Aircraft Structures Ata 51

Ameco Beijing
Aviation College
Training Manual
Jet
Aircraft
Maintenance
Fundamentals
ATA 51
Structures
JAR-66
Lufthansa Issue: July 2000

Technical Training GmbH For Training Purposes Only
Book No: JAMF ATA 51 ALL Lufthansa Base Hamburg ã Lufthansa 1995
For training purposes and internal use only.
Copyright by Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH.
All rights reserved. No parts of this training
manual may be sold or reproduced in any form
without permission of:
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Lufthansa Technical Training
Ameco Beijing FUNDAMENTALS
Aviation College
ATA 51 STRUCTURES
For Training Purposes Only
HAM US ne APRIL 1998 Page 1

STRUCTURES
GENERAL
Aviation College ATA 51 Lesson 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
An aircraft has five main structural units which consist of the fuselage, the
wings, the stabilizers, the flight control surfaces and the landing gears.

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Figure 1 Main Structural Units

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

introduction cont.
The structure of each unit of an aircraft is made up of airframe components.
Here for example, the nose forward fuselage.

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Figure 2 Airframe Components

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

introduction cont.
Airframe components are made up of various parts which are called structural
members and include stringers,frames,bulkheads,ribs and other members
which are mentioned in a later lesson. Structural members are connected to
each other using brackets, rivets, bolts, screws and nuts which give strength to
the fuselage.
These structural members are designed to carry a load or resist stress.
Generally, stress is created by the internal force of a substance which opposes
or resists deformation. An aircraft can be affected by different types of stress
during take--off, flight or landing.

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Figure 3 Structural Members

STRUCTURES
GENERAL
STRUCTURAL STRESSES
Five major types of stress that can affect the structure of an aircraft are tension
compression,torsion,shear and bending.
Tension is stress that resists the forces which pull it apart. For example, engine
thrust pulls the aircraft forward,but air resistance holds the aircraft back and
thus the result is tension. In order to calculate the tensile strength of a
material, divide the load (in pounds) of the material by its cross--section area (in
square inches). The result is psi.

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Figure 4 Tension
STRUCTURES
GENERAL

structural stresses cont.
Compression is stress that resists a crushing force. It causes the aircraft parts
to shorten or squeeze together. Generally, you can also measure compressive
strength in psi.

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Figure 5 Compression
STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Torsion is stress that causes twisting. In this example, this happens when the
rudder is deflected.

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Figure 6 Torsion
STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Shear is stress which resists a force which causes a layer of material to slide
over an adjacent layer of material. When there are 2 riveted plates that are
under tension, shear stress causes the rivets to be affected by a shearing
force.
Shear strength of a material is usually either equal to or less than its tensile or
compressive strength.

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Figure 7 Shear
STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension. In this example,
compression occurs on the lower side of the fuselage and tension occurs on
the upper side of the fuselage.

STRUCTURES
GENERAL

Figure 8 Bending
STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE
FUSELAGE
MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION
The fuselage is the main unit of the aircraft structure and provides space for
passengers, cargo and other equipment.
The fuselage is usually constructed of two or three sections on a small aircraft
and can have up to six sections on a larger aircraft.
Aircraft have mainly 2 types of fuselage construction named monocoque and
semi--monocoque construction.
A monocoque construction uses frame assemblies and bulkheads to give
shape to the fuselage and the aircraft skin is riveted directly onto the frame.
This type of construction permits the skin to contain cabin pressure and also
permits it to be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid.
The biggest problem with the monocoque construction is trying to maintain
enough strength in the skin and also keeping the weight within permitted limits.
SEMI - MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTUON

In a semi--monocoque construction, the skin is reinforced by longitudinal
members, for example, stringers -- as shown in this example -- or longerons,
frame assemblies and additional clips.
This type of reinforcement using longitudinal members with a semi--monocoque
contruction has many advantages. It makes the design construction of the
streamlined fuselage easier and adds strength and rigidity to the aircraft
structure. Therefore, a semi--monocoque fuselage has a reinforced skin
construction which can withstand a high amount of damage and can still be
strong enough to hold together.
This type of reinforcement also helps to solve the biggest problem with a
monocoque construction which we mentioned earlier.
The main loads caused by bending can be supported by longitudinal members
which are the stringers. The stringers can extend across several points of
support. The stringers are also named longerons.

STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE

Figure 9 Types of Fuselage Construction

STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE
MAINFRAME COMPONENTS
The fuselage mainframe consists of components, for example, frames,
bulkheads, stringers, floor beams, floor--to--skin shear ties and a keel beam.
Frames help to maintain the shape of the fuselage and reduce the column
length of the stringer, which prevents general aircraft instability. They also help
to carry and distribute different loads which are caused by structural stress, for
example, shear and tension.
When frames are used in constructing the fuselage they are normally spaced
20 inches apart.
Bulkheads carry and distribute different loads of the fuselage. They are located
in areas such as the wings, the tail surfaces and the landing gears. In this
location, there is a higher concentration of forces. The structure of the
bulkhead is important. It distributes applied loads to the fuselage skin.
Several pressure bulkheads form part of the pressurised cabin of a fuselage,
for example, the forward pressure bulkhead and the aft pressure bulkhead.
Pressure bulkheads are installed to withstand cabin pressure.

STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE

Figure 10 Mainframe Compents

STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE

mainframe components cont.
Stringers give shape to the fuselage shell and they are located on the inner
side of the aircraft skin panel. They are designed to carry loads because of the
fuselage bending, shear, torsion and cabin pressure. Stringers are connected
to each other by stringer splices on production breaks and make way only for
structural openings such as windows and doors.
Stringers pass through cut--outs in the frames and are attached to the skin by
rivets. You also find them attached to the frames by angle--shaped or
T--shaped clips. Clips are usually found on the inner surface of the skin and are
attached to the frame and also to the stringer. The main purpose of these clips
is to transfer the pressure load from the skin panel to the frame.They help to
break up the very long rows of stringers and assist the frame in carrying
compression stress. One final point to mention about stringers is that they are
usually spaced about seven to ten inches apart.
Floor beams lay horizontally and are adjacent to the skin panel. As you can
see, they are attached to the frames and help to carry the pressure loads
across the fuselage. Floor beams are also able to support cabin pressurisation
and can absorb the normal loads of the seat tracks and floor panels.
Floor--to--skin shear ties extend along the two sides of the fuselage and are
level with the floor beams. They are attached to floor beams, frames and skin
stringer and provide an additional path for distributing cabin pressure loads.
The skin forms the external surface of the fuselage. The skin and its
reinforcements are the largest item of the fuselage structure and therefore form
the most important part of the structure. As the stringers and frames are
spaced at regular intervals, it is the skin that carries all of the primary loads
.Thus, the skin helps to prevent buckling and maintains the fuselage
cross--section. Finally, all exterior skins are clad aluminum or treated with
chromic acid anodizing or treated with alodine to prevent corrosion.

STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE

Figure 11 Mainframe Components

STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE

mainframe components cont.
The keel beam is located through the center wing section of the fuselage. It
supports the wheel well area where a maximum amount of bending can occur
and can transport wing loads. The keel beam is made up of compression
chords and a shear web structure containing stiffeners.
The wheel well area does not need a skin/stringer system because of the keel
beam. This let the retraction of the landing gears into the wheel well area.
The keel beam and the skin/stringer panels of the lower half of the forward and
aft fuselage carry the loads.
CENTER SECTION
The fuselage center section provides part of the cabin with a structure for
joining the center wing box and main landing gears together. The area
underneath the cabin floor of the aircraft is unpressurized. A pressure boundary
is made by the upper skin panel of the center wing box and a pressure
diaphragm extends from the wing box above the main landing gears.
The forward and aft pressure boundary is created by the pressure bulkheads
which lie in front of the center wing box and at the end of the main landing
gear bay.
A pressurized cabin is complete when the following components are included in
the center section structure of the fuselage.
These components are the upper skin panel, pressure diaphragm, pressure
boundaries and the pressure bulkheads located forward and aft of the fuselage.
TAIL SECTION
The tail section is designed to carry different loads from the empennage. It is
constructed and formed of frames, stringers and skin panels which are riveted
together.

STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE

Figure 12 Center and Tail Section

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS
WINDOWS
INTRODUCTION
The aircraft windows, are the cockpit windows and the cabin windows.
All windows allow maximum visibility for the passengers and the flight crew
and they also have to hold cabin pressure.
The cockpit windows give additional protection against bird impact and ice
build--up
COCKPIT WINDOWS
Cockpit windows are found at the forward section of the aircraft.There are
normally six cockpit windows on most modern aircraft which are evenly spaced
around the flight deck compartment. The cockpit windows are mostly
symmetrically numbered as window one left and one right and window two left
and two right and window three left and three right.

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

Figure 13 Cockpit Windows

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

cockpit windows cont.
Generally, the two forward cockpit windows are known as flight deck
windshields. The side windows number two are located on either side of the
cockpit compartment. On most aircraft types they are able to slide open. These
windows can be used as flight crew emergency exits and also give the crew a
direct vision on ground.

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

Figure 14 Winshields
STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

All of the cockpit windows are made up of several layers of different materials
to form a laminated construction.
Thermally strengthened glass is very hard glass and is found on the outboard
side of the cockpit windshields.
The two inboard layers of the windshields are made of a chemically
strengthened glass which is a type of special acrylic glass which is hard and
elastic.
All the layers of glass are bonded together by a special plastic called
Polyurethane.
A heating film on all cockpit windows located on the inner surface of the outer
glass provides an anti--ice and defogging system.The heating film is an invisible
conductor coating which heats up the window panels as electricity flows
through it.

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

Figure 15 Layers of Windshields

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

The fixed windows number three and sliding windows number two are built up
of two layers of stretched acrylic glass. The sliding windows are installed from
inside of the cockpit compartment. They are movable on rails.

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

Figure 16 Layers of Windows

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

The fixed windows and the windshields are installed externally and placed
directly on to the frame of the aircraft structure.
The cockpit windshields are attached to the frame on the fuselage structure.
A second frame, called a retainer, is clamped to the panes and to the first
frame with bolts.
The acrylic panes of the fixed windows number three are mounted on a
removable frame which is bolted to the window frame of the fuselage structure.
One last point about the construction of the cockpit windows is that a silicon
seal is placed between the windows and the frame to bond them together.

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

Figure 17 Window Mounting

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS
CABIN WINDOWS
Cabin windows are located on either side of the passenger compartment of the
aircraft. They are designed to allow the passengers to see through them and
also to hold cabin pressure. They also help to protect the passenger from bad
weather such as rain, hail. These windows are attached to frames which are
part of the fuselage. The window frame is riveted to the inner surface of the
fuselage skin.
The frame holds two panes of glass in place and carries the loads from the
aircraft structure.
Cabin windows are installed with a seal from the inner side of the fuselage into
the window frame by a retainer ring with nuts and bolts. The cabin windows
have two panes, an inner pane and an outer pane The two panes of glass are
made of special acrylic glass and are designed to hold differential pressure.
The inner pane has a small vent hole in the center near the bottom. This hole
makes sure that during normal operation, the pressure between the panes is
the same as the cabin pressure. Note, that if the outer pane of glass becomes
damaged or there is a failure with it, the inner pane can carry the full differential
pressure if the outer pane brakes.

