AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

FN 121/Prof. Cecile Klaudine Cabigas

ALGHAMDI, MORRONDOZ

I. COMPARISON OF AUTONOMIC AND SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

II. ANATOMY OF AUTONOMIC MOTOR PATHWAYS

OVERVIEW
a. PREGANGLIONIC NEURONS
b. AUTONOMIC GANGLIA
c. POSTGANGLIONIC NEURONS

 preganglionic and postganglionic

 The cell body is located in gray matter of the spinal cord or brain.

 The preganglionic axon passes from the CNS in a spinal or a cranial nerve.

 The preganglionic axon terminates in a ganglion.

 A ganglion is a collection of nerve cell bodies located in a specific site within

the body, but outside the CNS.

 The cell body is located in a specific ganglion. The location of the ganglion is
dependent upon the division of the ANS to which the neuron belongs and
which organ it will innervate.
  The postganglionic axon passes from the ganglion to the effector.

 The peripheral effector (cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or gland) is either

stimulated or inhibited, depending upon which division of the ANS is being
discussed.

 Sympathetic preganglionic neurons originate from the lateral gray horns of

spinal cord segments T1-L2. Their axons travel in the spinal nerves of these
segments. Therefore, the sympathetic division is called the thoracolumbar
division and the preganglionic axons are called the thoracolumbar outflow.

 Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons arise from the nuclei of cranial nerves

III, VII, IX, and X, and the lateral gray horns of spinal cord segments S2-4.
For this reason, the parasym-pathetic division is also called the craniosacral
division and the preganglionic axons are the craniosacral outflow.

 Sympathetic chain ganglia – Sympathetic chain (vertebral

 chain or paravertebral) ganglia are located in a series that lie in a
vertical row on either side of the vertebral column, extending from the
base of the skull to the coccyx.

 Prevertebral ganglia – Prevertebral (collateral) ganglia lie as

 three clusters associated with the three unpaired arteries arising from
the abdominal aorta (celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior
mesenteric). These ganglia are used by the sympathetic division.

 Terminal ganglia – The parasympathetic division uses

 terminal (intramural) ganglia located very close to or within the walls of
the organ to be innervated.

 Relative length of fibers – Because of the closeness of the

 spinal cord to the sympathetic chain ganglia and the collateral ganglia,
sympathetic preganglionic neurons are fairly short. Because of the
distance between the brain or spinal cord and the innervated organs,
parasympathetic preganglionic fibers are relatively long.

 Because of the locations of ganglia, sympathetic postganglionic fibers are

relatively long while parasympathetic postganglionic fibers are relatively
short. Regardless, all postganglionic neurons of either system have their
axons pass from their respective ganglia to the effector for innervation.

III. ANS NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND RECEPTORS

 Most effectors receive innervation from both divisions of the ANS, one
causing excitation and the other causing inhibition. How is this possible?

 This is possible because the postganglionic neurons use different

neurotransmitters and the effectors bear different receptors.
  The hypothalamus regulates the balance of sympathetic versus
parasympathetic activity or tone.

 In general, we are in parasympathetic tone, except during states of

emergency when we immediately switch to sympathetic tone.

ANS neurotransmitters

CHOLINERGIC ADRENERGIC
neurotransmitter? acetylcholine norepinephrine

Which neurons all preganglionic neurons most postganglionic

use this all postganglionic para- sympathetic neurons
neurotransmitter? sympathetic neurons
a very few postganglionic
sympathetic neurons

enzymes used to acetylcholinesterase catechol-O-

destroy methyltransferase
neurotransmitter? monoamine oxidase

IV. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ANS

PARASYMPATHETIC AND SYMPATHETIC RESPONSES

 The parasympathetic nervous system is an energy conservation-restorative

system. It regulates those activities that conserve and restore body energy
during times of rest and recovery.

 The parasympathetic nervous system dominates over sympathetic activity in

the glands and smooth muscle of the gut, stimulating glandular secretion and
the gut movements necessary for food to be digested and absorbed.

 The acronym SLUD stands for salivation, lacrimation, urination, and

defecation, all controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system.

 The sympathetic system prepares the body to meet emergency demands

and is primarily involved with processes that expend energy. During physical
or emotional stress, the sympathetic division dominates the parasympathetic
system, initiating a series of activities known as the fight-or-flight response.

 This includes increased heart rate, force of contraction, and blood pressure;
increased blood flow to essential structures (brain, lungs, heart, skeletal
 muscles) and decreased activity in nonessential ones; increased rate and
depth of respiration.

 In addition, there is activation of the adrenal medulla, causing secretion of

norepinephrine and epinephrine as hormones to greatly heighten the
response.

 The parasympathetic system has very little divergence in the connections

between preganglionic and postganglionic fibers, so that only very small
areas of effectors are stimulated at any given time. Also, acetylcholine is
rapidly destroyed in the synaptic clefts, so that the response to
neurotransmitter is very short-lived.

 The sympathetic system has a good deal of divergence between

preganglionic and postganglionic fibers (1:5-500), so that the sympathetic
message is sent body-wide. Secondly, norepinephrine is poorly removed
from the synapse, so that it diffuses into the bloodstream for delivery
throughout the body. Lastly, activation of the sympathetic nervous system
results in secretion of norepine-phrine and epinephrine, hormones that have
stronger and body wide effects.

V. AND CONTROL OF AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS

 Autonomic (Visceral) Reflexes
 occur when nerve impulses pass thru an autonomic reflex arc
 key role in regulating controlled conditions in the body (e.g. blood pressure,
by adjusting heart rate, ventricular contraction, and blood vessel diameter;
digestion, by adjusting motility)
 Components:
 senosry receptor
 sensory neuron
 integrating center
 motor neurons
 effector
 Autonomic Control by Higher Centers
o spinal cord and lower regions of the brain
o sensory neurons deliver input tot hese centers, autonomic motor
neurons provide output that adjusts activity in the visceral effector,
without our conscious perception
o hypothalamus - major control and integration center; receives
sensory input related to visceral functions; input relating to emotions;
connected to both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of
the ANS by axons of integral neurons with dendrites and cell bodies
SENSORY, MOTOR, AND
INTEGRATIVE SYSTEMS
FN 121/Prof. Cecile Klaudine Cabigas
ALGHAMDI, MORRONDOZ

I. SENSATION

three essential functions of the nervous system.

1. receive sensory information

2 integrate and interpret the information
3. initiate motor responses, if necessary

The CNS requires a continuous flow of sensory information to regulate homeostasis

and initiate appropriate responses to changes in the internal and external
environments. The CNS selects for consciousness only those pieces of information
that are of consequence at a given moment. All other information remains
subconscious or unconscious.

In its broadest sense, a sensation is the conscious, subconscious, or unconscious

awareness of external and internal stimuli.

1. LEVELS OF SENSATION

What are the levels of CNS translation?

The nature of the sensation and the type of reaction generated by the CNS
vary with the level of the CNS at which the stimulus is translated:
a. spinal reflexes
b. visceral reflexes (brainstem)
c. crude identification (thalamus)
d. precise identification (cerebral cortex)

2. MODALITY

What is modality?

Each specific type of sensation is called a sensory modality. The distinct

quality that makes one sensation different from another is its modality.

A given sensory neuron carries only one modality.

