Table of Contents
Page
Classification of the Dromedary Camels.
M. F. Wardeh …………………………………………………………………………… 1
Camel Breeds of India.
N.D. Khanna, A.K. Rai and S.N. Tandon ………………………………………………… 8
Studies on Pituitary-Ovarian Axis in the Female Camel with Special Reference to Cystic and
Inactive Ovaries.
A.A. Hegazy, A.Ali, M. Al-Eknah and S. Ismail …………………………………………… 16
Physical and Biochemical Attributes of Camel Semen.
V.K. Agrawal, L. Ram, A. K. Rai, N. D. Khanna and S. P. Agarwal …………………… 25
Effect of Different Extenders on Motility Survival and Acrosomal Integrity of Camel
Speramatozoa Frozen in Ampouls.
X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen …………………………… 31
The Nutrient Requirements of the Dromedary Camel.
M. F. Wardeh …………………………………………………………………………… 37
Maintenance Energy Requirements and Energy Utilization by Dromedary at Rest.
A. Guerouali, R.Zine Filali, M.Vermore, and M.F. Wardeh …………………………… 46
Feed Intake and Digestibility in Camels and Wheat Straw and Meadow Hay.
D. Cianci, L. Gio, A. M.Hashi, S.Pastoreli, M. Kamoun, G. B. Liponi, and M. Orlandi … 52
Two Transferases and Four Electrolytes in Normal One-Humped Camel Serum.
A. Sarwar, M.A. Majeed, G. Hur and l.R. Khan ………………………………………… 57
Seasonal Variations in Haematological and Serum Biochemical Parameters in Racing
Camels.
R. Salman and M. Afzal …………………………………………….…………………… 62
Water Balance in the Camel (Camelus dromedarius).
R. Zine Filali and R. Shaw ……………………………………………………………… 66
Biochemical Adaptation of Camelids During Fasting.
J. Wensvoort, D.J. Kyle, E.R. 0rskov and D.A. Bourke …………………………………… 71
Effect of Dietary Zinc Supplementation on Wound Healing in Camels.
L. S. Fahmy, E. A. Berbish, H. M. Teleb and A. A. Hegazy ….…………………………… 76
Functional Anatomy of the Renal Pelvis in the One-Humped Camel.
H. Zguigal and A. Ouhsine ……………………………………………………………… 81
Microstructural Characteristics of Arabian Camel Meat.
A. Kassem, M. T. El Sayed and A. Ahmed ………………………………………….…… 86
Studies on Mastitis in Female Camels with Special Reference to Brucellosis.
A. A. Hegazy, A.El Dughaym, M.Alaknah, F. M.T. Housawi and M.E. Hatem ……… 96
Pathology in Camel Lungs.
R. Zubair, A. Ahmed, M. Z. Khan and M. A. Sabri ……………………………………… 103
Eye Affections Among Camels in Egypt. (2) Pathological Studies.
A.A. Hegazy, Lotfia. S. Fahmy, M.A. Aiad and A.A. Shamaa ……………………………… 107
Editor in Chief ……………………………………………………………………………..… 114
II
The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD)
ACSAD was established in September 1971 within the framework of the specialized organizations of
the League of the Arab States. ACSAD's main objectives include conducting regional research, studies
and integrated development programmes in arid zones and dry lands. In addition, emphasis is directed
towards training and the exchange of knowledge and experiences. ACSAD has active cooperation with
many regional and international organizations and research institutions with similar activities.
1. To assist national research systems to improve and generate (and assist in the adoption of)
appropriate technologies in order to ensure sustainable resource use and enable long-term of
camel-based production systems;
2. to assist with the identification of problem areas;
3. to promote networking where appropriate and seek financial support for its successful operations;
4. to ensure that results from research are applied where applicable; and
5. to document and disseminate research results.
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present full and complete data and analyses:
M. F. Wardeh
ABSTRACT
Camels were classified into two major classes: ride and pack camels. This classification was suitable to
satisfy the needs of caravans, transport and army purposes during the first half of the 20th century. A
new system of classification is proposed based on the fact that the camel is a major component of the
agro-pastoral systems in vast pastoral areas in Asia and Africa. Camels might be classified into four
major classes: Meat, Dairy, Dual Purpose and Race camels.
Meat breed types include Jandaweel in Mauritania, Nabul in Tunisia, Kasabat in North-West Libya,
Fellahi in Southern Egypt, Delta in the Nile Delta of Egypt, and Arabi in Sudan. Dairy breed types
include the Hoor in Somalia, Fakhriya and Sirtawi in Libya, Oulad Sidi AL-Sheikh in Algeria, and
Shallageea in Sudan. Dual purpose breed types include Magribi in North Africa, Sifdar and Edimo in
Somalia, AL Rashaidi in Sudan, AL-Shameya in Syria, and AL Majaheem and Lourak in Arabia. Race
camels include the Mehari in the Sahara from Mauritania in the west to the eastern boarders of Sudan in
the east; the Anafi and Bishari in Sudan; the Rukby in Ain Safra between Mauritania, Morocco and
Algeria; Hogar in the Middle hills of Algeria; Oulad Bou Sayf in the Western Oasis of Libya and Al
Hojon in Arabia.
The main objectives of this paper include the establishment of the basis for the classification of the breed
types of the dromedary camels according to their production potentialities within the different
agro-pastoral systems.
milk is the sole nourishment for the Pastoralists A New System for
for prolonged periods each year. The camel Classification of Camels
proved it is the fit domestic animal during severe
drought periods. The camel not only survived such The dromedary camels adapted themselves to the
droughts, but continued producing and ecosystems of dry and arid zones where they are
reproducing (Wardeh, 1989a). subject to harsh conditions in addition to the
severe fluctuations in the nutritional status, which
From about 19.4 million camels worldwide (FAO, in turn affect their performance in general.
2003), the dromedary accounts for 95%. The Near Moreover, the dromedary camels were not subject
East, North Africa and the Sahel region have to modern studies and improvement.
about 70% (12.5 million) of the world's
dromedary population. Somalia and the Sudan Selection to perform certain physiological
together own more than half of this figure. Camels functions such as milk or meat production was not
contribute more than 26% of the animal biomass practiced on camels. They were selected to
in Mauritania, 42% in Somalia and 37% in the perform certain types of work and burden, and
United Arab Emirates. In the former two were classified into two basic classes (Wilson,
countries, camels have retained their important 1984). The two classes were the Ride and the Pack
socio-economic role and constitute a large share of camels. The Ride camels were subdivided into
animal exports. In the latter, camels have become Ride and Race camels, while the Pack camels
insignificant when compared with the oil sector, were subdivided into Plain and Hill camels
but remain prominent in social terms. Camels (Lesse, 1927). Moreover, camels were named
comprise 10% of the animal biomass in the Niger, after tribal or territorial names (Wardeh, 1988a,
11% in the Sudan, 16% in the Kingdom of Saudi 1989a; Mason, 1979; Hartly, 1979).
Arabia, and 9% in Tunisia. The biomass of the
camel in the other countries is below 10% The new classification system aims at establishing
nevertheless it plays a considerable role in the the foundation for selection of camels on the basis
provision of subsistence, transport and draught of their performance as Meat, Dairy, Dual purpose
power. and Race animals. Such system of classification
will fit the requirements for the development of
The camel possesses unique qualities which make camel production and the improvement of the
standard of their herders.
it superior to other domesticated animals in the hot
and arid desert ecosystems. These attributes of the Meat Camels
camel are reinforced by its ability to traverse Are characterized by the development of the
considerable distances with much less effort than hindquarters, large hump, rigid body, relatively
other species, moving from one patch of short neck and large head, and heavy bones and
short-lived vegetation to another. muscles (Wilson, 1984; Wardeh et al. 1990).
Examples of Meat camels are:
The future role of camels will lie in their capacity
Al-Arabi: Which is referred to most pack camels
to produce milk and meat and, to a lesser extent in
in Sudan regardless of the source (Wilson, 1984).
the provision of draught power and transport. If
However, Al-Arabi is subdivided into three breed
the camel is to retain its unique position, then its types, the Light Pack which is found west of the
capacity to utilize low quality feed resources and Nile and in the area of the Red Sea, where the
convert them into animal protein, power and other Hendiweneda, Beni Amer and AL-Omara tribes
products, must not be lost. Its physiology and keep it, and the big Arabi in the area of Bitana
special features are therefore not only of a where the three tribes of Shokreya, Battahin, and
scientific interest, but are the basic sustenance for Lahaween exist. The third is the Heavy Arabi
people who live in marginal dry land areas. camel which is characterized by its heavy
weight (over 500 kg), big hump, long neck, big Hoor camels are adapted to the more arid regions
head, Roman nose, heavy bones, and sandy grey of Somalia. They mature between 3-5 years of
or fawn color, usually with long hair on the hump age, but practically breed at 5-6. They lose weight
and the shoulders (Khouri, 2000). during the dry season, but have fast compensatory
growth and are very susceptible to biting flies.
Al-Jandaweel (Gandoil): Found in Southern
Mauritania along the Senegal river, but are not The average daily milk production is 7-8 kg (2-20
typical lowland reverine camels and vary in kg). Milk production is about 2050 kg (800-2800
origin. However, they are big, well built, dark in kg) during a period of 8 to 16 months.
color and heavy animals that are mainly used for
draft (Wardeh, 1989b). The good feed of Senegal Rashaida: Found in the Kasala area of eastern
river valley might have resulted in the Sudan and raised by the well-known Rashaida
development of heavy camels. tribe. They are medium sized camels, hardy, red
colored and produce sufficient amounts of milk
Nabul: Found in Nabul area at the coastal zone
(2000-3000 kg/head/season) (Kohler-Rollefson et
North Tunisia and are heavier than the other
al. 1990; Wardeh, 1989a; Khouri, 2000).
coastal camels and have larger humps.
Al-Delta: Found in the Egyptian Delta and are Shallageea: The Shallageea camels are found at
used mainly for agricultural draft and transport. the coastal strip of the Red Sea in North-East
The Delta camel is not a distinctive breed in the Sudan. They are sturdy and mainly browse on the
real sense, but a general-purpose camel that was salty adlib (Suaeda fruticosa) and the similar, but
developed under sufficient supply of green feeds smaller (HADMAL) supplemented with the
and water and, hence attained a large size and leaves and fruits of mangrove. The Shallageea are
well-developed quarters and muscles. It can carry very skilful at walking into the sea and nipping the
heavy loads and is used to perform agricultural lemon-like fruits from the mangrove stands (Hjort
functions (Wardeh et al. 1990). and Dahl, 1991). Frequently, they wade so deeply
Al-Fellahi: This camel breed type is kept by that only the head and hump are visible above
farmers from whom it derived its name along the water.
Nile in upper (Southern) Egypt. Al-Fellahi camel
is characterized by its heavy bones and muscles, The Shallageea are very good milkers, especially
big size and its slow pace. It is generally used in during November, March and July, when the adlib
agricultural work and transport. It also responds is in fruit. At the early night milking, one camel
well to fattening. may give up to 6 kg. Three hours later it may give
another 3.5 kg. The morning milk could then
Dairy Camels amount to 6-7 kg (Hjort and Dahl, 1991). With
Are characterized by high milk production which three milkings per day each animal gives a daily
is not less than 2500 kg/head/season under natural yield of 15-18 kg. During good rains and excellent
grazing conditions (Wardeh et al. 1990), the pasture on the adlib side, an animal gives about
development of the udder and milk veins, small 18-21 kg of milk daily.
hump, less beefy body conformation and
relatively big abdomen. Examples are: Sirtawi: Found mainly in Sirt area in the middle
Hoor Camels: They are the most numerous and coastal zone in Libya (Wardeh, 1989b). They vary
widely distributed in Boucle, Herein, Galgadud, in color from light or dark brown, medium in size,
Metage, Middle Shabbily and some parts of Gedo hump is not well developed, and udder is fairly
regions of Somalia (Hussein, 1987). They are developed. Selected females in certain private
characterized by their small size, short legs, and farms and herds respond to feeding by producing
white color. high amounts of milk (3000-4000 kg/305 days).
Ould Sidi Al-Sheikh: Found in Ain Safra area The Maghrebi: Found in most coastal zones of the
among the north-eastern boarders of Mauritania, North African territories that extend from Egypt to
the south-eastern boarders of Morocco and Morocco. The Maghrebi is a camel of several
south-western boarders of Algeria. They are light strains that vary in size, body conformation and
in color, well built with good body conformation color. It is believed to be a mixture of the Sudani,
measuring 180 cm at the elbow. They have fairly Egyptian, Libyan and Tunisian camels (Wilson,
developed udder and are well bred by the tribe of 1984; Wardeh, 1989a).
the same name. They produce about 2000 kg per
annum under natural range condition and respond The Maghrebi camel is medium in size with small
well to feeding in the breeding station for camel but pointed hump. Besides pack use, the Maghrebi
husbandry in the same area. Milk production camel is used for all kinds of agricultural,
might go up to 3500 kg/305 days under good industrial and draft purposes. A number of types
feeding conditions. are locally developed serve certain functions. The
Maghrebi camel generally responds to feeding and
Fakhreya: Are well known for their milk might gain about 700-1000 grams per day during
production (3500 kg/y) under natural grazing the first year under intensive conditions.
conditions in the southern and western areas from
Benghazi in Libya (Wardeh et al. 1991b). Aririt: Found in the vast plateau west of the Red
Sea hills of Aulib in Sudan. Their main advantage
Dual-purpose Camels is their endurance as transport animals, they can
Are characterized by medium body size, average cover long distances at a steady pace without
milk production (1000-1500 kg/ head), relatively water. The Aririt are also fair milk producers.
high rate of gain when feed is available and Well kept animals give 2.5-5 kg milk at the
medium hump (Wardeh, 1988a, b). Most of the midday and evening milking, and 3.5-5 kg in the
pack and riding camels may fit into this category morning (Hjort and Dahl, 1991). The volume of
(Wardeh et al. 1990). Examples are: milk production depends heavily on the quality of
pasture.
Sifdar: Found in lower Shabbily river belt in
Somalia. They are tall, light, and grey to reddish Ayat Al-Khabbash: They are well-developed pack
in color. They reach maturity at 5-6 years, but animals and respond to fattening. They are found
breed at 6-7 years. They slowly lose weight during about the same areas as the Chambi Bani-Abbas
the dry season and are relatively resistant to biting camels, but raised by another tribe in Southern
flies (Hussein, 1987). Sifdar camels produce about Algeria.
4 kg milk daily (2-6 kg) and about 1000 kg during
6-10 months. Al-Qerawan: Found in the Qerawan district in the
middle of Tunisia. They are medium in size, well
Eyddimo: Camels are distributed in Bay, Gedo built, have developed humps and muscles and
and Juga regions of Somalia. They are respond well to fattening. This camel is well
characterized by being very tall, heavily built, big trained to perform all kinds of draft work in
humped, long necked, white colored and have agriculture and transport.
Roman nose.
Oulad Bou Sayf, Orfella and Fezzan: Are breed
types of the Mehari and its hybrids that are found
Eyddimo camels have a slow rate of gain during
in the western Libyan Oases. They are medium in
the wet season and slow rate of weight loss during
size, light in color and mainly utilized for riding,
the dry season. They mature at 7-8 years of age,
pack purpose and milk production.
produce about 1000 kg milk during 6-10 months
(4 kg /day) and are very susceptible to biting flies Tibisti: Found in southern areas of Libya and
(Hussein, 1987). northern Chad. They are small riding camels that
fit stony deserts.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:1-7
Classification of the Dromedary Camels 5
Al Majaheem: Found in Najd and AL Dawaser These camel are characterized by their fast growth
valley in North and North East Saudi Arabia. and fair milk production. The average mature
They are big, rigid and black in color. They are weight reaches 660-780 kg for males and 570-680
known to be good dairy animals under range kg for females (Wardeh, 1989a; ACSAD, 1983a).
conditions. They also respond to better feeding Average milk production ranges from 2550 to
and management practices where they produce an 5400 kg in 300 days (ACSAD, 1983b).
average of 3550 kg of consumable milk annually
Al-Khawar: Found in northern steppes of Syria
(AL-Motairy and Hashimi, 1988).
and western steppes of Iraq. The average mature
weights reache about 665 kg in males and 540 kg
Al Majaheem are also fast growing camels. The
in females (ACSAD, 1983b). Average milk
average birth weight is 42 kg. They reach 300 kg
production ranges from 1800 kg to 2000 kg in 15
at one year of age and about 750 kg when five
to 18 months.
years old (Wardeh, 1989a).
Lourak: Found in most parts in Arabia, but there
Race Camels
are two distinctive breed types within this group
Race camels are characterized by small heads and
of camels each of which that breeds alike:
ears; alert eyes; fine and supple neck that is joined
low down to the trunk, long and fine shoulders;
(1) Al-Maghateer: (AL Wadh or ALbeedh):
very deep chest with well sprung ribs right to the
Found mainly in North Saudi Arabia and may be
back and terminating not far from pelvic bone,
found in Syria, Iraq, Jordan and Kuwait. They are
straight and fairly close forelegs; straight and well
medium to large animals and have pure white
spaced hindlegs; well muscled quarters; medium
color (Wardeh, 1989a). Al-Maghateer are known
feet; fine and supple skin, and easy and tireless
to be good dairy camels and people liked them
pace. Race camels are also used in the police force
and have been proud of owing them through
in many countries (Wilson, 1984; Wardeh, 1989a)
history. They produce about 3500 kg of
examples are:
consumable milk per year. They vary much in
milk production within the group (AL Motairy
The Mehari or Mehri: The Mehari is a
and Hashimi, 1988).
thoroughbred race camel that descended from the
Murrah camels in the Sultanate of Oman. They are
Al Maghateer camels grow well under natural
beautiful, light colored and very famous race
range conditions and grow fast under improved
camels in the Sahara.
feeding and management practices. Average birth
weight is 40 kg. They reach 250 kg at one year of
The colonial French troops formed the Meharist
age and about 550 kg at maturity.
corp. They used the Mehari camels for riding
troop and divided them into three categories
(2) Al Homr: They are red colored camels found
according to height at withers. Camels that were
in many parts of Saudi Arabia and maintain their
190-200 cm high were used by officers, while
red color when bred together or with other breed
those of 185 cm high, were used by ranks and
types. AL Homr are fair milking animals. They
files. Any other camels with less but with a
produce about 2650 kg of consumable milk a year.
minimum of 180 cm were used as pack animals
Some individuals produced 3592 kg a year under
(Wilson, 1984).
improved conditions (AL Motairy and Hashimi,
1988). The average birth weight is 37 kg. They
The Regbi: A breed type of the Mehari that is
reach about 220 kg at one year of age and about
finely built, with a light colored coat and about
420 kg at maturity. They are also used as riding
200 cm high at the withers, found in the extreme
and pack animals.
south of Ain Safra south of Algeria and the
Al-Shameya: Found in the Syrian steppe, north of extreme north of east of Mauritania and north west
Jordan, north of Saudi Arabia and west of Iraq. of Mali.
The Touareg or Al Tarqi: They are breed types of Bullet, R.W. 1975. The camel and the wheel.
the Mehari that are raised by the Touareg tribes in Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press.
the Sahara. They are also called ldrar and AL 327 pp.
Azwad camels.
Epstein, H. 1971. The origin of the domestic
animals of Africa. Vol. 2, African Publ. Corp.
Al Anafi: Are characterized by long legs; slender
NY.
and light body; short back; small, long head; small
narrow, upright ears; large, sharp eyes; fine, thin FAO. 2003. Production Yearbook. Vol. 56 Rome.
skin; and white color. They are bred by
Hartley, B.J. 1979. The dromedary of the horn of
Juhayneya, AL Refaa, Kenana, Shukreya and
Africa. In: Cockrill, R.W. (ed). The Camelid
Kawahla tribes east of Atbara river in eastern
an All Purpose Animal. Vol. 1: 77-97.
Sudan. AL Anafi camels are race and ride camels
Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
which are famous for speed (7-12 km/h),
Uppsala, Sweden.
especially for the first 10 km.
Hjort, A. and G. Dahl. 1991. Responsible man.
Al Bishari: Are bred by Bisharian, AL Omara and
The Attman Beja of north-eastern Sudan.
Hendiwenda of the Beja tribe in Kassala and the
Stockholm studies in social anthropology,
Red Sea regions. They are very famous for their
SA cooperation with Nordiska African
racing ability and won many prizes in Saudi
Institute, Uppsala, Sweden. 196 pp.
Arabia (Wardeh, 1989a).
Hussein, A.M. 1987. Emir notes on camel breeds
Al Bishari are small; strong; have small head with in Somalia. Camel forum. Working paper No.
large alert eyes; small and upright ears; Roman 17. Somali Academy of Sciences and Arts,
nose; short and strong legs; fine and thin skin; and Mogadishu and the Scandinavian Institute for
white to yellow color (Khouri, 2000). African Studies, Sweden.
Khanna, N.D. 1990. camels in India from
References photo-historic to the present times. Ind. J.
Anim. Sci., 60: 1093-1101.
ACSAD. 1983a. Hamad Basin Studies. l. Natural
and human resources. Annexes 4-7. Animal Khouri, F. 2000. Camels in Sudan: Ecology,
Wealth in Hamad of Syria. The Arab Center Production Systems, Characterization and
for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry lands. Herd Dynamics. The Camel Applied Research
ACSAD/Hamad/Final Report-31, Damascus. and Development Network (CARDN). The
Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and
ACSAD. 1983b. Hamad Basin Studies. l. Natural Dry Lands (ACSAD). CARDN/ACSAD/
and human resources, Annexes 3-7, Animal Camel/ P 96/2000. 137 pp.
Wealth in Iraq. The Arab Center for the Kohler, I. 1982. Camel Domestication. Ph. D
Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands. dissertation. Vet. Med. ed. Druch die
ACSAD/Hamad/Final report-30, Damascus. tierarztliche hochschule. Hannover, Germany.
168 pp.
AL- Motairy, S. and A. Hashimi. 1988. Studies on
milk production and growth rate of camels in Kohler-Rollefson, I., B.E. Musa and M.F. Fadl.
Saudi Arabia. In: FAO Proc. the Camel: 1990. Camel breeding and management of
Development Research. Kuwait Seminar eastern Sudan. Camel Newsletter 6:5-8. The
20-23 October, 1985. MlNEADEP, FAO, Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and
Rome. pp 53-70. Dry Lands, ACSAD, Damascus.
Leese, A.S. 1927. A treatise on the one-humped Wilson, R.T. 1984. The camel. Longman. London
camel in health and disease. Haines and Sons and New York.
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ABSTRACT
The Indian camel population presently is 1.4 m mostly confined to north western dry part of the country.
Ten breeds/strains of Indian camels having specific characteristics inhabiting different breeding tracts,
are discussed. The Indian camels did not have contact with exogenous camels from other parts of the
world for very long time and therefore various breeds have evolved through selective breeding. In this
country, camels are mostly used for draught and riding purposes, though camel milk is also utilized as a
by-product. The Bikaneri breed is the most famous and most widely distributed camel breed, mainly
developed for draught and baggage. The Jaisalmeri is very fast and gracious riding camel breed. The
animals of Kachchhi breed are heavy set and good milkers. These animals are also very good draught
animals, though comparatively slow. Mewari camels are of comparatively short stature and have been
developed as hill camels. Heavy riverain camels are available in the areas heavy good rainfall and these
animals are mostly used for hauling heavy cart loads. The other breeds/strains are Mewari, Mewati,
Shekhawati and Sindhi. Evaluation of three camel breeds (Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi) with
respect to certain productive and reproductive traits is described.
defined on the basis of locality, body developed in males and is placed in the center
characteristics and size. There are groups of of the back. The chest pad is well developed and
camels with district characteristics by which these its touching ground evenly is a good
are classified into distinct types, yet, locally, these confirmation. Forelegs are long, strong bony and
are recognized as breeds. Of various camel breeds, well separated so that legs do not rub while
the Bikaneri breed is the principal breed, which walking. Ribs long arched and broad based long
has been defined by a committee appointed by the cylindrical shaped trunk. The pin bones are
Government. Distinct breeds/strains of camels prominent and quadrangular shaped. Hind legs
identified are (1) Bikaneri (2) Jaisalmeri (3) are slightly weaker than forelegs and are inward
Kachchhi, (4) Marwari, (5) Mewari (6) Sindhi (7) curved. The foot pads are medium sized and soft.
Shekhawati (8) Riverain (9) Mewati (10) Double Tail is medium to small tapering at tip with tufts
humped camels. Rathore (1986) believed that of long hair at the end. Sheath is small, well
there are only four distinct camel breeds in India tucked up and triangular. Testicles are well
viz. Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Mewari and Kachchhi. developed placed high in the groin. In the
There are other strains which are perhaps females, udder is medium developed, firmly
crossbreds of different major breeds or suspended having four teats, each having two
nondescript types. The Indian camels did not orifices. The milk vein is straight and prominent.
have any contact with camels of other countries Rathore (1986) believed that the Bikaneri camels
for long time and thus have developed into breeds/ have been developed through selective breeding
strains through selective breeding. having blood of Afghan, Tharparker and local
strains.
The following breed description provides salient
characteristics of some breeds and breed Jaisalmeri
evaluation of three major breeds: Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri camels have home tract in Jaisalmer
Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi. district of Rajasthan state having most extreme
arid climate. These animals are fine fast gracious
Bikaneri looking Indian riding camels. It is believed that
Bikaneri is a popular multi-purpose camel breed these have been developed from Tharparker
having home tract in the Bikaner district of camels having their home tract in Sindh district of
Rajasthan state. Where temperatures from 48° C Pakistan (Rathore, 1986). It is estimated that these
to 1° C. These animals are docile and easy to train animals can cover 100 to 125 km a day at high
and manage. The Bikaneri camels have heavy speed of 20-25 km per hour. The Jaisalmeri
strong built and large body frame (Table 2). The animals are also used for light load carrying.
coat color varies from light sandy to dark blackish These animals are lightly built, medium sized and
brown with short coarse hair. Reddish brown having small head which is carried on lean long
colored animals are preferred by local people. neck in a majestic posture. The mouth is small.
Bikaneri camels have symmetrical body with Ears are small, prominent round intelligent
dome shaped head. The Jhipra strain have an looking eyes, narrow muzzle. There is no distinct
abundance of heavy tufts of hair around eyes, ears, "stop" on the forehead. The legs are thin and well
neck, under jaw and have thick eye lashes. The shaped, muscular with small foot pad. The coat
head is heavy looking, medium sized with a well color varies from light sandy to dark reddish
defined "stop- a hollow above eyes" causing nose brown. Camels in Jaisalmer area are important in
to tilt upwards. The neck is medium sized with folk culture and social status. There is saying that
marked curve giving graceful carriage of head. one who has no pangal (Camel, in local dialect) to
Eyes are bright, round with alert look and are ride, it is useless for him to live in this world.
protruding. Nostrils are slit with small muzzle and
chin, tight and moist lower lip. Ears are small Kachchhi
erect with blunt taps. Shoulders are strong broad Kachchhi breed has home tract in Kachch
and well set to the chest. Hump is very well district of Guijarat state. The area is dry having
salt bushes and at some places marshy. The droops exhibiting teeth. This breed has also
Kachchhi animals have heavy body and dull spread into adjoining Madhya Pradesh and
appearance. The neck is long and thick. The Guijarat states.
forehead does not have "stop" and nose is
comparatively longer. The muzzle has slanting Sindhi Camels
shape. Ears are small and projecting outside. This breed has home tract in the Sindh area of
The front legs are comparatively muscular and Pakistan, however few animals are also found in
heavier than the hind legs. The Kachchhi some adjoining areas of Joodhpur division of
camels are good milkers with well developed Rajasthan. These camels are very good milkers.
udder and milk vein. The coat is hairy. There They are relatively short with small curved thick
are no heavy tufts of hair on eye lashes, neck and neck. Two distinct varieties viz. riding camel
face. The color varies from dark sandy to blackish called Mahri and baggage camel called laddu are
brown. Hump is well developed. The trunk is available. The Mahri camels look like
heavy and cylindrical. Testicles are well Jaisalmeri and heavier laddu variety looks like
developed and placed high up. These animals Riverain type. The heavy Sindhi camels graze
are believed to have been developed from the in the swamps and could walk in the marshy
Sindhi camel breed (Rathore, 1986). land without slipping. These animals are sure
footed. Their hair coat is long and generally dark
Marwari brown in color.
