3 main components/principal parts of x-ray machine

 x-ray tube
 operating console
 high-voltage generator

 X-ray units are usually operated at kilovoltage ranging from 25-150 kVp and at tube currents from
100-1200mA
 The modern, general purpose x-ray examination room usually contains a radiographic unit and
fluoroscopic unit with an image intensifier
 The radiographic tube is attached to an overhead movable crane assembly that permits easy
positioning of the tube and aiming of the x-ray beam
 The fluoroscopic x-ray tube is usually located under the radiographic table
 The radiographic table may be flat or curve but must be uniform in thickness and as radiolucent to
x-rays as possible
 Carbon-fiber table tops are strong enough to support patients who weigh up to 300-lbs yet absorb
little radiation
 Most tabletops float. They are easily unlocked and moved by radiographer
 Just under the tabletop is an opening for a Bucky tray to hold an x-ray cassette and grid
 The bucky opening is automatically shielded from radiation with a Bucky slot cover
 Fluoroscopic table tilt and can be identified by the degree of tilt
 In a 90/30 tilt, table would tilt 90 degrees to the foot and 30 degrees to the head
 In most equipment, has the x-ray tube located in the x-ray room, the operating console in an
adjoining control room and the protective barrier separating the two
 The protective barrier must have the lead window for viewing the patient during examination
 The high-voltage generator may be housed in an equipment cabinet positioned against a wall in the
x-ray room
 The part of the x-ray machine most familiar to the radiographer is the operating console
 Operating console allows radiographer to control the x-ray tube current and voltage so that the useful
x-ray beam is of proper quantity and quality
 Quantity refers to the number of x-rays or the intensity of the beam, usually expressed in mR or
mR/mAs
 Quality refers to the penetrating quality of the x-ray beam and is expressed by kVp or HVL

basic controls on operating console

 On/off control
 mAs selection
 kVp selection
 table or wall unit activation
 exposure switch
 line compensation
 mA and exposure-time controls
 mAs meter

 On equipment that incorporates automatic-exposure control (phototiming), only mAs controls are
present
 Variation in supply voltage results in a large variation in the x-ray beam
 Line compensator – incorporates a meter to measure the voltage provided to the x-ray machine and
a control to adjust the voltage to precisely 220 volts
 The power supplied to the x-ray machine is delivered to a special transformer called autotransformer
 The autotransformer is designed to supply a precise voltage to the filament circuit and to the high
voltage circuit of the x-ray machine
 Some older x-ray operating console have adjustments labeled major kVp and minor kVp
 kVp determines the penetrating quality of the x-ray beam
 Prereading voltmeter allows the voltage to be monitored before an exposure
 The x-ray tube current, number of electrons crossing from cathode to anode per second in measured in
milliamperes (mA)
 The number of electrons emitted by the filament is determined by the temperature of filament
 The filament temperature is controlled by filament current, which is measured in amperes (A)
 Filaments normally operate at currents between 3-6 amperes
 X-ray tube current is controlled through a separate circuit called the filament circuit
 Voltage of filament circuit is reduced by use of precision resistors to a value corresponding to the mA
station provided
 Fixed-mA stations providing tube currents of 100, 200, and 300 mA
 Falling-load mA – mAs varied continuously during an exposure to the minimum exposure time
 Exposure timers cause the x-ray tube to emit x-rays for a specific time as determined by the
radiographer or by an automatic control
 The timer circuit is separate from the other main circuits of the x-ray machine. It consist of mechanical
electronic devices whose action is to “make” and “break” the high voltage across the x-ray tube

5 types of timing circuits are:

 Mechanical timers – very simple device used only in some portable and dental units. It operates by
clockwork
 Synchronous timers – a special type of electric motor known as synchronous motor; a precision
device designed to drive a shaft at precisely 60 revolutions/second
 Electronic timers – are the most sophisticated, most complicated, and most accurate of the x-ray
exposure timers. Consist of rather complex circuitry based on the time required to charge a capacitor
through a variable resistance
 mAs timers – product of mA and time; determine the number of x-rays emitted. A special kinf of
electronic timer that monitors the product of mA and exposure time
 Automatic exposure controls (phototimer) – a device that measure a quantity of radiation reaching
the image receptor. It automatically terminates the exposure when sufficient radiation to provide the
required optical density has reached the image receptor

 The critical component of one type of phototimer is the photomultiplier sensing device – views a
fluorescent screen and converts the light from it into the electric charge
 The intensity of the fluorescence is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation
 The type of phototimer used by most manufacturers incorporates a flat, parallel plate ionization
chamber positioned between the patient and the image receptor
 The spinning top is a simple device that can be used to check the accuracy of x-ray timers in half-
wave and full-wave rectified units in which radiation output is pulsed
 High-voltage generator – is responsible for converting the low voltage from the electric power
company into a kilovoltage of the proper waveform

