LET Reviewer Social Science Major

LET Reviewer Social Science Major
Anthropology for Teachers
Concept of Anthropology
A. Definition of Anthropology
Comes from the Greek words; anthropos (man) and logos (study).
Concerns explicitly and directly with all varieties of people throughout the world and it traces human
evolution and cultural development from millions of years ago to present (Ember, 1993).
It looks into the attributes of a particular human population.
B. Two Major Disciplines of Anthropology
B.1 Physical Anthropology "concerns with human evolution and human variation (Paleontology or
paleoanthropology)
B.2 Cultural Anthropology - deals with the study of culture consists’ of three areas as follows:
1. Linguistics- focuses on historical and descriptive or structural linguistics. It looks into the
emergence of language and variations of language over time.
2. Archaeology-deals with cultural history
3. Ethnology (cultural anthropology)-studies cultural variation
A. Schools of Thought in Cultural Anthropology
- Early Evolutionism (Edward B. Taylor and Lewis Henry Morgan) - states that most societies were
believed to pass through the same series of stages, to arrive ultimately at a common end
- Historical Particularism - Franz Boas. the proponent, believed that it was premature to
formulate universal law since there is a need to study the context of society in which they appeared.
- Diffusionism (British, German and Austrian Anthropologists) spread the idea that most aspects
of civilization had emerged in culture centers and later diffused outward.
- Functionalism (Bronislaw Malinowski). It holds that all culture traits serve the needs of
individuals in a society; the function of culture traits is the ability to satisfy some basic or derived
need.
- Structural-functionalist approach (Arthur Reginald Radcliffe-Brown) assumes that the various
aspects of social behavior maintain a society's social structure- its total network of social
relationships - rather than satisfying individual needs. It works in the following assumption: stability,
harmony, equilibrium and evolution.
- Psychological Approaches (Edward Sapir, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead) seek to
understand how psychological factors and processes may help us explain cultural practices.
- Later Evolutionism (Leslie White) states that culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed
per capita per year is increased or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy
to work increased.
- Structuralism- Claude Levi-Strauss sees culture as it is expressed in art, ritual, and the patterns
of daily life, as a surface representation of the underlying patterns of the human mind.
- Ethno science (ethnography) explains culture from the way people used to describe their
activities.
- Cultural Ecology seeks to understand the relationship between culture and social environments
- Political economy centers on the impact of external political and economic processes,
particularly as connected to colonialism and imperialism, on local events and cultures in the
underdeveloped countries.
- Sociobiology involves the application of biological evolutionary principles to the social behavior
of animals, including humans.
- Interpretive approaches consider cultures as texts to be analyzed for their meanings.
- Feminist Anthropology includes women's issues in the study of culture and society.
- Conflict Theory-advocates of this theory ask this question: "Who controls the scarce resources
of a given society"? It assumes that society can be explained based on the following assumptions:
economic determinism, dialectism and social action.
B. Types of Research in Cultural Anthropology

Ethnography
Non-historical Research
Historical Research
Cross-Cultural Research
II. Human Evolution

A. Beliefs about human beings
Divine theory
Systema Naturae by Cart Linneaus (carolus )
Jean Baptiste Lamarck- species could evolve
Erasmus Darwin - inheritance of acquired characteristics
Charles Lyeli-Principles of Geology
B. Theory of Natural Selection proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace

- The theory of natural selection proposes that those organisms best adapted to a particular
environment produce the most offspring overtime.
C. Gregor Mendel's experiments

- Mendel's research in genetics and DNA and RNA led us to understand the mechanisms by which
traits may be passed from one generation to the next.
D. Sources of Biological Variation

1. Genetic recombination- random assortment, segregation and crossing-over
2. Mutation - change in DNA sequence
E. Factors in Human Variation

1. Genetic Drift
2. Gene Flow
3. Influence of Physical Environment
4. Influence of social and cultural environment
F. Humans are a product of the interaction of biological and cultural evolution.
G. Physical Variation among Humans

genetic variation
body build
facial construction
skin color
height
Lactase deficiency
H. Problems about Human Variation
1. Racism
2. Gender Discrimination
I. Diagram on Human Evolution: Biological and Cultural

TIME (YEARS AGO)
GEOLOGIC EPOCH
FOSSIL RECORD
ARCHEOLOGICAL PERIODS
MAJOR CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
5500 (3500
B.C.)
Bronze Age
Cities and States;

Social Inequality; Full- time Craft specialist
10,000(8.000
B.C.)
Neolithic
Mesolithic
Domestication of plants and animals; permanent villages
Broad spectrum food collecting; increasing sedimentary

communities; many kinds of microliths
14,000
(12,000 B.C.)
Pleistocene
Earliest humans in New

World
Upper
Paleolithic
Cave paintings; female figurines; many kinds of blades tools