Marwari camels are found in the Jodhpur, Jalore,
Barmer area of Rajasthan state. These animals are Sheckawati/ bagri
heavy built and muscular. The Marwaris have These camels are bred in Siker and Jhunjhunu
thick set muscular long limbs and capable of districts of Rajasthan and resemble Bikaneri
performing heavy agricultural work and can carry breed. They have big frame but have lesser
heavy loads. These animals are also used for endurance than Bikaneris. These animals are
riding. There is no "stop” on the forehead. The mostly used for agricultural operations, pack
neck is thick and long. The trunk is long and animals, cart pulling and occasionally for riding.
heavy. These are differentiated from Bikaneri in
the facial formation. The strain found in Jalore is Riverain Camels
called Jalori. These are mixture of Marwari and Riverain camels have home tract in areas with
Jaisalmeri. Jalori animals are comparatively good rain fall, plenty of water supply and
smaller than Marwari but are good quick draught good pasture with abundance of vegetation.
animals and are also good transport animals. These are found in areas of Uttar, Pradesh, Punjab
states and around both banks of Indus river.
Mewar These animals are very heavy set and have big
This breed has home tract in Mewar area structure. The neck and legs are long heavy and
consisting of Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Kota and strong. The hind quarters are comparatively less
Cotagious Arawali mountainous range in the developed. The foot pads are oval and soft. Body
Rajasthan state. The Mewari camels are short coat short, thick and rough. They have Roman
statured, short and light in weight. These have nose. These animals are good baggage animals
been developed from hill camels and can but slow and sluggish. Riverain camels thrive
climb small hills. Mewaris have strong hind very well in the semi arid areas.
quarter, heavy legs, hard thick foot pads. The
hair coat is coarse and thick, which protects Mewati
animals from insect bites. The head is thickest Mewati camels are prevalent in Alwar and
with thick neck. The ears are also short and Bharatpur districts of Rajasthan. The animals are
thick. The tail is longer and thicker. Animals are strong and heavy in body built-up. The endurance
used for baggage. Unlike Bikaneri, the head has and draught capacity of the Mewati camel are
no "stop", the muzzle is loose and lower lip often good, therefore these animals are utilized for
physical, biochemical and hematological m²) followed by Jaisalmeri (729 m²) and Bikaneri
parameters have been studied. (717 m²). The Bikaneri camels exhibited better
endurance and could plough for 4.88 hrs
Draught Potential continuously, while Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi
Bikaneri camels carrying payloads varying from camels displayed fatigue symptoms comparatively
1200-1800 kg on two wheel carts generated earlier i.e. at 4.25 and 3.63 hr, respectively (Roy et
90-120 kg draught at an average speed of 5 al. 1992).
km per hr working continuously for 4 hours. The
draught produced amounted to 17.2% of body Bikaneri animals are very good draught and
weight. Studies on breed differences in transport animals having excellent endurance.
draughtability of the adult camels at 3 kg/kg pay Jaisalmeri is good light weight versatile breed
load on a two wheel cart at the speed of 5 km/hr as having potential for fast work and good speed.
per the changes in physiological responses Kachchhi animals are dual purpose animals
indicated Bikaneri (Rai and Khanna, 1991). having good milk potential.
Speed and Strides Khanna, N.D. 1990. Camels in India from the
The speed of Bikaneri (5.87 km/h) was more than protohistoric to the present times. Ind. J. Anim.
Jaisalmeri (5.52 km/h) during walk while during Sci., 60: 1093-1101.
trot and gallop the speed of Jaisalmeri was higher
(13.37 and 26.57 km/h) than Kachchhi (12.34 and Khanna, N.D. 1991. Overview of work
24.06 km/h) and Bikaneri (11.82 and 24.05 km/h). performance of camel as draught and riding
In general the observations on duration of animal. In. Wardeh M.F., R. T. Wilson and
strides/strides per second and speed during trot A.A. Zaied (eds). Proc. Int. Conf. Camel Prod.
and gallop indicated Jaisalmeri camels to be more and Improvement. Dec.10-13, 1990 Tobruk,
efficient followed by Kachchhi for speed. Libya. ACSAD/CARDN/P1/1991. Damascus.
However, during walk, Bikaneri was found to be pp 191-201.
superior (Rai et al. 1992).
Khanna, N.D., S.N. Tandon and A.K. Rai. 1990.
Ploughing Capacity Breeding parameters of Indian camels. Ind.
The results of preliminary experiment on J. Anim. Sci., 60: 1347-1354.
ploughing capacity of different breeds of camel Leese, A.S. 1927. A treatise on the one-humped
showed that the average draught produced per 100 camel in health and disease. Haynes and Sons,
km body weight during ploughing was 11.29, Stanford. 382 pp.
13.93 and 16.80, respectively in Bikaneri,
Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi breeds. The area Nanda, P.N. 1957. Camels and their management.
ploughed per hour was highest in Kachchhi (774 Review Series No. 6, 17 pp.
Rai, A.K., A.K. Roy and N.D. Khanna. 1992. A Libya. ACSAD/ CARDN /P1 /1991. pp
note on speed and strides of different breeds of 207-220.
camel. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 62 (1). Rathore, G.S. 1986. Camels and their
management. Indian Council of Agricultural
Rai, A.K. and N.D. Khanna. 1991. Effect of load Research, New Delhi. 228 pp.
pulling on physiological responses of camel.
In: Wardeh, M.F., R.T. Wilson and A.A. Zaied Roy, A.K., A.K. Rai and N.D. Khanna. 1992.
(eds). Proc. Int. Conf. Camel Prod. and Draught capacity and fatigue symptoms under
Improvement. Dec. 10 -13,1990, Tobruk, ploughing stress in camel. Ind. J. Anim. Sci.,
62 (4).
Table 2. Body weight at different age groups of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi x Bikaneri
crosses (1985-90).
Weight/Breed Bikaneri Jaisalmeri Kachchhi Cross breeds) (Arabri x Bikaneri
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
Birth Weight 42.15 38.82 36.86 34.69 33.95 31.47 39.80 36.60
±0.77 ±0.64 ±1.18 ±1.88 ±0.96 ±1.33 ±1.07 ±1.88
Weight at 6 170.13 176.67 183.00 170.00 181.20 169.14 178.50 175.00
Months ±4.26 ±5.54 ±7.02 ±5.40 ±5.22 ±8.31 ±6.51 ±5.01
Weight at 1 229.18 223.00 226.00 201.20 202.00 201.83 250.00 121.00
Year ±4.03 ±7.41 ±23.80 ±13.50 ±4.71 ±7.25 ±15.04 4.01
Weight at 2 273.25 263.33 264.00 225.75 293.60 279.16 309.00 293.33
Years ±5.82 ±14.55 ±30.12 ±17.68 ±26.77 ±5.22 ±19.06 ±17.66
Weight 3 391.50 340.00 NA 341.43 378.25 NA 379.00 340.00
Years ±12.38 ±11.15 NA ±9.12 ±8.64 NA ±8.94 ±4.16
Adult Weight 617.33 577.983 574.80 537.00 576.75 563.74 NA 545.00
4 years and above ±17.02 ±0.79 ±12.73 ±11.61 ±44.73 ±14.73 NA ±54.80
NA = not available.
Table 3. Body measurements of adult camels of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi x Bikaneri
crosses.
Bikaneri Jaisalmeri Kachchhi Cross breeds (Arabri x
Bikaneri)
Breed Measurements Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
Leg Length (cm)
Fore 151.44 140.60 150.60 140.28 150.33 138.20 148.00 136.00
±1.78 ±4.12 ±3.12 ±2.68 ±2.48 ±1.38 ±4.00 ±1.00
Hind 160.55 149.60 162.00 150.28 161.50 145.80 155.00 149.50
±2.08 ±3.29 ±1.99 ±2.62 ±1.61 ±1.52 ±5.01 ±0.50
Body length (cm) 165.70 158.20 156.40 157.28 156.33 158.00 157.00 137.50
±2.06 ±4.32 ±1.62 ±1.38 ±6.76 ±4.93 - ±2.50
Heart girth (cm) 223.11 215.00 210.00 211.28 206.33 214.30 219.50 192.50
±2.55 ±4.22 ±3.06 ±2.34 ±5.78 ±2.99 ±4.51 ±2.50
Height at withers (cm) 209.22 195.60 206.40 191.85 195.83 189.80 202.00 186.00
±2.55 ±5.45 ±2.37 ±2.12 ±4.09 ±3.29 - ±9.02
Neck length 129.77 120.00 119.60 115.28 111.66 115.40 125.00 104.00
±3.27 ±3.56 ±2.93 ±2.20 ±5.27 ±1.61 ±5.01 ±2.00
Circumference of foot pad (cm)
Fore 73.89 67.40 75.60 66.42 75.66 68.20 66.00 66.00
±1.77 ±1.20 ±1.02 ±1.11 ±1.83 ±0.81 ±7.02 ±1.00
Hind 62.44 59.20 64.60 56.85 66.50 59.90 58.00 57.00
±0.89 ±1.15 ±0.89 ±0.88 ±1.28 ±0.99 ±6.01 ±2.01
Circumference of neck (cm)
At base 113.44 92.60 98.00 92.85 97.33 94.30 119.50 83.50
±5.48 ±2.35 ±2.99 ±1.85 ±6.88 ±2.14 ±3.51 ±1.50
At head 74.00 57.80 64.00 56.71 66.61 54.90 77.50 51.00
±1.64 ±1.35 ±1.81 ±0.97 ±3.49 ±0.99 ±2.50 ±1.00
Face length (cm) 56.25 54.67 58.25 54.33 61.00 57.00 55.50 50.00
±2.86 ±1.20 ±1.87 ±1.20 ±1.08 ±0.58 ±3.61 ±0.67
Table 4. Average weight gain (g/day) of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi x Bikaneri crosses.
Age group Bikaneri Kachchhi Jaisalmeri Arabi X Bikaneri
0-3 months 789.21±7.33 748±5.48 702±7.37 708±6.15
(91) (38) (31) (20)
3-6 months 703.1±6.62 636±16.66 411±4.40 692±19.22
(72) (21) (05) (09)
6-12 months 337.80±5.82 281±11.14 298±13.66 393±6.87
(90) (22) (07) (09)
1-2 years 227.60±8.71 194±26.95 238±1.00 177±13.42
(75) (07) (02) (08)
Figures in parenthesis indicate number of observations.
Table 5. Reproductive and productive parameters of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi X
Bikaneri.
Traits Bikaneri Jaisalmeri Kachchhi Arabi X Bikaneri
Gestation length (days 381.85 ±1.17 (4) 384.72 ±3.88 (111) 381.67 ± 5.69 (18) 379.75 ± 6.93 (27)
Age at first service (days) 1424.97±41.41 (66) 1412.00±16.50 (2) 1094.50 ±3.42 (6) 1198.87+76.08 (2)
Age at first calving (days) 1855.51±40.18 (75) NA NA 643.75±179.29
Calving interval (days) 741.89±9.83 (91) 676.00 ±19.36 (5) 738.40 ±10.69 (10) NA
Milk Yield
Lit/d 3.8-11.0 3.0-8.0 5.2-14.6 3.5-10.0
Lit/d (at peak) 14.0 NA 18 NA
Figures in parentheses indicate number of observations.
NA = Not available.
ABSTRACT
The present investigation was performed on 190 female camel slaughtered at Al-Ahsa modern
slaughterhouse throughout one year. Blood samples, pituitary glands and ovaries were collected. FSH,
LH, E2 and progesterone hormones were determined in cases of cystic and inactive ovaries as well as
follicular ovarian wave. The ovarian examination revealed the increase incidence of inactive ovaries
during summer and cystic ovaries during spring and autumn.
Histological and histochemical pictures of pituitary gland during inactive, cystic and ovarian follicular
wave were described and discussed.
(Key Words: Dromedary Camel, Pituitary Gland, Cystic Ovary, Reproductive Hormones).
active, inactive and cystic ovaries and to ovaries, 16 active ovaries and 15 cystic ovaries
determine FSH, LH, E2 and progesterone (11 follicular and 4 luteal).
concentrations in relation to cellular activity of Hormonal evaluation was performed using
pars distalis and ovarian changes. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
method using kits of Abbot laboratories (USA).
Materials and Methods Results
Ovaries
This investigation was performed on 190 female The incidence of ovarian activity, inactivity and
camel slaughtered in Al-Ahsa modern cystic ovaries in the 190 female camels during
slaughterhouse throughout one year (January – the different seasons of the year (January –
December 2001). December 2001) is presented in Table 1 and in
Figures 1-3.
Blood Samples
10 ml blood was collected from each animal The total incidence of the ovarian changes
before slaughtering in silicon-coated tubes. Sera among examined cases per year (January –
were separated and marked according to ovarian December 2001) is presented in Table 2.
picture and stored at –40 oC for further
hormonal analysis. The study on the ovarian changes revealed that
the incidence of inactive ovaries occupied the
Ovaries highest percentage of ovarian abnormalities and
Ovaries of each animal were grossly examined reached its peak in summer season. While
and ovarian structure was recorded. follicular cysts occupied the second place and
reached its peak in summer followed by spring
Pituitary Glands and autumn.
A total of 100 pituitary glands were collected
randomly representing the different ovarian Hormonal Analysis
cases. The glands were immediately dissected The mean values of FSH, LH, E2 and
from the animals just after slaughtering and progesterone in relation to ovarian changes are
fixed directly in a 10% neutral formaline. Tissue illustrated in Table 3.
samples were collected and processed by
paraffin embedding method. Serial sections at 4 The hormonal analysis in case of cystic ovaries
µ in thickness were performed and stained by (follicular cysts) revealed decrease of FSH and
H&E (Harris, 1898), Orange-Fuchsine Green LH concomitant with increase of E2 and
(Slidder, 1961; Halmi, 1952), PFA, AB, PAS, progesterone levels in comparison with that of
Orange G (Adams, 1956). active follicular wave.
The Cell Count of Anterior Pituitary
The count of different cells of the anterior In case of inactive ovaries, there was a marked
pituitary gland was performed using the increase in E2, progesterone and decrease in
technique adopted by Kandil (1975). Three FSH in comparison to the hormonal level in
fields in the anterior pituitary were chosen. The cases of active ovary (follicular wave), while the
first field was adjacent to the cleft, the second level of LH was comparable to that in case of
field in the core while the third one was in the active ovary.
posterior part.
In case of luteal cyst, there was an increase in
Hormonal Analysis the levels of LH progesterone and E2 levels than
Evaluation of LH, FSH, E2 , and progesterone in case of active ovaries with a decrease in FSH
were performed on 51 serum samples (20 active level.
ovaries. In luteal cysts the number of The cystic ovaries were observed throughout the
gonadotrophs and thyrotrophic and lactotrophic whole year with variable percentage varied
cells increased in comparison with that of active between 10.76% in summer and 5% in autumn.
ovaries. In case of follicular cyst the number of Similar results were obtained in Saudi Arabia
gonadotrophs and thyrotrophs were comparable (Hegazy et al. 2001). It seems that the incidence
to that of active ovaries with minimum increase of cystic ovaries increase in summer and
in number of lactotrophic cells. autumn. It is believed that the problem of cystic
ovaries is the deficiency of LH surge, which
Discussion confirmed by the present results of hormonal
analysis, which indicated the low level of LH in
The available literature indicates the absence of cases of cystic ovaries in comparison with that
any previous study on pituitary ovarian axis in of normal cyclic ovaries.
female camels. However the pituitary gland of
male camel and the effect of seasonal variation No base line data could be traced for FSH and
on pituitary -testicular axis were studied by few LH levels, while few studies were performed to
authors (Fahmy and Nasr, 1963; Ismail et al determine E2 and progesterone in pregnant and
1985). non-pregnant she-camel.
The present study revealed that the ovarian The hormonal analysis of E2 , progesterone, LH
activity was observed throughout the different and FSH in case of follicular ovarian wave
seasons with a maximum activity during winter, indicate a large individual variation. Such
which corresponds to the breeding season. variation has been observed in E2 to be between
Shalash (1965), Ismail (1987) and Akral et al 9 and 110 pg/ml during the different follicular
(1995) reported similar results in Egypt and ovarian waves (Elias, 1984a; Xu et al. 1985). In
Pakistan, respectively. In Saudi Arabia, Arthur case of pregnancy, oestrogen concentration
and Al-Rahim (1982) and Arthur et al (1985) increased progressively from basal level of 20
reported that breeding of she camel occurs pg/ml at early stages of gestation to about 450
throughout the year provided a good nutritional pg/ml at advanced gestation (Agarwal et al.
condition. 1987). Our results revealed that the level of E2 -
varied from 1.24 to 67.23 pg/ml with a mean
The incidence of inactive ovaries in the present value of 14.7 pg/ml.
study reached its peak in the summer, which
may be responsible for the failure of conception In the present study, the progesterone level in
during May, August and October as reported by non-pregnant female camel was between 0.0 and
Arthur et al (1985); Abdel Rahim and El Nazier 4.7 ng/ml (Table 3), with a mean value of 1.11
(1992). This may be attributed to the higher ng/ml. Similar results were reported by Elias et
temperature associated with adverse nutritional al (1984); Xu et al (1985); Agarwal et al (1992),
status of the animals during the summer season where the level of progesterone in non-pregnant
(Tibary and Anouassi, 1997). female camel varied between 0.28 and 1.73
ng/ml. During pregnancy, the progesterone level
In the present study, it was clear that in case of fluctuated between 2 and 5 ng/ml (Hassan et al.
inactive ovaries, the activity of pituitary gland 1996).
was lesser in comparison with that of active
ovaries. Moreover, the FSH level in the plasma Also progesterone levels ranged between 1.01
was lower than that of active ovaries which may and 6.34 ng/ml on day one post parturition
give an explanation for the increase of the (Zhao and Chen, 1995) then gradually decreased
ovarian inactivity in summer. to reach undetectable level after 12 days.
However a sharp decline in progesterone level increase of progesterone and E2. The low
during postpartum to reach the non-pregnant activity of the gonadotrophic cells may be due to
values within 2 weeks has been reported by the deficiency of gonadotrophic releasing
Agarwal et al (1992) and Hassan et al (1996). hormone from the hypothalamus (Bonnar, 1973)
No available data could be detected for FSH and and/or increase of the ovarian steroid hormones
LH levels. It was noticed that these hormones which leads to decrease the secretion of FSH by
could cross-react with those of human being feedback mechanism. Somatotrophic cells
using ELISA technique, however, the results showed no abnormalities.
needs further investigation.
In case of cystic ovaries, the gonadotrophic cells
The hormonal level in case of cystic ovaries were similar in number to that of active ovaries,
revealed the decrease in LH level in comparison while the cells appeared overfilled with
with that of normal cyclic animal. This may give basophilic granules. The hormonal analysis
an explanation for the cystic follicle formation. revealed high E2 and progesterone levels, which
The increase of E2 and progesterone levels is inhibit the secretion of FSH by feedback
considered a sequel of cyst, which may secrete mechanism and in turn the accumulation of the
progesterone or E2 depending on the degree of granules in the gonadotrophic cells. The
granulose cells luteinization (Jubb and Kennedy, acidophilic cells either the lactotrophic or
1993). somatotrophic cells appeared comparable in
number to active ovaries while increase
In case of inactive ovaries, there was a decrease accumulation of the acidic granules in LTH
in FSH level, which may explain the failure of cells.
ovary to develop follicles. The decrease of FSH
In case of the luteal cyst, the pituitary gland
may be due to the increase of ovarian steroid
showed that the gonadotrophic cells as well as
hormones (E2 and progesterone) as a
the lactotrophic cells were filled with basophilic
consequence of the feedback mechanism. The
and acidophilic granules, respectively.
increase of progesterone and E2 levels in case of
inactive ovaries can’t be explained. However, it
may denote exogenous source of secretion of Conclusions
these hormones other than ovaries, which needs It could be concluded that:
further investigation.
1. The maximum ovarian activity occurs in
In case of luteal cyst, there was increase in the winter.
levels of LH, progesterone and E2 than in case 2. The maximum ovaries inactivity occurs in
of active ovaries. This was concomitant with summer.
decrease in FSH level. The increase of E2 may
be due to growing follicles. 3. Cystic ovaries observed all over the year
with tendency to be increased in summer
Previous investigations on the histological and and autumn.
histochemical investigation of the pituitary
gland of female camel could not be traced in the 4. There is a great demand to establish a base
available literature. The present study indicates line data for the hormonal level during the
the decrease in number of gonadotrophic cells in different phases.
addition to evidence of exhausted secretion
characterized by degeneration and vacuolization 5. The pituitary glands showed inactivity in
of gonadotrophic cells in case if inactive association with inactive ovary and it may
ovaries. This picture was associated with be the cause of this condition during
decrease the FSH level in the blood as well as summer season.
Adams, C. W. M. 1956. The PFAAB, PAS, Elias, E., E. Bedrak and R.Yagil. 1984a.
Orange G method for the human Peripheral blood level of progesterone in
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Hassan, M. S., I. M. Ghoniem, D. Kariman, and camels. Anim. Reprod. Sci., 33: 289-306.
A. Hassanin. 1996. Hormonal changes
during pregnancy and postpartum period in Musa, B. E., and M. E. Abu-Sineina. 1976.
camels 8th Ann. Conf. Egypt. Soc. Anim. Some observation on the reproduction in the
Reprod. Fert. January,1996, Cairo, Egypt. female camel (Camelus dromedarius). Acta
Vet. Yugosl., 26: 63-69.
Hegazy, A., M. Al-Eknah, M. H. R. Kotb, N.
Hemeida, and B. Serur. 2001.Pathological Slidder, W. 1961. Orange-Fuchsin-Green
and microbiological studies on the method for staining the adenohypophysis. J.
reproductive tract of the female camel. J. Path. Bact., 82: 532-534.
Egypt.Vet. Med Assoc., (61) 4: 9-25.
Tibary, A., and A. Anouassi. 1997.
Ismail, S. T., N. A. Hemeida, M. H. Kandil, A.
Theriogenology of camelidae. Abu-Dhabi
B. El-wishy, and Y. M. Shahein. 1985.
Printing and Publishing Company, UAE.
Histology and histochemistry of the pars
distalis of the pituitary of the one-humped
Xu, Y. S., H. Y. Wang. G. Q. Zeng, G. T. Jaing,
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and Y.H. Gao. 1985. Hormone
Egypt.Vet. Med. Ass., 45,1: 127-137.
concentration before and after semen
Ismail, S. T. 1987. A review of reproduction in induced ovulation in the bactrian camel
the female camel (Camelus dromedarius). (Camelus dromedarius). J. Reprod .Fert. ,74:
Theriogenology, 28: 363-371. 341-346.
Jubb, K. V. F. and P. C. Kennedy. 1993.
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in the female camel. Vet. Int. Cong. In
female genital system. 3rd edition Academic
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Kandil, M. H. 1975. Histologicaland Zhao, X. X. and B. X. Chen. 1995. Peripheral
histochemical studies of the adenohy- endocrine changes in camel (Camelus
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reference to the changes in the estrus cycle. :123-124.
Ph.D. Thesis Faculty of Vet. Med. Cairo
Univ. Egypt.
Table 1. The incidence of ovarian changes in different seasons.
Ovarian Picture Autumn Summer Spring Winter
No P/S No P/S No P/S No P/S
Follicular wave 28 56% 10 28.57% 46 70.76% 34 85.0%
Cystic ovary:
A-Follicular 5 10% 5 14.25% 7 10.76% 3 7.5%
B-Luteal 3 6% 1 2.85% 5 7.69% 1 2.50%
Inactive ovaries 14 28% 19 54.28% 7 10.76% 2 5.0%
Total 50 100% 35 100% 65 100% 40 100%
P/S = Percentage per season.
Table 2. The incidence of ovarian changes among examined cases per year (January – December
2001).
Ovarian Picture Autumn Summer Spring Winter Total %
Ovarian follicular activity 28 10 46 34 118 62.33
Cystic ovary:
A. Follicular 5 5 7 3 20 10.46
B. Luteal 3 1 5 1 10 5.23
Inactive ovary 14 19 7 2 42 21.98
Table 3. Mean values of the FSH, LH, E2 and progesterone in different ovarian changes.
Hormone Active ovaries Inactive ovaries Follicular cystic ovaries Luteal cyst
FSH 0.2135 0.1515 0.039 0.1175
0.0 – 1.2 0.0 - 0.01 0.0 – 0.15 0.01 – 0.22
LH 0.0643 0.065 0.0127 0.0975
0.0– 0.32 0.0 – 0.55 0.0 – 0.08 0.3 – 0.19
Progesterone 1.1165 4.483 3.27 1.657
0.0 – 4.7 1.0 – 21.4 0.33 – 10.3 0.57 – 3.4
E2 14.72 69.79 34.48 31.1
1.24– 67.23 24.7– 117.0 13.4 – 64.2 10.4 – 41.9
Table 4. The percentage of different cells in the pituitary in different ovarian status.
Ovarian Status Acidophils Basophils Chromo phobs
STH LTH Total GT TH Total
Active 30.1 33.2 63.3 24.3 10.28 34.58 2.19
ovaries
Inactive 36.2 34.1 70.3 18.7 8.26 26.96 2.74
ovaries
Cystic ovaries 28.4 34.3 62.7 24.35 10.4 34.45 2.93
Luteal cyst 23.39 32.3 55.39 30.0 12.61 42.11 2.5
STH : Somatotrophic cells
LTH: Lactotrophic cells
GT: Gonadotrophic cells
TH: Thyrotrophic cells
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
ABSTRACT
Six adult male camels (Camelus dromedarius) were used during breeding season (Nov. to Feb.) for
quantitative assessment of physical and biochemical attributes of semen. Six observations on each camel
bull were recorded at weekly intervals.
Data revealed considerable animal to animal and week to week variations with regard to seminal
attributes. The percentage of creamy white, milkly white and white colour of seminal ejaculate was
found to be 44, 36 and 20%, respectively, whereas the values for thick viscid, thick and watery
consistency of semen were 50, 39 and 11%, respectively. The average volume/ ejaculate, pH and sperm
concentration was found to be 6.7 ± 0.03 ml, 7.3 ± 0.03 and 566.4 ± 19.4 millions/ml, respectively. The
sperm concentration gradually increased on successive weekly collections. Paradoxically, no motility
was observed.
In seminal plasma, the mean concentration of fructose, glucose, cholesterol, total proteins and citric acid
were found to be 479.5 ± 19.1, 4.41 ± 0.28, 19.46 ± 0.72, 920 ± 114 and 36.26 ± 1.16 mg/dl,
respectively. The mean concentration of sodium and potassium was 158.6 ± 1.6 and 16.68 ± 0.72 meg/L,
respectively. All these constituents except protein and potassium varied significantly among the bulls.
The levels of fructose, cholesterol and citric acid showed a rising trend from 1st to 6th week.
The results provided normal values for camel semen characteristics as a step forward to attempt semen
dilution and preservation for artificial insemination to improve reproduction and production in camel.
However, absence of sperm motility remains an enigma to be investigated.
