 0.1480373
2 0.4239688 0.0045825
… …………. ………….
24 0.4261897 0.0000203
25 0.4261694 0.0013714
… ………….. ………….
400 0.4250153 0.0001129
401 0.4251282 0.0000015
402 0.4251297 0.0000482
403 0.4250815

Obviously a truncated series

N
u N ( x, t ) ¦ A ( x, t ),
k 1
k

has to be used in a numerical approximation of u ( x, t ). However, DERIVE®

presents a "black-box" graphical solution, not indicating the number of terms
used in plotting the solution of u ( x, t ). In search of more information on the
accuracy of the CAS system used, a suitable value for N will be investigated to
obtain four significant figure accuracy for the graphical representations of
solutions. The parameters used for this investigation are t = 1 and x = 5. Keeping
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Buffelspoort TIME2008 Peer-reviewed Conference Proceedings, 22 – 26 September  2008
in mind that u ( x, t ) converges to zero, it would be sufficient to determine the value
of N for which u N 1  u N d 0.00009 , to ensure four significant figure accuracy.
This analytical investigation is illustrated in Table 1 (above). Note that, for
example, four significant figure accuracy is obtained at N=24, but the accuracy is
not consistent. Similar fluctuations are experienced at higher values of N, not
illustrated in Table 1.This is due to the oscillating nature of the solution u ( x, t ).
However, when N•400 four significant figure accuracy is obtained and is
consistent. Based on this observation, all analytical calculations will be done with
N=402, and in addition, it is reasonable to assume that truncation at N•400 is
used by DERIVE®.

6 Accuracy of DERIVE® graphical solutions

The analytical solution of Equation (44), which is an infinite series, was imported
into DERIVE® in order to produce a graphical solution curve as illustrated in
Figure 2. This is a purely a "black-box" operation as the level of truncation that
the program has assumed is not indicated. An estimate of the level of truncation
was investigated in the previous section, and it is reasonable to assume that
N•400 was applied by DERIVE®. To confirm this assumption, analytically
calculated values of the coefficients Ak are compared to the numerically
calculated values A*k for various values of k, for the solution
f
u ( x, t ) ¦ A ( x, t ).
k 1
k

Numerical results are obtained from the "cross" coordinates indicated on the
DERIVE® solution curves of u ( x, t ) by the cross section value z, as illustrated, for
example, in Figure 3 (below) for k=1. An investigation for higher values of k yields
similar “accurate” numerical results when using DERIVE®. Note that DERIVE®
represents “cross” section values using six decimal places only, necessitating
that analytical results be rounded to six significant figures to allow comparison of
numerical and analytical results. On investigation a percentage error of 0%
(accurate to six significant figures) was obtained for values of K d 420. These
results may be obtained from the first author.

7 Conclusion
The equations are derived from the basic principles of electricity and therefore
can be used for any telegraph equation. The equations can be used repeatedly
with necessary adaptations of the initial conditions. If the graph in Figure 2 is
compared with Ohm's law, it can be seen that after a certain period of time, the
output will be zero due to voltage drop and losses. As these equations are
derived from (12) and (13), which were derived from first principals making use of
Ohm's law and Kirchhoff’s laws, they can also be applied to any long

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 Buffelspoort TIME2008 Peer-reviewed Conference Proceedings, 22 – 26 September  2008
transmission line. The graphical solutions from the example confirm the expected
output from a transmission line. The input rises as it enters the circuit, and as
time elapses, the value decreases as it moves along the transmission line due to
resistance and other leakages along the line. The importance of having equations
to do calculations in a transmission line is clear, since should such equations not
exist, it would be impossible to simulate and determine the input required for a
line to eventually have a viable output.

Figure 2: Graphical Figure 3: Graphical representation of

representation of equation (44) the solution u ( x, t ) with “cross” coor-
dinate z indicating the coefficient value
of A*1 0.57201

References
[1] Borse, M. (1997). Numerical methods with MATLAB. Boston: PWS.
[2] Glover, J. D. (1994). Power systems analysis and design. Boston: PWS.
[3] Grainger, J. J. & Stevenson, W. D. (1994). Power systems analysis.
International: Mc Graw-Hill.
[4] Joubert, S. V. & Greeff, J. C. (2006). Accuracy estimates for computer
algebra systems IVP solvers. SAJS, 102, pp. 46-50.
[5] Tomasi, W. (2004). Electronic Communication Systems. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
[6] Wylie, C. (1995). Advance Engineering Mathematics. International: Mc
Graw-Hill.

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