40,000
Modem humans
Homo sapiens
200,000
Neanderthal Homo sapiens

Earliest Homo sapiens (?)
Middle
Paleolithic
Religious beliefs(?)
burials; Moustenan
tools
300,000
Homo Erectus
700,000
1,500,000
1.800,000
Pliocene
Earliest hominids
Australopithe-cus
Homo Habilis
Lower
Paleolithic
Hunting/scavenging;
seasonal campsites;
Oldowan tools
2,000,000
Diversification of Apes
Sivapithecus
Dryopithecus
Proconsu
Earliest stone tools
5,000,000
Miocene
Earliest apes (?)
Propliopithe-cus
e.g. Aegyptopithe-cus
22,500,000
Earliest anthropoids
29,000,000
Parapithecids
e.g. Apldium
32,000.000
Oligocene
Ampipithecus tetonius
Earliest Primates
Purgaforius
38,000,000
Eocene
50,000,000
Paleocene
53,500,000
Late
Cretaceous
70,000.000
Ember: 1996
- Homo erectus begun to evolve into Homo sapiens after about 500,000 years ago.
- Pro-modem Homo sapiens have been found in Africa, Asia and Europe.
- The oldest fossil remains of a modem looking human have been found in South Africa.
- Two theories about the origins of modem humans:
1. Single-origin theory- modem humans emerged in just one part of the Old World (the near east
and recently South Africa.
2. Continuous Evolution Theory-modem humans emerged gradually in various parts of the Old
World
J. Broad spectrum collection (Mesolithic Period) was associated with the development of sedentary
life
K. Domestication of Plants and Animals (Neolithic Revolution)
L. Population generally Increased after plant and animal domestication.
M. Growth of Cities and States

- The key criterion for state is the presence of hierarchical and centralized decision-making
affecting a substantial population.
- Most states have duties with public buildings, full time craft and religious specialists, an official
art style and a hierarchical social structure.
- Earliest states: Southern Iraq (Sumer) in the Near East, in Mesopotamia, the valley of
- Oaxaca and later in Teotehuaca
III. The Study of Culture

A. Definition
Culture is personality writ large (Ruth Benedict). It is a sort of group personality that forms an overall
cultural orientation within which there is a considerable variation.
Anything shared by human beings.
Cultural configurations- the Idea that cultures possess internal coherence and consistency. Culture is
not just the sum of individuals who adhere to them, because it also includes developed and
elaborated traits with greater intensity and richness. This is our cultural heritage.
Cultural Relativism is the attitude that a society's customs and ideas should be described objectively
and understood in the context of that society's problems and opportunities.
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to regard ones culture as superior
B. The Ability of Human Beings to Produce and Acquire Culture Can be attributed to the
Following Biological Characteristics:
Large brain
Bipedal
Opposable thumb
Well developed vocal chords
Long period of dependency
Reproduction is not seasonal; human beings can reproduce during fertile period
C. Theories About the Development of Personality

1. Theory of Sigmund Freud- Origin of Society Hypothesis- Oedipal Complex (incest and exogamy)
2. Malinowski – Matrilineal Family
3. Benedict and Mead emphasized the ways culture develops individual personality.
4. Kardiner - illustrated the presence of various personality types in a culture. Personalities differ
because of the variations in cultural institutions.
5. M. Whiting and L. Child suggest that childrearing practices develop certain personality types.
D. National character - modal characteristics of a people.
E. Objections to National Character Studies

Abnormal personality
F. Two ways by which culture can be internalized:

Habituation-human beings learn certain techniques
Education - skills are taught; directed Seaming process
G. Language and Culture

1. Communication is a function of language
2. Forms of communication
[ verbal
[ nonverbal
3. Structural linguistics try to discover the rules of
[ phonology (the patterning of sounds);
[ morphology (the patterning of sound sequences and words), and
[ syntax (the patterning of phrases and sentences) that predicts how most speakers of language talk.
4. Historical linguists study the origin of languages.
5. Sociolinguistics concerns about the ethnography of speaking- that is, with cultural and sub cultural
patterns of speaking in different social contexts
social status and speech
sex differences in speech
H. Sex and Culture

Sex and Gender Differences
Gender Roles in productive and domestic activities; political leadership and warfare
Status of Men and Women
IV. Economic Systems

A. Subsistence Economy
§ Food Collection - hunting, fishing and gathering
§ Agricultural economy
§ Pastoralism
B. Patterns of Subsistence in the Philippines
C. The use of technology
D. Access to natural resources
E. Organization of labor
F. Market or commercial exchange economy
V. Social Stratification
A. Definition
Social Stratification pertains to division in society due to access or right to certain advantages. The
advantages may be in the form of economic resources, power and prestige
B. Type of Societies
1. Egalitarian societies are societies in which many positions of prestige in any given age-sex grade
could be filled by those who are capable.
2. Rank societies are characterized by social groups having unequal access to prestige or status but
not significantly unequal access to economic resources or power
3. Class societies are characterized by having unequal access to economic resources and power.
Class society ranges from open class system to close class system.
VI. Marriage and Family

A. Definition of Marriage
Marriage means a socially approved sexual and economic union between a woman and a man.
B. Types of Marriages
By Number
Monogamy
Polygamy- polyandry and polygyny and group marriage
Whom should one marry?
Endogenous marriage and exogenous marriage
Cousin marriages
Levirate and Sororate
C. Types of Family
By composition; Nuclear, Extended
By Residence: Patrilocal, Matrilocal, Bilocal Neolocal, Avunculocal
By Orientation: Patrilineal, Matrilineal, Bilateral
Unilineal Descent patrilineages, matrilineages, patricians, matridans
Kinship Terminology: consanguineal kin, affinal kin
By power: Patriarchal, Matriarchal,Egalitarian
D. Economic Consideration in Marriage