Research Center on Camel, Bikaner. The colour with thick viscid consistency. However,
animals were apparently healthy and were the frequency distribution of different colours
maintained under standard conditions of feeding and consistencies was not reported.
and management. They were also watered twice
daily and allowed to go for browsing from 9.00 Volume
a.m. to 4.00 p.m. The study was conducted There existed considerable variations in the
during rutting season extending from Nov. to ejaculate volume between camels and between
Feb. Semen was collected in artificial vagina ejaculates (Fig. 1). The average volume in this
used for cattle over a she-camel secured in study was found to be 6.74 ± 0.03 ml with a
sitting position. From each animal, six range of 5.5 to 9.2 ml per ejaculate. Khan and
collections were made at weekly interval for six Kohli (1972) reported a still wider range varying
weeks. Immediately after collection, the semen from 1 to 10 ml with an average of 3.1 ml per
was evaluated for various physical characters ejaculate. Chen and Yuen (1979) found the
like colour, consistency, volume, pH, sperm average seminal volume of 7.7 ml per ejaculate
concentration, percentage of live spermatozoa in Bactrian camel. It was observed that the
and motility using standard techniques as volume and the percentage of live spermatozoa
described by Salisbury et al (1978). The progressively improved on successive collection
biochemical constituents were determined in at weekly intervals (Fig. 1). Probably, the sexual
seminal plasma which was obtained by stimulation may be the cause behind this
centrifugation of semen in the cold. Among improvement.
biochemical constituents, fructose was estimated
PH
by the method of Mann (1948); glucose by
The seminal pH was fairly constant between
using spinchem’s Beckaman computerized
various seminal ejaculates within a narrow range
analyzer, cholesterol and total proteins by using
of 7.2 to 7.4 (Fig. 1). Close to these findings, an
clinical kits supplied by J. Mitra and Brothers
average pH of 7.0 has been reported by Khan
Private Limited, New Delhi; and Citric acid by
and Kohli (1972). Similarly, Chen and Yuen
following the procedure of Taussky (1949). The
(1979) found an average pH of 7.0 with a range
electrolytes determined included sodium
of 6.8 to 7.4. The buffering capacity of seminal
(Wooten, 1964) and potassium (Merck and
plasma of camel semen seems to be fairly good
Darm-stadt, 1964). Data were statistically
to resist wide variations in different ejaculates at
analyzed by analysis of variance using Micro-32
different occasions.
computer in the Department. Of Mathematics
and Statistics, Haryana Agricultural University,
Mass Motility
Hisar, India.
All the semen samples were examined for mass
motility, but no motility was observed in any of
Results and Discussion the samples (Fig.1). Keeping in view the role of
temperature and sugar, the slide was warmed at
Colour and Consistency 37 ºC on a thermostatic movable stage
The colour and consistency of semen varied microscope and a small pinch of pure glucose or
from camel to camel and ejaculate to ejaculate fructose was added to semen but no success was
of the same animal. Coagulum was not always achieved.
present in the semen. In general, 44% of the
semen samples were creamy white, 36% milky In this study, neither mass motility nor
white and 20% white in colour. Similarly, 50% progressive motility of spermatozoa was
of the total samples had thick viscid consistency, observed. In general, poor initial motility of
39% thick and 11% thin watery consistency spermatozoa in camel semen has been reported.
(Table 1). Other workers (Khan and Kohli, Khan and Kohli (1973) in their subjective
1973; Chen and Yuen, 1979) have reported grading of camel semen found the mass motility
camel semen to be white or milky white in vary from 0 to . Supporting our observations,
these workers also reported that initial motility camel semen have been reported by El-Manna et
up to third ejaculation was zero or just al (1986). The fructose originates in the male
oscillating movements were present but gradual accessory glands particularly the seminal
improvement was recorded after third vesicles which are absent in camel. This may be
ejaculation. The factors inhibiting or arresting
one of the contributing factors to the low value
motility in camel semen need to be identified so
of fructose as compared to cattle and buffaloes.
that proper evaluation of the semen may be
carried out.
Glucose
In addition to fructose, glucose in seminal
Sperm Concentration
plasma was also found in concentrations
The overall sperm concentration was found to
be 566.38 ± 19.46 with a range of 521.16 ± between 3.1 and 6.5 mg/dl with significant
129.42 to 585.83 ± 172.05 millions/ ml semen. differences between bulls (Fig. 2). Although,
The concentrations were not significantly most of the domestic animals contain fructose as
different among camels except for one animal the principal sugar, there are species in which
(No. 59) in which it was significantly higher glucose is also present in the semen e.g. rabbit
(Fig.1). The sperm concentration in semen semen contains an appreciable amount of
samples collected at weekly intervals varied glucose in addition to fructose (Mann and
from 420.0 ± 59.5 to 654 ± 132.7 millions/ml Parsons, 1950). Stallion semen which is poor in
with a progressive tendency (Fig.1) . Khan and fructose also contains a small quantity of
Kohli (1972) reported a lower concentration of glucose (Mann, 1964a). It seems that in camel,
189 millions/ml in the semen of Bikaneri camel. like other species, glucose is the principal sugar
On the other hand, Chen and Yuen (1979) found which is concerted into fructose either by
the sperm concentration in the Bactrian camel as phosphorylated pathway or by monophospho
high as 615 millions/ml with a range of 220 to sphorylated pathway such as sorbitol
1250 millions/ml. The sperm concentration in dehydrogenase and addose reductase. It is likely
the semen is affected by multitude of factors that a small fraction of glucose passed out into
such as virility of the bull, frequency of services, the grandular secretion and thus appears in the
season of the year and the intensity of sexual semen. The nutritive role of glucose for the
excitement. Some of these factors might have energy of spermatozoa is not known but might
been responsible for the disparity in the findings be serving as an alternative source of energy for
of this investigation and those of other workers. spermatozoa particularly under critical
circumstances.
Fructose
The fructose concentration in seminal plasma of Cholesterol
camel was found to vary from 360 to 621 mg/dl The cholesterol levels varied significantly
(Fig.2). The concentration varied significantly between camels with lowest and highest mean
(P<0.01) among different camels. The presence values of 15.3 mg/dl and 25.9 mg/dl
of fructose in the semen of a large number of respectively with an overall average for 19.5
species have been reported by Mann (1974), but mg.dl (Fig. 2). There was also week to week
it lacks the mention of camel and also there is a variation as the concentration increased in
wide variation between various species ranging ascending order from the lowest value of 16.9
from highest value of 1000 mg/dl in the bull and mg/dl in the first week to 21.0 mg/dl in the sixth
buck to a value less than 50 mg/dl in the boar. week of collection (Fig. 2). Cholesterol is an
Stallion semen has been reported to be important constituent in forming reasonably
extremely poor in fructose concentration and permeable and comprehensive membrane
this constituent found are lower than those in structure which withstands environmental stress
cattle and buffaloes. Higher fructose level in (Tria and Scanu, 1969). The cholesterol value
reported in this study are lower than those liquefaction of semen and also with calcium
reported in cattle and buffalos (Iqbal et al. binding capacity of seminal plasma (Huggins,
1984). The lower concentration of cholesterol 1945). Lundquist (1947) suggested that citrate
may be one of the reasons that camel may act as an activator of the prostatic acid
spermatozoa are very susceptible to phosphatase. Another significance of citric acid
environmental changes. It may also be the has been shown to be in the maintenance of
reason for poor preservability of camel semen. osmotic equilibrium in semen with sodium and
potassium ions.
Total Proteins
The total protein levels in seminal plasma of Sodium and Potassium
camel were found to vary from 0.51 to 1.35 The sodium contents in camels semen were
gm/dl in different camel bulls with an overall found to vary within a range of 153 to 168 mg/L
average of 0.92 ± 0.11 gm/dl (Fig. 2). However, with significant differences between camels bull
animal to animal variation was not statistically (Fig. 2), However, value were not different
significant. Protein and non-protein nitrogenous significantly between ejaculates collected during
compounds are the normal constituents of different weeks, These values are comparable
seminal plasma. A vast variation in the with those found in man but lower than boar and
concentration of biuret reacting material has higher than bull, ram and equine semen (Mann,
been reported in different species of animals. It 1967, 1964b, 1971). The potassium content inc
is least in fowl measuring about 0.8 to 0.9 gm/dl amel semen was around 15 to 20 meg/l amongst
with increasing value in dog, ram, man and bull different camel bulls and on different occasions
(Wales et al. 1961). The main function of of semen collection. The values are in close
proteins appears to be that of maintaining proximity with those of station, ram and man
osmolarity of the seminal plasma and to but lower than those of bull and boar (Mann,
maintain pH by their buffering action. 1963, 1964b, 1971). It may be observed that
concentration of sodium and potassium is
Citric Acid similar to those found in blood plasma and
The citric acid concentration in seminal plasma seems to serve the same function of a
of different camels varied between 23.4 mg/dl maintaining electrolyte equilibrium between
and 41.0 mg/dl. The over mean was 36.20 ± 16 sperm cells and surrounding media. In addition,
mg/dl (Fig. 2). The levels were somewhat low in they also develop proper osmolarity of the
the first week of collection followed by an seminal plasma to provide the proper
increasing trend till sixth week (Fig. 2). The environment for the integrity and survival of
statistical analysis showed significant sperm cells.
differences between animals as well as between
weeks (P<0.01). The citric acid concentration in References
camel is evidently much lower than those in
bulls (510-1100 mg/dl), boars and rams (130- Chen, B.X. and Z.X. Yuen. 1979. Reproductive
200 mg/dl) and stallallions (110-260 mg%) pattern of the bactrian Camel. In IFS Int.
indicating vast species differences. However; Symp. Camels, Sudan. 251 pp.
these value are closer to those of Polworth ram
in which the concentration in the range of 47 to El-Manna, M.M., M.D. Tingari, and A.K.
59 mg/dl has been reported (Gonalez and Neues, Ahmed. 1986. Studies on camel semen. II.
1984). The exact physiological role of citric acid Biochemical characteristics. Anim. Reprod.
in the semen is not known as it does not Sci., 12:223-231.
influence markedly the aerobic and anaerobic
metabolism of spermatozoa (Humphery and Gonalez, C.I.M. and J.P. Neues. 1984.
Mann, 1949). It has been suggested that citric Biological evaluation and determination of
acid is connected with coagulation and concentrations of fructose and citric acid in
ram seminal plasma after different times of Mann, T. and U. Parsons. 1950. Studies on the
incubation at 37 ºC. Revista Brasileria de metabolism of semen, Role of hormones,
Reproducao Animal, 8: 166-171. Effect of castration, Hypophysectomy and
diabetes. Relation between blood glucose
Humphrey, G.F. and T. Mann. 1949. Studies on
and seminal fructose. Biochem. J., 46: 440-
the metabolism of semen and citric acid in
450.
semen. Biochem. J., 44: 97-103.
Huggins, C. 1945. Physiology of the prostate Merck, E., and A.G. Darmstadt. 1964. Chemical
gland. Physiol. Rev., 25 P.281. Methods of Medical Investigation. 61 pp.
Iqbal, M., H.A. Samad, M. Yaqub and Najib-ur-
Salisbury, G.W., N.L. Van Demark, and J.R.
Rehman. 1984. Comparative study of
Lodge. 1978. Physiology of reproduction
cholesterol and total lipids in semen of Nili-
and artificial insemination of cattle. 2nd edn.
Ravi buffalo bulls and sahiwal bulls.
Freemen and Company, San Francisco,
Paki.Vet. J., 4: 158-160.
U.S.A.
Khan, A.A. and I.S. Kohli. 1972. A study on
sexual behaviour of male camel. Indian Vet. Taussky, C. 1949. Determination of citric acid
J., 49: 1007-1012. in biological fluids. J. Biol. Chem., 175: 745.
Khan, A.K., and I.S. Kohli. 1973. A note on
Tria, E., and A.M. Scanu. 1969. Structure and
sexual behaviour of male camel. Indian J.
fundamental aspects of lipoproteins in living
Anim. Sci., 43: 1092-1094.
systems. Academic Press, London. 661 pp.
Lundquist, F. 1947. Studies on the biochemistry
of human semen. II some properties of Wales, R.G., T.W. Scott., and I.G. White. 1961.
prostatic phosphatase. Acta Physiol. Scand., Biuret reactive materials in semen. Aust. J.
14: 263-275. Expt. Biol. Med. Sci., 39: 455-461.
Mann, T. 1949. Determination of citric acid in
Wootton, I.D.P. 1964. Micro-analysis in
biological fluids. J. Biol, chem., 175:745.
Medical Biochemistry 4th edn. J.A. Churchill
Mann, T. 1963. In biology of the prostate and Ltd. 10 Gloucester Place, London.
related tissues. Nat. Concer. Ins.
Monograph., 12 :235.
Mann, T. 1964a. The biochemistry of semen and
of the male reproductive tract. Methuen &
Co. Ltd. London. 241 pp.
Mann, T. 1964b. The biochemistry of semen
and of the male reproductive tract. Methuen
& Co. Ltd. London. 89 pp.
Mann, T. 1971. Biochemical appraisal of human
semen. In fertility disturbances in men and
women, Joel, C. (ed), Kanger, Basel. 146 pp.
ABSTRACT
Split samples from the ejaculates of seven male bactrian camels with proven fertility were tested with
eight different extenders used for farm animals. Semen was frozen in 2.0 ml glass ampoules in liquid
nitrogen vapour and thawed in a water bath of 45-50 ºC and incubated at 37 ºC and 4 ºC to evaluate the
percentage of motile spermatozoa (% mot) percentage of total spermatozoa with intact acrosome (PlA)
and percentage of spermatozoa with intact health acrosome (PlHA) after 0, 1, 3 and 5h of incubation at
37 ºC. The initial motility of camel semen was 81.86 ± 2.34, and the percentages of intact acrosomes and
intact healthy acrosome were 91.85 ± 2.49 and 76.71± 2.90. Differences were significant among the
extenders for all the parameters and the extender SYG-2 was found to be superior to other extenders.
once every other day using an artificial vagina of R = average of every two consecutive motility
bull type (41 to 42 ºC). After recording the Evaluations
physical characteristics (volume, colour,
consistency and pH), the semen was evaluated for A randomized block design was used and the
mass activity, percent motile spermatozoa and overall evaluation means of each variable were
sperm concentration. Split ejaculates from each analysed after arc sine transformation by analysis
camel were used to determine the best conditions of variance (Snedecor and Cochram, 1980).
for the cryopreservation of semen.
Results
Extension, Cryopreservation and Thawing of
Semen The average seminal volume for 105 ejaculates
All extenders used in the study were summarized from seven bull camels was 4.71 ± 1.98 ml with
in Table 1. Split semen samples with similar 81.86 ± 2.34% motility and 5.82 ± 0.92x10
original motility were extended in a bath at 37ºC sperm/ml. The percentage of intact acrosome and
and gradually cooled to 4 ºC (37 ºC for 0.5h, 4 ºC percentage of intact health acrosome were 91.85 ±
for 4h), packaged in 2.0 ml ampoules (equilibrated 2.49 and 78.71 ± 2.29, respectively.
for a further 10 mins for SYG-2 extended semen)
and frozen. Summary tables of effect of different extenders on
The freezing steps are shown in Table 2. Freezing % MOT immediately post-thaw and at hourly
was done by arranging a wire frame with a interval for 5 h and 8 h of incubation at 37 ºC and
cooperating in a casket, which was filled with 4 ºC, respectively, post-thaw sperm survival at 37
liquid nitrogen. The ampoules were put on the ºC and 4 ºC and absolute index of sperm survival
netting which could be adjusted to three different were presented in Tables 3, 5 and on PIA and
levels above the nitrogen vapour. PLHA in Table 4.
Ampoules were thawed in water bath at 45 to 50 The results showed that the highest rating of %
ºC. Each sample was evaluated for percentage or MOT, post thaw sperm survival at 37 ºC and 4 ºC
progressively motile spermatozoa (%MOT) and the absolute index of sperm survival at 37 ºC
immediately after thawing and at hourly intervals and 4 ºC were obtained by using extender SYG-2.
of incubation at 37 ºC and 4 ºC, respectively until
no sperm remained motile (post-thawing sperm Extenders different for % MOT, at 0h (P<0.05),
survival at 37 ºC and 4 ºC). The percentage of hourly evaluation and overall means (p<0.01),
spermatozoa with intact acrosome (PIA) and the post-thaw sperm survival at 37 ºC and 4 ºC (all
percentage intact health acrosome (PIHA) were p<0.01) and absolute index of sperm survival (all
estimated after 0,1,3 and 5 hours of incubation (p<0.05).
from fixed smears stained with Giemsa stain. The
PIA were the total sperm with intact apical ridges, The acrosomal integrity (percentage of
while PlHA were the PlA without showing signs spermatozoa with intact acrosomes after 0,1,3, and
of acrosomal damage. Samples were evaluated by 5 h of incubation at 37 ºC) was also higher for the
a single observer and were coded to minimise extension of extender SYG-2. The incidence of
observe bias. Absolute index of post-thaw sperm acrosomal injuries following freezing varied
survival at 37 ºC and 4 ºC was constructed using among extenders, but for SYG-2, it was the
the formula of Miloevaanof (1962) Ia= (TxR). lowest.
Where: Discussion
Ia = absolute index of survival. The scores obtained in this study with different
T = time interval between motility evaluation extenders proved that extender SYG-2 was
The first published work on deep-frozen Chen, B.X., X.X. Zhao, and Y.M. Huang. 1990.
preservation of the sperm of camelidae dates to Freezing semen and Al in the bactrian camel
the late 1970s (Graham and Schemehl, 1978) (Camelus bactrianus). Paper presented at the
using zoo camels and electroejaculated semen workshop "Is it possible to improve the
frozen in pellets. The results achieved however, reproductive performance of the camel? 10 -
were unsatisfactory. A series of experiments with 12 September 1990, Paris, France.
bactrian camel semen was carried out in the
author's laboratory (Chen et al. 1990; Zhao et al. Dong, V. 1980. Reproduction in farm animals.
1991), the extender SYG-2 was successfully used Agricultural Press, Beijin, China. pp 138-175.
for cryopreservation and insemination of 104
camels with a conception rate of 96.22% which Graham, E.F. and D.S. Schmehl, 1978. Semen
was 30% higher than that in natural mating. The preservation in non-domestic mammals.
results confirmed that semen in ampoules diluted Symposium of the Zoological Society of
extender SYG-2 is suitable for freezing and might London, 43:153-157.
be used for routine artificial insemination work.
Milovaanof, V.K. 1962. In biology of
Glycerol is used almost universally as the reproduction. 1st ed, Publ. for Agric. lit. J.
cryoprotective agent for freezing semen. The Pamph, Moscow, 451 pp.
amount and the method of adding glycerol vary.
Depending upon the extenders, freezing methods Pole, C. and I.E.A. Rowson. 1952. Fertility
species and the recipes developed by individual capacity of bull spermatozoa after freezing at
laboratory. In the present study the best sperm -79º C. Nature, 109: 626-627.
behaviour pattern was achieved when glycerol
was added just before freezing with the final Snedecor, G.W. and E.G. Cochram. 1980.
amount of 7% in extender SYG-2, our Statistical Methods. 7th ed. Iowa State Univ.
observations were in agreement with the previous Press. IA. pp 359-364.
fertility trials. However, much more detailed
studies on the response of camel semen to deep- San, C., Z.Y. Xuw, and X.S. Su. 1989. Artificial
freezing such as ultrastructure changes and insemination of bactrian camel. Acta
differences among bulls, remain to be studied. veterinaria et Zootechia, Supple 2: 50-51 (in
China).
Acknowledgements
Zhao, X.X., Y.M. Huan, and B.X. Chen.
1991.Artificial insemination and pregnancy
This research was supported partially by the In-
diagnosis in the bactrian camel (Camelus
ternational Foundation for Science, Stockholm
bactrianus). Report of the meeting of FAO
(Grant B/1725-1) and the International Atomic
/IAEA interregional network for improving
Energy Agency, Vienna (Research Contract
the productivity of camelids. Rabat. Morocco.
6301/RB).
pp 101-107.
Table 4. Effect of different extenders on precentage of intact and intact healthy acrosomes of
camel spermatozoa frozen in ampoules.
Criteria SYG-1 SYG-2 TRIS SCDE Stallion Swine Rame Buck
% of intact acrosome of 92.7 94.6 95.4 90.6 89.4 93.1 88.4 90.6
original incubated at 37ºC for
0h 79.3 86.2 78.0 77.2 78.4 80.3 72.3 68.1
1h 74.3 80.4 71.6 64.5 68.7 72.3 68.5 60.2
3h 70.2 78.4 67.2 58.4 65.3 65.2 60.4 58.1
5h 58.4 68.1 52.3 50.4 58.6 52.7 49.8 43.2
Overall mean 70.6 78.3 67.3 62.6 67.8 67.8 62.8 57.4
% of intact health acrosomes of 79.4 80.3 79.6 75.4 74.6 76.2 73.4 75.8
original incubated at 37ºC for
0h 65.7 65.3 53.1 50.4 53.1 54.2 48.3 40.7
1h 60.4 62.7 47.8 43.2 47.6 44.3 40.2 37.2
3h 52.6 55.6 40.3 37.2 42.3 36.4 32.1 30.2
5h 44.3 50.4 38.2 30.1 38.2 38.2 28.7 22.5
Overall mean 56.5 58.5 44.9 40.2 45.3 40.8 37.3 32.7
Table 5. Effect of different extenders on the percetage of motile spermatozoa sperm survival at 4
ºC and absolute index of sperm survival of camel semen frozen in ampoules.
Criteria Sy6-1 Sy6-2 TRIS SCDE Extenders Swine Ram Buck
stallion
% mot after post-thaw incubation at 4 oC for
oh 43.4±7.4 63.7±8.4 21.6±3.3 24.3±3.8 43.2±7.8 45.6±6.9 27.4±7.1 22.0±2.8
1h 41.6±5.4 61.2±3.0 21.6±3.2 21.6±4.7 41.5±5.3 43.6±5.5 24.5±6.2 21.5±3.3
2h 38.7±4.4 55.4±1.8 15.7±4.2 15.4±4.1 30.6±3.7 38.3±4.4 17.6±4.9 12.3±5.4
3h 35.4±3.4 53.2±2.8 13.6±1.9 14.1±3.7 28.5±3.1 3604±3.7 15.8±3.1 11.4±3.2
4h 32.6±1.2 52.1±3.2 12.7±3.7 13.4±5.3 27.6±5.4 32.7±3.3 15.7±5.8 11.6±3.2
5h 28.5±6.4 48.3±3.1 10.8±3.1 11.7±5.2 24.7±5.4 28.6±3.1 13.4±5.4 7.4±1.8
6h 25.3±4.1 45.4±4.1 8.4±3.4 7.6±2.9 21.6±4.9 25.4±3.7 11.3±4.0 5.3±3.7
7h 21.4±3.8 43.7±4.1 6.3±4.2 4.3±1.7 19.3±4.4 24.3±4.8 10.1±2.1 3.1±1.6
8h 18.9±4.1 40.2±5.3 4.2±3.2 2.7±1.6 12.1±3.2 20.6±5.4 7.9±3.8 2.7±1.3
overall mean 31.7±2.7 51.9±8.1 12.4±7.7 13.1±7.4 28.8±10.5 3301±9.2 16.5±4.8 11.5±7.9
Post-thaw sperm
survival at 4 ºC 48.3±1.8 76.3±2.1 16.1±1.9 16.3±2.7 56.4±3.2 56.9±1.9 32.3±1.6 24.3±1.5
La 254.6±7.3 415.7±8.1 108.2±5.9 104.2±6.5 254.4±7.3 266.2±8.3 130.7±5.9 91.8±5.4
ABSTRACT
The dromedary camels were not subject to modern studies as it was the case with other domestic
animals. Nutrition studies were least conducted with camels. The nutrient requirements were
speculated by military observers and desert ventures in most cases.
Data used for this study were mainly generated from studies conducted to determine the botanical and
chemical composition of the diets selected by the dromedary under natural rangeland conditions east of
the Mediterranean where growth pattern and milk production were measured in the Syrian steppe lands.
Moreover, data were generated from digestibility and adaptability studies in Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
Whenever data were not sufficient to determine the nutrient requirements for certain functions, the
requirements of cattle in hot climates were used.
This study lays the basic foundation for the nutrient requirements of the dromedary to perform different
physiological functions.
of poor feeds such as straw, mainly due to urea move among watering points and do not stay long
recycling. Camels retain higher amounts of around them like cattle and sheep. These merits
nitrogen (19.87%) than sheep (15.14%) and goats would not hold true under higher numbers per unit
(12.68%) from the same diet. The proportion of area (Wardeh, 1989).
retained nitrogen to digestible protein were
42.17% in camels, 32.63% in sheep and 27.98% Data
in goats (Gihad et al. 1988).
Preference for certain plant species and feed Data were mainly generated from studies
intake mainly depend on the ecosystem, presence conducted to determine the botanical and chemical
and intensity of other plant species, stage of composition of diets selected by dromedary
maturity, season (Cook and Harris, 1968), range camels during three different seasons each year for
condition and water availability within the annual four years under natural range conditions east of
feed cycle (Wardeh, 1989). Hence, diet the Mediterranean. Growth pattern and milk
composition varies within and among seasons and production of the camels was measured (Naser et
sites. The nutritive values of such diets vary al. 1986; Wardeh, 1989).
accordingly and in relation to the plant species More data were used from digestibility and
they include (Wardeh, 1981). adaptation studies at maintenance, sub-
maintenance and slightly above maintenance
The high and constant water content of salty levels in Egypt (Farid et al. 1985). Other camel
plants makes them preferred species for camels to feeding studies (Al-Motairy, 1991) were also
ensure a good portion of their water requirements used.
in areas where water is the most limiting factor for
animals. Water content of lush leaves and twigs of Results obtained from the above mentioned
trees and shrubs is as high as 80% studies were checked with the nutrient
(Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981). This high requirements of sheep and cattle in hot climates
water content of plants might furnish 40 to 50% of (Kearl, 1982). Nutrient requirements of the
water requirements of camels which will be able dromedary camel were found similar to those
to survive from a few days to several weeks reported by Kearl (1982) for cattle in hot climates
without drinking (Macfarlane, 1964). and were used whenever original data were
missing.
The protein content of plant species consumed by
camels ranged from 8.54 to 14.89% (Wardeh et al. Results and Discussion
1991). Such a relatively high protein content Nutrient Requirements for Maintenance
would satisfy most of the protein requirements of
camels to perform their various physiological Dry Matter
functions (Wardeh, 1990a; Wardeh and Farid, The dromedary spends 6-12 hours grazing daily
1990). The contents of energy releasing entities under natural range conditions. The plant matter
(crude fibre, nitrogen free extracts and ether intake varies from 5 to 55 kg/d depending on the
extracts) of such plants were high enough to season and feed availability (Gauthier- Pilters
ensure the maintenance and certain production 1979; Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981; Wardeh,
requirements (Wardeh, 1990a) if camels can 1989). The amount of dry matter was estimated at
ingest enough dry matter from the small amounts 1.2-12 kg/d which represented 2.45% of the
of feed available in the area (Wardeh, 1990b). body weight of a 500 kg camel or 104 g DM/kg0.75
(Wardeh, 1989; Wardeh and Farid, 1990).