3. COMPONENTS OF A SENSATION

1. stimulation -- a stimulus (change in the environment)

capable of activating a sensory neuron must be present
 2. transduction -- a sensory receptor or sensory organ must
respond to the stimulus and transduce it to a generator potential

3. conduction -- at threshold, an action potential must be

conducted along a sensory neuron

4. translation -- a region of the CNS must translate the nerve

impulse into a sensation

4. GENERATOR POTENTIALS AND RECEPTOR POTENTIALS

A generator potential is the graded depolarization that results in a change in

resting membrane potential in a receptor (specialized neuronal ending).

1. always produces depolarization

2. will initiate an action potential in a sensory neuron if the
stimulus is strong enough to form threshold depolarization
3. all receptors, except those for vision, hearing, equilibrium,
and taste, create generator potential.

A receptor potential is depolarization or hyperpolarization of the plasma

membrane of a receptor cell that alters release of neurotransmitter from the
cell.

1. may produce depolarization or hyperpolarization

2. never directly initiates an action potential in a sensory
neuron
3. directly regulates release of neurotransmitter onto a sensory
neuron that may initiate threshold depolarization.

5. ADAPTATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS

Adaptation is a change in sensitivity, usually a decrease, to a long-lasting

stimulus.

Receptors vary in their ability to adapt. What is the difference between fast-
adapting and slow-adapting receptors?

Fast-adapting (phasic) receptors -- pressure, touch, and smell receptors

adapt quickly and play a major role in signaling changes in a stimulus.

Slow-adapting (tonic) receptors -- pain, proprioceptors, and chemoreceptors

adapt slowly. They are important in signaling information regarding the
steady states of the body.
 II. SOMATIC SENSATIONS
1. CUTANEOUS SENSATIONS

Cutaneous sensations include tactile (touch, pressure, vibration), thermal

(hot, cold) and pain.

The receptors for these sensations are located in the skin, connective
tissues under the skin, mucous membranes, mouth, and anus. These
receptors are distributed across the body such that some areas are heavily
populated (very sensitive) while other areas contain only a few receptors
(poorly sensitive).

Cutaneous receptors consist of the dendritic ends of sensory neurons that

may be enclosed in a specialized encapsulated structure or have no special
structure at all. Pain receptors, for instance, are really just bare dendrites.

2. PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSATIONS

An awareness of the activities of the muscles, joints, and tendons, and of

balance is provided by the proprioceptive (kinesthetic) sense.

Skeletal muscles, joint capsules, and tendons

They apprise the CNS of muscle and tendon tension, change of position, and
the orientation of the head. They adapt very slowly, allowing the CNS to be
constantly aware of body position so that fine adjustments can be made.

III. SOMATIC SENSORY PATHWAYS

Most input from somatic receptors on one side of the body crosses over
(decussates) to the opposite side of the CNS before ascending to the thalamus.

From the thalamus, the sensory information proceeds to the somatosensory

(primary sensory cortex) cortex of the postcentral gyrus in the parietal lobe of the
cerebrum. It is in this cortical region that the sensory input becomes conscious
(perception).

Three neurons are required to complete the sensory pathway from somatic receptor to the
brain. Name and describe them.

First-order neuron -- The first-order neuron is always the sensory neuron

bearing the receptor on its dendritic end. Its cell body is in a sensory
ganglion.

Second-order neuron -- The second-order neuron arises in the gray

matter. Its axon travels in an ascending tract and decussates prior to
entering the thalamus.
 Third-order neuron -- The third-order neuron arises in the thalamus. Its
axon passes to the somatosensory cortex where it synapses on a cortical
neuron.

1. POSTERIOR COLUMN-MEDIAL LEMNISCUS PATHWAY

Fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus carry sensory information related

to discriminative touch, stereognosis, proprioception, vibration, and weight
discrimination.

The axon of the first-order neuron enters the dorsal horn, passes into either
fasciculus gracilis or cuneatus, then ascends ipsilaterally to the white matter
of the medulla.

In the medulla, the axon enters either nucleus gracilis or nucleus cuneatus,
where it synapses with the second-order neuron.

The axon of the second-order neuron decussates in the medulla and enters
a projection tract known as the medial lemniscus to ascend to the thalamus.

The second-order neuron synapses in the thalamus with its third-order

neuron, the axon of which passes into the internal capsule to reach the
somatosensory cortex, where consciousness of the sensation occurs.

2. ANTEROLATERAL (SPINOTHALAMIC) PATHWAYS

Anterolateral (spinothalamic) pathways are the lateral spinothalamic tract

(pain and temperature) and the anterior (ventral) spinothalamic tract (crude
touch, tickle, pressure, itch).

For both tracts, the first-order neuron enters the dorsal gray horn and
immediately synapses with the second-order neuron.

The axon of the second-order neuron decussates through the gray

commissure and enters either the lateral or anterior tract, depending upon
the modality being carried.

Each tract passes through the brainstem to the thalamus where the axon
synapses with the third-order neuron.

The axon of the third-order neuron passes through the internal capsule to the
somatosensory cortex and synapses with the appropriate cortical neuron so
that perception of the modality occurs.
 3. SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX

Areas of the somatosensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal

lobe have been mapped to form a homunculus, the areas of representation
of body parts in the cerebral cortex.

Some areas of representations are huge compared to other areas. In

particular the hands and face have a tremendous amount of representation
in the cortex.

The size of cortical areas given to a particular structure is indicative of the

number of receptors located in that body part.

The size of somatosensory cortex and the number of receptors in a given

area are directly related to the functional importance of that part.

For each cutaneous receptor, there is a corresponding first-, second-, and

third-order neuron in the somatosensory cortex.

IV. CONTROL OF BODY MOVEMENT

To direct voluntary motion there is the motor cortex, neurons found in the precentral
gyrus of the frontal lobe of the cerebrum. The functional importance of an area is
indicated by the amount of motor cortex devoted to movement of that body part. As
with the somatosensory cortex, the hands, face, and mouth have the largest area of
cortex given to them.

Each motor unit of skeletal muscle in the body has a corresponding neuron in the
motor cortex. Such a neuron is called an upper motor neuron. The axons of upper
motor neurons descend through the CNS to synapse on lower motor neurons
located in the brainstem gray matter or the ventral horns of the spinal cord. Lower
motor neurons, in turn, leave the CNS to stimulate skeletal muscles.

1. DIRECT (PYRAMIDAL) PATHWAYS

Voluntary motor impulses are propagated from the motor cortex via upper
motor neurons in the direct (pyramidal) tracts, so called because the axons
pass through the pyramids of the medulla.

There are three primary pyramidal tracts:

1. lateral corticospinal tracts
2. anterior corticospinal tracts
3. corticobulbar tracts

Upper motor neurons for all tracts originate in motor cortex. Their axons
pass through the internal capsule then through the brain-stem.

Axons of the lateral tracts and corticobulbar tracts decussate in the medulla,
while those of the anterior tracts decussate at the level of appropriate lower
motor neurons in the spinal cord.
 The upper motor neurons synapse on the lower motor neurons located in the
ventral horns. Axons of all lower motor neurons pass into the periphery
stimulate the appropriate motor units.

Lower motor neurons associated with the lateral and anterior corticospinal
tracts pass into the periphery via spinal nerves while those associated with
the corticobulbar tracts pass via the cranial nerves.