Bride price
Dowry
E. Incest Taboo - is the prohibition of sexual intercourse or marriage between mother and son,
father and daughter, and brother and sister, Incest taboo is universal, however, the Incan and
Hawaiian royal families allow incest.
F. Theories on the universality of incest taboo

Childhood-Familiarity Theory-Children raised together are not sexually attracted to each other when
they grow up.
Freud's Psychoanalytic theory-suggest that the son may be attracted to the mother but the father
might retaliate against the son. Hence such feelings must be renounce or repressed,
Family disruption theory (Malinowski) sexual competition among family members may create so
much tension and rivalry thus may result to disruption of the functions of the family.
Cooperation Theory- incest taboo promotes cooperation among family members.
Inbreeding theory-emphasizes tie damaging consequences of inbreeding
VII. Social Organization

A. Types of Social Organization
Simple social organization is one characterized by relatively few and homogenous social units and
less elaborate cultural forms. The family or the household serves as the basic social unit around
which all activities revolved.
Complex Social Organization is one characterized by greater internal heterogeneity of social units
and more elaborate cultural forms. Differentiation in the structure of social relations is clear-cut and
it revolves around specialized institutions.
B. Some Examples of Associations

Membership Criteria
Recruitment
Voluntary
Non-voluntary
Universally Ascribed
Age-Sets
Most unisex associations
Variably Ascribed
Ethnic Associations Regional Associations
Conscripted army
Achieved
Occupational Associations Political Parties. Special Interest Groups
C. Political Organizations: band, tribe, chiefdom and state
D. Resolution of conflict: community action, informal adjudication without power, ritual

reconciliation -apology, oaths and ordeals, codified laws and courts, feuding, raiding, large - scale
confrontation
E. Filipino Indigenous ethnic communities may be grouped into five general types (Jocano, 1998):
1. Pisan (campsite) - Agta term for small exogamous local groups consisting mostly of kinsmen
2. Puro (settlement) - Sulod term for semi-sedentary, amorphous aggregate of persons who live
in a particular and named settlement (Swidden or Kaingin)
3. Ili (village) - Bontoc in origin which corresponds to village type organization
4. Magani (district) - Agusan Manobo, Sodat organization of dry crop farmers whose social
organization corresponds rank organization
5. Banwa (domain) - Manuvu term for self-contained villages
VIII. Religion and Magic
A. Definition of Religion
Religion is any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power
B. Religion is universal for the following .reasons:

Need for intellectual understanding
Decrease guilt, anxiety or uncertainty
Need for community
C. Variations in religious beliefs
Existence of impersonal supernatural forces (e.g. mana and taboo)

Supernatural beings of nonhuman origins (gods and spirits)
Supernatural beings of human origin (ghosts and ancestor spirits)
D. Ways of Communicating with the supernatural include prayer, doing things to the body and the
mind, simulation, feast and sacrifices
E. Magic is the belief that actions can compel the supernatural to act in a particular and intended
way. Sorcery and witchcraft are attempts to make the spirits work harm against people.
F. Religious/Magical practitioners include shamans, sorcerers or witches, mediums and priests

G. Religion and Political Movements
IX. The Arts * ,

A. Body Decoration and Adornment: paint or objects such as feathers, jewelry, skins and clothing.
Body decorations may be used to delineate social position, rank, sex, occupation, local and ethnic
identity
B. Visual Art
Artistic Differences in Egalitarian and Stratified Societies
Egalitarian Society
Stratified Society
Repetition of simple elements Much empty or "irrelevant" space Symmetrical design Unenclosed
figures
Integration of unlike elements Little empty space Asymmetrical design Enclosed figures
C. Music
D. Folklore
X. Culture Changes
A. Discovery and Invention
B. Diffusion
C. Acculturation
D. Revolution
E. Types of Culture Change
Commercialization
Religious Change
Economic Change
Social Philosophy
PART I: CONTENT UPDATE
Philosophy
- From two Greek words: Philein which means "to love", and Sophia which means "wisdom".
According to Manuel Velasquez, philosophy is "the pursuit of wisdom about what it means to be a
human being, what the fundamental nature of God and reality is. what the sources and limits of our
knowledge are, and what is good and right In our lives and in our societies,
- Traditionally defined as the sciences of all things studied from the viewpoint of their ultimate
causes under the light of human reason alone. (According to Bertram/ Russel, philosophy is the no
man's land between theology and science.)
Three Traditional Divisions:

Epistemology - literally means "the study of knowledge". It deals with questions of knowledge
(including the structure, reliability, extent, and kinds of knowledge); truth, validity, and logic; and a
variety of linguistic concerns, (e.g. the question of whether truth is relative)
Metaphysics ~ addresses questions of reality (including the meaning and nature of being); the nature
of mind, self, and human freedom; and some topics that overlap with religion, such as the existence
of God, the destiny of the universe, and the immortality of the soul. (E.g. question of whether
human behavior is free or determined)
Ethics - study of values and moral principles and how they relate to human conduct to our social and
political institutions, (e.g. question of whether human beings have the moral obligation to love and
serve others, or obligation only to themselves)
* social philosophy falls under this division,
Social Philosophy – is the study of society and its processes and activities with particular emphasis
on the basic principles underlying social structures and functions. It is the study of the rightness or
wrongness of societal orders, institutions, structures, systems, functions, and processes.
(Thomas Hobbes first used the term "social philosophy". He is also widely considered as the father of
social philosophy.)
Prerequisite to an understanding of social philosophy are the following six basic factors or concerns:
First: An understanding of nature of associative life (the person existing in correlation with
society).
Second: Associative life requiring a set of values towards which all social processes and activities are
directed.
Third: The means to the set of values essential in the associative life
Fourth: The law.
Fifth: The obligation of the individuals to the state and the state to the individuals.
Sixth: The ideal of social and individual justice.
To sum up, the study of social philosophy revolves around these six lectors: associations, values,
power, rights, obligations and justice.
SOCIAL PHILSOPHIES
A. Classical Realism
Realism is the philosophy that regards the universe as composed of beings existing independently
but related and forming a hierarchical structure called cosmos or totality.
Classical Realism distinguishes a person from other living substances as endowed with two natures:
animal and rational. Animal nature with its various appetites and sensual desires is perfected by the
practice of the habits of the "golden mean" between the two extremes of excess and deficiency.
These habits enable a person to develop the moral virtues of temperance and courage. These moral
virtues, in turn, enable a person to perfect the rational nature by achieving the intellectual virtues of
wisdom, prudence, and art.
However, full human nature is not only achieved by the development of virtues atone.
Full human nature enables a person to achieve the ultimate goal of happiness by transcending self-
realization with the acceptance that one is not self-sufficient when isolated from others. Aristotle
emphasized that a person is a part in relation to the whole which is society, and that anyone who is
not able to live in society or who does not need it is either a beast or a god, but not a human being.
Society, therefore, is the external support of a person's self-realization. It follows, therefore, that the
state, which is a form of organized society, has the moral purpose of maintaining proper order and
exercising justice for the good of the whole or the common good.
B. Positivism
Positivism as a philosophy is based primarily on science and scientific discoveries. Auguste Comte
came up with the term when he developed his philosophical idea regarding the laws of societal
growth. He maintains that there are three ascending levels of explanation of natural phenomena:
Theological level - explains natural phenomena by involving spiritual or anthromorphic beings.
Metaphysical level- depersonalizes these beings into forces and essences
Positive level - relies mainly on sciences and scientific descriptions.
Comte contends that as the new society develops in the positive level (or positivist society);
performing one's duties to society and of serving the interests of humanity will prevail over the
concept of society as existing to serve the interests of individuals. In other words, he maintains that
the development of industrial society based on sciences and industry, when properly organized, will
be accompanied by a moral regeneration involving the substitution of concern with the welfare of
humanity for concern with the individual's private interests.
Intellectual Phase
Material Phase
Type of Social Unit
Type of Order
Prevailing Sentiment
Theological
Military
Family
Domestic
Attachment
Metaphysical
Legalistic
State
Collective
Veneration (Awe or respect)
Positive
Industrial
Race (Humanity)
Universal
Benevolence
* Comte framed the term sociology.
C. Pragmatism
Pragmatism is the acknowledged contribution of America to philosophy. Three American thinkers
figured prominently in the development of pragmatism:
- Charles Sanders Peirce (pronounced as "purse")
- William James
- John Dewey
Dewey defined pragmatism as the "theory that the processes and the materials of knowledge are
determined by practical or purposive consideration". According to Peirce the pragmatists' view is
supported by the practices of experimental sciences specifically the laboratory method in which the
hypotheses are ideas or proposed solutions to felt problems. These are tested and either rejected or
confirmed. Truth, therefore, is that which works and is successful in solving problems.
The pragmatists' focus on consequences and how they are controlled through intelligence is the
foundation of their concepts of person and society. A person is a social animal because association
rather than isolation is the Law that governs everything that exists.
Almost every other kind of achievable value is acquired because of social process in which each
value individual valuer is when he is normally fitted to his sphere. In essence, for pragmatism society
is not just a conglomeration of individuals but an organic process upon which individuals depend and
by which they live. As the soil is to plants and trees, so society is to the individual which nurtures
human life in its individual forms and makes possible of all the flowerings of personality.
The pragmatists also claim that human society is much more commonly the context in which
concepts are formed.
The ends of associative life such as survival, habits of action and thought, and, choice of
consequences are served by numerous social groups To the pragmatists, society is pluralistic, not an
entity in itself, but a collection of interacting primary groups. These smaller groups however produce
consequences on persons other than those who directly participate in these primary groups.
Pragmatism views a person as a problem solver In an environment of pluralism of groups, interests,