Camels, when managed extensively, are economic
utilizers of rangelands. They usually do not When camels were given fibrous diets at the
browse on one individual plant, but take a few maintenance level they rejected the coarse and
bites and move to another (Wilson, 1984). They selected the more concentrated components of the
diet with a value of 8.37 MJ ME/kg DM. The dry Growing young camels obtained 8.98 Kcal/h/d out
matter intake was 46.8-52.8 g/kg 0.75 which was of which 3.88 Kcal ME (43.2%) came from straw.
about 1.02% of the average body weight (Farid et The concentration of ME in the ration was 2.06
al. 1985). This average was lower in the camel Mcal/Kg DM (Al-Motairy, 1991). The animals
than in the other ruminant animals. When camels were growing at a very slow rate. These values
were fed berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) hay were in agreement with those of Wardeh (1990 a)
and barley straw at the maintenance level for and not far from values reported by Wilson
cattle they consumed 32.4 g/kg0.75 or about 0.68% (1984).
of the live body weight, but they were losing
An average value of 435.1 KJ ME/kg 0.75 was
weight.
used to estimate the energy requirements for
maintenance (Table 1).
Young growing camels (326.6 kg) consumed
1.33% DM (3.35 kg/head/day) of their body Protein
weight or 56.6 g/kg 0.75. This amount consisted of When camels obtained 2.73 g DP/ kg 0.75 from
1.88 kg DM concentrate while the rest came from natural rangelands east of the Mediterranean
wheat straw (Al-Motairy, 1991). The animals (Wardeh, 1989), and 2.60 g DP/ kg 0.75 in
were growing at a slow rate of 137.5 g/head/day. confinement in Egypt (Farid et al. 1985) they were
High atmospheric temperature in northeastern growing at a very low rate and had a positive
Saudi Arabia might have caused the slow growth nitrogen balance. Kearl (1982) and Ranjhan
rate. (1980) reported higher figures (2.86 and 2.84 g
DP/kg 0.75, respectively) for cattle in hot
Lactating camels consumed higher (9.3 kg/ climates. An amount of 443.4 g CP/h/d (236.9 g
head/day) amounts of dry matter than dry ones DP; 3.02 DP/ kg 0.75) was enough for slightly
(6.7 kg/head/day). Moreover, individual feeding above maintenance requirements for growing
of dry camels decreased intake to 5.9 kg/head/day camels in Saudi Arabia (Al-Motairy, 1991).
in Saudi Arabia (Basmail, 1989). Similar rations
of alfalfa hay, straw and concentrate were fed to An average figure (2.70 g DP/ kg 0.75) was used to
all groups of camels. estimate the protein requirements for maintenance
in the dromedary (Table 1).
Hence, the daily dry matter requirements of the Nutrient Requirements for Pregnancy
dromedary for maintenance were estimated at Energy
2.5% of the body weight with 10.88 MJ ME/kg Pregnancy lasts from 12 to 13 months in the
DM. This ME value should not be less than 8.39 dromedary. It was assumed that the energy
Mj/kg DM (Table 1). requirements of pregnant nouks increase faster
during the last third in a fashion similar to those of
Energy cattle and sheep. An extra 20% of the energy
When 579 kg nouks (dromedary females) were requirements for maintenance was added during
fed a maintenance ration for cattle, they obtained the ninth and tenth months and 50% from the start
467.0 KJ ME/kg 0.75 and grew 200 g/d (Farid et al. of the eleventh month to delivery (Table 2).
1985). Slightly higher (488.4 MJ ME/kg 0.75) Values reported in Table 2 are lower than those
values were obtained under range conditions east (95.3 MJ) of Basmail (1989) in Saudi Arabia.
of the Mediterranean (Wardeh, 1989). Kearl Protein
(1982) reported an average value (493.7 KJ) for The ratio of digestible protein to metabolizable
cattle in hot climate. When a high value was energy remains constant during pregnancy in
excluded, the average became 468.5 KJ ME/ kg cattle. This ratio was 21- 28 g DP/4.18 MJ ME for
0.75
. Wilson (1984) reported a higher value (510.4 cattle in hot climates (Kearl, 1982). An average
KJ) depending on the nutrient requirements for value of 26 g DP/4.18 MJ ME was used to
British cattle breeds. estimate the protein requirements of the pregnant
nouks (Table 2). An extra 200-250 g DP/d should Energy requirements for growth increase as the
be added to growing pregnant nouks. (Wardeh, growth rate and fat deposition increase. The
1989). changes in growth composition according to age,
weight and growth rate were considered in Table
Nutrient Requirements for Lactation 4.
Energy
Camel milk contains 13.0-13.4% total solids, Protein
4.15-4.33% fats, 3.4-4% proteins, 4.2-4.5% Growing camels (326.6 kg) consumed 433.4 g
lactose and 0.7-0.8% ash (Wardeh, 1989; Wilson, CP and grew at a rate of 137.5 g/h/d (Al-Motairy,
1984). The requirements for producing one kg 1991). Kamoun et al (1989) reported CP values of
4.2% milk will be 5.02 MJ ME, 55.0 g DP, 2.7 g 227 and 478 g/h/d depending on the nature of diet.
Ca and 2.09 P (Wardeh, 1989). Higher values (882.6 g CP/h/d) were reported by
Ismail and Al-Motairy (1990) when high
The energy requirements increase by about 12% concentrated rations were fed to camels.
for lactating farm animals. Hence, the
metabolizable energy for a lactating naga (a Gentsch et al (1975) developed the following
female camel) which produces 5 kg milk daily is regression equation to predict the protein
487.4 KJ (Table 3). An extra 20% ME of the requirements for cattle in hot climates according
requirements for maintenance was suggested to be to animal weight and its rate of growth. Even
added for the growing lactating nouks during their though this equation overestimates the
first lactation and 10% during their second one requirements it was used for predicting protein
(Wardeh, 1989). requirements for the dromedary camels since it is
the only reference at this stage (Table 4).
Protein
The protein requirements for maintenance do not Daily requirements (g DP)= 0.2180 growth rate
change during lactation in farm animals. The (g/d) + 0.6631 body weight (kg)-0.001142 (body
protein requirements for lactating nouks was weight)² (kg).
based on a value of 55 g DP/kg milk (Table 3).
However, 20% of the maintenance requirements Mineral Requirements
was added to the growing lactating nouks during Moty et al (1986) reported similar mineral
their first lactation and 10% during their second composition of the body liquids of the
one (Wardeh, 1989). dromedary camels to other farm animals except
for slightly higher chloride and phosphate levels
Nutrient Requirements for Growth (Ayoub et al. 1960). However, it seems that the
Energy dromedary requires high quantities of sodium
The daily growth of 200-220 g of 570 kg camels chloride which might be about 6-8 times that of
required 48.1- 50.2 KJ/g growth (Farid et al. the other farm animals (Wilson, 1984). Camels
1985). Similar results were obtained when daily which get 30-60 g salt/d might show lameness,
growth was 185-200 g under natural range skin necrosis and bone fracture. Such symptoms
conditions east of the Mediterranean (Wardeh, disappeared when affected camels were given
1989). These findings agreed with those of about 140 g salt/d (Peck, 1938). Moreover, it was
Al-Motairy (1991) who reported that camels reported that when camels graze salty plants such
(326.6 kg) growing at an average daily gain of as Atriplex spp. and Salvadora spp. or drink
137.5 g required 8.98 Mcal/d. This value is only saline water they might obtain about 120g salt/d
0.56 Mcal higher than that reported by Wardeh and do not develop sickness symptoms.
(1990a). Kearl (1982) and Ranjhan (1980)
reported the growth requirements 36.5 KJ/g of 200 The major problem encountered is the extremely
kg cattle in hot climates. These requirements low calcium to phosphorus ratio which was 26:1
increase to 62.3 KJ/g for 500 kg cattle. in dry and 15:1 in wet seasons (Elmi, 1989).
These ratios are far below that generally Basmail, S. 1989. The nutrition of Arabian
recommended (2:1) for domestic animals Camels under controlled management. In:
(McDowell et al. 1983) and lower than those Galal, E.S. E., M.B. Aboul Ela, M.M. Shafie
reported by le Houerou (1980) in Capparodacae (eds). Proc. Intl. Symp. Ruminant Prod. in the
(15:1) or in leguminous plants (5:1). Dry Subtropics: Constraints and potentials. 5-7
Nov. 1988. Cairo EAAP Pub. No. 38,
Camels usually chew bones and eat snail shells Wageningen. pp 259-261.
during the dry seasons (Elmi, 1989; Wilson, 1984)
in order to obtain part of their phosphorus Bhattacharya, A.N. 1986. Structural peculiarities
requirements. in the digestive system of camel. Al Jouf
Range and Animal Development Centre. Saudi
Copper and zinc deficiencies were observed in Arabia.
camels during certain seasons in Djibouti (Fay and
Saint Martin, 1992). Bhattacharya, A.N., S. Al-Motairy, A. Hashimi
The Ca and P requirements of the dromedary to and S. Economides. 1985. Studies on energy
perform the different physiological functions are and protein utilization of alfalfa hay and
presented in Tables 1,2,3 and 4. barley grain by yearling camel calves. The
Br. Soc. Anim. Prod., 74: 481-485.
Vitamin Requirements
Vitamins are a group of nutrients essential for Cook, C.W. and I.E. Harris. 1968. Nutritive value
normal body processes. Typical range or pasture of seasonal ranges. Utah Agr. Expt. Bul.,
diets should contain adequate levels of vitamins or 472.
vitamin precursors to maintain normal health of
Elmi, A. 1989. Management, foraging behaviour,
camels. When range or pasture is poor or when
Diet Composition and Forage Quality of Free
animals are kept under restricted pen feeding they
Ranging Camels in Ceeldheer District, Central
may need vitamin supplementation (Kearl, 1982).
Somali. PhD. Dissertation. Utah State
University, Logan. 221 pp.
Camels and true ruminants, due to microbial
activity within the rumen are able to synthesize
El-Shami, E.M. 1985. Comparative study of
most of the essential vitamins. The exceptions
utilization of browse plants by camels and
are vitamins A, D, E and C.
goats. in: Annual Report. Camel Research
Unit, Faculty of Vet. Sci, University of
The requirements of vitamins A and D are adapted
Khartoum. pp 173- 182.
for the dromedary camels from those of cattle in
hot climate as reported by Kearl (1982) and are
Engelhardt, W.V., M. Lechner-Doll, R. Heller,
presented in Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4.
H.J. Schwartz, T. Rutagwenda and W.
Schultka. 1988. Physiology of the forestomach
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Table 1. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements of dromedary camels for
maintenance.
Requirements*
Body Weight Kg0.75 Dry Metabolizable Energy Digestible Ca P Vit A
Matter (Megajoules) Protein (g) (g) (g) (1000U)
(kg)
200 53.2 2.50 23.14 144 8 7 9
250 62.9 2.96 27.36 169 10 9 11
300 72.1 3.39 31.38 195 12 10 13
350 80.9 3.80 35.23 218 14 11 15
400 89.4 4.20 38.91 241 17 13 17
450 97.7 4.59 42.51 264 18 14 19
500 105.7 4.97 46.02 285 20 15 21
550 113.6 5.34 49.41 307 21 16 23
600 121.2 5.70 52.76 327 22 17 26
*
Calculations were based on the following:
(1) Energy concentration is not less than 8.79 KJ ME/kg dry matter.
(2) Energy requirements = 435.14 KJ ME/kg 0.75
(3) Protein requirements = 2.70 g DP/kg 0.75
Energy and protein requirements for maintenance increase by 25-40%, respectively when camel graze
or work for 2 to 4 hours/day.
Table 2. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements of dromedary camels for
pregnancy.
Requirements*
Body Weight kg0.75 Dry Metabolizable Digestible Protein (g) Ca P Vit A
Matter Energy (g) (g) (1000U)
(kg) (Megajoules)
During the 9th and 10th Months:
300 72.1 4.29 37.66 234 16 14 25
350 80.9 4.81 40.18 263 21 16 27
400 89.4 5.31 48.53 290 23 18 30
450 97.7 5.80 50.67 317 26 20 34
500 105.7 6.29 55.23 343 29 22 38
550 113.6 6.75 59.29 368 31 24 42
600 121.2 7.20 63.30 393 34 26 46
From the 11th Month to Delivery:
300 72.1 5.36 45.21 292 26 20 34
350 80.9 6.10 52.84 328 29 22 38
400 89.4 6.64 58.37 363 31 24 42
450 97.7 7.26 63.76 396 34 26 46
500 105.7 7.86 69.04 429 36 28 50
550 113.6 8.44 74.14 462 39 30 53
600 121.2 9.00 76.03 492 42 32 57
* Calculations were based on the following:
(1) Energy concentration is not less than 8.44 megajoules ME/Kg DM.
(2) Energy requirements for pregnancy are 120% and 150% of the maintenance during the 9th and
10th and last 2.5 months of pregnancy, respectively.
(3) Digestible protein to metabolizable energy ratio is 26 grams to 4.18 megajoules.
Table 3. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements for lactating dromedary camels.
Requirements*
Body kg0.75 Dry matter Metabolizable Energy Digestible Protein Ca P (g) Vit A
Weight (kg) (Megajoules) (g) (g) (1000U)
300 72.1 6.55 60.25 470 26 20 13
350 80.9 7.00 64.56 493 28 21 15
400 89.4 7.56 69.62 516 31 23 17
450 97.7 7.90 72.72 539 32 24 19
500 105.7 8.33 76.65 560 34 25 21
550 113.6 8.74 80.46 582 35 26 23
600 121.2 9.15 84.31 602 36 27 26
* Calculations were based on the following:
(1) Daily milk production is 5 kg (4.2% fat).
(2) Energy concentration should not be less than 9.20 megajoules/kg dry matter.
(3) Energy requirements increase by 12% during lactation (487.44 Megajoules ME/kg0.75).
(4) The daily requirements to produce one kg of milk (4.2% fat):
5.02 Megajoules ME + 55 grams digestible protein + 2.7 grams Ca + 2.0 grams Phosphorous.
(5) Energy and protein requirements of growing camels increase by 20% and 10% during the first
and the second lactation, respectively.
Table 4. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements of dromedary camels for growth.
Requirements*
kg kg 0.75 Gain/day DM ME ** ME DP Ca P Vit A
(g) (kg) Mjoules (Mjoules) (g) (g) (g) (1000U)
100 31.6 250 2.25 9.20 20.75 195 10 7 6
500 2.75 10.04 27.70 249 15 9 6
750 2.96 11.72 34.69 304 20 11 6
150 42.9 250 2.90 9.20 26.69 244 12 9 8
500 3.46 3.46 35.06 298 16 10 9
750 3.93 10.88 42.80 353 21 13 9
200 53.2 250 3.50 9.20 32.26 285 11 91 1
500 4.12 9.20 41.42 340 16 12 12
750 4.64 10.04 50.54 394 21 15 13
250 62.9 250 4.49 8.37 37.57 318 12 10 12
500 5.19 9.20 47.78 373 16 14 13
750 5.78 10.04 57.99 427 22 17 14
300 72.1 250 5.10 8.37 42.63 345 15 11 13
500 5.86 9.20 53.93 400 19 14 14
750 6.50 10.04 65.23 454 23 18 15
350 80.9 250 5.68 8.37 47.57 365 16 14 16
500 6.50 9.20 59.91 420 20 16 17
750 6.85 9.20 74.56 474 25 18 18
1000 8.43 10.04 84.68 528 30 21 19
400 89.4 250 6.26 8.37 52.34 378 16 15 15
500 7.15 8.37 65.81 433 21 18 17
750 8.61 9.20 79.24 488 26 21 18
1000 9.23 10.04 92.68 542 31 24 19
450 97.7 250 6.82 8.37 57.03 385 18 17 16
500 7.73 8.37 71.55 440 22 20 17
750 9.35 9.20 86.06 494 26 23 19
1000 10.02 10.04 100.58 549 29 26 20
500 105.7 250 7.36 8.37 61.59 386 19 18 17
500 8.38 9.20 77.19 440 23 21 19
750 10.08 9.20 92.80 495 27 24 21
1000 10.79 10.04 108.37 550 30 27 23
Calculation of the energy and protein requirements took into consideration the composition of the
growth and the rate of gain of the animal.
** ME concentration in the dry matter.
ABSTRACT
Five female dromedary camels were fasted for four days to estimate the fasting heat production and then
fed three different levels of feeding during three successive periods. The dromedaries received 1 kg of
barley grains and 5 kg of wheat straw, in the first period (P1), twice and four times the amount consumed
in P1 during the second (P2) and the third period (P3), respectively. Digestive trails were conducted and
heat production of animals was estimated by indirect calorimetry during each period. All the feed offered
were consumed except about 25% of the straw in P3. Energy digestibility of the ration averaged 61% for
the three periods and was slightly higher in the third period due to straw refusals. Fasting heat production
averaged 52 kcal/kgW0.75 and all the dromedaries showed an increase in heat production with respect to
level of feeding. Retained energy was regressed against metabolizable energy (ME) intake and the
energy requirements for maintenance (MEm, zero energy gain) was estimated to average 73 kcal/kgW
0.75
. However, different estimates of the efficiency of utilization of ME above (kf) and below (km)
maintenance were obtained. Indicating that the dromedaries utilized ME below maintenance with an
efficiency of 73%, comparable to sheep and above MEm with an efficiency of 61%, better than sheep.
When the data of FHP were considered in the regression, different values of km were obtained
suggesting that the linearity of response below MEm is not obvious and at least two different slopes
could be obtained.
very empirical and often extrapolated from cattle (HP) was estimated by using the equation of
data. The present study was designed to estimate McLean (1972):
the nutrient requirements of the dromedary at
maintenance when using the regression method. HP (kcal/d) = 02 In-Out) X Flow (STPD) X 4.89
Coefficients for efficiency of utilization of ME for
maintenance (km) and fattening (kf) were also The (O2 In-Out) was the difference in percentage
computed. of O2 between outside air and the exhausted air
while the flow (STPD) corresponded to the
Materials and Methods amount of exhausted air flowing through the
flowmeter converted to standard conditions of
Five healthy, 8 to 10 year old female camels were temperature, pressure and humidity. Fasting heat
used over four successive periods with different production (FHP) was also estimated by
levels of feeding in each (Table 1). The diet measuring gaseous exchanges of each dromedary
consisted of 66% barley grains and 34% wheat on day 4 of a fast. It should be noted that for
straw and was fed at 0 (FHP), 0.5 (P1), (MEm) similar diets and feeding levels, heat production
recommended for sheep by INRA (1978), which was underestimated by 0.5% in P1, P2 and P3 by
is 95 kcal of ME intake per kgW 0.75. the McLean’s (1972) equation compared to the
Brouwer’s equation (1965). However, during the
Before the beginning of the study, animals were fourth day of fast, methane production was very
adapted to fecal collection bags and to the indirect low and the underestimation of HP was about
calorimetry chamber for a period of one month. 2.3%.
During each period of the study, a pre-sacked diet
was offered to the animals 3 days prior and 7 days Retained energy (RE) was determined by
during the digestive trials at 9 am daily. The subtracting HP from ME intake. Linear regression
remaining feeds were weighed after 24h in order equations were computed between RE and ME
to determine the amount of feed consumed. The intake in order to determine the MEm of the
exact intake measurement started one day prior to animals. The regression equations gave several
fecal collection and concluded one day before the estimates of MEm and efficiencies of ME
final daily fecal collection. Feces were removed utilization above and below zero energy retention.
from the fecal collection bag daily during 7 The effect of feeding level on diet digestibility and
consecutive days, weighed and 10% was dried and heat production of animals was tested by the
added to composite dry aliquot fore each animal. paired t-test.
Fecal and diet dry matter were determined by
drying the samples at 105 oC for 24 h. The gross
Results and Discussion
energy contents of the feeds and faeces were
determined using one g pelleted samples in an
Mean body weight, gross energy intake and
adiabatic bomb calorimeter (Parr 1241). The
digestibility variations with the feeding level are
digestible energy (DE) intake was determined by
presented in Table 2. The average body weight of
substracting the fecal energy from the intake
the dromedaries increased linearly with feeding
energy while the ME intake was estimated from
level from FHP (fast) to P3 (twice maintenance)
the DE intake by using the following ME/DE
by 7.13 kg per kg of dry feed. A four day fast
rations: 0.82, 0.83 and 0.88 in P1, P2 and P3,
reduced the body weight of the4 dromedaries by
respectively. These values were obtained in sheep
3.16% compared to the weight measured in P1
fed similar diets at comparable feeding levels
when the animals were fed half the requirements
(Blaxter and Wainman, 1964; Vermorel et al.
and by 5.85% compared to the weight measured in
1987).
P2 when the animals were fed to maintenance
An indirect calorimetry system of an open circuit requirements. In P3, when the ration was doubled,
type was used to measure the oxygen consumption body weight increased by 5.52% as compared to
during 24h per animal per period. Heat production the average weight measured in P2.
Table 2. Body weight, feed energy intake and digestibility variation with the level of feeding
received by animals.
Periods of study FHP P1 P2 P3
Body weight (kg)
Mean a ± SD b 299.00 ± 30.70 308.40 ± 27.75 316.70 ± 28.54 334.20 ± 30.70
Gross energy intake (kcal/day)
Mean ± SD 0 5648 ± 225 11427 ± 189 21102 ± 1523
Energy digestibility (%)
Mean ± SD - 51.01 ± 4.12 60.88 ± 3.45 62.82 ± 3.09
a the mean for the data of five dromedaries used in the study.
b the standard deviation.
Table 3. Metabolizable energy intake and total heat production variation with the level of feeding.
Periods of study FHP P1 P2 P3
0.75
Metabolizable energy intake (kcal/kg ).
Mean a ± SD b 0 38.68 ± 4.62 76.63 ± 8.47 139.54 ± 11.52
0
Total heat production (kcal/kg 0.75)
Mean ± SD 51.01 ± 3.55 64.92 ± 6.21 71.59 ± 8.11 92.22 ± 10.56
a the mean for the data of five dromedaries used in the study.
b the standard deviation.
Table 4. Linear regression of retained energy against metabolizable energy at different level
of feeding.
Data Considered Regression Equation Determination MEm kcal/MBS a
Coefficient (R2)
-FHP, P1, P2, P3 RE=.70ME-51.37 .97 73.38
-FHP, P1, P2 RE=.73ME-52.37 .95 71.74
-FHP, P1 RE=.65ME-51.69 .89 79.52
-P1, P2, P3 RE=69ME-50.39 .94 73.03
-P1, P2 RE=76ME-54.22 .86 71.34
-P2 , P3 RE=.61ME-40.73 .89 66.77
Mean ± SD ---- ---- 72.63 ± 3.76
a maintenance energy requirements expressed in kcal per metabolic body size, (kg 0.75).
ABSTRACT
In vivo digestibility trials with camels were carried out in order to assess the nutritional characteristics of
wheat straw (S), meadow hay (H) and their mixture in the ratio of 70:30 (H/S). The average daily food
intake was 44.9 g DM/kg lw 0.75 (916g DM/100 kg lw), 32 g DM/kg lw 0.75 (654 g DM/100 kg lw) and
44.2 g DM/kg lw 0.75 (902 g DM/100 kg Iw) for the H, S and H/S feeds, respectively. Water voluntary
intake was higher when hay was employed (about 14 litres vs 10 litres for the straw). However, similar
results were obtained when water intake was related to dry matter (about 2.6 l/kg DM). Apparent
digestibilities of DM, OM and CP were 55.95, 58.18 and 53.04% for meadow hay, and 44.81, 48.02 and
practically zero for straw, while intermediate values were obtained for the mixture of the two roughages.
CF, NDF and ADF digestibilities were 59.57, 52.45 and 50.95% (H), 57.33, 53.35 and 49.96% (S), and
55.45, 52.23 and 47.27% (H/S).
Energy digestibility was 57.21% (H), 46.57% (S) and 54.03 (H/S) and the nutritive values expressed in
DE and ME (Mj/kg DM) were 10 and 8.62 for the meadow hay and 8.08 and 6.9 for the wheat straw.
contribute to the knowledge on dry matter intake The choice of such low-protein and high-fiber
and digestibility in this species and to estimate feeds in this investigation was held to be
the feeding value of low quality roughage diets appropriate, given that dromedaries in their
for mature dromedary camels. natural habitat are quite often subject to poor
quality diets.
Materials and Methods
Dry Matter Intake
Voluntary intake and digestibility trials were Data on voluntary feed intake were summarised
carried out using four adult dromedaries. The in Table 2. Intake of straw averaged 654 g
animals, with a mean body weight of 579 ± 44 DM/100 kg (1w) corresponding to 32 g DM/kg
kg, were kept in individual boxes during the law lw0.75 hay was very much higher and
study period. Test feeds consisted of wheat amounted to 44.9 g DM/kg lw0.75 (916 DM/I 00
straw and natural meadow hay. The kg law), while that of the mixture of hay and
experimental design consisted of a succession of straw (44.2 g DM/kg lw 0.75) was closer to that
three distinct trials varying type of feed straw of hay alone.
alone (S), mixture of hay and straw 70:30 (H/S),
and, hay alone (H). Each forage, chopped into a Somewhat similar results obtained by Gerard
length of 7 cm, was available to the animals ad and Richard (1989) graminaceous hay (51 g
libitum and was provided in two feedings (at DM/kg lw0.75) and Gihad et al (1989) using
7.00h and 19.00h). Trifomm alexandrinum hay (DMI of 49.51 g
DM/kg lw 0.75 DM/I 00 kg lw). Maloiy (1972
Each trial was divided into two stages: a reported ingestion data between 0.68 and 1.15
preliminary 15-day period to allow the animals kg/100 kg 1w for Cynodon dactylon. Bakhit and
to adapt to each feed, and a 7-day experimental Mirgani (1986) found a low value of 38.2 g
period during which voluntary feed intake and DM/kg lw0.75 with mature graminaceous hay,
water consumption were measured and total and increased to 51.9g DM/kg lw0.75 when sup-
collection of feces was made. Feces collection plemented with urea.
was conducted using a system developed by
Gorsky et al (1957) for cattle and was adapted in The combination of hay with straw in the ratio
this study to dromedaries. Feces were collected of 70/30 did not significantly influence DMI
twice daily (morning and evening) and the total (44.2 g DM/kg lw0.75). Rations consisting of
weight was measured for each animal. After 75% crushed date seed or olive pulp and mixed
adequate mixing to ensure uniformity, dry with 25% Trifolium alexandrinum hay gave
weight was determined, and a sample of 15% of higher intake values of 62,87 and 56.41 g
total weight was stored through immediate DM/kg lw 0.75, respectively (Gihad et al. 1985).
freezing at -18°C. Forage and fecal samples These diets contained, respectively, 7.95 and
were subsequently analysed according to the 9.35% CP and 13.35 and 21.88% CF.
guidelines of the "Commissione Valutazioni
alimenti" (Food Evaluation Commission) of It appeared that intake of low quality roughages
A.S.P.A. (1980) . by the camel was restricted to less than 50 g
Results and Discussion DM/kg lw0.75 for hays and very much lower for
straws. Ewes fed hay alone consumed 84 g
Feed Composition DM/kg lw0.75 daily (ARC, 1980). Despite the
The chemical composition of the feeds is shown low intake, camels were successfully maintained
in Table 1. The protein concentrations were on the low quality roughages. Yagil (1985)
below the quantity considered as the minimum reported camels maintained on 3-5 kg of poor
necessary for good ruminal functioning and quality forage and performed well in fertility
ranged to 8% at which Minson (1981) reported performance. Results indicated that the camel,
that intake of tropical forages were depressed. which is predominantly a browser, could
maximise extraction of energy from fibrous (1988) also reported CP digestibility of 51.53%
feeds. for Trifolium alexandrinum with a CP content
of 11.38%, which is slightly inferior to the
Water Consumption present findings.