STRUCTURES
WINDOWS

Figure 18 Cabin Windows

STRUCTURES
WINGS
WINGS
INTRODUCTION
The wings are located at the sides of the center of the fuselage. The main
function of the wing is to create lift which keeps the aircraft in flight. The wings
also store fuel for flight and house the fuel system components. They also give
support for the engines and flight controls and other systems.
The wing structure usually has 3 main areas.
The left, center and right wing boxes are permanently joined together to form
the mainframe of the wing and the function of this mainframe is to transmit
different loads to the fuselage structure.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 19 Wing Structure

STRUCTURES
WINGS
OUTER WING BOXES

The main components of the left and right wing boxes are the rear spar and
front spar which are fuel tank walls designed to contain the fuel, ribs, upper and
lower stringers and upper and lower skin panels.
SKIN PANELS
The skin panels form the exterior surface of the wing. and they are reinforced
by stringers on the inner surface of the skin. The thickness of the wing skin
panel is tapered depending on the joints and openings. The upper skin panel
carries mainly compression loads to the fuselage structure and is made of a
zinc aluminum alloy. The lower skin panel carries mainly tension loads to the
fuselage structure and is made of a copper aluminum alloy.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 20 Outer Wing Box

STRUCTURES
WINGS

skin panels cont.
Usually, wing skin panels have access doors and openings located in the wing
ribs.
To find out more about the access doors and openings look at Unit 28 on Fuel.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 21 Wing Acces Doors

STRUCTURES
WINGS

skin panels cont.
The wing front and rear spars are designed to carry loads through fittings and
attachments of other components for example, the engines and landing gears.
The depth of the spars taper outboard towards the wing tip.
The front spar is a beam with vertical stiffeners, upper and lower chord angles
and a spar web.
Vertical stiffeners are attached to the two sides of the spar web and supply a
way of attaching the leading and trailing edge ribs.They also give more rigidity.
Chord angles are attached to the spar web, vertical stiffeners and ribs with
bolts.The spar web is a plate that is located beside the upper and lower wing
skin panels and forms the forward end of the wing box.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 22 Wing Front Spar

STRUCTURES
WINGS

skin panels cont.
The rear spar is constructed in a similar way to the front spar, but one
difference is that the landing gear support arm is also connected to the rear
spar.
The landing gear support arm distributes the aft main landing gear loads to the
wing rear spar and the fuselage structure. You usually find that the landing gear
support arm is made of titanium
The outboard end of the support arm makes a rigid connection to the wing rear
spar and the inboard end to the fuselage.
The landing gear trunnion is connected between the landing gear support beam
and the wing rear spar and acts like a hinge which permits the gears to retract
into the aircraft body.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 23 Wing Rear Spar

STRUCTURES
WINGS

skin panels cont.
Ribs lie diagonally and adjacent in the wing box depending on the aircraft type.
Ribs are able to carry torsion, compression and shear loads and also give
shape to the wing and provide walls for the fuel tanks.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 24 Ribs
STRUCTURES
WINGS
LEADING EDGE
The leading edge structure is at the forward end of the wing profile and
supports the variable camber flaps and the Krueger flaps or slats depending on
the aircraft type. The leading edge structure carries different loads through the
front spar to the rest of the fuselage structure. The leading edge structure has
stiffeners,ribs and an upper and lower skin panel.
The skin panels are made of a glass fabric honeycomb material to add shape
to the forward end of the wing.
The nose cap of the leading edge structure is made of an aluminum alloy.