2. INDIRECT (EXTRA-PYRAMIDAL) PATHWAYS

The indirect pathways include all motor tracts other than the corticospinal
and corticobulbar tracts. The upper motor neurons carry information from
the motor cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum, reticular formation,
and brainstem nuclei to influence the activity of the lower motor neurons.
V. INTEGRATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRUM
 Wakefulness and Sleep
o Circadian rhythm - 24-hour cycle; established by the suprachiasmic nucleus of the
hypothalamus
o Reticular activating system (RAS) - when active, many nerve impulses are
transmitted to widespread areas of the cerebral cortex, both directly and via the
thalamus
 consciousness - state of wakefulness, once the RAS is activated, cerebral
cortex is also activated, arousal occurs, resulting to consciousness
o Sleep - state of altered conscious or partial unconsciousness from which an
individual can be aroused; deprivation impairs attention, learning, performane
 NREM Sleep
 Stage 1 - trnasition between wakefulness and sleep
 Stage 2 - light sleep
 Stage 3 - moderately deep sleep
 Stage 4 - deepest level
 REM sleep - eyes move rapidly back and forth under closed eyelids;
paradoxical sleep because EEG readings taken during this time show high-
frequency, small amplitude waves similar to an awake person
 Learning and Memory
o Learning - ability to acquire new information or skills through instruction or
experience
 Associative - when a connection is made between two stimuli
 Nonassociative - repeated exposure to a single stimulus causes a change in
behavior; habituation and sensitization
o Memory - process by which information acquired through learning is stored and
retrieved
 Declarative - verbalized
 Procedural - motor skills, procedures, rules
 Short-term - temporary ability to recall a few pieces of information for
seconds to minutes
 Long-term - lasts from days to years
 Memory consolidation - short-term memory transformation into a long-term
memory
 Plasticity - capability for change associated with learning
  Long-term potentiation - transmission at some synapses within the
hippocampus in enhanced for hours or weeks after a brief period of high-
frequency stimulation
 Language
o 2 Language Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
 Wernicke’s - association area in the temporal lobe; interprets meaning of
written or spoken words; translates to thoughts
 Broca’s - motor area in the frontal lobe; translates thoughts into speech
o Pathways:
 info conveyed to W’s area
 translates the written or spoken word into the appropriate thought
 W transmits info about the word to B
 B receives input; develops motor pattern for activation of muscles needed to
say the word
 motor pattern conveyed from bB to the primary motor area; activated
muscles of speech
 THE SPECIAL SENSES
FN 121/Prof. Cecile Klaudine Cabigas
ALGHAMDI, MORRONDOZ

I. OLFACTION: SENSE OF SMELL

Anatomy of Olfactory Receptors
 receptors are loc in the olfactory epithelium
 receptor cells- first-order neurons of the olfactory pathway
 olfactory cilia- sites for olfactory transduction
 olfactor recepetor proteins - detect inhaled chemicals
 supporting cells - columnar epithelial cells of the mucous membrane lining the nose
 basal cells - stem cells located btween the bases of the supporting cells
 olfactory glands - connective tissue that supports the olfactory epithelium
Physiology of Olfaction
⁃ a receptor potential develops and triggers one or more nerve impulses; olfactory
transduction

Odor Thresholds and Adaptation

⁃ only a few molecules of certain substances need to be present in air to be perceived as an
ador
⁃ adaptation occurs rapidly; olf receptors adapt by about 50% in the first seocnd or so after
stimulation but adpat very slowly thereafter
The Olfactory Pathway
II. GUSTATION: SENSE OF TASTE
Anatomy of Taste Buds and Papillae
⁃ each taste bud is an oval body
⁃ supporting cells - suroound about 50 gustatory receptor cels
⁃ gustatory microvili project from each receptor cell through the taste pore
⁃ basal cells - found at the periphery of the taste bud near the connective tissue layer
⁃ taste buds found in elevaiton on the tongue - papillae
⁃ vallate
⁃ fungiform
⁃ foliate
Physiology of Gustation

Taste Thresholds and Adaptation

⁃ varies for each of the primary tastes
⁃ lowest: bitter
⁃ high: sweet and salty
⁃ complete adaptation occurs in 1-5 minutes of continuous stimulation
⁃ adaptation is due to changes that occurs in the taste receptors, in olfatory receptors, and
in neurons of the gustatory pathway in the CNS

Gustatory Pathway

IV. VISION: AN OVERVIEW

⁃ vision - act of seeing
⁃ ophthalmology - science that deals with the eyes and their disorders
⁃ electromagnetic radiation - energy in the form of waves that radiates from the sun

V. ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE EYE

 accessory structures of the eye - The external protective appendages and
supplementary components of the eye, external to the eyeball, which contribute indirectly
to vision and image formation; they include the eyebrows, the eyelids and eyelashes, the
conjunctiva, the lacrimal apparatus and the extrinsic eye muscles.
 conjunctiva - The thin, protective, moist mucous membrane lining and lubricating the
eyelids and covering the anterior surface of the eye itself, i.e., lining the conjunctival sac.
 lacrimal apparatus - Those accessory structures of the eye which function in the
production of tears including the lacrimal glands which synthesize the tears, and the
drainage system for the tears, beginning with the openings, lacrimal puncta, to the lacrimal
ducts, and the lacrimal sacs and nasolacrimal ducts; the tears moisten and lubricate the
conjunctiva and contain protective compounds to inhibit microbes.
 lacrimal gland - An acinous exocrine gland about the size and shape of an almond which
secretes tears, and is situated laterally and superiorly to the bulb of the eye in a shallow
depression on the inner surface of the orbit of the frontal bone; it is regulated by visceral
motor commands from the Autonomic Nervous System. aka tear gland.
 nasolacrimal duct - The major drainage tube (~1 cm) for tears from the nasolacrimal sac
into the nasal cavity where the tears mix with nasal mucous secretions and are
 evaporated.
 extrinsic eye muscles - The six skeletal muscles (four rectus (inferior, medial, superior,
and lateral) and two oblique (superior and inferior) which originate on the bones of the
orbit and insert into the sclera of the eye and move each eyeball; they are comprised of
many small motor units and are, therefore, capable of very precise control of eyeball
movement; they are regulated by the somatic motor commands from the frontal eye fields
of the frontal lobes of the cerebrum.
 intrinsic eye muscles - A set of smooth muscles within the eyeball: (1) The ciliary
(smooth) muscle which inserts via the suspensory ligaments on to the periphery of the
lens capsule; its state of contraction regulates the shape of the lens; (2) the circular
smooth muscle of the iris which constricts the pupil when it contracts; (3) the radial muscle
of the iris which dilates the pupil when it contracts; they are controlled by visceral motor
commands from the Autonomic Nervous System.