The voluntary intake of water (Table 2) was
higher in the two trials which employed hay The apparent digestibility of crude fiber was
compared to that of straw alone (about 14 litres similar for the test feed: 57.33, 55.45 and 59.57
vs 10 litres). However, water consumption was for the straw, mixture of straw and hay and hay,
similar in the three trials when expressed in respectively. These values were higher those
relation to dry matter intake (2.5 l/kg DM intake superior reported by Gihad et al (1988) for
for straw, 2.65 l for the mixture of hay and Trifolium alexandrinum hay (47-63%).
straw and 2.55 l for hay alone). The values were
lower than those obtained by Gihad et al (1985) For NDF, ADF and cellulose digestibility, mean
with Trifolium alexandrinum hay (27.11 ml/kg values were also similar for the three roughage
lw, 86 ml/ kg lw0.82 and 2.72 ml/g DM intake). diets (H, H/S, S). These were, respectively,
In the same comparative trial, values were 53.35, 52.23 and 52.45% for NDF; 49.96, 47.27
significantly lower than those of sheep and and 50.95% for ADF, and 60.80, 59.45 and
goats. These data confirm the limited water 61.70% for cellulose. The digestibility of the
requirements of the camel. neutral detergent fiber was comparable to the
mean values for cool-season and warm-season
Digestibility grass hays (55.1 and 55.9%) cattle, sheep and
DMD of feeds ranged from 44.81% for the goats (15). These results further confirm that the
straw alone to 55.95% for ŷ the meadow hay camel is also capable of utilizing the dry matter
(Table 3). DMD of the mixture of hay and straw of poor quality feeds such as straws.
was 52.95%. DMD of the hay was slightly
higher than those reported by Gihad et al (1988) Energy Value
for Trifolium alexandrinum hay (53.98%), Energy digestibility was 46.57% for the wheat
Maloiy (13) for Cynodon dactyion hay (50%), straw, 57.21% for the meadow hay, and 54.03%
and Bakhit and Mirgani (1986) for a wild for their mixture. Digestible energy was, 8.08,
graminaceous hay (51.0%). Mean of DMD 10.00, and 9.44 MJ DE/kg DM for the three
would be 52.7%. The dilution of hay with 30% rations. Respectively. Metabolisable energy
wheat straw did not significantly affect DM (ME) content, calculated from measured DE,
digestibility. Similarly, Farid et al (1979) found was 6.9, 8.62 and 8.12 MJ ME/kg DM,
a DMD of 50.8% with a mixture of wheat straw respectively (Table 4).
and trefoilum hay.
ME values of feeds for camels would possibly
Regarding OMD the following values were be slightly higher than those measured in sheep,
obtained: 48.02, 55.29 and 58.18% for the S, and camels generally extract more energy from
H/S and H rations, respectively. And were the food they consume (Degan et al. 1987).
slightly higher than those for dry matter.
References
CP digestibility of wheat straw was practically
zero on the average and in accordance with that Andrieu, J. C. Demarquilly, and D. Sauvant,
reported for the same feed by Andrieu et al 1988. Tables de la valeur nutritive des
(1988). The digestibility of the protein of hay aliments. In: Alimentation des bovins, ovins
was 53.04% and that of the mixture of hay and et caprins, Ed. TNRA, Paris.
straw was 41.28%. Using Cynodon dactyion
with a CP content of 6.5%, Maloiy (1972) found Commissione Valutazione Alimenti (A.S.P.A.)
a lower CP digestibility of 48.6%. Gihad et al 1980. Valutazione degli alimenti di interesse
zootecnico. 1. Analisi chimica. Zoot. Nutr. and water intake, digestibility and nitrogen
Anim., 6: 19-34. utilization by camels compared to sheep and
goats fed low protein desert-products.
ARC. 1980. The nutrient requirements of CIHEAM. Seminaire sur la digestion, la
ruminant livestock. Commonwealth nutrition et 1'alimentation du dromadaire,
Agricultural Bureau, Slough, England. Ourgala, February 28-29, and March 1,
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Bakhit S.M.A. and T. Mirgani. 1986. Effects of
intraniminal administration of urea on the Gorsky, J. 1957. A urine and feces collecting
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CIPEA, 34-41. Hifney, A., A.K. Ahmed, and I.A. Ibrahim.
1985. Topography and morphology of the
Degen, A.A., E. Elias, and M. Kam. 1987. A stomach of camel. Assiut Vet. Med. J., 15:
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growth rate of early-weaned camel (Camelus
dromedarius) calves. Anim. Prod., 45: 301- Maloiy, G.M.O. 1972. Renal salt and water
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the mucosa of the initial dilated and middle between tropical and temperate pastures. In:
long narrow part of the third compartment of R.H.W. Moriey (ed.). Grazing Animals:
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Heller. 1984. The digestive physiology of Comparative utilization of warm and cool-
camelids. In: Cockrill.W.R. The camelid: an season forages by cattle, sheep and goats. J.
all purpose animal Workshop on Camels. Anim. Sci., 68: 2986-2994.
Khartoum, December 18-20, 1979. Uppsala,
Scandinavian Institute of African Studies. pp Richard, D. 1989. Ingestibilite et digestibilite
323-346. des aliments par le dromadaire. Options
Mediterraneennes - Series Seminaires- n°.2:
Farid, M.F.A., S.M. Shawket, and M.H.A. 55-59
Abdel-Rahman. 1979. Observation on the
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Animal Nutrition, Basel, Karger.
Gihad, F..A., T.T., El Gallad, A.E. Sooud, H.M.
Abou el Nasr, and M.F.A. Farid. 1988. Feed
Table 2. Daily dry matter intake and water consumption (mean + s.d.) of camel offered low quality
roughages.
Item Wheat straw 1 Meadow hay + Wheat Straw Meadow hay
No. of animals 4 4 4
D.M.I.g. 3774 + 125 5212 + 479 65293 + 435
G/100 kg 1w 654 + 33 902 ± 77 916 ± 71
G/Kg1w0.75 32.0 ± 1.0 44.2 ± 3.6 44.9 ± 3.2
Water intake 9.9 ± 1.7 14.0 ± 3.9 13.7 ± 4.2
Ml/kg 1w0.82 51.28 ± 9.4 75.93 ± 20.59 74.2 ± 21.74
1 Kg D.M.I 2.5 ± 0.48 2.65 ± 0.52 2.55 ± 0.59
ABSTRACT
Two serum transferases and four electrolytes were studied in 56 dromedary camels in eight equal-sized
groups (four male groups based on physiological status). Overall means and standard deviations were:
AST 47.8 ± 2.58 lU/l, AST: 4.3 ± 0.12 lU/;, Na: 178.4 ± 2.86 mEq/l, K; 5.41 ± 0.11 mEq/l; Cl: 175.80 ±
2.02 mEq/l; and Ca: 5.64 ± 0.10 mEq/l. Na was higher (p<0.05) in females than in males. There were no
differences for any parameter among male age groups. Heifers had higher (P<0.05) AST levels than
pregnant dry and non-pregnant dry females. Non-pregnant dry females had higher (P<0.05) K levels than
non-pregnant lactating females. Pregnancy does not appear to affect AST in dry females but serum K
levels are affected by lactation.
applicable specifically to those domestic animals other groups. Thus, these results suggested that,
and man where hypernatraemia could be easily serum K level was depressed in non-pregnant
seen when loss of a low Na fluid occurs e.g. in lactating camels. This observation was in line with
vomiting, excessive panting and sweating. those of Church (1988) cows.
ABSTRACT
Seasonal variations in hematological and serum biochemical parameters were studied in 28 racing
camels. Blood samples were collected during winter (January) and summer (July/August) and analyzed
for hematological parameters. Leukocyte count, erythrocyte count and haemoglobin levels did not differ
significantly during different seasons, but hematocrit values were significantly higher (P<0.01) during
summer due to increased mean corpuscular volume of erythrocytes. Total proteins, albumin, creatine
kinase and creatine values were similar (P<0.01) during summer and winter. However, statistically
significant (P<0.01) seasonal variations were observed in serum levels of glutamate oxaloacetate
transaminase (GOT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and iron. GOT, BUN
and iron levels were higher in winter while LDH was higher in summer.
Serum biochemical parameters were measured on temperature stress (Kaneko, 1980). Albumin to
Hitachi 704 autoanalyzer using Boehringer total proteins ratio in camel serum varied from
Mannheim Kits. These parameters included total 0.60 to 0.70 with an average of 0.67 in winter and
proteins, albumin, glutamate oxaloacetate 0.65 in summer. This proportion is higher than all
transaminase (GOT), creatine kinase (KC), lactate other domestic animals (normally 35 to 55%)
dehydrogenase (lDH), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), (Kaneko, 1980). Albumin has the water
creatine and iron. attracting/holding property and higher value in
camel probably indicate specific adaptation for the
Blood samples were collected from the same desert environment.
animals in January (representing winter) and
July/August (representing summer). Paired t-test Serum enzymes showed variable trend in different
was used to evaluate the seasonal difference in all seasons. GOT values were higher (P<0.01) in
the parameters. winter while LDH were higher in summer. No
significant difference in KC values was seen in the
Results and Discussion two seasons. Seasonal variations in enzyme
pattern could be attributed to difference in feeding,
Range and means ± s.d. of hematological exercise and management during the two seasons.
parameters in 28 racing camels, in winter and GOT values ranges from 54 to 128 U/l. All camels
summer, were shown in Table 1. Variations except two on one sampling had GOT values less
among individual camels were more in leukocyte than 96 U/l. lDH values varied from 232 to 543
count than erythrocyte count. Leukocyte count, U/l. However, most of the animals (89 percent in
erythrocyte count and haemoglobin levels did not winter and 75 percent in summer) had LDH
show significant differences (P<0.01) in winter values less than 400 U/l. Individual animals
and summer. Mean values of hematocrit and showed great variation in KC values during both
MCV were significantly higher (P<0.01) in seasons and ranged from 37 to 148 in winter and
summer than winter. Ghosal et al (1973) also 40 to 103 in summer. However, more than 90
reported increased in hematocrited camels in percent of the KC values (except 4 animals, each
summer. Is this camel's response to higher with one value) were less than 98 U/l.
ambient temperature for better oxygen carrying
capacity in summer or sequel to change in feed is Serum enzymes were measured to assess damage
not yet, known?. to the internal organs/tissues. The level of enzyme
activity and the enzyme pattern gives clue to the
Hematological parameters in racing camels were site and extent of cell damage. However, it may be
generally similar to those reported for production pointed out that the organ distribution of
camels (Lakhotia et al. 1964; Soliman and Shaker, intracellular enzymes varies widely in different
1967; Abdelgadir et al. 1984a; Higgins and Kock, species of animals. Thus, there is need to
1986). However, higher leukocyte counts in determine the enzyme patterns of organs/tissues of
camels were reported by other workers (Soni and camels before serum enzyme values could be
Aggarwala, 1985; Banerjee et al. 1962). accurately interpreted.
Leukocytes usually increase following exposure to
infection, and camels included in these studies Creatinine values ranged from 1.49 to 2.29 mg/dl
might have had subclinical infection. and did not differ significantly (P>0.01) in the two
seasons. BUN values were higher (P<0.01) in
Ranges and means ± s.d. serum biochemical winter than summer. Higher dietary protein in the
parameters of racing camels in winter and summer racing season. i.e. winter, is expected to increase
were shown in Table 2. No significant changes the BUN (Emmanuel, 1984). BUN varied from 6-
were seen in total proteins in the two seasons, but 33 mg/dl, but less than 10 percent of the BUN
albumin levels were lower (P<0.01) in summer values (5 animals, each with one value) were more
than winter which might be attributed to than 25 mg/dl in both seasons.
Iron levels ranged from 66 to 165 ug/dl in camel dromedarius). J. Sci. Indust. Res., 21C: 106-
serum. However, most of the serum iron values 107.
(89 percent) were above 80 ug/dl. Serum iron Carlson, G.P. 1987. Hematology and body fluids
levels were significantly (P<0.01) higher in winter in the equine athlete; a review. In: Equine
than summer due to supplementation in the racing Exercise Physiology Z. Ed. J.R. Gillespie and
season (Carlson, 1987). N.E. Robinson IICEEP Publications, Davis, pp
393-415.
Normal values of hematological and serum
biochemical parameters of racing camels as well Emmanuel, B. 1984. Comparative biochemical
as seasonal variations in these parameters. The studies in: The camelid An All-Purpose
data could serve as normal reference values and Animal Vol. 1. W. R. Cockrill. (ed.).
might be used to monitor health status in the Scandinavian Institute Studies. Uppsala, pp
racing camels. 449-462.
Table 2. Means ± s.d. and ranges of serum biochemical parameters in racing camels.
Parameters Winter Summer
Range Means + S.D Range Means + S.D
Total proteins d/dl 5.82 - 6.92 6.33 ± 0.27 5.73 + 7.03 6.36 ± 0.28
Albumin g/dl 3.79 - 4.55 4.22 ± 0.19 3.87 ± 4.43 4.14 ± 0.14
Glutamate oxalo acetate 62 - 128 80 ± 15 5489 71 ± 8
Creatine kinase U/l 37 - 148 72 ± 25 40103 71 ± 19
Lactate dehydrogenase U/l 232 - 456 321 ± 61 244543 370 ± 71
Blood urea nitrogen mg/dl 9 - 33 20 ± 5 630 15 ± 7
Creatinine mg/dl 1.61 - 2.17 1.90 ± 0.15 1.492.29 1.87 ± 0.23
Iron ug.dl 66 - 165 111 ± 21 69140 98 ± 18
ABSTRACT
Water balance was investigated in heat stressed dremdary camels during normohydration, dehydration
and after rehydration. Four camels were daily subject to high temperature (42Cº) in a climatic chamber,
and fed 2.5 kg of barley per day and wheat straw ad libitum. The amounts of consumed feed and water
were measured. Total body water was determined using tritiated water (TOH). During the initial heat
exposure, total body water increased by 13.5% while during a period of two weeks of water
deprivation, body water loss ranged from 12.5 to 21.9%. Upon rehydration water consumption
exceeded water loss. 60-90% of the total volume of water intake was consumed within the first 10
minutes. After rehydration, the labelled water in blood and rumen fluid achieved comparable
concentrations within 4 and 6 after dinking.
night when the mean air temperature was body water during the period of dehydratin was
approximately 10 ºC with a relative humidity of between 12.5 and 21.9% (Table 2). In all animals
96%. The studies involved two weeks of daily , water consumption upon rehydration exceeded
heat exposure before the withdrawal of water. water lost and 60-90% of the total consumed
This was followed by a two-week period of volume was taken within the first 10 minutes.
dehydration. Further, smaller quantities of water were taken
over the next five hours. In one camel , the
Total body water was determined before and after
consumed amount of water appeared to be
the initial period of heat exposure and at the end of
independent of the degree of dehydration. In the
the period of dehydration. Tritiated water (TOH)
other animals, the degree of dehydration and the
obtained from the Amersham International
volume consumed was comparable (Table 2).
Laboratories, Buckinghamshire, England, was
used to prepare a solution of sodium chloride
After rehydration, the rumen TOH concentration
(0.9% W/V) with a specific activity of 500 µci/ml.
dropped initially and started to rise. The specific
The labelled normal saline was injected into the
activity of blood decreased (Fig. 1) and both
jugular vein by means of a polyethylene catheter
rumen and blood achieved comparable
and a syringe fitted with a T-piece. Each dose was
concentration between 4 and 6 hours after
washed 3 times with normal saline. The exact
drinking.
injected amount was determined gravimetrically.
Before TOH administration, animals were denied
Blood samples taken 6-8 hours after rehydration
feed and water for about 10 hrs (Robert Shaw,
and assayed for TOH concentration allowed the
1982); the TOH was then injected in the evening
calculation of a new estimate of TBW which
at the rate of 8 µci/ml (Holleman et al. 1982) and
should be equal to the sum of the TBW before
allowed to equilibrate with the body water pool
rehydration and the consumed volume of water.
overnight when water and feed were withheld.
Data shown in Table 3 demonstrate a close
Pre and post-injection blood samples (10 ml) were correlation between the two calculations.
taken the following morning and on alternate days
at the same time each day. Internal standards were Discussion
prepared for each animal and for each experiment
by diluting an aliquot of the administered solution. The dilution of a known quantity of marker such
0.2 ml of the diluted stock solution was mixed as TOH distributed throughout body fluids
with 10 ml of unlabelled blood. The TOH in the measures the total body water content. Most
plasma of the samples, standards and blanks was workers, when comparing TOH space with actual
counted in a liquid scintillation counter (Beckman water space, found that TOH space overestimated
L.S. 3133T) following precipitation in dioxane the true body water volume by 16% in sheep
(Springell and Wright, 1976). Total body water (Russel et al. 1982) and 15% in cattle (Carnegie
was calculated by extrapolating the decline in and Tulloh, 1968). The reasons for this difference
specific activity to the time of injection (Holleman was not fully identified, but were more apparent
et al. 1982). Samples of blood and rumen fluid under field than laboratory conditions, and would
was taken every 5 min. following rehydration and be related in part to the incorporation of tritium
analyzed for TOH concentration. The rumen fluid into organic molecules and in part to its dilution
was centrifuged and 2 ml of the supernatant was with atmospheric water vapor especially when
mixed with 2 ml of H202 to minimize quenching ambient humidity was high (Robert Shaw, 1982).
(Wang et al. 1975).
An overestimate of TBW would also lead to an
Results
over estimate of water turnover. Overestimation
Total Body Water Changes obtained in this study was, with one exception,
During the initial heat exposure, total body water very small since there was, a close similarity
increased by 0.6 – 13.5%. (Table 1). The loss in between water turnover calculated by the rate of
TOH dilution and measured total water intake. confluence of the specific activity changes in the
Mcfarlane and Howard (1970) found a good blood and rumen water with time. Isotope
correlation between actual water uptake and rate equilibration does not signify that ingested water
of TOH dilution in the lamb and calf. has been distributed throughout the body. The
rumen of the camel (Hoppe et al. 1975) and the
Although TOH space tends to overestimate goat (Shkolnik et al. 1980) have been shown to
TBW, the factors that cause this error are likely to act as a reservoir of water.
remain relatively constant in an individual animal,
and measurements of changes in TBW from References
measurements of TOH space are likely to be
accurate. For example, the increase in TBW Bost, J. 1964. Régulatgion péripherique de la soif
which followed rehydration was accurately chez les petits ruminants. Mécanisme de la
determined from measurements of the increase in satiété. J. Physiol, Paris, Tome, 56 (3) :302-
TOH space. 303.
The fact that camels regain their original body Carnegie, A. B. and Tulloh. 1968. The in vivo
weight after rehydration was observed by other determination of bodywater space in cattle
workers and led to the conclusion that all weight using tritium dilution technique. Proc. Aust.
loss during dehydration was due to water loss Soc. Anim. Prod., 7: 308.
(Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964). However, the weight
loss observed during dehydration might be a Gauthier-Pilters, and A.I. Dagg. 1981. The
combination of water, tissue, and gut content Camel. Chicago, U. of Chicago Press.
reduction especially since feed was markedly
reduced (Zine-Fillali, 1987). In this experiment Holleman, D. F. , R. G. White and J. R. Luick.
direct changes in TBW indicated that water 1982. Application of the isotopic water
consumption exceeded water loss by 13% and method for measuring total body water body
therefore, the animals did not have a precise water composition and body water turnover. In: Use
satiety mechanism. The average weight loss was of TOH in studies of production and
47.7 ±2.6 kg and the average water consumption adaptation in ruminants. IAEA, Vienna.
was 53.2 ± 9.4 kg while body water reduction
was 38.0 ± 2.2 kg. Over hydration might only be Hoppe, R., R.N.B. Kay and G.M.O. Maloiy.
a phenomenon when severe dehydration occurs. 1975. The rumen as a reservoir during
Water satiety after severe dehydration might be dehydration and rehydration in the camel.
predominantly a function of rumen distension Physiological Society, Sept. 76-77.
since the restoration of the known thirst stimuli
such as blood volume and tonicity take several Macfarlane, W.V. 1964. Terrestrial animals in dry
hours after drinking (Zine-Fillali, 1987). The heat. Ungulates. In: Handbook of Physiology,
animals tended to drink the same amount of water Section 4, Adaptation to the environment. Ed.
each time they were dehydrated irrespective of D.B. Dill, Washington, D.C., Am. Physiol.
the level of dehydration. Therefore, the reticulo- Soc., pp 509-539.
rumen distension might be one of the factors
which terminate drinking (Bost, 1964) and as the Macfarlane, W.V. and B. Howard. 1970. Water in
rumen empties, the thirst stimulus due to tonicity the physiological ecology of ruminants. In:
and volume deficits remains so that when water is The physiology of digestion and metabolism
available they then consume more water. in the ruminant. A.T. Phillipson. (ed.).
Aberdeen, Scotland, Oriel Press, pp 362-374.
The equilibration of ingested water with the
water pool following rehydration took Olsen, J.D. 1979. Method for repeated or
approximately 3-4 hours as shown by the prolonged rumen infusion without
establishing an open fistula. Am. J. Vet. Res., P. Thivend, (eds.). pp 731-742. Lancaster,
40 (5): 730-732. U.K., Medical Technical Press.
Robert Shaw, D. 1982. Potential errors in the Schmidt- Nielsen, K. 1964. Desert Animals;
technique for estimating total body water and Physiological Problems of Heat and Water.
water turnover using tritiated water. In: Use of Oxford at the Clarendon Press.
TOH in studies of production and adaptation
in ruminants, IAEA, Vienna. Springell, P.H. and D.E. Wright. 1976. Liquid
scintillation counting of tritiated water in
Russel, A.J.F., J.Z. Foot and D.N. McFarlane. plasma following dioxane precipitation. Int. J.
1982. Use of tritiated water for estimating App. Rad. Isotopes, 27 : 85-88.
body composition in grazing ewes. IAEA,
Vienna. Panel Proceeding Series. Zine-Fillali, R. 1989. Studies on Dehydration and
Rehydration on the Camel (C. dormedarius).
Shkolnik, A., E. Maltz and I. Choshniak. 1980. Thesis, Doctorate Sciences Agronomiques.
The role of the ruminant’s digestive tract as a Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II
water reservoir. In: Digestive physiology and Rabat, Morocco.
metabolism in ruminants. Y. Ruckebusch and
Table 1. The effect of repeated heat exposure on total body water of dromedary camels.
Camel No. Before Heat Exposure After Heat Exposure % Change
1 194.7 195.8 +0.6
2 186.3 191.7 +2.9
3 182.8 207.5 +13.5
4 169.8 187.4 +10.4
Table 2. Total body water estimated by TOH space in dromedary camels (L).
Camel No. Dehydration Water Consumption During Difference Between Water Lost
Rehydration and Consumed
At start At end % change L % of hydrated state L % change
1 183.4 146 -20.4% 57.6 31.4 20.2 11.0
2 186.5 145.6 -21.9 40.0 21.5 0.9 0.5
3 181.2 143.3 -20.9 61.5 33.9 23.6 13.0
4 172.3 136.6 -20.7 53.6 31.1 17.9 10.4
ABSTRACT
Biochemical changes during fasting were studied in serum of camelids (dromedary camel, llama) and
ruminants (sheep, steers). Camels maintained low levels of β hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and high levels of
glucose, but showed some increased levels of non esterified fatty acid (NEFA) and urea when fasting.
Sheep and steers showed a rise in serum BHB and much higher increases of NEFA than camels and
llarnas. Sheep showed decreased serum glucose. The llama showed some increase in BHB but NEFA
was lower than the other three species. These results indicate that camelids have a unique ability to
control lipolytic and glucoenoegenic activity to prevent or postpone the pathological state of ketosis.
Understanding and manipulation of these metabolic mechanisms in cattle and sheep could have great
benefit to the livestock industry.
Materials and Methods was maintained during fasting and increased after
feeding commenced. Glucose concentrations
Animals, feed and experimental procedure decreased (p < 0.05) in sheep during fasting but
Three adult camels (Camelus dromedarius), three did not change significantly in steers. After
sheep (Ovis aries), three steers (Bos taurus) and feeding there was no significant change in glucose
one llama (Llama glama) were used in this study. concentrations in sheep or steers (Fig. 3). The data
The camels were kept at the Central Veterinary collected from the llama indicated similar changes
Research Laboratory in Dubai and the three steers, in glucose, NEFA and urea to those observed in
sheep and llama at the Rowett Research Institute the camels. Blood urea concentration increased in
in Aberdeen. Prior to the study all the animals all species during fasting (Fig. 4).
were fed diets which were adequate for
maintenance. Discussion
The camels, steers and sheep were each fasted for In camels, during fasting total ketone bodies have
five consecutive days on one occasion. The llama been previously reported to increase (Uro, 1987)
was fasted for five days on three occasions with or remain unchanged (Mirgani, 1982) during
six weeks between fasting periods. Drinking water fasting, as observed in this study. It has been
was always available. Blood samples were suggested that ketones have a very low entry rate
obtained daily by jugular venepuncture from three in camels (Chandrasena et al. 1979) and kinetic
days prior to fasting until five days after fasting. studies would be required to confirm this.
The serum was separated, centrifuged and stored
at -20°C until analysis. The low levels of BHB observed in these studies
during fasting, may indicate that camelids can
Biochemistry studies supply sufficient carbon (C4) metabolites for
ß hydroxybutyrate (BHB), glucose, non esterified maintenance of the TCA cycle or alternatively that
fatty acids (NEFA) and urea were determined they require less C4 metabolites or use different
with a Kone dynamic selective chemistry metabolites than ruminants.
analyzer.
Other factors which may contribute to maintaining
the TCA-cycle and/or the high blood glucose
Data analysis studies levels include; conversion of monocarboxylic
Analysis of variance and Student's t-test were used fatty acids; mobilised from depot fats; to
to compare biochemical values 20 with each dicarboxylicacids by Q-oxidation is reported by
species (except llama) before and during the Verkade et al (1932), thus yielding succinic acid
fasting periods. As only one llama was used in (4-carbon unit) through lA-oxidation; oxidation of
these studies, the data obtained from this animal acetoacetate and BHB by 3-ketoacid-CoA
was not used for statistical analysis, but for transferase activity to produce succinate;
comparison with the other species are presented as acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase activity to produce
mean values in Figures 1-4. acetyl-CoA.; conversion of acetone to pyruvate;
enzyme activity which provides NADPH i.e.
Results acetyl-CoA carboxylase in isocitrate
dehydrogenase pathway. The increased level of
Fasting did not cause any significant change in urea during fasting indicates amino acid
BHB concentrations in camels, whereas marked breakdown with supply of oxaloacetate precursors
increases (p < 0.05) were found with the sheep and possible gluconeogenesis. However since
and steers (Fig. 1). In all species NEFA increased serum urea concentration does not indicate the
(p < 0.05) with fasting, however much larger extent of lean tissue degradation and subsequent
increase 8 were seen in the sheep and steers than gluconeogenesis, studies on nitrogen excretion in
in the camelids (Fig. 2). In camels serum glucose fasting camelids are required. In camelids the
lower rates of increase in serum NEFA during ovis). Comparative Biochem. Physiology,
fasting and the higher serum glucose levels which 64B: 109-112.
are maintained throughout fasting are probably of Guerouali, A. and R.Z. Filali. 1992. Maintenance
major importance in preventing excessive ketosis, energy requirements of the dromedary camel.
during starvation. Camelids and camels in Proc. of the First International Camel Conf.
particular seem to have a unique ability to control 251 -254.
their lipolytic and gluconeogenic rates to prevent
or postpone the pathological state of ketosis. If Johnson, L.W. 1989. Llama Reproduction.
such mechanisms could be understood and Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food
triggered in domesticated ruminants like cattle and Anim. Practice, 5:159-182.
sheep, it could have great benefit to the livestock
industry. Mirgani, T. 1982. Effects of fasting on camel
serum lipids. Sudan Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 23:
Acknowledgements 73-76.