STRUCTURES
WINGS
@
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@
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@
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Figure 25 Wing Leading Edge

STRUCTURES
WINGS
TRAILING EDGE
The trailing edge is the aft end of the wing profile and carries different loads
through the rear spar to the rest of the fuselage structure. The trailing edge
structure supports the flight controls and their operation and other aircraft
system equipment, tubing cables and wiring. The trailing edge structure is
made of ribs, stiffeners, beams and skin panels.
Here, you can see a winglet on a Boeing aircraft, which is at the tip of the wing
box. It is an aerodynamic device which improves the performance of the wing.
Winglets are attached to the end of the wing by special fittings that are part of
the end rib of the wing. They are made of spars and ribs enclosed by skin
which is the standard method used to construct winglets. One final point to
mention is that the winglet is known as a wing fence on some aircraft types.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 26 Wing Trailing Edge

STRUCTURES
WINGS
CENTER WING BOX

The center wing box distributes different loads to the fuselage and can also
house a fuel tank. It also supports the fuselage and the left and right wing
boxes.
The center wing box is made of a front spar and rear spar and upper and lower
skin panels. The outboard sides of the center wing box are constructed with
wing--to--body ribs.This position forms the inboard end of the left and right wing
boxes.
The skin panels are reinforced by stringers which are joined to the left and right
wing skin panel stringers. The center wing box is reinforced by beams with
stiffened webs which are attached to the upper and lower skin panels.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 27 Center Wing Box

STRUCTURES
WINGS
PYLON AND NACELLE

The pylon is located under each wing of the aircraft and has 4 functions.
It supports the engines which are on each wing. Another function is that the
pylon supports and routes systems between the engine and the wing. Lastly,
the pylon carries mainly torsion loads to the wing structure.
The pylon which is also known as the strut is usually constructed with a frame
and skin structure. These are riveted and bonded together to form a nacelle
strut assembly. The nacelle strut assembly has a torque box, firewall and
fireseal, fairings, strut drains, fan cowl support beam and engine attach fittings.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 28 Pylon and Nacelle

STRUCTURES
WINGS

pylon and nacelle cont.
The torque box is mainly constructed with spars, ribs, stiffeners and skin
panels like other main structure components. The torque box has a bearing
and engine attach fittings.
The torque box is attached to 3 areas on the wing which are the 2 forward
pylon attach fittings and 1 aft pylon attach fitting. The forward pylon--attach
fittings are bolted to 2 sets of twin links. The twin links are bolted to fittings that
are attached to the wing front spar. The aft pylon attach fitting is made by 2
shackles.The shackles are connected with bolts to beams fixed on to the wing.
The forward pylon attach fittings transmit weight and lateral loads,while the aft
pylon attach fitting transmits weight and longitudinal loads.
The bearing is found in the upper spar of the torque box behind the forward
attach fitting. The bearing transmits lateral and longitudinal loads between the
pylon and the wing and engages a spigot which is fixed to the lower wing
surface.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 29 Torque Box

STRUCTURES
WINGS

pylon and nacelle cont.
The fan cowl support beam extends forward of the torque box and is bolted by
a link and attach fittings to the forward end of the torque box. It supports the
fan cowl by hinge fittings and also distributes different loads through the beam
to the torque box.
The fan cowl support beam has attach fittings,a bulkhead, angles and hinge
fittings. The wing--to--nacelle fairings are attached to the pylon to provide a
low--drag aerodynamic profile between the engine nacelle and the wing.

STRUCTURES
WINGS

Figure 30 Fan Cowl Support Box

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE
EMPENAGE
INTRODUCTION
The empenage is an unpressurised area and consists of a vertical stabilizer,
dorsal fin and rudders horizontal stabilizers and elevators, a tail section with a
tail cone.
The tail section has attach fittings for the vertical stabilizer, the tail cone and
the horizontal stabilizer.

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE

Figure 31 Tail Section

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE

introduction cont.
The tail cone forms the aft end of the fuselage and as you can see is made of
frames, stringers and skin panels riveted together.
The tail cone is a removable single unit ,which has an APU compartment,
access doors for dismantling and inspection of the APU and provides APU air
intake and exhaust.

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE

Figure 32 Tail Cone

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
Horizontal stabilizers allow pitch trim control and can be used as a fuel tank on
some aircraft. The horizontal stabilizer can be constructed as a single piece
structure or as a 3 piece structure.
Here you see that this type of structure has structure boxes that are joined to a
center joint rib and extend outboard from this rib.
There is also a removable leading edge, a hinged elevator and a tip bolted onto
the end of the structure box.