VI. ANATOMY OF THE EYEBALL

 Iris: regulates the amount of light that enters your eye. It forms the coloured, visible part of
your eye in front of the lens. Light enters through a central opening called the pupil.
 Pupil: the circular opening in the centre of the iris through which light passes into the lens
of the eye. The iris controls widening and narrowing (dilation and constriction) of the pupil.
 Cornea: the transparent circular part of the front of the eyeball. It refracts the light entering
the eye onto the lens, which then focuses it onto the retina. The cornea contains no blood
vessels and is extremely sensitive to pain.
 Lens: a transparent structure situated behind your pupil. It is enclosed in a thin
transparent capsule and helps to refract incoming light and focus it onto the retina. A
cataract is when the lens becomes cloudy, and a cataract operation involves the
replacement of the cloudy lens with an artificial plastic lens.
 Choroid: the middle layer of the eye between the retina and the sclera. It also contains a
pigment that absorbs excess light so preventing blurring of vision.
 Ciliary body: the part of the eye that connects the choroid to the iris.
 Retina: a light sensitive layer that lines the interior of the eye. It is composed of light
sensitive cells known as rods and cones. The human eye contains about 125 million rods,
 which are necessary for seeing in dim light. Cones, on the other hand, function best in
bright light. There are between 6 and 7 million cones in the eye and they are essential for
receiving a sharp accurate image and for distinguishing colours. The retina works much in
the same way as film in a camera.
 Macula: a yellow spot on the retina at the back of the eye which surrounds the fovea.
 Fovea: forms a small indentation at the centre of the macula and is the area with the
greatest concentration of cone cells. When the eye is directed at an object, the part of the
image that is focused on the fovea is the image most accurately registered by the brain.
 Optic disc: the visible (when the eye is examined) portion of the optic nerve, also found
on the retina. The optic disc identifies the start of the optic nerve where messages from
cone and rod cells leave the eye via nerve fibres to the optic centre of the brain. This area
is also known as the 'blind spot’.
 Optic nerve: leaves the eye at the optic disc and transfers all the visual information to the
brain.
 Sclera: the white part of the eye, a tough covering with which the cornea forms the
external protective coat of the eye.
 Rod cells are one of the two types of light-sensitive cells in the retina of the eye. There
are about 125 million rods, which are necessary for seeing in dim light.
 Cone cells are the second type of light sensitive cells in the retina of the eye. The human
retina contains between six and seven million cones; they function best in bright light and
are essential for acute vision (receiving a sharp accurate image). It is thought that there
are three types of cones, each sensitive to the wavelength of a different primary colour –
red, green or blue. Other colours are seen as combinations of these primary colours.

VII. PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION

1. Refraction of light entering the eye
2. Focusing of image on the retina by accommodation of lens
3. Convergence of image
4. Photo-chemical activity in retina and conversion into neural impulse
5. Processing in brain and perception
Refraction:
 Light wave travels parallel to each other but they bend when passes from one medium to
another. This phenomenon is called refraction.
 Before light reach retina it passes through cornea, aqueous humor, lens vitrous humor, so
refraction takes place in every medium before it falls on retina.
 In normal eye, light wave focused on retina.
 However in myopic eye (short sightedness) light focused in front of retina. So this defect
can be treated by using cancave lens.
 In case of far sightedness light focused behind retina, so no image is formed. This defect
can be treated by using convex lens.
Accommodation:
 Accommodation is a reflex process to bring light rays from object into perfect focus on
retina by adjusting the lens.
 When an object lying less than 6 meter away is viewed, image formed behind retina. But
due to accommodation of lens image formed in retina and we can see the object.
 For accommodation to view closer object, ciliary muscle contract and lens become thick
which causes focus on closer object.
 Similarly, when distant object is viewed, ciliary muscles relaxes, so the tension of ligament
become greater which pull lens and lens become thinner, due to which image forms on
retina.
 The normal eye is able to accommodate light from object about 25 cm to infinity.

Focus on nearer object:

Ciliary muscle contract——-ciliary body pull forward and inward ———tension on suspensory
ligament of lens reduced ——lens become thicker and round due to its elasticity ——possible to
focus near object
Focus on distant object:
Ciliary muscles relaxes——ciliary body return to its normal resting state—–tension on
suspensory ligament of lens increases——-lens become thinner and flat———possible to focus
distant object

Convergence:
 Human eye have binocular vision, it means although we have two eye, we perceive single
image
 In binocular vision, two eye ball turns slightly inward to focus a close object so that both
image falls on corresponding points on retina at same time. This phenomenon is called
convergence.

Photo-chemical activity in retina and conversion into neural impulse

1. Photochemical activity in rods:
 Each eye contains 125 million rods which are located in neuro-retina.
 Rods contains light sensitive pigment-rhodopsin.
 Rhodopsin is a molecule formed by combination of a protein scotopsin and a light
sensitive small molecule retinal (retinene).
 Retinene (retinal) is a carotenoid molecule and is derivative of vitamin A (retinol).
 Retinal exists in two isomeric form- cis and trans according to light condition.
 The extra cellular fluids surrounding rod cells contains high concentration of Na+ ion and
low concentration of K+ ions while concentration of Na+ is low and K+ is high inside rod
cells. The concentration is maintained by Na-K pump.
 In resting phase, K+ tends to move outside the rod cells creating slightly –ve charge
inside.
 When light is falls on rod cell, it is absorbed by rhodopsin and it breaks into scotopsin and
11 cis- retinal. The process is known as bleaching.
 11 cis-retinal absorb photon of light and change into all trans-retinal which inturn activates
scotopsin into enzyme.
 This reaction produces large amount of transducin which activates another enzyme
phosphodiesterase.
 Phosphodiesterase hydrolyses cGMP which causes to cease the flow of Na+ ion inside
rod cell. This causes increased negative charge inside cell creating hyperpolarized state.
 Hyperpolarized rod cells transmit the neural signal to bipolar cell.
 Bipolar cell, amacrine cell and ganglion cell process the neural signal and generate action
potential to transmit to brain via optic nerve.
2. Photochemical activity in cones:
 Each eye contains 7 million cone cells.
 The neural activity in cone cell is similar to that of rod cell but there are three different
types of cone cells and each cone cell contains different photo-pigment and are sensitive
to red, green and blue.
 Like rod, cone cell contains iodopsin as photo-pigment which is composed of 11 cis-retinal
and photopsin.
 The perception of color depends upon which cone are stimulated.
 The final perceived color is combination of all three types of cone cell stimulated
depending upon the level of stimulation.
 The proper mix of all three color produce the perception of white and absence of all color
produce perception of black.

Processing of image in brain and perception:

 All visual information originates in retina due to stimulation of rods and cones are
conveyed to brain.
 Retina contains 5 types of cells and they are interconnected by synapse. These cells are
photoreceptor cells (rod and cone), bipolar cell, ganglion cell, horizontal cell and amacrine
cell.
  Photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells and ganglion cells transmit impulse directly from retina to
brain.
 The nerve fiber of ganglion cells from both eyes carries impulse along two optic nerve.
 The optic nerves meets at optic chiasma where fibers from nasal half of each retina cross-
over but fibers from temporal half of each retina do not cross-over.
 The optic nerve after crossing the chiasma is called as optic tract.
 Each optic tract continues posteriorly until it synapse with neuron in thalamus called lateral
geniculate body which project to primary visual cortex in occipital lobe of cerebrum and
image is perceived.

The Visual Pathway

VIII. HEARING
 ability to perceive sounds
 Otorhinolarngology - science that deals with the ears, nose, pharynx, larynx, and their
disorders
Anatomy of the Ear
External or outer ear, consisting of:
 Pinna or auricle. This is the outside part of the ear.

 External auditory canal or tube. This is the tube that connects the outer
ear to the inside or middle ear.

 Tympanic membrane (also called the eardrum). The tympanic membrane
divides the external ear from the middle ear.

Middle ear(tympanic cavity), consisting of:
  Ossicles. Three small bones that are connected and transmit the sound
waves to the inner ear. The bones are called:
 Malleus

 Incus

 Stapes

 Eustachian tube. A canal that links the middle ear with the back of the nose.
The eustachian tube helps to equalize the pressure in the middle
ear. Equalized pressure is needed for the proper transfer of sound waves.
The eustachian tube is lined with mucous, just like the inside of the nose and
throat.

Inner ear, consisting of:
 Cochlea. This contains the nerves for hearing.