This research was supported by His Highness National Research Council. 1985. Nutrient
Shaikh Mohammed bin Rasid A1 Maktoum, Requirements of Beef Cattle. National
Dubai, U.A.E., the Scottish Office Agriculture and Academic Press, Washington, D.C.
Fisheries Department, U.K. and the Rowett
Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK. Uro, A.B.O. (1987) Studies on Some Aspects of
Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism in the
We are grateful for the help from Professor K. W. Camel (Camelus dromedarius). Ph.D Thesis.
J. Wahle and Dr. D. Hirst. University of Khartoum.
References Verkade, P.E., M., Elzas, J., Van Der Lee, H.H.,
De Wolf, Verkadesandbergen and D.H. Van
Chandrasena, L.G., B. Emmanuel, D.W. Hamar, Der Sande. 1932. Utersuchungen uber den
and B. R. Howard. 1979. A comparative study Fettstoffwechsen. Proc. of the Royal Academy
of ketone body metabolism between camel of Sci., Amsterdam, 35, 225-266.
(Camelus dromdarius) and the sheep (Ovis
Wilson, R.T. 1984 The Camel. Longman, London.
ABSTRACT
The effect of oral zinc supplementation (0.5 and 1.0 g zinc oxide/camel/day) on wound healing in camels
was studied on groups,each consisted of two camels. In the first group, camels were fed basal ration
(green barseem, hay and millets). In the other two groups, the camels were fed the basal ration +0.3g
ZnO/ camel/day or basal ration +1.0g ZnO/camel/day for 45 days. Twelve wounds were induced in
shoulder and thigh regions. Blood samples were collected just before the experiment and after 15 and 30
days of wound induction. Wound biopsy was done his to pathologically examined.
Blood analysis revealed that oral zinc supplementation did not affect Ca, Zn and Cu concentration in
blood plasma throughout the experimental period. Microscopical examination showed that dietary zinc
supplementation enhanced healing process of wounds. It was clear that ZnO at a level of 1.0g/camel/day
was better than the level of 0.5g ZnO/camel /day.
supplemntated with zinc (0.056% of grain with zinc (muscle) translocated zinc to
mixture) for 60 days did not affect plasma zinc or unsaturated tissues (livers, pancreas and kidneys)
wound healing. Tower et al (1981) found that, in (Pekas, 1968).
cows and calves, zinc supplemented had little
effect on plasma zinc concentration. On the other Histopathological examination of wounds on the
hand, oral zinc supplementation (ZnO) 7th day post-surgery in camels of the control
insignificantly increased serum zinc level in male group I showed a mild epithelial proliferation at
buffalo-calves throughout experimental period of the edges of the wound.The wound was partially
90 days (Hady, 1986). Mohammed et al (1994) filled at its base with granulation tissue while the
also observed that zinc level in serum was superficial parts contained blood clot invaded with
markedly elevated by oral zinc supplementation in round cells and scarce granulation tissue at the
yearling buffalo calves. Zinc concentration in edges. Camels of group II showed that the wound
blood serum plasma was the most widely used gap was almost filled with granulation tissue while
indicator of deficiency, but also lack certainty and superficial parts of very thin layer of blood clot
sensitivity and a diagnostic criterion (Underwood, with incomplete epithelization were formed. The
1981). surrounding wound tissue appeared hyperemic
and edematous. Wounds of camels of group III
There was little alteration in plasma Cu level were characterized by its filling with granulation
following zinc supplementation (Table 2). In most tissue and incomplete epithelization under the
species, copper interacts with other minerals skin with mild edema of the surrounding tissue.
including zinc (Underwood, 1981), but this Shabaan (1979) reported that wound gap was
negative relationship has not been studied in filled with fibrous tissue at the depth of the
camels. Such a negative correlation between zinc wounds while superficial part consisted of
and copper level in blood was reported in sheep granulation tissue of 6 day old surgery wounds in
(Bremner et al. 1976) and cows (Tower et al. camels when the lips of wounds were sutured;
1981). while at 8 day old surgery there was regenerated
epidermis from both sides of wounds and was
Plasma Ca concentration was within normal proliferated in sloping manner and covered and
values and was not affected by zinc completely wound surfaces. Mature collagen
supplementation (Table 2). Excessive zinc intake invaded the scar towards the surface leading to
decreased Ca and Cu absorption (Robinson, complete union of operated wounds.
1992). Also, Smith et al (1984) found a significant
drop in serum Ca concentration after 24 hours On the 14th day post-surgery, control camels
following a single high dose of zinc oxide. This showed that the base of the wound was filled with
was however, not found in the present study; due granulation tissue, contained collagen fibres while
either to a low level of zinc supplementation or the superficial parts consisted of granulation tissue
short experimental period. containing areas of hyalinized blood clot. Camels
of group II showed presence of granulation tissue
Normal values of zinc concentration in blood or filling the wound gap. The superficial parts of
serum of domestic livestock mostly lie within the granulation tissue were still containing blood clot
range of 0.8-12 ug/ml but individual variability and epithelial proliferation, was noticed. Camels
could be high and many factors other than dietary of group III showed that wound gap was filled
zinc might affect serum concentration with granulation tissue. At the base of the wound
(Underwood, 1981). In camels, zinc conentration fibroblast cells, blood capillaries and collagen
was almost at the lower range (Table 2). Zinc fibers were seen. There was also a very thin
supplementation did not change zinc complete epithelial union. Purohit and Chouban
concentration in plasma considerably. This could (1992) found that collagen content was increased
be due to the fact that zinc was removed from from day 4 to 20 in healing stages of camels. On
blood rapidly by tissues, and that tissues saturated the 21st day post -surgery control animals showed
S. Lotfia Fahmy, E. A. Berbish, H.M. Teleb and A.A. Hegazy 79
that the wound was filled with granulation tissue Hady, M.M. 1986. Role of Microelements in
with superficial blood clot at the surface. Partial Nutrition of Water Buffalo and its Relation to
epithelization was seen. Wounds of camels of Production and Animal Health. Ph. D. Thesis.
group II were completely filled with highly Fac.Vet. Med. Cairo Univ.
vascular granulation tissue with wound
epithelization which appeared very thin and Hardie-Muncy, D.A. and A. L. Rasmassen. 1979.
formed of a few layers of cells. In animals of Interaction between zinc and protein levels and
group III, the wounds were filled with collagen source in weaning rats. J. Nutr., 109, 321.
fibres with complete epithelization. The later was
formed of a basal layer and few flattened Harland, B.F. M.R.S. Fox and B. E. Jr. Fry. 1974.
epithelial cells. On the 28th day post-surgery, the Changes in plasma zinc related to fasting and
wounds of control camels and the other two dietary protein intake in Japanese quail.
groups were completely healed with fibrous tissue Proc.Soci, Exper. Biol. Med., 145: 316-322.
formation in the area.
Heinrichs, A. J. D. A. Todhunter, F. A. Murray,
It was conducted that addition of dietary zinc A.P. Jr. Crifo, J. H. harrison, and H.R. Conrad.
enhanced wound healing. These results are 1984. Zinc methionine supplementation for
parallel with those of Purohit and Chonhan (1992) dairy cows. A study of effect on plasma zinc,
who found that dressing materials namely, such as wound healing, mammary health and immune
Zinc, insulin (best), tissue extract and neem oil responses. Research Circular. Ohio. Agric.
enhance tissue repair in camels. Res. and Development Center No.281, 12 pp.
Probst, C.W. and R.M. Bright. 1985. Wound Smith, B.L., A. J. Collier, R. J. Lawrence, and N.
healing Textbook of Small Animal Surgey. R. Towers. 1984. Hypocalcaemia associated
Vol .1, Saunders Philadelphia. with high dose rates of zinc oxide in lactating
dairy cows. New Zealand Vet. J., 32: 48.
Purohit, N.H. and D.S. Chouban. 1992. Wound
healing in camels Proc. 1st Int.Camel. Conf. Smith, J. C., E. G. McDoniel, F. F. Farr, and J. A.
pp 355-370. Halsted 1973. Zinc: A trace element essential
in vitamin A metabolism. Science, 181: 954.
Ramadan, R. O. R. A. Kock, and A. J. Higgins.
1986. Observation on the diagnosis and Tower, N.R., B. W. Young, and D. E. Wright.
treatment of surgical conditions in the camels. 1981. Effect of zinc on bovine plasma copper.
In " The camel in Health and Disease".By New Zealand Vet. J., 29 :113.
Higgins, A.Bailliere Tindal, London.
Underwood, E.J. 1981. The Mineral Nutrition of
Robinson, N.E. 1992. Current Therapy in Equine Livestock. Commonwealth Agricultural
Medicine. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. Bureaux, England.
Shabaan, I. A. 1979. Some Investigation on Vallee, B.L. 1976. Zinc biochemistry in the
Wounds and Wound Healing in One Humped normal and neoplastic growth process. In:
Camel. Ph. D.Thesis Fac. Vet. Med. Zagazig Cancer Enzymology.
Univ.
ABSTRACT
The morphology and the vasculature of the kidney of the dromedary was described. Information
obtained from gross dissection of embalmed camel kidneys was correlated with latex and Batson's
solution injected vascular and in excretory casts. The functional significance of the renal pelvis was dis-
cussed.
The morphological features of the kidney in most Forty-six camel kidneys were used, 30 of which
domestic animals have been reported in literature were obtained from a local slaughterhouse, and
(Barone, 1978; Bourdelle and Bressou, 1949, the rest were collected from camels after
1953, 1978; Bradely, 1948; Nickel et al.1979; intramuscular administration of xylazine
Getty, 1975; Moffat, 1975; Miller, 1979). There hydrochloride Rompun at a dosage level of 0.2
are, however, few accounts on the gross mg/kg body weight and subsequent bleeding at the
microscopic anatomy of the kidney of the camel Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire (l.A.V)
(Lesbre, 1903; Tayeb, 1948; Abdalla, 1973; El- Hassan ll, Rabat, Morocco.
Shaieb et al. 1982). For instance, El-Shaieb et al
(1981) studied the arcuate arteries, Abdalla and Latex and Batson’s 17 were injected into the
Abdalla (1979) reported morphometric ureter and renal vessels of 20 kidneys and then
observations on the kidney, and Moussa (1983) they were macerated in concentrated HCl solution
described the juxtaglomerular complex of the leaving the casts of the lumen of the renal pelvis,
kidney in the camel. Intensive research on the ureter, and the renal vasculature.
renal function such as the response of the renine
aldosterone system (Finberg et al. 1978), water Results
turnover and renal function of the camel in the
desert (Seibert and Macfarlane, 1971), and the The paired kidneys of dromedary camel are
role of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and located retroperitoneally inside the abdominal
aldosterone in dehydrated and rehydrated camel cavity; the right kidney being somewhat located
(Yagil and Etzion, 1979) were reported. more cranially than the corresponding left. They
are bean-shaped with smooth surfaces with grey
The purpose of this investigation was to describe
or blue coloration. The right kidney is situated
the functional anatomy of the renal pelvis and its ventral to the transverse processes of the first
relationship to renal blood vessels. lumbar vertebrae. It measures about 17 cm in
H. Zguigal and A. Ouhsine 82
length, 13 cm in width, and 6 cm in thickness, branches before reaching the hilus. Each of these
weighing 720 gm. Its cranial and caudal branches in turn splits into 5-8 interlobar arteries,
extremities are somewhat similar, the former and after ascending along the opposed borders of
being capped by the caudate lobe of the liver the medullary pyramids they supply the respective
(renal impression). The left kidney occupies the surfaces of the kidney. Near the corticomedullar
sublumbar region ventral to the last three lumbar junction, the interlobar arteries branch into arcuate
(L5-L7) transverse processes and has small and arteries that radiate toward the periphery of the
pointed cranial extremity and large and rounded cortex, where they again split into several
caudal extremity. lt is about 16 cm in length, 12.5 interlobular arteries. Different arterioles leave
cm in width, and 6 cm in thickness, weighing 685 these vessels to vascularize the glomeruli and,
gm. The lateral border of each kidney is convex hence, the different arterioles (Fig. 3).
and related to the lateral abdominal wall. The
medial border is somewhat concave with an The venous drainage of the kidney stems from the
idented renal hilus transmitting the renal vessels, numerous capsular veins that, after converging,
lymphatics and the ureter. The renal lymph nodes, empty into the interlobular, arcuate interlobar and
adrenal (suprarenal) gland and the initial segment finally into the dorsal and ventral branches of the
of the ureter are related to the medial border, in renal vein draining the respective surfaces of each
addition to the abdominal aorta to the left and the kidney. Each dorsal and ventral branch again
caudal vena cava to the right kidney. The flat divides into the cranial and caudal branches. The
dorsal surfaces of both kidneys are related to the cranial as well as caudal branches become
psoas muscles and iliac fascia, but their slightly confluent with each other inside the renal sinus
convex ventral surfaces have different which then continues as the renal vein. The left
relationships (Fig. 1). The left kidney is related renal vein is longer than the right one, both of
ventrally to the spleen and the dorsal sac of the them opening into the caudal vena cava.
rumen, the right kidney to the colon.
Discussion
The examination of the cast of the excretory part
of the kidney (Fig. 2) revealed a narrow crescentic Presence of recesses in the renal pelvis of the
pelvis with 9-13 recesses extending to the camel kidney was the most important anatomical
medullar zone of the kidney. These recesses characteristic feature which was designated as
consist of dorsal as well as ventral segments being specialized fornices in sheep and dog (Pfeiffer,
related to the respective surface of the kidney, and 1968) . These structures should not, however, be
the small terminal recesses are located toward the confused with the calices of the multipapillated
poles of extremities. Each recess of the renal kidney of the ox and pig. The camel, similar to the
pelvis has a deep inner surface surrounding the horse, sheep, goat and dog possesses a renal
medullar part of a renal lobe, while the outer crest-type kidney. These recesses had the
surface encloses the corresponding interlobar appearance of flowers with many petals and a
artery and its branches after coalescing with the complicated arrangement. The angioarchitecture
adjacent one. Each pelvic recess presents two of the camel kidney was similar to that of the dog
borders: a slightly convex one facing towards the (Evans and Christensen, 1979). Examination of
surface of the kidney is provided with numerous the renal pelvis revealed that these recesses
folds, whereas the other smooth, slightly concave extended in the medullar zone of the kidney where
border is directed deeply. the capillaries were in close association with the
lining epithelium. At the arch of the specialized
Each kidney is vascularized by the renal artery recess a dense plexus of capillaries intermingling
arising from the lateral aspect of the abdominal with elastic nets that apparently protecting the
aorta, the right artery being longer than the blood vessels were discernible. The functional
corresponding left. Each renal artery after significance of these recesses is not clearly
coursing laterally divides into dorsal and ventral understood. Pfeiffer (1968) reported a good
correlation between the effect of urea and the El-Shaieb, M.R., Fath El- Bab and A.S. Saber.
osmotic ceiling of the urine and the development 1981. The arcuate arteries and their branches
of pelvic fornices and that the papillary urea in the kidney of the camel (Camelus
concentration is much higher in mammals with dromedarius). Assiut Vet. Med. J., 8 (15 -16):
specialized fornices than in those without them. It 9-13.
is possible that urea could be recycled from the
pelvic urine, and that urine formation is not El-Shaieb, M.R., Fath El-Bab and A.S. Saber.
complete until it enters the ureter. Movements of 1982. Some morphological features of the
solute from the pelvic urine into the medullar kidney of the camel (Camelus dromedarius).
tissue may occur through the epithelium of the Assiut Vet. Med., 9 (17-18): 3-6.
specialized recesses and thus assist in building up
urea and the osmotic concentration in the papillary Evans, J. and C. Christensen. 1979. The
tissues. Very little intervening tissue separates the Urogenital Apparatus. Miller’s Anatomy of
urine in these recesses from the lumen of the the Dog. 2nd Edition. 544-554. Saunder's Co.
tubules and the cortical blood vessels. These renal Philadelphia- London- Toronto.
recesses might play an important role in the
economy of water. Finberg, J.P.M., R. Yagil, and G.M. Berlyne.
1978. Response of the Renine-Aldosterone
References System in the Camel to Arcuate des
Hydratation. Appl. Physiol : Respirat. Exercise.
Abdalla, M. 1973. Anatomical study of the urinary Physiol., 44 (6): 926-930.
system of the camel. M.V. Sci. Khartoum
University, Sudan. Getty. 1975. The Anatomy of Domestic Animals.
Saunders Co. Philadelphia- London-Toronto.
Abdallah, M.A. and O. Abdallah. 1979.
Morphometric observations on the kidney of Lsbre, M.F.X. 1903. Recherches Anatomiques
the camel. J. Anat., 129 (1): 45-50. sur les Camelides. Arch. Mus. d'Hist. Nat.,
Lyon.
Barone, R. 1978. Anatomie comparee des
mammiferes domestiques. Tome lll (splan- Miller. 1979. Anatomy of the Dog. Second
chonologie). ascicule ll: 5-15. Laboratoire Edition. A.B. Saunders Co. Pheladelphia-
d'Anatomie, Ecole Nationale veterinaire, London-Toronto.
Lyon.
Moffat, D.B. 1975. The Mammalian Kidney. lst
Bourdelle, E.T. and C. Bressou. 1949. Anatomie Edition. Cambridge University Press-London,
Regionale des Animaux Domestiques. Tome l, New York.
Equides. Librairie J.B. Bailliere et Fils, Paris.
Moussa, M.H.G. 1983. The Juxtaglomerular
Bourdelle E.T. and C. Bressou. 1953. Anatomie Complex of the One Humped Camel. Vet.
Régionale des Animaux Doméstiques. Tome Bull. 53 (1):123.
lV, Carnivores (Chien et chat) Librairie J.B.
Bailliere et Fils. Paris. Nickel, R., A. Schumer and E. Seirferle. 1979.
Bourdelle, E.T. and C. Bressou. 1978. Anatomie The Viscera of the Domestic Mammals. 2nd
Régionale des Animaux Doméstiques. Tome Edition. Verlage Paul Springer, pp 282-304.
II, les Ruminants. J. B. Baillière (ed.), Paris.
Pfeiffer, E.W. 1968. Comparative Anatomical
Bradely, M.P. 1948. Urinary System in Observations of the Mammalian Renal Pelvis
Embryology of the Pig. 3rd edition: 197-210 and Medulla. J. Anat., 102 (4): 321-331.
Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
Siebert, D.B. and W.V. Macfarlane. 1971. Water Yagil, R. and Z. Etzion. 1979. The role of ADH
Turnover and Renal Function of Dromedarius and Aldosterone in the dehydrated and
in the Desert. J. Physiol,: 225-240. rehydrated camel. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.,
63 (A): 275-375.
Tayeb. M.A.F. 1948. Urinary System of the
Camel. J. Am. Vet. Med. Ass. 568-572.
Fig. 3. Batson's cast of the vascular and excretory systems of the kidney.
1. Ureter; 2. Renal pelvis; 3. Pelvic recesses; 4. Site of pyramid; 5. Renal artery;
6. Dorsal branch of 5; 7. Ventral branch of 56; 8. Interlobar artery; 9. Renal vein.
ABSTRACT
The ultra structural and histological features of camel (Camelus dromedarius) meat were examined.
The unaged muscles displayed all the major ultra structural features i.e. Z-line, A-band, l-band, H-band
and M-line. In addition, N2-line was observed in the Psoas major (PM) muscle only. Upon aging, some
of these features were affected and displayed marked changes. Typing of fibers indicated that α W,
βR and α R fibres exist in the skeletal muscle of the camel.
Remedios and Gilmor (1978) observed a 2-7 mm Billeter, R., H. Weber, H. lutz, H. Howald, H.M.
in diameter filament in the striated muscle which Eppenberger and E. Jenny. 1980. Myosin
could be the G-filament. Titin and Nebulin are the types in human skeletal muscle fibers.
two cytoskeletal proteins of the proposed Histochemistry, 65: 249-251.
F-filaments and N2-line, respectively. Both of
these proteins are highly insoluble, have high Calkin, C.R., T.R. Dutson, G.C. Smith, Z.I.
molecular weights and elastic in nature (Robson Carpenter and G.W. Davis. 1981. Relationship
and Huiatt, 1983). The tensile strength of cooked of fiber type composition to marbling and
meat was attributed mainly to the G- Filament tenderness of bovine muscle. J. Food Sci., 46:
and collagen. Although two of the three muscles 708-710.
aged and examined in this study displayed
Drury, R.A.B, and E.A. Wallington. 1980. In
postmortem changes, particularly in the l-band
Carleton's Histological Techniques. 5th
and Z-line, similar to that observed by
edition., 239 pp.
different investigators in the skeletal muscles of
other red meat species, yet it is not possible at this
Dubrowitz, V. and M.H. Brook. 1973. Muscle
junction to give a simple explanation (other than
Biopsy: A Modern Approach. W.B. Sanders
species difference) why camel meat is not as
Co. Ltd. London.
tender as the meat from other red meat species.
Locker, R.H. and N.G. Leet. 1976. Histology of
Acknowledgement
highly-stretched beef muscle. Evidence for
This work was partially supported by the
movement of gap filaments through the Z-
Scientific Council of King Faisal University,
line, using the N2-line and M-line as makers.
Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia.
J. Ultrastruct. Res., 56: 31-38.
Gratitude is expressed to the staff of the
Remedios, C.G. and G. Gilmor. 1978. Is there
electron microscopy unit of King Faisal
a third type of filament in straited muscles. J.
University for their technical assistance with
Biochem., 84: 235-238.
TEM. Thanks are extended to Mr. Abdelmoneim
Hussein for his assistance with the histological
Robson, R.M. and T.W. Huiatt. 1983. Roles of
work.
the cytoskeletal proteins desmin, titin and
References nebulin in muscle.Rec. Meat. Conf. Proc., 36:
116-123.
Abbott, M. T., A. M. Pearson, J.F. Price and G.R.
Hooper. 1977. Ultrastructural changes during Schaller, D.R. and W.D. Powrie. 1971. Scanning
autolysis of red and white porcine muscle. electron microscopy of skeletal muscle from
J. Food. Sci., 42: 1185-88. rainbow trout, turkey and beef. J. Food. Sci.,
36: 552-559.
Abdalla, N.M., N.M. El-Shimi, and M.H.G.
Moussa. 1982. Effect of using papaya leaves Seideman, S.C., J.D. Crose and H.R. Cross. 1986.
and fruits for tenderization on the quality The effect of sex condition and growth
characteristics of camel meat. Research implants on bovine muscle fiber characteris-
Bulletin No. 1745, Faculty of Agric., Ain tics. Meat Sci., 17: 79-95.
Shams, Egypt.
Young, O.A.and J.J. Bass. 1984. Effect of
Ashmore, C.R. and I. Doett. 1977. Postnatal castration on bovine muscle composition.
development of fiber types in normal and Meat Sci., 11: 139-156.
dystrophic chick muscle. Expt. Neurol, 30:
431-437.
Table 1. Distribution of the skeletal muscle fiber types of the Arabian camel and steers.
Muscle Fiber Types (%)
Species and Muscles ∝W *
∝ R* Β R*
Red Camel (n=2)
LD 38.8 46.7 14.5
ST 36.7 43.3 20.0
Soleus 30.2 48.1 21.7
Black Camel (n =2)
LD 13.4 41.7 44.8
ST 20.9 30.5 47.6
PM 30.4 27.8 41.7
Beef (n=2)
LD 34.8 52.1 13.0
* Expressed as percentage of total fiber numbers.
ABSTRACT
A total of 392 quarters of mammary glands, 98 supramammary lymph nodes and 98 blood samples
collected from 98 female camels. Serological studies were conducted using Rose Bengale Plate Test and
serum agglutination test for detection of Brucella antibodies. The most commonly incriminated
organisms responsible for mastitis, as well as a detailed description for the pathological picture of the
resulting lesions.
The present study described the pathological embedding method. Paraffin sections were
profile of mastitic glands in relation to the performed and stained by H&E and
causative pathogen and states the incidence of microscopically examined (Carleton et al. 1967).
Brucella seropositive animals in relation to
isolation of brucella from mammary glands of the Results
female camel shedding a light on this important Serological Studies
and previously insufficiently recognized health Seven out of 98 sera samples reacted positively to
problem. RBPT and SAT. Brucella melitensis was isolated
from the mammary glands of 5 cases (Table 1).
Materials and Methods
Bacteriological Examination
This study was conducted during the time period The most commonly isolated bacterial species
extending from October 1999 to January 2000. from mastitic mammary glands were
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staph aureus,
Samples Streptococcus group A. pyogenes, Brucella
A total of 392 quarters of mammary glands, 98 melitensis, E. coli, and Pasteurella hemolytica
supramammary lymph nodes and 98 blood either in pure or mixed infections.
samples were collected from 98 female camel
slaughtered at Al-Ahsa modern slaughterhouse: Pathological Studies
The macroscopical examination of the mammary
Serological Studies glands revealed that 39 quarters showed the
Sera were separated from the blood samples, clinical picture of mastitis, while the
inactivated and stored at -20 0C until tested. The microscopical examination added another 29 cases
sera were screened with Rose Bengale Plate Test concluding a total of 68 (17.34%) mastitic
(RBPT) for the presence of Brucella agglutinins. cases.The types of mastitis and isolated organisms
The positively tested sera were further treated with were presented in Table 2. Moreover, microscopic
the serum agglutination test using Brucella examination revealed disturbance of growth and
abortus and Brucella melitensis antigens. neoplasia in another 11 cases. Types and
incidence of these lesions were presented in Table
Bacteriological Examination
3. The macroscopical and microscopical pictures
Tissue samples from mammary glands,
of different types of the aforementioned lesions
supramammary lymph nodes and milk (From
are described below:
lactating cases) were transferred into ice boxes to
the laboratory within few hours from collection.
Acute diffuse mastitis
Each sample was streaked onto brucella agar
Grossly, the affected quarter(s) was swollen and
supplied with selective antibiotic mixture, Hekton
firm with reddish discoloration. The cut surface
enteric agar, and blood agar. Plates were then
appeared granular and dry with presence of clotted
incubated at 37°C, examined after 24 hours and
milk in the cisternae.
then for colonial growth daily for 10 days. The
growing colonies were identified morphologically
Microscopically, the acini showed severe
and biochemically according to the standard
aggregations of inflammatory cells mainly
method of Carter and Cole (1990).
neutrophils and mononuclear cells, in addition to
Pathological Studies desquamated epithelium and eosinophilic
The collected mammary glands were examined exudates. The interstitial tissues appeared
grossly for detection of abnormalities. Tissue edematous and infiltrated with inflammatory cells,
samples from mammary glands and and vascular congestion and hemorrhages were
supramammary lymph nodes were fixed in a 10% commonly seen. E. coli was isolated from these
neutral formalin and processed by paraffin cases.