and consequences.
D. Naturalism
Naturalism is a philosophy that denies anything as having supernaturality. It contends, especially its
earlier versions, that the common context in which concepts are formed is the physical universe
(unlike pragmatism which maintains that the human society is the common context where ideas are
formed). A human being is a transitory product of physical processes. Thus, human beings and
society are dependent on the natural order. Society therefore is received as less organic. It is an
aspect or portion of nature, not so much an organism that has rhythms and patterns. The individual
is therefore considered as nature's offspring, not a child of society or a segment whose very being
depends upon the social organism. Although dependent upon nature, he stands on his own feet,
more or less, as far as his relations to society are concerned. There are what might be called certain
necessities which make it expedient for him to relate himself somewhat effectively socially; but
these are not necessities arising from the operation of society as an organism, so much as they are
accidents or exigencies to be avoided by working out some kind of social organization to correct
them.
Thomas Hobbes viewed the individual and his native state as at war with himself. He is competitive,
he grasps for honor and dignity, he is troublesome, and he is hungry for power. Human beings left to
them selves without some kind of control will kill themselves in the chaos and anarchy of selfish
struggle. The only way that man can be saved from himself sociologically is for individual man to
surrender his freedom to some superior social power or organization to which he must give absolute
obedience as to a moral god.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's naturalism rooted man in nature rather than in society. He contends that
the individual is a child of nature so much so that he proposed in his "Emile" to keep Emile away
from society until adolescence. Through his Social Contract, he reveals how the problem of social
organization is complicated by the importance of maintaining the human being's freedom. The
individual, he maintains, is not a human being unless he is free, if he is in bondage, then he is a
human being. However, unrestricted freedom is neither in harmony with his welfare nor with the
welfare of the society. Apparently some social organization is required, one that preserves the
freedom of the individual.
It seems that for naturalism social values are synthetic values, which result from agreements in
which human beings bind themselves together. Such are inferior goods, not so much preferred as
individual goods, which result indirectly as a consequence of the desire to avoid the greater evils
which accompany anarchy. They are not organic values which are determined in part by the very
nature of society and which would never be possessed by humans separately, even if they did not
need to be saved from conflict and chaos by some kind of social groupings.
E. Liberalism
Liberalism is a philosophy or movement that has as its aim the development of individual freedom
and adheres to the idea that the society is one in which individuals are left free to pursue their own
interests and fulfillment as each chooses. As Mill argued, the only restraints to which adult
individuals should be subjected are those necessary to keep an individual from harming others.
However, because the concepts of liberty or freedom change in different historical periods its
specific programs also change. The final aim of liberalism, though, remains fixed, as does its
characteristic belief not only in essential human goodness but also in human rationality. Liberalism
assumes that people, having a rational intellect, have the ability to recognize problems and solve
them and thus can achieve systematic improvement in the human condition. Often opposed to
liberalism is the doctrine of conservatism, which simply states, supports the maintenance of the
status quo. Liberalism, which seeks what it considers to be improvement or progress, necessarily
desires to change the existing order.
It is in the works of John Locke that the soul of philosophical liberalism is found. Locke claims that
freedom and equality of all human beings are governed by a (aw of nature that necessitates
everyone to respect the freedom of self-determination in others and to treat others as equals.
Reason defines the rights and duties that constitute and sustain everyone's freedom.
However, people find it necessary to give up their natural freedom in order to form a society. They
enter into a societal contract where they give up their power of self preservation in exchange for the
collective and stronger action of society and government. Through this social compact people agree
to live in the bonds of civil society. The contract creates one body that acts by the consent of the
majority, and by agreeing to the contract, individuals place themselves under the obligation to
submit to the determinations of the majority. Thus, the existence of society and the authority of
government arise out of people's freely given consent as emphasized by Locke, and not out of
people's needs as asserted by Hobbes.
Contemporary Liberalism has retained the fundamental commitment to individual liberty but has
added to it an awareness of the extent to which economic relations can indirectly limit an
individual's liberty. The choice of a poor person is very much restricted compared to a rich man.
Contemporary liberalism has tended to incorporate the view that individuals can be constrained to
provide economic support for the poor through welfare programs. It has also tended to incorporate
the view that individuals should be given some protection against the economic power of the
wealthy through laws that protect the worker.
One of the representatives of contemporary liberalism is John Rawls. Rawls also acknowledges that
social relationships have a deep and profound effect on the individual's sense of fulfillment. A
society's institutions are what primarily determine what we can do and what our lives as individuals
will be like,
Rawls claims that the most important question about society is whether it is just or not. According to
Rawls, the laws and institutions of a society must embody justice and be based on these two
principles of justice: first, that everyone in society must have political rights and duties, and second,
that the only justifiable economic inequalities are those required to make everyone better off by
serving as incentives. If this will not be the case, then it must be reformed.
F. Idealism
Idealism grew out as a reaction to naturalism. According to naturalism, truth or reality exists in Ideas
or in the spirit or in the mind. Material objects are merely representations of the idea. While
idealism emphasizes that the will governs one's conduct, naturalism says that impulse, instincts, and
experience govern one's conduct. While idealism judges behavior in terms of motives, naturalism
judges behavior on the basis of results. Naturalism would say that the end justifies the means.
Idealism would say that the knowledge is obtained by speculation and reasoning, naturalism regards
scientific observation. Naturalism regards scientific knowledge as final.
The idealist notion of society is not an aggregation or collection of individuals; it is an organism in