 Vestibule. This contains receptors for balance.

 Semicircular canals. This contains receptors for balance.


The Nature of Sound Waves

 sound waves - alternating high- and low-pressure regions traveling in the same direction
through some medium
 frequency is pitch
 the larger the intensity of the vibration, the louder
 increase of one decibel = tenfold increase in intensity
 hearing threshold: 0db at 1000Hz

Physiology of Hearing
 Sound is alternating compression and decompression of medium through which the sound
wave passes.
 Frequency is number of sound wave per second.
 Sound waves are passed through air in external ear through solid in middle ear and
through liquid in inner ear. Sound wave do not passes from air medium to liquid medium.
So these transition is important. During these transition energy is cost, however ear
ossicles balances the energy loss.
 Sound wave are pressure wave that enter the external ear. After crossing the external
auditory meatus, the wave reaches the tympanic membrane.

 The air molecule under pressure causes vibration of tympanic membrane. Low frequency
sound wave causes slow vibration while high frequency wave causes rapid vibration.
 The vibration of tympanic membrane moves the malleus in middle ear.
 The vibrating malleus produce vibration to incus and vibrating incus moves stapes in and
out of oval window causing vibration of perilymph in scala vestibuli.
 Vibration of perilymph are transmitted across the vestibular membrane to endolymph in
scala media (cochlear duct) and also up the scala vestibuli and down the scala tympani.
 The vibration of scala tympani are dissipated out of cochlea through round window into
Eustachian tube.
 During transmission of vibration from perilymph to endolymph in scala media, the basilar
membrane ripples. This ripple is concern with frequency and intensity of sound.
 The vibration causes bending of receptor of hair cells of organ of corti to generate
potential.
 These potential excites the cochlear nerves to generate action potential.
 When the hair or microvilli of hair cells are displaced toward the basal body, hair cells get
excited and when the hair are displaced away from basal body hair cells are inhibited.
 The nerve impulse from cochlear nerve are conveyed to auditory area of CNS via common
vestibule-cochlear nerve. The auditory area is located in temporal lobe where sound is
perceived.
Sound Transduction

The Auditory Pathway

VIII. EQUILIBRIUM
Otolithic Organs: Utricle and Saccule
⁃ detect gravity (linear acceleration), and are therefore static in function
• otoliths (small calcium carbonate particles) drag on the stereocilia when the head
changes position
⁃ when the body is in anatomical position:
• the patch of hair cells in the UTRICLEis nearly horizontal, with the stereocilia
oriented vertically
• the sensory epithelium is vertical in the SACCULE, with the stereocilia
oriented horizontally
• in contrast with the semicircular canals (where directionality is inherent in the structure), in
the otolith organs, directionality is conferred solely by the orientation of the hair cell
stereocilia
• orientation of the stereocilia within the sensory epithelium is determined by the STRIOLA,
a curved dividing ridge that runs through the middle of the MACULA – in the UTRICLE, the
kinocilia are oriented TOWARD the striola, and in the SACCULE they are oriented AWAY from it
• in any position, some hair cells will be depolarized and others hyperpolarized in
BOTH otolith organs

Semicircular ducts
• in contrast to the otoliths, the semicircular canals detect the rate of head rotation (angular
acceleration), and are therefore dynamic in function
• when the head is initially moved, the ampullary crest (and therefore the hair cells) turns
with it
• the endolymph remains in its initial position due to inertia,causing movement of the
stereocilia against the cupulaand altering the receptor potential (could be depolarizing or
hyperpolarizing, depending upon direction)
• once the head is moving at a constant velocity, the duct fluid moves at the same rate
as the hair cells, and the stereocilia are not deflected
• when the head stops moving, the fluid keeps moving (inertia again), and the receptor
potential is again altered, this time in the opposite directionto what occurred at the start of
the rotation
Equilibrium Pathway

IX. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EYES AND EARS

Ears
 internal ear develops first; 22 days after fertilization
 thickening of the surface extoderm (otic placodes)
 otic placodes form otic pits
 otic vehicles form
 middle ear develops next: pharyngeal pouch-endoderm-lined outgrowth of the primitive
pharynx
 externale ar develops last from the first pharyngeal cleft-endoderm-lined groove between
the first and second pharyngeal arches

X. AGING AND THE SPECIAL SENSES

 Cataracts - lense becomes cloudy due to changes in the structure of lens proteins
 Glaucoma - most common; abnormally high intraocular pressure as a result of a buildup of
aqueous humor within the anterior cavity
 Deafness-significant or total heairng loss; sensorinueral deafness, conduction deafness
 Meniere’s disease - increased amount of endolymph that enlarges the membranous
labyrinth
 Otitis Media - acute infection of the middle ear caused mainly by bacteria and associated
with infections of the nose and throat
 NERVOUS TISSUE
FN 121/Prof. Cecile Klaudine Cabigas
ALGHAMDI, MORRONDOZ

I. OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Organization of the Nervous System (NS)

- 3% of the total body weight
- one of the smallest and most complex body system
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
o consists of brain a and spinal cord
o processes different kinds if incoming sensory information
o the signals for the stimulation of muscle contraction and gland secretion originate in
the CNS
o Brain: located in the skull and contains about 85 billion neurons
o Spinal Cord: connected to the brain through the foramen magnum of the occipital
bone; encircled by the bones of the vertebral column; contains 100 million neurons
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
o consists of all nervous tissue outside the CNS
o Components:
 Nerve
 Bundle of hundreds to thousands of axons plus associated connective
tissue and blood vessels that lies outside the brain and spinal cord
 follows a defined path
 serves a specific region of the body
 Cranial nerves: 12 pairs; emerge from the brain
 Spinal nerves: 31 pairs; emerge from the spinal cord
 Ganglia
 closely associated with cranial and spinal nerves
 small masses of nervous tissue
 consists of neuron cell bodies that are located outside of the brain and
spinal cord
 Enteric plexuses
 extensive networks of neurons located in the walls of organs and GI
tract
 neurons of EP help regulate digestive system
 Sensory receptors
 structure of the NS that monitors changes in the external/internal env’t
 Examples: touch receptors in the skin, photoreceptors in the eye,
olfactory receptors in the nose
o Division:
 Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
 consists of sensory neurons that convey info to the CNS from somatic
receptors in the head, body wall, and limbs and from receptors for
vision, hearing, taste, and smell
  consists of motor neurons that conduct impulses from CNS to skeletal
muscles only (voluntary)
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
 consists of sensory neurons that convey info to the CNS from
autonomic sensory receptors located in visceral organs such as
stomach and lungs
 consists of motor neurons that conduct nerve impulses from CNS to
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands (involuntary)
 Two Branches of the Motor Part of the ANS:
o Sympathetic Division
 Sympathetic neurons increase heart rate
 Help support exercise or emergency actions (fight or
flight responses)
o Parasympathetic Division
 Parasympathetic neurons slow down heart rate
 Takes care of rest-and-digest activities
 Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
 “brain of the gut”
 Operations are involuntary
 Consists of over 100 million neurons in enteric plexuses
 Neurons of ENS monitor chemical changes w/in the GI tract and the
stretching of its walls
 Govern contraction of GI tract smooth muscle to propel food through
the GI tract
 Govern secretions GI tract organs and activities of GI tract endocrine
cells