3 primary parts of high-voltage generator

 High voltage transformer
 Filament transformer
 Rectifiers

 High-voltage transformer is a step-up transformer. The secondary voltage is greater than the primary
voltage because the number of secondary windings is greater than the number of primary windings
 X-rays are produced by the acceleration of electrons from the cathode-anode
 Diode rectifiers were vacuum tubes called valve tubes
 Inverse voltage is the voltage across the x-ray tube during the negative half cycle
 Half-wave rectification represents a condition in which the voltage is not allowed to swing negatively
during the negative half of its cycle
 in some x-ray units, the tube serves a the vacuum-tube rectifier thus said to be self-rectified
 full-wave rectification, circuit the negative half cycle corresponding to the inversed voltage is
reversed so that a positive voltage is always directed across the x-ray tube
 Single-phase power results in pulsating x-ray beam. This is caused by alternate swing in voltage from
zero to maximum potential 120 times each second under full-wave rectification
 With the three-phase power, the voltage across the x-ray tube is nearly constant and never drops to
zero during exposure
 Full-wave rectified power at 60 Hz is converted to a higher frequency, usually 500-25,000 Hz
 One advantage of frequency generator is size. Such generators can be placed within the x-ray tube
housing
 Capacitor discharge generator is a high voltage generator that operates by charging bank of SCRs
from the DC voltage of a NiCd battery
 Voltage ripple is the variation in peak voltage waveform
 Single-phase power has 100% voltage ripple
 3-phase,6-pulse power produces voltage with approximately 13% ripple
 3-phase,12-pulse power results in a voltage supply of 4% ripple
 High frequency have voltage less than 1% ripple
 When specifying high-voltage generators, the industry standard is to use the maximum tube current
possible at 100 kVp for an exposure of 100ms. This combination generally results the maximum
available power
2 types of power provides in high voltage generator
 Single phase power
 Three phase power
 Power rating of x-ray units are identified in Kilowatts (KW)

X-ray Tube
X-ray tube external structure consists of three parts:
 Support structure
1) Ceiling support – consist of two sets rails mounted to the ceiling directly over the radiographic
table. The two sets of rails are mounted perpendicular to each other so that tube can move
longitudinally and transversely along the table
SID – Source –to-image-receptor distance
2) Floor to ceiling support – has a single column with rollers attached to each end
3) Floor mount system
4) Fluoroscopy – is mounted underneath the radiographic table and is energized only when the image
intensifier tower is locked into place
5) C-arm – are used as portable fluoroscopy units or in a special procedure suites
6) Portable mobile machines – use at the patient’s bedside
 Protective housing
 When x-rays are produced, they are emitted isotropically in all directions
 Useful Beam – is the x-rays emitted through the special section of the x-ray tube called window
 Leakage Radiation – x-rays that escape through protective housing. They contribute in a way of
diagnostic information and result in unnecessary exposure to the patient and to the radiographer
  The standards for leakage radiation is less than 100mR per hour at 1 meter
 The protective housing incorporates specially designed high-voltage receptacles to protect against
accidental risk of electric shock
 The protective housing also provides mechanical support for the x-ray tube and protects the tube
from damage
 X-ray tube contains oil that serves as electrical insulator and a thermal cushion
 3 functions of the protective housing
1) Reduce leakage radiation to 100 mR per hour at 1 meter
2) Provides mechanical support
3) Serves as a way to conduct heat away from the x-ray target
 Glass or metal envelope
 The glass metal envelope surrounds the cathode (-) and anode (+)
 An x-ray tube is a vacuum tube or diode with two electrodes: the cathode (filament) and the
anode (target)
 X-ray tube measures 30-50 cm long and 20 cm diameter
 The glass envelope is made of pyrex glass to enable it to withstand tremendous heat generated. It
maintains a vacuum or empty space inside the tube. This vacuum allows for more efficient x-ray
production and longer tube life
 Crookes Tube – is the early modification of the x-ray tubes, were not vacuum tube but rather
contained control quantities of gas within the glass envelope and were designed for more like
fluorescent lights
 Coolidge – is the modern x-ray tube, is a vacuum tube. If it becomes gassy, x-ray production falls
and tube fails
 As glass envelope ages, some tungsten vaporizes and coats the inside. This alters the electric
potential of the tube, which allows the tube current to stray and interact with the glass envelope.
The result is arcing and tube failure