which individuals participate. Individual selfhood is not something which can grow in isolation; it is
given birth through the social process and comes into actual self-realization only in relation with
society as its medium of nature and development. This is not to say that the individual is subordinate
to society. With the society providing the matrix for the development of the individual, the individual
progresses and slowly proceed in the process of self-realization and at the same time, society
develops in a process of realizing the ultimately good society.
G. Communism
Karl Marx believed that the human being, apart from some obvious biological factors, has no
essential human nature — that is, something that it is true of every human being at all times
everywhere. However, he believes that human beings are social beings, that to speak of human
nature is really to speak about the totality of social relations. Accordingly, whatever any of us does is
a social act. which presupposes the existence of other people standing in certain relations to us. In
short, everything is socially (earned. He further claims that it is not the consciousness of individuals
that defines their beings, but it is their social being that determines their consciousness.
Marx also claimed that the history of the world should be viewed as a history of class struggles. He
believed that the universal laws operating in history are economic in nature. Moreover, he saw a
causal connection between the economic structure and everything in society such that the mode of
production of material life determines the general character of the social, political and spiritual
processes of life.
Marx claims that eventually, capitalism will become increasing unstable economically. The class
struggle between the bourgeoisie (ownership class) and proletariat (working class) will increase. The
poor will be poorer, and increasing in number. The upshot will be a social revolution. The workers
will initiate the new communist phase of history.
H. Communitariansm
Communitarianism is the view that the actual community in which we live should be at the center of
our analysis of society and government. Communitarians emphasize the social nature of human
beings. They argue that our very identity - who we are ~ depends on our relationships to others in
our communities. We are embedded in our community and its cultural practices. Thus, we cannot
understand our selves apart from our community and its cultural practices.
According to communitarians, the state is natural. It is, like the family and the tribe, the natural
outgrowth of the human beings' natural tendency to live together. They also believe that the human
being can only fully develop within the state. Thus, it is obvious that communitarians do not claim
that the state is an artificial construct. They also do not claim that the individual is prior to the
development of the state. But they do claim that the state and its cultural practices are the source of
the identity of all human beings. That is, it is in the state that human beings acquire the cultures and
traditions that they use to define themselves.
I. Fascism
The term fascism was first used by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in 1919. The term comes from
the Italian word fascio, which means "union".
Fascism is a totalitarian philosophy of government that seeks to regenerate the social, economic,
and cultural life of a country by basing it on a heightened sense of national belonging or ethnic
identity, It rejects liberal ideas such as freedom and individual rights, and often presses for the
destruction of elections, legislatures, and other elements of democracy.
Fascism is characterized by the following:

Emphasis on the glorification of the state and the total subordination for the individual to it. The
state is defined as an organic into whom individuals must be absorbed for them and the state's
benefit. The 'total state" is absolute in its methods and unlimited by (aw in its control and direction
of its citizens.
Social Darwinism - The doctrine of survival of the fittest and the necessity of the struggle for life is
applied by fascists to the life of a nation-state. Peaceful, complacent nations are seen as doomed to
fail before more dynamic ones, making struggle and aggressive militarism a leading, characteristic of
the fascist state. Imperialism is the logical outcome of this dogma.
Elitism - salvation from rule by the mob and the destruction of the existing social order can be
affected only by an authoritarian leader who embodies the highest ideals of the nation. This concept
of leader as hero or superman is closely linked with fascism's rejection of reason and intelligence and
its emphasis on vision, creativeness, and the will
J. Stoicism
Stoicism is a philosophy that flourished in Greek and Roman antiquity. The goal of all inquiry is to
provide man with a mode of conduct characterized by tranquility of mind and certainty of moral
growth. They also believed that some matters were within a person's power to control and others
were not. Within a person's power to control is the will to act or not to act, to do or to avoid. Not
within a person's power is the nature of things and the laws that govern them. People should
therefore obey the rules of nature and respect the natural order of things. Stoicism also preached
the equality of all people since all of them are rational beings.
The stoics developed the idea of cosmopolitanism, the idea that all persons are citizens of the same
human community. Human relations for them have the greatest significance, for human beings
shared a common element. That is, since Logos (God) is in everything, then the Logos (reason). Is
also the same saying the reason is common to both God and person
K. Existentialism
Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine that focuses on the existing individual person.
It is concerned with the authentic concerns of concrete existing individuals as they face choices and
decisions in daily life. It emphasizes the freedom of all persons to make choices in a universe where
there are no absolute values outside man himself. Soren Kierkegaard, who argued that human
existence was marked off from all other kinds ofn man's power to choose, founded it. The decision
that man makes will make him the kind of person that he will and will make him distinct totally from
every other person. Thus, every value is always dependent upon the free choices of every man.
I. Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism - theory of what is good and a theory of what is right
1. Theory of what is right
Utilitarianism's theory of what is right is known as consequentalism. It claims that what is a morally
right option on any circumstance is that option, which brings about the most good, or the best
consequences,
2. Theory of what is good
Utilitarian agree that what is good is utility - human well-being or welfare. However, they disagree as
to how well-being or welfare is defined.
EASTERN SOCIAL PHILOSOPHIES