Functions of the Nervous System

- Sensory Function
o Detect internal (blood pressure increase) or external stimuli (raindrop landing on
your arm)
o Sensory info is carried into brain and spinal cord through cranial and spinal nerves
- Integrative Function
o Processes sensory info by analyzing it and making decisions for appropriate
responses known as integration
- Motor Function
o After integration, NS elicit appropriate motor response by activating effectors
through cranial and spinal nerves
o Effector stimulation causes muscle contraction and gland secretion

II. HISTOLOGY OF NERVOUS TISSUE

Neurons
- Possess electrical excitability (ability to respond to a stimulus and convert into action
potential)
- Stimulus: change in env’t that is strong enough to initiate an action potential
- Action potential (nerve impulse): electric signal that propagates along surface of
membrane of a neuron
- Parts:
o Cell Body/Perikaryon/Soma
  Contains a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm that includes typical cellular
organelles
 Nissl bodies: prominent clusters of rough ER
 Neurofibrils: bundles of intermediate filaments that provide cell shape and
support
 Microtubules: assist in moving materials between cell body and axon
 Lipofuscin: pigment that occurs as clumps of yellowish brown granules in
cytoplasm; product of neuronal lysosomes that accumulates as neuron ages
 Nerve fiber: neuronal process that emerges from cell body of a neuron
o Dendrites
 Receiving or input portions of a neuron
 Plasma membranes contain numerous receptor sites for binding chemical
messengers from other cells
 Short, tapering, and highly branched
 Form a tree-shaped array of processes extending from cell body
 Cytoplasm contains Nissl bodies, mitochondria, and other organelles
o Axon
 Contains mitochondria, microtubules, and neurofibrils
 Propagates nerve impulses toward another neuron, a muscle fiber, or a
gland cell
 Long, thin, cylindrical projection that joins cell body at a cone-shaped
elevation called axon hillock
 Initial segment: part of axon that is closest to axon hillock
 Trigger zone: junction of the axon hillock and initial segment where nerve
impulses travel to their destination
 Absence of rough ER = protein synthesis does not occur
 Axoplasm: cytoplasm of an axon
 Axolemma: plasma membrane that surrounds axoplasm
 Axon collaterals: side branches that surrounds the axon
 Axon terminals/Axon telodendria: fine ends of the axon collaterals
- Synapse: site of communication between 2 neurons or between a neuron and an effector
cell
- Synaptic end bulbs: bulb-shaped structures that occur when tips of axon terminals swell
- Varicosities: string of swollen bumps
- Synaptic vesicles: tiny membrane-enclosed sacs that store neurotransmitter
- Neurotransmitter: molecule released from a synaptic vesicle that excites or inhibits
another neuron, muscle fiber or gland cell
- Slow Axonal Transport
o Moves materials 1-5 mm per day
o Conveys axoplasm in one direction only (from cell body —> axon terminals)
o Supplies new axoplasm to developing or regenerating axons
o Replenishes axoplasm in growing and mature axons
- Fast Axonal Transport
o Moves materials 200-400 mm per day
o Uses proteins that functions as motors
o Moves material in both directions (away from and toward the cell body)
o Anterograde direction: moves organelles and synaptic vesicles from cell body —>
axon terminals
o Retrograde: moves membrane vesicles from axon terminals to cell body to be
degraded/recycled
-
 - Structural Classification
o Multipolar neurons: have several dendrites and 1 axon; brain, spinal cord and
motor neurons
o Bipolar neurons: 1 main dendrite and 1 axon; retina, inner ear and olfactory area
o Unipolar neurons: have dendrites and 1 axon that are fused together;
appropriately called pseudounipolar neurons because they begin in the embryo
as bipolar neurons
- Functional Classification
o Sensory/afferent neurons: either contain sensory receptors at distal ends or
located after sensory receptors that are separate cells; action potential is conveyed
into the CNS
o Motor/efferent neurons: action potential is conveyed away from CNS to effectors
in the PNS
o Interneurons/Association neurons: located w/in CNS between sensory and
motor neurons; integrate incoming sensory info from sensory neurons then elicit a
motor response by activating appropriate motor neurons

Neuroglia/Glia
- Make up half of CNS
- Smaller than neurons; 5 to 25 times more numerous
- Do not generate action potentials
- In cases of injury or disease, they multiply to fill in spaces formerly occupied by neurons
- Gliomas: brain tumors derived from glia
- Six Types of Neuroglia of the CNS:
o Astrocytes
 Star-shaped, largest and most numerous
 Two types of astrocytes:
 Protoplasmic astrocytes: many short branching processes; found in
gray matter
 Fibrous astrocytes: many long unbranched processes; found in
white matter
 Functions:
 Contain microfilaments that give strength, enabling them to support
neurons
 isolate CNS neurons from harmful substances via chemical secretion
that maintain selective permeability of endothelial cells; the cells
create blood-brain barrier w/c restricts movement between blood
and CNS interstitial fluid
 secrete chemicals that regulate growth, migration, and interconnection
among brain neurons
 help maintain appropriate chemical env’t for generation of nerve
impulses
 play a role in learning and memory by influence formation of neural
synapses
o Oligodendrocytes
 Resemble astrocytes but smaller and fewer processes
 Responsible for forming and maintaining myelin sheath (multilayered lipid
and protein covering around axons)
o Microglial Cells/Microglia
 Small cells with slender processes
 Function as phagocytes
  Remove cellular debris formed during normal dev’t of NS
 Phagocytize microbes and damaged nervous tissue
o Ependymal Cells
 Cuboidal to columnar cells arranged in single layer that possess microvilli
and cilia
 Line the ventricle of brain and central canal of the spinal cord
 Produce, monitor, and assist circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
 Form the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier
- Two Types of Neuroglia of the PNS:
o Schwann cells
 Encircle PNS axons
 Form the myelin sheath around axons
 Participate in axon regeneration
o Satellite cells
 Flat cells that surround the cell bodies of neurons of PNS ganglia
 Provides structural support
 Regulate material exchange between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial
fluid

Myelination
- Myelinated: axons surrounded by myelin sheath
- Unmyelinated: without myelin sheath

Collection of Nervous Tissue

- Clusters of Neuronal Cell Bodies
o Ganglion: cluster of neuronal cell bodies located in the PNS
o Nucleus: located in the CNS
- Bundles of Axons
o Nerve: located in the PNS
o Tract: located in the CNS
- Gray and White Matter
o White matter: composed of myelinated axons
o Gray matter: composed of dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals and
neuroglia; grayish because of Nissl bodies
 THE SPINAL CORD AND
SPINAL NERVES
FN 121/Prof. Cecile Klaudine Cabigas
ALGHAMDI, MORRONDOZ

I. SPINAL CORD ANATOMY

Protective Structures
- Vertebral Column
o Spinal cord is located w/in the vertebral canal of the vertebral column
o The vertebral foramina of all vertebrae form the vertebral canal
o Surrounding vertebrae provide sturdy shelter for enclosed spinal cord
o Vertebral ligaments, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid provide addt’l protection
- Meninges
o 3 protective, connective tissue coverings that encircle spinal cord and brain
o Spinal meninges: surround the spinal cord and are continuous w/ cranial
meninges
o Epidural space: space between dura mater and wall of vertebral canal
o Three Meningeal Layers:
 Dura mater
 Most superficial layer
 Thick, strong layer composed of dense irregular connective tissue
 Forms a sac from the level of foramen magnum in occipital bone tp
the 2nd sacral vertebra
 Continuous w/ epineurium (outer covering of spinal and cranial
nerves)
 Arachnoid mater
 Middle of the meningeal membranes
 Thin, avascular covering comprised of cells and thin, loosely arranged
collagen and elastic fibers
 Called arachnoid because of its spider’s web arrangement
 Deep to the dura mater and is continuous through the foramen
magnum with the arachnoid mater
 Subdural space: found between the dura mater and arachnoid mater
w/c contains interstitial fluid
 Pia mater
 Innermost meninx
 Thin transparent connective tissue layer that adheres to surface of the
spinal cord and brain
 Consists of thin quahogs to cuboidal cells w/in interlacing bundles of
collagen fibers
 Denticulate ligaments: triangular-shaped membranous extensions of
the pia mater that suspend the spinal cord in the middle of its dural
sheath
  Subarachnoid space: found between the arachnoid mater and pia
mater which contains shock-absorbing cerebrospinal fluid

External Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

- Spinal cord
o Roughly oval in shape
o Extends from the medulla oblongata to the second lumbar vertebra
o Adult spinal cord length: 42 to 45 cm
o Diameter: 1.5 cm
o Cervical enlargement: extends from the 4th cervical vertebra to the 1st thoracic
vertebra; nerves to and from upper limbs arise from cervical enlargement
o Lumbar enlargement: extends from 9th to the 12th thoracic vertebra; nerves to
and from lower limbs arise
o Conus medullaris: tapering, conical structure w/c ends at the level of the
intervertebral disc between the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae in adults
o Filum terminale: arises from the conus medullaris that is an extension of the pia
mater, fuses w/ the arachnoid mater and dura mater, anchors spinal cord to the
coccyx
- Spinal nerves
o Paths of communication between the spinal cord and specific regions of the body
o 31 pairs:
 8 pairs of cervical nerves
 12 pairs of thoracic nerves
 5 pairs of lumbar nerves
 5 pairs of sacral nerves
 1 pairs of coccygeal nerves
- Roots
o 2 bundles of axons that connect each spinal nerve to a segment of the cord by even
smaller bundles of axons called rootlets
o Posterior root
 contain sensory axons w/c conduct nerve impulses from sensory receptors
in the skin, muscles, and internal organs
 Posterior root ganglion: contain cell bodies of sensory neurons
o Anterior root
 Contains axons of motor neurons w/c conduct nerve impulses from CNS to
effectors

Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

- Anterior median fissure
o Wide groove on the anterior side
- Posterior median sulcus
o Narrow furrow on the posterior side
- Gray commissure
o Forms the crossbar of the H
- Central canal
o Small space found in the center of the gray commissure
- Anterior white commissure
o Connects white matter of the right and left sides of the spinal cord
- Horns
o Term for the regions of the gray matter on each side of the spinal cord
 Posterior gray horns
  Contain cell bodies and axons of interneurons and axons of incoming
sensory neurons

 Anterior gray horns

 Contain somatic motor nuclei which are clusters of cell bodies that
provide nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles
 Lateral gray horns
 Found between the posterior and anterior gray horns that are only
present in the thoracic and upper lumbar segments of the spinal cord

II. SPINAL NERVES

- associated with the spinal cord
- are parallel bundles of axons and their associated neuroglial cells wrapped in several
layers of connective tissue

Connective Tissue Coverings of Spinal Nerves

- Endoneurium
o wraps individual axons within a nerve
o consists of a mesh of collagen fibers, fibroblasts and macrophages
- Fascicles: bundles of groups of axons + endoneurium
- Perineurium: wraps each fascicle
- Epineurium: outermost covering over the entire nerve

Distribution of Spinal Nerves

- Branches
o Posterior Ramus: serves deep muscles and skin of the posterior surface of the
trunk
o Anterior Ramus: serves muscles and structures of the upper and lower limbs and
the skin of lateral and anterior surfaces of trunk
- Plexuses
o Cervical plexus: formed by the roots of the first four cervical nerves
o Brachial plexus: formed by the roots of spinal nerves C5-C8 and T1
o Lumbar plexus: formed by the roots of spinal nerves L1-L4
o Sacral plexus: formed by the roots of spinal nerves L4-L5 and S1-S4
o Coccygeal plexus: formed by the roots of spinal nerves S4-S5 and the coccygeal
nerves

III. SPINAL CORD PHYSIOLOGY

Sensory and Motor Tracts

- Promotes homeostasis via conducting nerve impulses along tracts
- Spinothalamic tract: conveys nerve impulses for sensing pain, warmth, coolness, itching,
tickling, deep pressure, and crude touch
- Posterior column
o Gracile fasciculus
o Cuneate fasciculus

Reflexes and Reflex Arcs

- Reflex: fast, involuntary, unplanned sequence of actions that occurs in response to a
particular stimulus
o Spinal reflex: when integration takes place in the spinal cord gray matter
 o Cranial reflex: when integration occurs in brain stem
o Somatic reflex: contraction of skeletal muscles
o Visceral reflex: involve responses of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands
- Reflex Arc: pathway followed by nerve impulses that produce reflex
o Four Somatic Spinal Reflexes
 Stretch reflex: causes contraction of a skeletal muscle in response to
stretching of the muscle
 Tendon reflex: feedback mechanism to control muscle tension by causing
muscle relaxation before muscle force causes tendons to tear
 Flexor and Crossed Extensor Reflexes: in response to a painful stimulus
THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
FN 121/Prof. Cecile Klaudine Cabigas
ALGHAMDI, MORRONDOZ

I. BRAIN ORGANIZATION, PROTECTION, AND BLOOD SUPPLY

- Neural Tube: where the brain and spinal cord develop
o Constrictions in the expanded tube create 3 regions
 Primary Brain Vesicles:
 Prosencephalon: forebrain
o Telencephalon
 Develops into the cerebrum and lateral ventricles
o Diencephalon
 Forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and
third ventricle
 Mesencephalon: midbrain; gives rise to midbrain and aqueduct of the
midbrain
 Rhombencephalon: hindbrain
o Metencephalon
 Becomes the pons, cerebellum, and upper part of the 4th
ventricle
o Myelencephalon
 Forms the medulla oblongata and lower part of the 4th
ventricle

Major Parts of the Brain

- Brain stem
o Continuous w/ the spinal cord and consists of medulla oblongata, pons, and
midbrain
- Cerebellum: posterior of the brain stem
- Diencephalon: superior to the brain stem
- Cerebrum: supported on the diencephalon and brain stem; largest part of the brain

Brain Blood Flow and the Blood-Brain Barrier

- Blood flows to the brain via internal carotid and vertebral arteries
- Blood-brain barrier: consists of tight junctions that seal together the endothelial cells of
brain blood capillaries and a thick basement membrane that surrounds the capillaries

II. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)

- Clear, colorless liquid composed of water that protects brain and spinal cord from chemical
and physical injuries
- Carries small amounts of oxygen, glucose, and other needed chemicals from the blood —
> neurons and neuroglia
- Total volume of CSf is 80-150 ml in an adult
 - Contains small amounts of glucose,proteins, lactic acid, urea, cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+,
Mg2+) anions (Cl- and HCO3-) and white blood cells

Functions of CSF
- Mechanical protection: serves as a shock-absorbing medium that protects delicate
tissues of brain and spinal cord
- Homeostatic function: pH of CSF affects pulmonary ventilation and cerebral blood flow
w/c is important in homeostatic controls for brain tissue
- Circulation: medium for minor exchange of nutrients and waste products between blood
and adjacent nervous tissue