Internal Structure
Cathode – is a negative side of the x-ray tube and has two primary parts: a filament and the focusing
cup
Filament – is a coil of wire, is usually about 2 mm in diameter and 1-2 cm long. An x-ray fimaent emits
electrons when it is heated. Are usually made of thoriated tungsten
Thermionic emission – is a result when filaments atoms are literally boiled off and ejected from the
filament
Tungsten provides for higher thermionic emission than other metals bacuse its melting point is 3410  C
The addition of 1%-2% thorium to the tungsten filament increases efficiency of thermionic emission and
prolongs life
Focusing cup – a metal where the filament embedded, is negatively charged so that it condenses the
electron beam to a small area of the anode
The effectiveness of the focusing cup is determined by its size and shape
Certain types of x-ray tube called grid-controlled tubes are designed to be turned on and off very rapidly.
They are used in portable capacitor discharge units, digital subtraction angiography, digital
radiography, and cineradiography
The term grid is barrowed from vacuum tubes electronics and refers to an element in the tube that acts as
the switch
Filament current – the x-ray tube is adjusted by controlling the filament current
Space charge – cloud of electron around a filament
Space charge effect – is a phenomenon space charge make a difficult for subsequent electrons to be
emitted because of the electrostatic repulsion
Space charge limited – x-ray tubes under certain conditions of low kVp and high mA
Dual Focus Tube – most diagnostic x-ray tube have two focal spots:
Small focal spot, is used when better spatial relationship is required. Normally either filament can
be used with the lower mA stations (approximately 300 mA or less). Is range from 0.1-0.5 mm
Large focal spot is used when technical factors that produced high heat is required. At
approximately 400 mA and up, only large focal spot is recommended for use because the heat
capacity of the anode could be exceeded if the small focal were used. Is range 04.-1.2 mm
Anode – is the positive side of the x-ray tube.
Anode designs that exhibit the line focusing principle have angled targets
Two types of anodes:
Stationary – are used in dental machines, some portable machines, and other special purpose
units with high tube currents and power are not required
 Rotating – general purpose x-ray tubes use the rotating anode because they must be capable of
producing high intensity x-ray beam in a short time
Three functions in an x-ray tube
 Electrical conductor
 Mechanical support
 Thermal conductor
Common anode materials
 Copper
 Molybdenum
 Graphite
Target – is the area of the anode struck by the electrons from the cathode. In stationary anode tubes the
target consist of a tungsten alloy metal embedded in the copper anode u
 Alloying the tungsten (usually with rhenium) gives it added mechanical strength to withstand the
stresses of high speed rotation
Target Material
The tungsten is the material of choice for the target for general radiography for three main reasons:
 Atomic number – tungsten atomic number = 74, results in high efficiency x-ray production and high
energy x-rays
 Thermal conductivity – it is an efficient metal for dissipating heat produced
 High melting point – tungsten have high melting point, approximately 3400C and therefore can stand
up under high tube current w/o pitting or bubbing

Specialty x-ray tubes for mammography have molybdenum or rhodium targets principally because of their
low atomic number and low K-characteristic x-ray energy
Rotating anode – allows the electron beam to interact with a much larger target area because the heating
of the anode is not confined to one small spot. Higher tube currents and shorter exposure times are
possible with the rotating anodes
The actual target area for the stationary tube is 1 mm x 4 mm = 4 mm 2
The actual target area for the 4 mm wide rotating anode tract is 1835 mm 2 thus, rotating anode tubes
provides approximately 500 times more area for electron beam to interact than a stationary anode tube
RPM of Anodes – most rotating anodes revolves at 3400 rpm
Induction motor – the anode rotates inside glass envelope with no mechanical connection to the outside
To prevent wear of the target, most tubes have a target that is powered by an induction motor
Rotating anode – is driven by electro magnetic induction motor. Is the tungsten-rhenium disk which
serves as the target for the accelerating electrons streaming from the cathode
Two principal parts of induction motor
 Stator – the part outside the glass envelope, consist of a series of electromagnets equally spaced
around the neck of the tube
 Rotor – a shaft made of bars of copper and soft iron fabricated into one mass located inside the glass
envelope
Focal spot – is the area of the target actually being hit with electrons from which x-rays are emitted. Is the
actual source of radiation
Effective Focal spot – is the focal spot projected onto the patient and the image receptor
Heel effect causes radiation intensity on the cathode side of the x-ray beam to be higher than on the
anode side. Is define as the variation in x-ray intensity across the beam because of absorption of x-rays in
the heel of the target
Central Ray – is the imaginary line generated by the centermost x-ray in the beam
Extra focal or off-focus radiation – up to 15% of electrons bounce off the focal spot and land on other
areas of the target which causes x-rays to be produced from outside the focal spot
Tube Failures – vaporization of the filament and plating of the glass or metal envelope
3 ways to dissipate heat
 Radiation – transfer of heat by emission of infrared radiation
 Conduction – transfer of energy from one area of an object to another
 Convection – transfer of heat by the movement of a heated object
Type of tube failures
 Single excessive exposure – when the temperature of anode is excessive during a single exposure
 Long exposure times – results from maintaining the anode at elevated temperatures for prolonged
periods
Radiographic Rating Chart – states which radiographic technical factors and which factors are unsafe for
tube operations
Safe operating Exposures – x-ray unit have a built-in safety feature that ill allow an exposure to be made
when the technique selected would cause the tube to exceed the safe conditions of the radiographic rating
chart
Heat units for Single Phase – one heat unit (HU) is equal to the product of 1 kVp, 1 mA, 1s
HU = kVp x mAs
Heat units for 3 phase units
3 phase, 6 pulse
HU = 1.35 x kVp x mAs
3 phase, 12 pulse
HU = 1.41 x kVp x mAs
Anode Cooling Chart – unlike the radiographic rating chart, the anode cooling chart is not dependent on
the filament size or the speed of rotation