Microscopically, extensive fibrosis, scarring of Microscopically, mild intra lobular and lobular
the interstitial tissue and lobular infiltration with fibrosis associated with mononuclear cell
mononuclear inflammatory cells mainly infiltration were seen. The affected lobules
macrophages, plasma cells, histiocytes, and showed collapsed acini with occasional
lymphocytes were the prominent picture. The eosinophilic exudes. Staph. aureus and Group A
acini were mostly atrophied or replaced by fibrous Streptococcus pyogenes were isolated from these
tissue. The ducts were mostly dilated and showed cases.
fibrous thickening of their walls with
Chronic obstructive mastitis
desquamation or stratification of the lining
This form of chronic mastitis was grossly
epithelium and accumulation of chronic
characterized by massive dilatation of the cistern
inflammatory cells and eosinophilic exudates in
and accumulation of clotted milk associated with
the lumen.
fibrosis of the affected quarter. Obstruction of the
teat canal and hypertrophy of the teat were
Chronic suppurative mastitis
constantly detected. Microscopically, marked intra
Grossly, one or more quarters were affected. The
and interlobular fibrosis associated with focal
affected quarter was enlarged, firm and coarsely
aggregations of chronic inflammatory cells and
nodular. The cut section revealed the presence of
occasional neutrophils were commonly seen. The
chronic abscess surrounded by thick fibrous
acini were collapsed with marked ductal ectasia,
capsule and containing creamy pus.
which sometimes contained eosinophilic exudate
in the lumen. Past. hemolytica and Group A
Microscopically, areas of liquifactive necrosis
Streptococcus pyogenes were isolated in these
surrounded by several layers of neutrophils and
cases.
macrophages were seen. The surrounding tissue
showed granulation tissue proliferation and Duct ectasia
infiltration with inflammatory cells. The ducts The affected parts were transformed into spongy
appeared desquamated and impacted by mass. Microscopically, the ducts appeared highly
dilated with thin wall. Ectasia also included were detected in the mammary glands of these
terminal ductules and acini. Neither inflammatory animals despite isolation of Brucella melitensis
cells nor stagnation of secretion could be detected. from highly positive animals. It was worth
mentioning that the mammary glands of these
Fibrosclerosis cases showed focal granulomatous mastitis.
The detected cases were more or less localized Similar lesions in cow were described by Jubb et
fibrosclerotic tissue. al (1993).
1993). A. pyogenes was isolated as a single culture camels however such lesions were detected in
from the affected cases. Hassanien et al (1984) dogs (Hampe and Misdorp, 1974).
and Karmy (1990) isolated the same organism
from similar cases, however Bakeer et al (1994) References
isolated Staph.aureus as well from the affected
cases. Abdurahman, O.A.S. 1996. The detection of
subclinical mastitis in the bacterian camel
Acute necrotic mastitis was characterized by (Camelus bactrians) by somatic cell count and
extensive necrosis and acute inflammation with California mastitis test. Vet. Res. Communica-
degeneration of the surrounding lobules. Both tions, 20 (1): 9-14.
Pseudomonas aerugenosa and E. coli were
incriminated for these lesions. It is well known Bakeer, A.M., M.Afify, El Jakee and M., Hemeda.
that the tissue changes are the result of endotoxic 1994. Pathological and bacteriological studies
injury to the microvasculature of the alveolar wall on mammary gland affections in one humped
and mammary interstitum while Pseudomonas she camel. Vet. Med. J. Giza, (B): 321-326.
aerugenosa is a secondary invador of the already
infected udder. This form of mastitis is considered Barbour, E.K., N.H. Nabbut, W.M. Frerichs, Al
to be a result of peracute infection by E. coli in a Nakhli H. M. and A.A.Mukayel. 1985.
way similar to that of cattle. Mastitis in Camelus dromedaries in Saudi
Arabia. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod., 17 (3): 173 –
Acute diffuse mastitis was attributed to E. coli 179.
infection. The inflammation mostly involved one
quarter and caused destruction of the lining of the Bolbol, A.E. 1982. Mastectomy in she-camel.
ducts, edema of interstitial tissues and infiltration Assiut Vet. Med. J., 10: 215.
of the acini with serous and inflammatory cells
mainly neutrophils and macrophages. Carleton, M.A., A.B. Drury, E.A. Wallington, and
H.Cameran. 1967. Carleton’s Histological
Similar findings were observed in cow in acute E. Technique. 4th ed. Oxford Univ. Press New
coli infection (Kremer et al. 1990). Bakeer et al York. Toronto.
(1994) also reported similar lesions in camels. E.
coli was isolated from the milk of mastitic females Carter, G.R. and J. R. C. Cole. 1990. Diagnostic
and regarded as the principle causative agent Procedures in Veterinary Bacteriology and
(Nagah and Thabet, 1993). It was also isolated Mycology. 4th ed. Academic Press. Harcourt
from peracute mastitis in camels (Kapur et al. Brace Jov publishers New York, London,
1982; Quandal and Qudan, 1984). Tokyo, Toronto.
Gameel, S.E.A., S.O. Mohamed, A.A. Mustafa Kastrzynski, S. and M. Kozanecki. 1990. Studies
and S.M. Azwai. 1993. Prevalence of camel on Staphylococci aetiology of mastitis in cow.
brucellosis in Lybia. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod., Medycyna Veterynaryina, 46: (8) 275-277.
25: 91-93.
Kennedy P.C. and R.B. Miller. 1993. Female
Hafez, A.M., S.A. Razig, S. El-Amrousi, and O.R. genital system In: Pathology of Domestic
Ramadan. 1987. Studies on mastitis in farm Animals. K.V. Jubb, Kennedy, and N. Palmer
animals in Al-Hassa Saudi Arabia. I- (eds). Academic Press, pp 349-469.
Analytical studies. Assiut Vet. J., 19: 140-145.
Kremer W. D. J., E.N. Noordhuizen-Stassen and
Hampe, J.F. and W. Misdorp. 1974. 1X.Tumpour J. A. C. M. Lohius. 1990. Host defence and
and dysplasia of the mammary glands. bovine California mastitis. Vet. Q., 12: 103-
Bull.Org. Mond. sante’ 50,111-133. 112.
Hassanein, A., A. S. Soliman, and M. Ismail. Mustafa, A.S., A.M. Ragab, E.E. Safwat, Zeinab
1984. A clinical case of mastitis of she camel El-Sayed, Mervat El-Rahman, N.A. El-Danaf,
caused by corynebacterium pyogenes. Assiut and M. T. Shouman. 1987. Examination of
Vet. Med. J., 12: 23-28. raw she–camel milk for detection of
subclinical mastitis. J. Egypt. Vet. Med.
Hegazy, A.A., M.O.A. El-Shazly, M.A. Whabah Assiut, 47 (1 & 2): 219-229.
and H.A. Amer. 1998. Pathological and
serological studies on brucellosis in she camel. Nagah, M.S. and A Thabet. 1993. Bacteriological
Egypt. J. Comp. Path. Clinical Path., 11(2) 23- quality of camel’smilk with special reference
32. to mastitis. Assiut Vet. Med. J., 28: 194-198.
Hungerford, T.G. 1989. Diseases of Livestock. 8th Obied., A.J., H.O. Bagadi, and M. M. Mukhtar.
ed. Mcgraw Hill Book Comp, Sydney. 1996. Mastitis in Camelus dromedaries and
the somatic cell content of camels milk. Res.
Ind. Vet. Sci., 61: 56-58.
Jubb, K. V. F. and P.C. Kennedy. 1993. Pathology
of domestic animals. Vol 111. The Female Quandil, S.S. and J. Qudan 1984. Bacteriological
Genital System. 3rd Academic Press New study of some cases of mastitis in the
York. dromedary (Camelus dromedaries) in UAE
(Prelimenary report). Rev. D”elev. Med. Vet.
Kapur, M.P., B. M. Khanna, and R.P. Singh. Paystrop., 135: 705-707.
1982. A peracute case of mastitis associated
with Klebsiella pneumaniae and Escherichia Radwan, A. I. S. J. Bekairi, and P.V.S. Prasad.
coli, Indian Vet. J., 59: 650-651. 1992. Serological and bacteriological study of
brucellosis in camels in central Saudi Arabia.
Karmy, S.A. 1990. Bacteriological studies on Rev. Sci. Tech., OIE, 11(3): 837-844.
mastitis in small ruminants and she camel in
upper Egypt. J. Egyptian Vet. Med. Assoc., Ramadan, R.O., A.M. Hassan, R. Abdin Bey,
50: 69-79. Y.A. Algasnawi, E.S.M. Abdallah, A.A.
Fayed. and A.M. El-Hassan. 1987. Chronic
Kaspakov, Z. H. K. 1976. Phage typing of obstructive mastitis in camel. A clinico-
pathogenic staphylococci isolated from milk pathoilogical study. Cornell Veterinarian, 77:
and the environment of camel breeding farms. 132-150.
Probl. Vet. Samit., 55: 32-35.
Table 3. The type and incidence of mammary neoplasia and disturbances of growth.
Type of Lesion No of Cases Incidence
Fibrosclerosis 4 4.08%
Duct ectasia 3 3.06%
Intra ductal fibroma 3 3.06%
Adeno-carcinoma 1 1.02%
Total 11 11.2%
ABSTRACT
One hundred camel lungs having gross pathology changes were collected from abattoirs of Lahore and
Faisalabad. The prevalence of various pathological condition in lungs were 48.90 %, stage of red
hepatization 33.33% and stage of gray hepatization 17.77%, Hydatidosis 40% bronchitis 8%,
Penumonicosis 5% and Tubercle nodules 2%. The microorganisms isolated were Corynaebacterium,
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Echerichia, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Bacillus lebsiella and Mycobaterium.
exudates. One of the cases was a chemical nodules were localized in perivascular,
irritant. This stain was attained in less than two perobronchial inter alveolar or interstitial
minutes after its application, while in case of connective tissue. Proteus and Bacillus were
infections (bacterial as well as viral) is isolated from 4 and 1 cases, respectively.
developed in few hours (Jubb et al. 1985). Penumonicosis developed in these cases may be
attributed to atmospheric contamination of
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Klebsiella minerals and other industrial pollution in the
were isolated from 6, 7 and 2 cases of affected form of dust.
lungs, respectively. The third group consisted of
8 cases of gray hepatization. The lungs showed Hydatidosis was observed in 40 cases. The
multiple focal areas of consolidation with a dark lungs from these cases had Echinococcus cysts.
grayish color and had lobular distribution. The number of cysts varies from one to twenty
Microscopically, the bronchial lumen was filled and their size ranged from two to five
with exudats containing polymorphonulcear centimeters. Microscoprcally, the cystic wall
cells, monocytes and desquamated epithelium of containd mature and immature wall fibroblasts.
bronchioles.
The outer surface of the cyst had a thick zone of
The alveoli were distended with exudats the connection tissue lined by relatively immature
greyness of the affected tissue in this stage is fibroblasts.
attributed factors like ischaemia of the alveolar
capillaries due to pressure of the exudate on The surrounding parenchymal tissue showed
them increased infiltrations of leukocytes and congestion. The reraction around the
lyses of erythrocyte (Sastry, 1983). bronchioles appeared in the form of aggregation
Corynebacterium and Escherichia were isolated of mononuclear cells, inter-alveolar tissue was
from 5 and 3 cases, respectively. also infiltrated by mononuclear cells.
Pampiglione (1986) examined 250 camels in
From the above discussion, it appeared that the Algeria and noted 22 (8.4%) harbored hydatid
prevalence of pneumonia varied from place to cysts. Hamdy et al (1980) found 144 (7.95%)
another in camels due to the difference in out of 1811 camels positive for hydatid infection
management, nutrition and climatic factors. at Cairo and Embaba abattoirs. Saad (1982)
Bronchitis was diagnosed histologically in 8 reported that out of 51 camels examined in
cases which showed infiltration of inflammatory Gedarif Sudan 18 (35.29%) were infected with
cells with abundance of mononuclear cells and hydatid cysts. From the above reference it was
exudats in bronchiolar wall. In some of these evident that the prevalence of hydatidosis varies
cases polymorphonuclear cells were also present in from one camel population to another as well
in the alveoli. These studies were to be in line as from place to place. Dogs and Jackals acts as
with those of Mehmoud et al (1988) who an intermediated host for echinococcus cysts.
described similar cellular reaction in mild Moreover, local law about stray dogs and dogs
cellular bronchitis. Staphylococcus and Baxillus with nomads play a vital position in its
were isolated from 6 and 2 cases, respectively. disseminate. Proteus was isolated from 3 cases
of this group.
Pneumoicosis was histologically present in 5
cases. The dust or carbon particles were seen in The seventh group included two cases of
the tissue added aggregates of fine granules of tubercle nodules. Grossly, the lesions were in
dark black color. These granules at some sites the form of small discrete military nodules
initiated fibroblastic proliferation which varying from 1 to 3 cm in size. The smaller
appeared in the form of dense nodules nodules coalesced to form large nodules. These
composed of fibrocyte and collagen fibers. The nodules had raised surface and were grayish
white in color. Upon cutting, they yielded Hamdy, I.I., E.G. Mikhail, A.A. Soliman and
inspissated pus which was sometimes gritty in H.H. Hameed. 1980. A study on hydatidosis
nature. Histopathologicallty, these appeared as in some animals in Egypt. J. Soc. Parasit.,
granulomass in parenchymatous tissue having a 10(1): 43-51.
center of caseation surrounded by giant cells,
Humason, L.G. 1972. Animal Tissue Technique.
epithelioid cells and lymphocytes. Myco-
3rd ed. W.H. Preeman Company, San
bacterium tuberculosis was confirmed by acid
Fransaisco, pp 153-186.
fast staining. Arora and Kalra (1973) isolated
klebsiella and Diplococci species from bronco-
Jones, T.C. and R.B. Hunt. 1983. Veterinary
pneumonia in camels. Klebsiella and Pseudo-
Pathology. 5th ed. Lee Gabiger, Philadelphia
monas aerogenosa was found in upper and
U.S.A. pp 1218-1250.
lower respiratory tract were pathogenic org-
anisms. (Baily and Scott, 1974; Shigidi, 1973)
Jubb, K.V.F., P.C. Kennedy and N. Palmer.
isolated and identified microorganisms from
1985. The Female Genetic System. In:
nasal swabs, lungs and bronchial lymph nodes
Pathology of Domestic Animal. 3rd ed.
of apparently healthy camels. These micro-
Academic Press, New York.
organism included bacilli 26.20%, diphtheroid
15.9%, corynebactrium pyogenes 5.40%, alpha
Mehmoud, A.Z., S.I. Moustafa, and A.H. Elyas.
hemolytic streptococcus 5.1%, E. Coli 1% and
1988. A study on lung affection of camel
Enterobacter aerogenese 0.5%.
(Camelus dromedarius) in Assiut Govt.
Assiut. Vet. Med. J., 20 (40): 92-97.
It was clear that the respiratory tract of
apparently normal animals acted as a reservoir
for many species and types of organisms. These Nabiha, R.H. D.E. Rawhia, N.M. Doghim, Al-
microorganisms reached the nasal cavity either Zeftawi and A.F. Sondons. 1981.
through inhalation or during drinking. Stress Pathological Studies on pneumonia in
factors such as changes in the hygienic, camels. 15th Arab. Vet. Med. Cong. Cairo.
environmental and climatic conditions play an
Pampiglicone, S. 1986. Hydatidosis in Algerian
important roles in the onset of pneumonia such
dromedaries Proc. 1st. Int. Cong. Parasit.
factors would lower the resistance of the lung
Room, 2:766-767.
tissue and the existing organism most probable
would get the upper hand. Saad, M.B. 1982. Hydatidosis in camel in
Gedarif (Eastern region) of the Sudan. Sudan
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isolation of klebsiella pneumonia and and characterization of viral agents from
diplococci from cases of bronchopneumonia respiratory tracts of cattle in India. Ind. J.
in camels. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 43 (12). Anim. Sci., 53 (2): 142-147.
Sastry, G.A. 1983. Veterinary Pathology. 6th ed.
Baily, W. R. and B.G. Scott. 1974. Diagnostic CBS Publishers and Distributors. Delhi-
Microbiology, Isolatin and Identification of 110032. India, pp 421-451.
Pathogeneic Organisms. 4 th Ed. The
Mosbyt, Comp. Saint, Louis, pp 103-143. Selman, I.E. and A. Wiseman. 1983. A study of
respiratory disease of adult cattle in Britain,
Buxton, A. and G. Fraser. 1977. Animal problems affecting individual animals. Irish.
Microbiology. Blackwell Scientific, Pub. Vet. J., 37(2): 28-34.
Oxford, London, pp 466-465.
Shigidi, M.A. 1973. Aerobic microflora of Singh, N.B. and B. S. Malik. 1968. Microflora
respiratory tracts of animals. Sudan, Sci, of the respiratory tract of buffaloes. Ind.
Anim. Husb., 149. J.Vet. Sci., 45: 565-571.
ABSTRACT
Histopathological and parasitological investigations were conducted on 488 camel eyes collected from
Cairo slaughterhouse. The ocular lesions were classified according to the anatomical structure of the eye
and nature of the lesion. Pathological changes were reported in 15.7 % of the examined cases. The most
prevalent pathological lesions were keratitis epithelialis, superficial stromal keratitis, interstitial keratitis,
ulcerative keratitis, keratoconjunctivitis, choroidal coloboma, uveal melanoma, retinal folds, peripheral
retinal cystic degeneration, panophthalmitis and glaucoma. Parasitological examination revealed the
presence of ticks and mites on the eye lids while no thelazia or filaria could be detected.
conjunctiva were totally removed. The eyes were made and stained with H & E (Carleton et
were immediately inspected for any gross al. 1967) and microscopically examined.
lesions and the extra-ocular muscles were
dissected away from the globe which was then Results
immediately immersed in the fixative (Saunder
and Jubb, 1961; Saunder and Rubin, 1975). The incidence and type of pathological
affections are presented in Table 1.
Parasitological Examination
Parasitological examination was carried out for Parasitological Findings
detection of Thelazia and Filarial worms and The parasitological examination was negative
ectoparasites, namely ticks and mites (Higgins, for nematodes (Thelazia and Filarial), while
1985). The specimens were immediately arthropods; ticks and mites were present in 12
transferred to the laboratory in a black dissecting cases. This induced blepharitis in the affected
pan and examined according to Lyons et al cases, which showed thickened eyelids, blepha-
(1986) and Ladoucer et al (1981). The eyeball rospasm and epiphora together with chemosis of
was averted and the conjunctival and corneal the conjunctiva. In eight of the cases, tick
surfaces, area behind the third eyelid and hair infestation (Hyaloma species) was found on the
around the eye were washed with water. The periphery of the lower eyelid. The other 4
ducts of the lacrimal gland were opened and camels had alopecia with hemorrhagic crusts
examined for parasites. All parts were washed along the upper eyelid and pruritis.
again in water. Microscopical examination of skin scrapings of
the crusted eyelids revealed the presence of
The collected wash was left to sediment by sarcoptic mite.
gravity. The supernatant was discarded and the
sediment was examined microscopically. The Histopathological Findings
worms were fixed in a buffered 10% formalin Affection of the Eyelids
according to Higgins (1985). The aqueous Parasitic blepharitis
humours were collected from the anterior Acanthosis associated with relative
chamber of the eye to detect the presence of hyperkeratosis and hypertrophy of epidermal
filarial worms according to Round (1962). papillae were observed. In addition,
intraepithelial accumulation of inflammatory
Histopathological Examination cells mainly mononuclear cells and neutrophils
A total of 488 camel eyes were subjected to were detected. The underlying connective tissue
pathological examination. The eyes were appeared diffusely infiltrated with macrophages
examined grossly for detection of abnormalities. and eosinophils. In these areas the sebaceous
glands and hair follicles showed degenerative
Fixation changes.
The enucleated eyes were fixed in Zinker-acetic
acid fluid according to Levy et al (1965) and Affections of the Fibrous Coat
Saunder and Rubin (1975). Specimens about 5 Keratitis epithelialis
mm in size were collected from the cornea, Grossly, corneal edema and loss of transparency
corneo-scleral junction (limbus), choroid, retina, were the noted lesions .
optic nerve and eye lids. Microscopically, the pathological alteration here
was restricted to the epithelial layer. There was
The specimens were dehydrated in gradual an irregular increase in the thickness of lamina
concentrations of alcohol, cleared in xylol and epithelialis associated with hydropic
embedded in paraffin. Sections of 5 u thickness degeneration of the superficial epithelial cells.
Few deep epithelial cells were ruptured with
Eye Affections Among Camels in Egypt. (2) Pathological Studies 109
formation of microcysts. The basal cell layer histiocytes and neutrophils. In addition, its
appeared to be involved with hydropic superficial layer was characterized by
degeneration in 3 cases. The underlying stroma aggregation of the melanin pigment.
was not affected .
Healed Corneal Ulcer
Superficial Stromal Keratitis Macroscopical examination of the healed
Grossly, corneal opacity was the characteristic corneal ulcer revealed a corneal scar area with a
lesion. Microscopically, the pathological altera- central dark pigmented line. Microscopical
tions extended to involve the upper third of the examination revealed various thickening of the
stroma. Moreover, epithelial cell degeneration corneal epithelium which mostly appeared thin
including the basal cell layer was observed. at the site of healing. Islets of epithelial cell
These changes were observed mostly at the aggregations appeared to be located just beneath
periphery of the cornea and were characterized the epithelial lining. Pigmentation of the basal
by vasculariza-tion of the stroma with or cells as well as the stroma in a focal manner and
without oedema. In some cases, pigmentation at various levels was observed. Vascularization
was observed in the form of focal accumulation and fibrosis of the stroma were also detected .
of melanocytes either within epithelial cell layer
or in the stroma . Keratoconjunctivitis
Microscopically, the cornea showed abnormally
Interstitial (deep) Keratitis projected epithelial papillae in the underlying
Grossly, the eye showed corneal opacity and stroma. In addition, the basal and intermediate
marked pigmentation. Microscopically, the cells were pigmented.
patho-logical alteration extended to include the
whole corneal stroma .The epithelial layer was Infiltration with neutrophils, lymphocytes and
uneven with intense pigmentation of the histocytes in the substantial propria with marked
epithelial cells. The underlying stroma was pigmentation of the epithelial layer was noted.
vascularized at different levels. In addition, cell Oedema and neovascularization were detected
infiltration with deposition of melanin pigment in the stroma.
especially near the neovascularization was
occasionally noted. In some cases, the Affections of the Vascular Coat
subepithelial connective tissue showed Choroidal Coloboma
excessive oedema. The sagital section of the orbit revealed multiple
irregular bordered patches in the choroid. It
Ulcerative Keratitis appeared yellowish orange in colour in the area
Corneal ulcer around the optic nerve.
The corneal examination revealed severe
destruction with complete loss of epithelial cells. Microscopically, there was a relative decrease
Moreover, the underlying stroma showed down to the complete absence of pigmentation
variable thickening with rupture of the descemet of the choroids leading to presence of focal
membrane. An acidophilic granular substance in areas of choroid free from the melanocytes (Fig.
the anterior chamber was seen. 8B).
Uveal melanoma
In two other cases, the ulcer was deep enough to
Grossly, the eye ball showed black
perforate the cornea. The rest of the corneal
discoloration.
epithelium was irregular in both shape and
thick-ness. The stromal connective tissue Microscopically, numerous accumulations of
appeared oedematous and showed melanocytes on the internal surface of the iris,
neovascularization with severely infiltrated by ciliary body and at the internal surface of the
cornea were seen. The melanocytes appeared to showed a complete loss of the covering
be excessively accumulated at the base of the epithelium at the area of ulceration associated
iris. It was variable in size with intense with proliferation of the surrounding epithelium
pigmentation. No invasion of blood vessels and papillary exten-sion of the basal cell layer
could be seen in the available sections wherever into the connective tissue stroma. Moreover, an
the local invasion of interstitial tissue gave the increase in the mitotic activity of the basal cell
diagnosis of this lesion, a borderline case which layer was observed. The periphery of the ulcer
could turn at any time to a malignant melanoma. was covered with structureless eosinophilic
necrotic granules. The stromal connective tissue
Affections of the Retina showed edema, new capillary formation and
Retinal folds histiocytic and neutro-philic cell aggregations.
The retinal fold was formed from protrusion of In addition, the superficial layer showed
retinal layers in the vitreous leading to formation accumulation of melanin pigment.
of cone like structure. It consists histologically
from double layers of retina. The central cell Irregular pigmentation was distributed in the
layer was formed of photoreceptor cells internal layer of sclera. Collapsed anterior
followed by the other retinal cell layers arranged chamber was observed in one case.
as usual.
The choroid was thick and the free end of the
The apex of the cone was formed only of optic
iris had been ensheathed by fibrinous exudates
and ganglionic layers, which appeared highly
in one other case (Fig.14B). The ciliary body
vascularized particularly at the base of the
appeared to be hypertrophied. The hypertrophy
cornea. There was an increase in the number of
of ciliary body was partly due to edema of the
the outer nuclear layer cells that showed
connective tissue core and dilated lymph space,
hyperplasia in one side of the cone. At the base
in addition to epithelial cell hyperplasia with
of the fold both optic and ganglionic layers
multiple papillary projections. In addition, many
appeared connected leading to formation of a
lining epithelial cells were devoid of melanin
structure consisting of three layers of the retina.
pigment.
Peripheral retinal cystic degeneration
Excessive exudate and fine pigment appeared to
Multiple small vacuoles were observed
be accumulated between the choroid and retina
microsco-pically at the peripheral part of the
leading to detachment of the latter.
retina, particularly at the base of the ciliary
process.
A copious fibrinous exudate accumulated in the
Panophthalmitis area of the vitreous in the form of a network. In
This condition was observed in two cases. between its meshes many leukocytes mainly
Grossly the cornea was perforated and the iris neutrophils were seen. The retina showed
was prolapsed with the appearance of red congestion and contained multiple foci of
excavation. Corneal opacity with an irregular hemorrhages. Different degenerative changes of
surface was noted. Hypopyon was observed in retinal layer were observed. The photoreceptor
one case. The sagital section of the eyeball layer and the intermolecular membrane
indicated that the anterior chamber was appeared to be the most affected layers.
collapsed with shrinked cornea and organized Thickening of the retina was detected and
vitreous with a cheese like yellowish structure. eventually attributed to accumulation of
inflammatory exudate. Excavation of the optic
Microscopical examination revealed dilatation nerve associated with degeneration of the
of the blood capillaries, edema and leukocytic nervous element and focal aggregation of
infiltration of the conjunctiva. The cornea neutrophilic cells was clearly observed.
As a consequence of the increased intra ocular itself in a trial to relieve this irritation also leads
pressure resulting from massive accumulation of to the aggravation of the condition.
the exudate, a marked excavation of optic nerve
was seen. It is worthwhile to mention that the
hyperkeratosis and acanthusis induced by the
Increased Intra Ocular Pressure (Glaucoma) ectoparasite decreased the efficacy of the topical
The macroscopical examination revealed a treatment, thus it is advisable to treat the animal
tensed cornea that appeared to protrude out of parentrally (Soll et al. 1984).
the orbit. No apparent changes had been seen in
the eyelids. The cornea in two cases lost its Ocular infestation with nematodes, filaria and
transparency and showed corneal edema. thelazia could not be detected. Further
Microscopical examination of the cornea investigation is recommended taking into
showed that the epithelial layer was abnormally consideration the different localities, time of
projected into the underlying stroma. In sampling and seasonal variations.
addition, the basal and intermediate cells were
heavily pigmented. Edema and Concerning the pathological studies, the
neovascularization were shown in its external available literature indicated that such studies
third while in its internal two-thirds have not been traced yet in the camel. As it is
accumulation of melanin pigment was observed important to standardize the reported lesions, the
in addition to neovascularization. pathological classification of other animals were
taken into consideration.
The ciliary body showed relative atrophy, which
was characterized by a decrease in its branches. The histopathological affections reported in this
The filtration angle was narrower than normal. study have been observed in other animal
species (Saunder, 1968, 1975; Slatter, 1981;
The retina showed degeneration of the Severin, 1984; Jubb et al. 1985).
ganglionic cell layer, atrophy of the internal and
external nuclear layers with alteration in the Microscopically, keratitis epithelialis was
photoreceptor layer. The optic nerve showed characterized by degenerative changes of the
various degrees of excavations associated with epithelial layer. This was also observed by
atrophy of the nervous element. Saunder (1968) and Jubb et al (1985) where in
superficial keratitis, the pathological lesions
Discussion extend to include the upper third of the stroma.