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE

Figure 33 Horizontal Stabilizer (Single Piece Structure)

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE

horizontal stabilizer cont.
The 3 piece structure of the horizontal stabilizer has a left and a right outboard
section , that are attached to a stabilizer center section.
The outboard section has a forward and aft torque box, removable leading
edge and fixed trailing edge. The leading edge is on the forward end of the
stabilizer profile and carries loads through the stabilizer center section through
to the fuselage.
Usually, the forward torque box structure has a front spar, ribs and an auxiliary
spar which is constructed like the front spar.
The aft torque box structure is similar to the foward torque box construction.
The fixed trailing edge forms the aft end of the stabilizer profile. It supports the
hinged elevator with a hinge fitting and carries loads through the stabilizer
center section to the fuselage
There is an inboard elevator and an outboard elevator which can move
separately or on some aircraft only one elevator for pitch control. These
elevators are attached by hinge fittings to the fixed trailing edge and the
structure is constructed like the stabilizer.

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE

Figure 34 Horizontal Stabilizer (3 Piece Structure)

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE
VERTICAL STABILIZER
The vertical stabilizer is located on the top of the tail section. You frequently
find that the vertical stabilizer, which is also known as a fin, has a forward and
aft torque box, fin leading edge and a fin tip assembly.
The movable rudders are attached to the trailing edge of the fixed vertical
stabilizer. The rudders provide the aircraft with directional control. For more
information about the rudders see Unit 27 -- Flight Control.
The rudder structure is similar to the elevator structure. You can see here that
the vertical stabilizer also has a rib structure.
The fin tip is located at the upper end of the vertical stabilizer.
The dorsal fin is used to join the vertical stabilizer smoothly to the fuselage and
is constructed of machined aluminum skin and small ribs.

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE

Figure 35 Vertical Stabilizer

STRUCTURES
EMPENAGE
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK


Ameco Beijing
Aviation College
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ATA 51 STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
STRUCTURAL STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
FUSELAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
SEMI - MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTUON . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
MAINFRAME COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
CENTER SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
TAIL SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
WINDOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
COCKPIT WINDOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
CABIN WINDOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
WINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
OUTER WING BOXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
SKIN PANELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
LEADING EDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
TRAILING EDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
CENTER WING BOX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
PYLON AND NACELLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
EMPENAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
VERTICAL STABILIZER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Page i
Ameco Beijing
Aviation College
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Main Structural Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 2 Airframe Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3 Structural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 4 Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 5 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 6 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 7 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 8 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 9 Types of Fuselage Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 10 Mainframe Compents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 11 Mainframe Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 12 Center and Tail Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 13 Cockpit Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 14 Winshields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 15 Layers of Windshields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 16 Layers of Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 17 Window Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 18 Cabin Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure 19 Wing Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 20 Outer Wing Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 21 Wing Acces Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 22 Wing Front Spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 23 Wing Rear Spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 24 Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 25 Wing Leading Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 26 Wing Trailing Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 27 Center Wing Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 28 Pylon and Nacelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 29 Torque Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 30 Fan Cowl Support Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 31 Tail Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 32 Tail Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 33 Horizontal Stabilizer (Single Piece Structure) . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 34 Horizontal Stabilizer (3 Piece Structure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 35 Vertical Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Page: lxxiv

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Ameco Beijing

Lufthansa Issue: July 2000

Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH

Lufthansa Base Frankfurt

Lufthansa Base Hamburg

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Figure 1 Main Structural Units

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Figure 2 Airframe Components

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Figure 3 Structural Members

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SEMI - MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTUON

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Figure 9 Types of Fuselage Construction

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Figure 10 Mainframe Compents

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Figure 11 Mainframe Components

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Figure 12 Center and Tail Section

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Figure 13 Cockpit Windows

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Figure 15 Layers of Windshields

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