Formation of CSF in the Ventricles

- Choroid plexuses: networks of blood capillaries in the walls of the ventricles where
majority of CSF production is from
- Blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier: permits certain substances to enter CSF but excludes
others; protects brain and spinal cord from potentially harmful blood-borne substances

III. THE BRAIN STEM AND RETICULAR FORMATION

Medulla Oblongata
- Continuous with the superior part of the spinal cord
- Forms the inferior part of the brain stem
- Begins at the foramen magnum and extends to the inferior border of the pons
- Pyramids: protrusions formed by large corticospinal tracts that pass from cerebrum to
spinal cord
- Contains nuclei:
o Cardiovascular center: regulates the rate and force of the heartbeat and diameter
of blood vessels
o Medullary respiratory center: adjusts basic rhythm of breathing
- Nuclei associated with 5 pairs of cranial nerves
o Vestibulocochlear nerves: convey impulses related to hearing
o Glassopharyngeal nerves: relay sensory and motor impulses related to taste,
swallowing, and salivation via these nerves
o Vagus nerves: receive sensory impulses from and provide motor impulses to the
pharynx and larynx and many thoracic and abdominal viscera
o Accessory nerves: part of the vagus nerves; origin of nerve impulses that control
swallowing
o Hypoglossal nerves: origin of nerve impulses that control tongue movements
during speech and swallowing

Pons
- Lies directly superior to the medulla and anterior to the cerebellum
- About 2.5 cm long
- A bridge that connects parts of the brain with one another
- Nuclei associated with 4 pairs of cranial nerves:
o Trigeminal nerves: receive sensory impulses for somatic sensations from head
and face and provide motor impulses that govern chewing
o Abducens nerves: provide motor impulses that control eyeball movement
o Facial nerves: receive sensory impulses for taste and provide motor impulses to
regulate secretion of saliva and tears and contraction of muscles of facial
expression
 o Vestibulochlear nerves: receive sensory impulses from and provide motor
impulses to the vestibular apparatus

Midbrain
- Extends from pons to the diencephalon
- About 2.5 cm long
- Cerebral peduncles: anterior part of brain that contains paired bundles of axons
- Tectum: posterior part that contains 4 rounded elevations
o Superior colliculi: serve as reflex centers for certain visual activities
o Inferior colliculi: part of the auditory pathway that relay impulses from receptors
for hearing in the inner ear to the brain
- Nuclei associated with 2 pairs of cranial nerves:
o Oculomotor nerves: provide motor impulses that control movements of the eyeball
and regulate constriction of the pupil and changes in shape of the lens
o Trochlear nerves: provide motor impulses that control movements of the eyeball

IV. THE CEREBELLUM

- Occupies the inferior and posterior aspects of cranial activity
- Transverse fissure: deep groove which supports posterior part of the cerebrum
- Cerebral hemispheres: lateral wings or lobes
- Vermis: central constricted area
- Cerebellar cortex: consists of gray matter in a series of slender, parallel folds called folia

V. THE DIENCEPHALON
- Forms central core of brain tissue superior to the midbrain
- Extends from brain stem to cerebrum

Thalamus
- Measure about 3 cm long and 80% of diencephalon
- Consists of paired oval masses of gray matter organized into nuclei with tracts of white
matter

Hypothalamus
- Four Major Regions:
o Mammillary region: adjacent to midbrain, most posterior part of hypothalamus;
mammillary bodies and posterior hypothalamic nuclei
o Tuberal region: widest part of hypothalamus
o Supraoptic region: lies superior to optic chiasm
o Preoptic region: anterior to supraoptic region
- Functions:
o Control of ANS
o Production if hormones
o Regulation if emotional and behavioral patterns
o Regulation if eating and drinking
o Control of body temperature
o Regulation of circadian rhythms and states of consciousness

Epithalamus
- Small region superior and posterior to thalamus
- Consists of pineal gland and habenular nuclei
- Pineal gland: part of the endocrine system; secretes melatonin
 - Habenular nuclei: involved in olfaction

Circumventricular Organs (CVOs)

- Lie in the wall of the 3rd ventricle
- Monitor changes in the blood
- Coordinate homeostatic activities of the endocrine and nervous systems

VI. THE CEREBRUM

- “seat of intelligence”

Cerebral Cortex
- Region of gray matter that forms the outer rim of cerebrum

Lobes of the Cerebrum

- Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital lobes
- Central sulcus: separates frontal from parietal lobe
- Lateral cerebral sulcus: separates frontal from temporal
- Parietals-occipital sulcus: separates parietal from occipital

Cerebral White Matter

- Three types of tracts:
o Association tracts: contain axons that conduct nerve impulses between gyri in the
same atmosphere
o Commissural tracts: conduct nerve impulses from gyri in one cerebral hemisphere
to another
o Projection tracts: conduct nerve impulses from cerebrum to lower parts of CNS

The Limbic System

- Ring of structures on the inner border of cerebrum and floor of the diencephalon that
encircles the upper part of the brain stem and corpus callosum
- Main Components:
o Limbic lobe: rim of cerebral cortex on medial surface of each hemisphere
o Dentate gurus: lies between hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus
o Amygdala: composed of several groups of neurons located close to the tail of
caudate nucleus
o Septal nuclei: located w/in septal area formed by regions under corpus callosum
and paraterminal gyrus
o Mammillary bodies: 2 round masses close to midline near cerebral peduncles
o Olfactory bulbs: flattened bodies of olfactory pathway that rest on cribriform plate
o Fornix, stria terminalis, stria medullaris, medial forebrain bundle, and
mammillothalamic tract: linked by bundles of interconnecting myelinated axons
VII. CRANIAL NERVES
- Olfactory nerve: contains axons that conduct nerve impulses for olfaction
- Optic nerve: conduct nerve impulses for vision
- Oculomotor nerve: control movements of eyeball and upper eyelid
- Trochlear nerve: control movement of the eyeball
- Abducens nerve: cause abduction of the eyeball
- Trigeminal nerve: ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular nerve
- Facial nerve: axons relay touch, pain and thermal sensations
- Vestibulocochlear nerve: carries impulses for equilibrium and hearing
- Glossopharyngeal nerve: tasting, swallowing
- Vagus nerve: initiate smooth muscle contractions in GI tract, activate smooth muscle to
constrict respiratory passageways and decrease heart rate
- Accessory nerve: coordinate head movements
- Hypoglossal nerve: for speech and swallowing

VIII. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Begins wit thickening of ectoderm called neural plate
- Plate fold inward and forms longitudinal groove called neural groove
- Raised edges of neural plate —> neural folds
- Neural folds increase in height and meet to form neural tube
- Marginal layer cells develop into white matter of the NS
- Mantle layer develop into gray matter
- Ependymal layer cells form lining of central canal of spinal cord and ventricles of brain
- neural crest eventually forms posteriors root ganglia of spinal nerves, ganglia of cranial
nerves, spinal nerves, cranial nerves, ganglia of autonomic nervous system, adrenal
medulla and meninges
- (3rd to 4th week of embryo dev’t) anterior part of neural tribe —> primary brain vesicles
- (5th week) secondary brain vesicles develop

IX. AGING AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Brain mass declines
- (80 yrs old) brain weighs 7% less than it did in young adulthood
- Number of synaptic contacts declines
- Decreased capacity for sending nerve impulses to and from the brain
- Processing of info diminishes
- Conduction velocity decreases
- Voluntary motor movements slow down
- Reflex times increase