The present investigation revealed that the The lesion was characterized by vascularization
incidence of eye affection was 15.7%, which is of the stroma with or without edema and focal
higher than that previously reported by Fahmy pigmentation of some areas. These changes
et al (2002). This might be attributed to the fact were in agreement with the results reported by
that the first study was a field study while the Amman (1966); Saunder (1968) and Yanoff
present was conducted slaughterhed animale (1983).
whose owners got rid of them. The parasitic
examination revealed that the changes observed Interstitial keratitis showed alteration in the
in eye lids were due to ticks and mites’ whole corneal stroma with extensive
infestation. Similar changes were reported by pigmentation especially in areas adjacent to the
Simth et al (1974). Infestation of the eyelids new vascularization. These findings were also
with arthropods (ticks and mites) usually leads reported by Bellhorn and Henkid (1976). These
to blepharitis. Parasitic infestation causes cases were mostly the result of mild chronic
changes in the eyelids due to severe irritation. In irritation as suggested by Roberts (1954) and
addition, the self inflicted trauma by the animal Saunder (1968).
Ulcerative keratitis revealed destruction and Panophthalmitis was the result of perforating
complete loss of epithelial cells with variable wounds of the eye. The inflammatory reactions
thickening of the stroma associated with involved the whole layers of the eye. The most
suppuration and evidence of hypopyon in the severely affected part was the cornea where loss
anterior chamber. of corneal epithelium and involvement of inner
structure were detected a fact which agrees with
In healed cases a permanent scar showed that mentioned by Jubb et al (1985).
excessive pigmentation and/or epithelial islets.
These findings coincide with those of Slatter The increase in the intra ocular pressure was
(1981) and Severin (1984). encountered in 4 cases. It was characterized by
atrophy of the retina, excavation of the optic
Keratoconjunctivitis was characterized by nerve and atrophy of cilary body. These results
degeneration of the conjunctival epithelium were in agreement with Saunder (1968); Slatter
acanthusis and cellular infiltration mainly by (1981); Thomson and Cotton (1983) and Jubb et
lymphocytes. These changes were reported by al (1985).
Markson and Darbyshire (1966); Saunder
(1968); Wilcox (1970) and Yanoff (1983). Despite the presence of lesions of glaucoma, the
disease was not clinically encountered simply
The affections of the vascular coat were either in because of the difficulties in evaluation of intra
the form of choroidal coloboma or uveal ocular pressure by the available instruments.
melanoma. The choroidal coloboma was
atypical coloboma of the fundus in which the References
pigment cell layer lacked and no alteration
involved other structures. Similar findings were Amman, V.K. 1966. Hornhauten Krankingen
mentioned by Saunder (1968); Rubin (1974) and beim hund vergleichene - klinisch. Unter-
Jubb et al (1985). suchungen Kleindeir practisch, 11: 1-9.
The uveal melanoma was the first to be reported Bellhorn, M. and C. Henkind. 1976. Superficial
in the camel. It represented a primary form pigmentary keratitits in the dog. J. Vet.
where the criteria of malignancy were not Med. Assoc., 149: 173-175.
fulfilled. The histopathological investigation
suggested that the case could be a borderline Carleton, M. A., R. A. B. Druvy, F. A.,
depending on its local invasion of the Wallinton and H. Cameron. 1967. Carleton’s
surrounding tissues. This finding was in Histo-pathological Technique. 4th ed,
agreement with that reported in other animals by Oxford Univ. Press, New York, Torento.
Thomson and Cotton (1983).
Higgins, A. J. 1985. Common ecto-parasites of
The pathological changes of the retina took camel and its control. Br. Vet. J., 141: 197-
either the form of a retinal fold or peripheral 216.
retinal cystic degeneration. The retinal fold was
composed of retinal tissue, which was Jubb, K. V. F. and P. C. Kennedy. 1985.
differentiated into layers as shown in other Pathology of Domestic Animals. 2ed, Vol. 2,
animals (Saunder, 1968). Academic Press New York and London.
The peripheral retinal cystic degeneration was
characterized by multiple vacuoles in retinal Ladoucer, C.A. and K. R. Kazacos. 1981.
tissue. This condition was recorded in dog by Thelazia lacrymalis in horses India. J. Am.
Rubin (1974) and in horse by Saunder and Vet. Med. Assoc., 178(3): 301-302.
Rubin (1975) and Jubb et al (1985).
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118
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accompanied by cautions concerning possible biases.
Contrasts (preferably orthogonal) are used to answer specific questions for which the experiment was
designed; they should form the basis for comparing treatment means. Nonorthogonal contrasts may be
evaluated by Bonferronit statistics. The exact contrasts tested should be described for the reader,
Multiple-range tests are not appropriate when treatments are orthogonally arranged. Fixed-range, pair-
wise, multiple comparison tests should be used only to compare means of treatments that are
unstructured or not related. Adjusted, or so-called least squares, means should not be employed unless
the design is unbalanced or contains missing values or an adjustment is being made for a covariate. In
factorial treatment arrangements, means for main effects should be presented when important,
interactions are not present. Means for individual treatment combinations also should be provided in
table or text so that future researchers may combine data from several experiments to detect important
interactions. An interaction may not be detected in a given experiment because of a limitation in the
number of observations.
The terms "significant" and "highly significant" traditionally have been reserved for P < .05 and P <.01,
respectively. Other probability levels can be discussed if properly qualified so that the reader is not
misled, but do not report P-values to more than three decimals. When available, the exact probability
levels (alpha levels) should be presented rather than merely P<.05 or P < .01 so the reader can decide
what to reject. Such information is useful for future analyses in which data are combined. Regardless of
the probability level used by the authors, failure to reject a hypothesis should be based on the relative
consequences of type I and II errors. A "non significant" relationship should not be misinterpreted; it is
not proof that no relationship exists. An inadequate number of experimental units or inadequate control
of variation limits the power to detect relationships, Use of P>.05 to indicate non significance should be
avoided; readers may interpret this as the probability of a beta error, not an alpha error. This problem can
be avoided by citing the absolute probability of an alpha error.
Give only meaningful digits. A practical rule is to round values so that the change caused by rounding is
less than one-tenth of the standard error. Such rounding increases the variance (if the reported value by
less than .1%, so that less than 1% of the relevant information contained in the data is sacrificed. In most
cases, two or three significant digits (not decimal places) are sufficient.
Results
Results (may be combined with discussion) should be presented in tabular form when feasible. The text
should explain or elaborate on the tabular data, but numbers should not be repeated extensively within
119
the text. Sufficient data, all with some index of variation attached, should be presented to allow the
reader to interpret the results of the experiment.
Discussion
The discussion (may be combined with results) should interpret the results clearly and concisely in terms
of biological mechanisms and should integrate literature results with the research findings to provide the
reader with a broad base on which to accept or reject the hypotheses tested.
Implications
This section, consisting of no more than 1,000 characters plus spaces in one paragraph, follows the
discussion and should explain in lay terms, without abbreviations, acronyms, or citations, what the
findings of this research imply for camel production and(or) biology. Though some speculation is per-
mitted, this section should also caution the reader against over extrapolation of results. For manuscripts
with direct applications, this section will consist of an interpretive summary. If results have no
implications, this should be stated.
Appendixes
To provide readers with numerical examples or give extensive details of analytical procedures, an
appendix can be included with a manuscript, However, if the supplemental material is of interest only to
a limited number of JCS readers, it should not he. included as an appendix. Instead, mention that
supplemental information is available on request from the author. In the manuscript, the appendix should
follow the literature cited section and be introduced by a major heading.
Citations
Text: Published literature is referenced in the text in one of two ways, depending on sentence structure:
(1) The daily crude protein requirement for maintenance of camels was 190g (Wardeh 1997; Geurouali
and Wardeh 2002); 2) Wardeh (1997) and Geurouali and wardeh (1990) have reported that the daily
protein requirements for camels was 190g.When two or more citations are included in a grouping within
a sentence, the citations within the grouping are arranged in chronological order. Multiple citations for a
given year are further arranged alphabetically. When a citation has one or two authors, cite the reference
throughout using the name(s) and the date (e.g., Fahmy and Hegazi, 2000). When a citation has more
than two authors, cite the reference throughout the text with "et al." following the last name of the first
author (e.g., Fahmy et al. 2001). When the same author(s) have two references with different dates, cite
them together in the text (e.g., Fahmy et al. 2001;2002). If two papers abbreviate identically in the text,
place a letter after the date both in the text and in the citation in literature cited. Letters should not be
included unless the text citations are identical. Check the literature cited to make certain that all text
citations are represented, and that all citations listed are cited in the text. Unpublished literature is listed
in the text as follows by: (personal communication); (M. F. Wardeh, personal communication); ...
according to M. F. Wardeh (unpublished data). The individual's full name and location should be
provided. If the unpublished data are from the authors' laboratory, it can be cited as (our unpublished
observations).
Literature Listing
The number of citations should be minimised by careful scrutiny; select only the most pertinent ones. No
more than three references should be cited to support a specific concept. Interested readers can examine
those references or cited reviews for further citations. Initials are used for first and middle names in all
citations. Initials are placed after the first author's name but before the last names of all co-authors.
120
Citations are listed in strict alphabetical order by authors. If all authors are identical for two or more
citations, chronological order of publication should dictate the order of citations. When more than one
paper in a given year is listed by authors whose names are in the same order in each paper, the papers are
arranged in alphabetical order of the paper title, and the date is assigned a letter suffix (e.g., Wardeh,
1999a). Only the first word and proper nouns in titles of papers begin with a capital letter. When a total
book is cited, page numbers are not provided. When the reference is a chapter or section from a book,
give inclusive page numbers. Use inclusive page numbers for journal articles. If the pages of the journal
cited are numbered within an issue rather than consecutively for a total volume, include the issue (or
month), supplement, or part number in parentheses after the volume number. No comma follows the
name or abbreviation of the journal cited.
References should be abbreviated in accordance with Serial Sources /or the BIOSIS Previews®' Data-
base published annually by BIOSIS, 2100 Arch Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103-1399. Periods are placed
after each abbreviated word. The abbreviation "(Abstr.)" should be used to designate each reference that
is an abstract. Citations of unpublished work are listed in parentheses in the text only; they do not appear
in the literature cited. Articles submitted for publication but not yet accepted cannot be cited. References
from nonrefereed publications should be avoided, but they can be employed when information is not
available from refereed publications. Manuscripts that have been accepted for publication but are not yet
published can he listed in the literature cited with the designation "(In press)" following the journal title.
To be consistent with current journal convention, inclusive page numbers should now be included in
literature citations.
J. Reprod. Fertil.
J. Sci. Food Agric.
Lab. Anim.
Lipids
Livest. Prod. Sci.
Meat Sci.
Metabolism
Methods Enzymol
Mol. Cell. Endocrinol.
N. Z. J, Agric. Res.
Nature (Lond.)
Nature (Paris)
Neth. J. Agric. Res.
Neuroendocrinology
Nutr. Abstr. Rev.
Nutr. Metab.
Nutr. Rep. Int.
Nutr. Res.
Obstet. Gynecol.
Pharmacol. Rev.
Physiol. Rev.
Prof. Anim. Sci.
Recent Prog. Horm. Res.
Reprod. Fertil. Dev.
Residue Rev.
S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci.
Sci. Agric.
Science
Steroids
Theor. Appl. Genet.
Theriogenology
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
Vet. Res.
Vet. Res. Commun.
Vitam. Horm.
World Anim. Rev.
Z. Tierz. Zuechtungsbiol.
Zentralbl. Veterinaermed. Reihe A
Tables
When possible, tables should be organized to fit across the page (similar to the text), so that the page can
be read without turning it sideways. Tables are numbered consecutively in Arabic numbers; each table
begins on a separate page. All parts of tables should be typed double-spaced. Tables should be inserted in
the manuscript after the literature cited section. Tables should specify whether composition and analyses
are provided on an "as-fed" or a "dry matter" percentage basis.
Titles of tables should be descriptive enough to be able to stand alone. With the exception of proper
nouns or parenthetical, abbreviated units of measure or acronyms that are ordinarily capitalized, only the
123
first letter of "Table" and the initial letter of the title should be capitalized. A period should follow the
table title. Every column must have a heading (e.g., Ingredient, Trait, Fatty acid, Item. etc.). Side-type
titles, providing rows as column headings, can be employed. Only the first letter of the first word of each
column heading is capitalized. The abbreviations for "weight" and "average" (wt and avg, respectively)
should be used only in tables. Present data in a simple, straightforward manner. Do not present the same
data in both tabular and graphic form. When presenting data in graphic form, be sure that each mean and
some index of variation is provided in the figures, the figure legend, or the text. Avoid graphs presenting
less than five means. Present such values in the text. If data are discussed in the text but are not included
in the tables or figures, specify "(data not shown)" in the text.
Omit the zero to the left of the decimal point. Use only meaningful digits. If there is no datum for a
particular entry, insert a dash. If an explanation is necessary, use an abbreviation in the body of the table
(e.g., ND) and explain clearly in footnotes what ND stands for (not determined, not detectable, not dis-
cernible, etc.).
References to footnotes in a table are specified by superscript lowercase letters independently for each
table. The final letters of the alphabet may be used to designate significance of differences to avoid
overlap with other footnotes. The preferred order of superscripts is as follows: 1) title, 2) column
headings, 3) row headings, and 4 ) body of table. The dagger symbol (†) and asterisks (*, **, ***) are
used only to designate a significance level between two means in a given row or column. By convention,
these are understood to imply the following: † designates P<10; * designates P < .05; ** designates P<
.01 and *'** designates P<.001. Do not use vertical lines in tables.
Presentation of pooled standard errors, the general basis for statistical comparison of means, is recom-
mended when variance is homogeneous. These are provided in a separate column or row. Standard
errors can be attached to each mean by + signs when variance or SE are heterogeneous (e.g., unbalanced
experiments or unequal numbers of observations in treatment means). When variances are heterogeneous
and are mathematically transformed before statistical analysis, specify the transformation method by a
tabular footnote but back-transform the data before presenting them in tables. When means separation
procedures are used, the preferred statement in the footnotes is "Within a row (or column), means
lacking a common superscript letter differ (P<.05)” other P-values may be specified. Alternative wording
may be misinterpreted or erroneous. Specifying treatments in the statistics footnote can simplify
comprehension.
Figures
For assistance with production of figures, refer to Scientific Style and Format and to Steps Toward Better
Scientific Illustrations (Alien Press, Lawrence, KS). Figures should be prepared with bold lines and
should be lettered in India ink or by other means so that the original, a glossy photograph, or the
computer output will reproduce clearly when reduced to fit in either one or two columns. Scale of
lettering and intensity of lines should remain readable when reduced in size for publication. When
preparing figures, use clearly defined symbols and the following types of lines: ——‚...,–.–.– . Be sure that
the reader will be able to distinguish which line is which. In the case of bar graphs, maximize the
contrast between fillers. For example, shaded fillers and close-lined or checked fillers will all appear
shaded when a figure is reduced for publication. Symbols and abbreviations used in the figure must be
defined in the figure legend or within the figure itself.
All lettering and abbreviations must conform to the JCS Style and Form. Zeros should not appear to the
left of decimal points. Units in axes should not be placed in parentheses; when units follow a term or
124
Figures should not be mounted on any backing material. Multipart figures should be designated by
lowercase letters (la, 1b, 1c, 2a, etc.).
Photomicrographs must have their unmagnified size designated. This can be either within the photo or,
alternatively, the original width of the total unmagnified field can be designated in the figure legend.
Enlargement or reduction during publication makes size designation of photomicrographs (e.g., l,000x)
meaningless.
Figure legends should be typed on a separate sheet and identified with the figure number in Arabic
numerals.
adjectives (e.g., 7-kg camels, d-32 measurements, 100-ml flask) are treated like any other
hyphenated adjective. If a word intervenes between the numeral and its unit, the unit is
spelled out, not abbreviated (e.g., 14 consecutive hours: three consecutive days).
c) 0mit the zero to the left of the decimal point.
d) Use words for numbers one through nine when they precede nouns other than units of meas-
ure but use numerals for numbers larger than nine (e.g., four animals, two times, 14 lots, 28
camels). When a series includes numbers both above and below 10, use numerals for all.
e) Ordinal numbers up to ninth should be spelled out in the text; they may be abbreviated in
tables. Abbreviate higher ordinal numbers (e.g., 12th, 32nd).
f) The terms "twofold" up to "ninefold" are written as one word. Use numerals for 10 and
higher (e.g., 10-fold, 300-fold) as well as for all decimal numerals (e.g., 8.5-fold). Exercise
care when using "-fold" to designate a response. If a treatment causes a twofold increase, the
second treatment mean must be three times that of the first.
g) Avoid the use of multiplying factors (e.g., x 106; x 10-6) in table columns or rows because
of uncertainty whether the data are to be, or have already been, multiplied by these factors.
Avoid ambiguity by stating units (e.g., numbers of bacteria, millions /ml).
h) Dates are written with the name of the month followed by the numeral of the day (e.g.,
October 4, not October fourth or 4th of October). Months of the year are spelled out.
i) Do not use a slant line for "per" when more than a single slant line occurs in the expression
(e.g., use 5 mg/(g/d) or 5 5mg.g-1.d-1 instead of 5 mg/g/d, but g/d is acceptable).
Mathematically, "per" usually implies division. When two "per" occur consecutively, it is
unclear precisely what is being divided by what.
j) Do not use a hyphen to indicate inclusiveness (e.g., use 12 to 14 mg or wk 3 and 4, not 12-14
mg or wk 3-4).
k ) Report time on the 24-h system and omit the h (e.g., 1410 rather than 2:10 p.m. or 1410 h).
1) Use commas in all numerals in both text and tables for values with four or more digits
except for numerals designating time of day. m convert "mg %" to other units, such as mg/l
or mg/ml; use "mol/100 mol" rather than "molar percent."
l) When tabulating values for growth or intake, express values for a standard time period for a
single animal such as weight gain/day, not weight gain/period or weight gain/pen; use mean
feed intake/day, not feed intake/(pen-day).
7. Do not capitalize seasons of the year.
8. Leave spaces around all mathematical operation signs in text and in equations (e.g., n = 8, P < .05,
a + b). For negative numbers, leave no space between the negative sign and the number.
9. Use chemical symbols for elements if they appear more than once in the manuscript. Formulas for
simple compounds (e.g., NaCl, HNO3, NH4OH) are acceptable.
10. Commas and periods generally should be placed inside final quotation marks.
11. "Live weight," "body weight," "birth weight," and "litter weight" are written as two words.
Although "wt" may be used in tables it should not be used in the text.
12. Use "longissimus muscle" instead of "longissimus dorsi."
13. Use "and(or)" not. "and/or."
14- Mass number precedes chemical symbols (e.g., 14C or 13II). unless spelled out (e.g., carbon-14,
iodine-131). In an isotopically labelled compound (the isotope prefix in brackets precedes and is
attached directly to the part of the name to which it refers (e.g., sodium [14C] format, [3H]
estradiol).
15. Refer to simple-stomached animals as non-ruminants.
16. Use generic terms and names where possible. Include in parentheses within the text the brand
name, the company name, and the company location for all substances and equipment mentioned.
126
17. Refrain from using awkward compound adjectival phrases before nouns.
18. Use italics to designate genus and species (Bos taurus) and botanical varieties (Medicogo sativa
var. Potomac). Designations for botanical cultivars should be either preceded by cv. or enclosed in
single quotation marks. (Festuca arundinacea cv. Kentucky 31 OR Festuca urundinacea cv. Ken-
tucky 31). When an epithet is transferred from its original position or changed in rank the original
author's name is placed in parentheses followed by the name(s) of the author(s) responsible for the
change (Cynodon danctylon (L.) Pers.).
19- When measurements are transformed from word terms into numeric form for statistical analysis
(e.g., Good +; Slightly Abundant; Moderately Tender), present the numeric means, not the word
means, in all tables or figures. Specify by a footnote or in the legend the word term for two points
within the range of numeric values (e.g., 400 = Good and 467 = Good +).
20. Cite centrifugal force in units of g, not as rpm.
21. Animals often eat "ad libitum," but if animals are fed "ad libitum,'' this means that they are fed at
the convenience of the researcher. Use a phrase such as "Animals were given ad libitum access to
feed. . . ." or- "Animals were allowed to consume their diets on an ad libitum basis."
22. "As" and "since" are not suitable substitutes for "because." "Since" should be used only to indicate
time. "Since it snowed" has two interpretations.
23. "Comprise" should not be mistaken for "compose" or "make up." The whole comprises its parts,
never vice versa. "Comprised of" is meaningless.
24. The terms data, feces, digesta, and viscera are plural. Species is either singular or plural.
25. A diet is a feedstuff or a mixture of feedstuffs; a ration is the daily allotment of diet.
26. "Utilize" in its general sense is synonymous with "use," and "use" is preferable. "Utilize" should be
chosen only in its narrower sense, as when a feed ingredient is utilized by the animal. For example,
"six camels were used in Exp. 2,'' "LSD procedures were used," BUT "nitrogen utilisation was im-
proved in camels.
27- The phrases "it should be noted that," "we found that,'' "we determined that," or "we demonstrated
that" add nothing but, length to a manuscript.
28. Avoid jargon unfamiliar to scientists from other disciplines (e.g., dry, open, ugly, cross, teaser,
gomer). Do not use the term "head" to refer to an animal or group of animals. Instead, use animal,
camel, ewe, goat, mare, steer, heifer, cattle, etc.
29. Use the proper adjectival or adverbial form of words that modify nouns (e.g., ruminal fluid, not
rumen fluid: ruminally degraded protein, not rumen degraded protein).
30. Avoid bi- as a prefix because of its ambiguity. The term biweekly means both twice per week and
once every 2 wk.
31. Place the word "only" carefully within the sentence when you describe results, "Only two
treatments had positive effects" differs from "Two treatments gave only positive effects."
32. The terms "interesting," "recent," and "at the present time" reflect opinions or contribute noth-
ing to reader understanding. Avoid these terms.
33. "If" introduces conditional clauses; "whether" carries an implicit "or not."
34. "While" is not a substitute for "whereas," "although," or "but." "While" indicates temporal
simultaneity.
35. "That'" is restrictive; "which" is not; "which" is always preceded by a comma.
36. Quantitate is not a word. The verb form is quantify; the noun is quantity or quantification; the
adjective is quantitative or quantifiable; the adverb is quantitatively.
37. Prostaglandin should be abbreviated when necessary as PG, and the series (i.e., A, B. .., J), double
bond (i.e., 1, 2, or 3). and conformational (i.e., ∝) designations should be added to correctly
identify the specific prostaglandin (e.g., PGF2∝ ).
127
38. Avoid the use of the term "symptom(s)" in describing evidence of disease or a condition in
animals. Use the term ''sign(s)''. Symptom implies a subjective perception by the (human) patient.
39. Use "toxic" or " toxicity" as appropriate, to refer to the quality of being poisonous. Use "toxicosis,"
to refer to any disease condition resulting from poisoning.
40. Avoid the use of the general terms "higher" and "lower" if more functional descriptive terms can
be used.
Word Abbreviations
The use of author-defined abbreviations and acronyms is discouraged. unless included in the list of
abbreviations in each JCS issue or in these guidelines, each alleviation must be defined the first time it is
used in the abstract and again in the body of the manuscript. There is no need to define symbols for
elements or simple compounds. Abbreviations in the titles of papers and tables and in text headings
should be avoided. Do not begin a sentence with an abbreviation, acronym, or symbol. Use of
abbreviations and acronyms in the abstract should he limited. Abbreviate units of measure immediately
adjacent to numerals. Units of measure are not abbreviated when they follow a spelled-out number at the
beginning of a sentence. All abbreviations are written as singular even though they may be plural (e.g.,
yr; not yrs: VFA, not VFAs); number is indicated by verb choice.
List of Abbreviations
The following is a partial list of acceptable abbreviations. For a more extensive list, refer to Scientific
Style and Format. Use of three letter abbreviations for amino acids (e.g., Ala) is acceptable in JCS.
Physical units
Item Unit
°C degree Celsius
cal calorie
Ci curie
Da dalton
dpm disintegrations/minute
Eq equivalent
g gram
ha hectare
Hz hertz
IU international unit
J joule
L liter
lx lux
m meter
M molar (concentration)
mol mole
N normal (concentration)
Pa pascal
ppb parts/billion parts
ppm parts/million parts
t metric ton (1,000 kg)
V volt
W watt
128
Units of time
Item Unit
s second
min minute
h hour
d day
wk week
mo month
yr year
Multiplying prefixes
Item Prefix Factor
G giga- (x 109)
M mega- (x 106)
K kilo- (x 103)
Da deci- (x 10-1)
Ca centi- (x 10-2)
m milli- (x 10-3)
µ micro- (x 10-6)
n nano- (x 10-9)
p pico- (x 10-12)
f femto- (x 10-15)
a Avoid when possible.
Others
Item Term
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone
ADF acid detergent fiber (assumed sequential
unless designated otherwise)
ADFI average daily feed intake (not to be confused with DMI)
ADG average daily gain
ADIN acid detergent insoluble nitrogen
ADL acid detergent lignin
ADP adenosine diphoapbate
AI artificial insemination
AIA acid insoluble ash
ANOVA analysis of variance
ARS Agricultural Research Service
Assoc. Association
ATP adenosine triphosphate
avg average (use only in tables, not in the text)
BLUP best linear unbiased prediction
bp base pair
BSA bovine serum albumin
Bull. Bulletin
BW body weight (not fasted unless designated otherwise)
CARDN The Camel Applied Research and Development Network
Circ. Circular
cfu colony-forming unit
CoA co-enzyme A
Co-EDTA cobalt ethylenediaminetctraacetate
Coll. College
Conf. Conference
Congr. Congress
CP crude protein (N x 6.25)
DE digestible energy
130
Copyright Releases
Copyright laws make it necessary for CARDN to obtain a release from authors for all materials
published. To this end we ask to grant us all rights, including subsidiary rights, for your article, you will
hereby be relinquishing to the Camel Applied Research and Development Network all control over this
material such as rights to make or authorize reprints, to reproduce the material in other society
publications, and to grant the material to others without charge in any book of which you are the author
or editor after it has appeared in the Journal.
Whereas the Camel Applied Research and Development Network is undertaking to publish the Journal
of Camel Science, of which the undersigned is author of one or more parts, the author grants and assigns
exclusively to the Network for its use and all rights whatsoever kind or nature now or hereafter protected
by the copyright laws (common or statutory) of countries in all languages in and to the above-named
article, including all subsidiary rights. The Network in turn grants to the author(s) the right of
republication in any book of which he is author or editor, subject only to his giving proper credit in the
book to the original journal publication of the article by the Network.
Each author agrees that the material furnished for the Journal has not been published previously
elsewhere. Otherwise the author guarantees that if it has been previously published in whole or in part,
permission has been obtained from author(s) and publisher for reproduction in the journal, and the author
will submit copy for the credit lines with his manuscript.
The corresponding author will be given an opportunity to read and correct the edited manuscript as page
proofs but if he fails to return proofs to the editor of the Journal within the time specified by the editor,
production and publication may proceed without the authors approval of his edited manuscript.
The author(s) will receive no monetary return from the Network for the use of material contained in the
manuscript.
Send this form and three copies of manuscript including photographs on line numbered paper to:
Editor in Chief J.C.S. The Camel Applied Research and Development Network (CARDN), P.O. Box
2440, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic.
134
Manuscript Title
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Name and Address of Corresponding Authors:
Name----------------------------------------------Address---------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I (we) affirm that the manuscript has been prepared in accordance with Journal of Camel Science Style
and Form Guidelines.
Assurance of Content
I (we) have read this manuscript and I (we) hereby affirm that the content of this manuscript or a major
portion there of has not been published in a refereed journal and it is not being submitted for
republication elsewhere.
Statistics
Person responsible for verifying that the data were appropriately analyzed statistically and that tables
present full and complete data and analyses:
Name-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------