A. Buddhism
.
Buddhism originates from the experience of the misery of life. Life, for the Buddhist, is caught in a
labyrinth of changes so much so that there is no peace to be found in this world. There is an endless
cycle of change, of birth and death and therefore, the only way for man to attain peace is the state
of "nirvana," or the fading out of suffering. Thus Buddhism has a morality that is characterized as
egocentric and Individualistic and gives very little positive value to society. Buddhism teaches the
Eightfold Way (The right view, the right aspiration, the right speech, the right action, the right
livelihood/the right effort, the right concentration, the right contemplation) and also the Four Noble
Truths. The four noble truths are the following:
The universal fact of pain
The origin of suffering
The cessation of suffering
The path, which leads to the cessation of suffering
B. Confucianism
Confucianism aims for the restoration of political order and social harmony and such will be possible
if only people would observe the following formula:
- Chun-chun, chen-chen; fu-fu, izu'izu

- Ruler ruler, minister minister;
- Father father, son son.
This advocates how:

A ruler should behave as a ruler should behave
A minister should behave as a minister should behave
A father should behave as a father should
A son should behave as a son should
Also, according to this philosophy the way to attain virtues is through natural means: (a) being true
to one's nature, and (2) applying those principles in relationship. The objective is central harmony.
Confucianism is founded on the experience of the all-embracing harmony between man and nature
and is highly conservative. Confucius teaches that man is the ruler since ft constitutes a social
morality. Confucianism outlawed speculation and emphasized practical ethics. Man's obligation is to
preserve right human relationships.
Founded by Kung Fu Tzu, which means the Grand Master, also called "Ch'iu" (hill), Confucianism
strongly emphasizes the individual's place in society. It is interested in reforming social life to rid
government of its repressive tendencies.
Confucius propagated the idea of democracy. According to him, rulers must serve the people's
interests. He contends that the rulers and officials should make the people affluent and then
educate them. He also provides primarily moral reasons for caring for the masses. The majority of
the masses is simple and thus will be loyal as long as they are treated with authoritative humanity
and live in material prosperity. That is, as long as the government works to promote their interests,
the masses will be peaceful and do their work.
C. Taoism
Taoism is a philosophical system strongly emphasizing man's place in nature. In contrast to
Confucianism, it is not concerned with society, except as something to move away from.
Lao Tzu taught that the Tao is most fully revealed in tranquility neither through action nor religious
living. Virtue is attained by quiet submission to the power of the Tao. The Tao cannot be defined.
Taoism stresses man's passive role in nature. Founded on the experience of the dynamic force
immanent in the universe, which gives order and life and meaning to the totality of reality it adhered
to the vision of the human being's harmony with nature. However, it viewed man as essentially
passive called upon to harmonize himself with the natural rhythms of things.
According to Chuang Tzu, humankind is composed of two types: one is the ordinary mass of people;
and the other, the Perfect Man. The masses are the concrete manifestation of humanity. The Perfect
Man is its ideal form.
The social man is a microcosm, a miniaturized version of the universe that contains all the elements
necessary to make up Heaven and Earth. The body is made up of all the physical elements. The mind
is composed of human nature, the spirit, and virtue. Its environment and the classes of people
around itself limit the human. Man's anguish is caused by unfulfilled desires. Therefore, desire
causes man's sinfulness. Each person thinks, acts, and behaves as if his own mind were the standard.
THE reality of human and social existence is characterized by limitations given by the environment,
dependency on external objects and events and anguish. There are four limits of human existence:
Man's insignificant size
Bondage
Death
Delusion
D. Islam
The word Islam means submission or surrender — to the will of God, and the word Muslim means
"given to God." Islam is a community, a way of life, a culture and a civilization. Central to its teaching
is the belief that there is only one all-powerful, all-knowing God (Allah), and this God created the
universe. Islam also emphasizes that all Muslims are equal before God thus providing a basis for a
collective sense of loyalty to God that transcends class, race, nationality, and even differences in
religious practice. Also, unlike most Christian sects, Islam clings to the idea of faith plus good works.
Islam is centered on the Five Pillars of Truth: profession of faith (shahada), prayer (salat), alms giving
(zakat), fasting (sawm), and pilgrimage (hajj).
Islam gives importance to social life. It considers it a duty to attend to social problems and to
struggle for the benefit for all human beings. Being indifferent to such problem is considered in Islam
to be a grave sin
Islam believes that no society can survive without rules and social regulations. It also believes that
the goal of law Is not only to bring about social order and discipline, but to maintain social justice
because without justice the order would not be durable and the masses of the people would not
tolerate injustice and oppression for ever, and in a society not governed by justice most people
would not have the opportunity for desired growth and development and hence, the goal of man's
creation and social life would not be realized.
Also, from the Islamic viewpoint, social laws should be such as to prepare the ground and context for
the spiritual growth and eternal felicity of the people. At the very least they should not be
inconsistent with spiritual development, for, in the view of Islam, the life of this world is but a
passing phase of the entire human life, which despite its short duration, has a fundamental role in
human destiny.
E. Hinduism
The word Hindu was derived from the Sanskrit word sindhu ("river"), the Persians called the Hindus
by that name, identifying them as the people of the land of the Indus. The Hindus define their
community as "those who believe in the Vedas" or "those who follow the way (dharma) of the four
classes (varnas) and stages of life (ashramas)”.
The fundamental principles of Hinduism:

A. text: Vedas
B. philosophy:
Time is degenerative- going from the golden age through two intermediate periods of decreasing
goodness, to the present age>~ and then another cycle again
Human life is cyclic: after death, the soul leaves the body and is reborn in the body of another
person, animal, vegetable, or mineral
Three classes of society {ashramas): Brahman (priest), Kshatriya (warrior), Vaisya (general populace).
Later, a fourth class was added, the Shudras after the Indo-Aryans settled into the Punjab and began
to move to down into the Ganges Valley.
Three stages of life (ashramas): brahmachari (chaste student), grthastha (the householder),
vanaprastha (forest-dweller). Later, a fourth ashrama was added -* the saanyasi (renouncer)
Three debts: study of the Veads, a son. and a sacrifice
Three goals of the human beings (purusharthas): artha (material success). dharma (righteous social
behavior), kama (sensual pleasures). Later, when a fourth ashrama was added, a counterpart goal
was also added – moksha (released from the entire process of samsara)
PHILOSOPHY
Nature of Philosophy
Nominal meaning: love of wisdom. (It was derived from the Greek terms Philo, which means love,
and Sophia, which means wisdom.)
Real meaning: The science and art of all things naturally knowable to man's unaided powers in so far
as these things are studied in their deepest causes and reasons The human being's attempt to think
speculatively, reflectively, and systematically about the universe and the human relationship to the
universe. It is the human being's search for the ultimate explanations of the realities of life.
Major branches of Philosophy
Metaphysics - deals with the nature of being and reality

Fundamental concepts: Substance, Essence, Truth, Space, Time, Causation, Nature of God, Origin &
purpose of the universe, Nature and purpose of Man's existence, Body- Mind relation and the
Problem of Freedom.
Epistemology- Episteme (knowledge) Logos (science) -deals with human knowledge and the Criteria
for truth.
Fundamental concepts: What is Knowledge? Where does it come from?
How do we Acquire knowledge of right and wrong?, What is truth? Can man's knowledge be true?
Axiology- the area of Philosophy that specifically deals with the problem of human values
Fundamental concepts: What are Values? What are the important values to be desired in living? Are
these values rooted in reality? How can these values be realized in our daily experience?
Logic-systematic treatment of relationship of ideas

Fundamental concepts: Terms. Propositions, Syllogisms, Fallacies, Validity of Arguments, Soundness
of arguments and correct thinking, Inductive and deductive thinking
Other branches of Philosophy
Cosmology- theories of the nature and origin of the universe

Fundamental concepts; Evolutionism, Creationism, Space, time, motion and causality
Philosophy of Man/Philosophy of human person- deals with the nature and purpose of man.
Fundamental concepts: Body-Soul relation, Freedom and Determinism, intellect and will
Social and Political Philosophy - deals with the nature of society and socialization process.
Fundamental Concepts: Society, State, Governance, Laws and Culture, Social Justice
Theodicy- the study of the nature, essence and existence of God using human reason
Fundamental concepts: Deism, Agnosticism, Theism, Attributes of God
Aesthetics- the study of the nature and appreciation of beauty

Fundamental concept: Order, Truth, Designs, Functionality, Proportion
Ethics the study of the morality of Human Acts

Fundamental concepts: Voluntariness. Good life, Freedom of the will, Concupiscence, Moral
responsibility, Ethical standards
Epistemology
Criteria of truth
1. Native realism (James Me Cosh, Thomas Reid) - believes that reality is precisely what as it appear
to be. Adheres to the belief that "seeing is believing"
2. Feelings - the belief that what one feels is the truth, that the best criterion of truth is a hunch.
3, Custom and tradition - this is used by many as a criterion of truth in matters pertaining to morals,
politics, dress etc.
4. Time - is regarded as an excellent test if not the final test of truth.
5. Intuition - "truth that comes from one knows not where". It is not a test of truth but a source of
truth
6. Revelation – “Truth which comes from God". A source of truth and not a test of it
7. Instinct - What is instinctive must by virtue of that fact be true since nature deem it so. But most
knowledge is beyond the bounds of instinct. It is not therefore a test of truth
8. Majority, Plurality, Consensus Gentium - The number of people who believes in the truth
determines its truthfulness, but truth is not necessarily dependent on how many believes it to be
true
9. Authority - certain individuals who have mastered a field of study may be a criterion of truth but
authority gives only opinions which could be true or which could be false
10. Correspondence - a belief that when an idea agrees with its object, it is proof of its truth.
However, it is a definition of truth not a criterion
11. Pragmatism - If an idea works then it is true, but not all truths works. It cannot be the ultimate
criterion of truth
12. Consistency - means the absence of contradiction
13. Coherence- a systematic consistent explanation of all the facts of experience. Its technical name
is reason, this is believe to be the ultimate criterion of truth
Philosophies, Theories and Movement in the Social Sciences Education
• The present Philosophy of social sciences education is an admixture of idealist and realist
Philosophy. It has elements of essentialism, perennialism, social traditionalism, social
experimentalism, progressivism, logical positivism and existentialism.
• It focuses on the social function of education, on individual's development and his relationship to
the social structure.
• It is concerned fundamentally with social change, the progressive structuring of the social order,
with insight into the traditions, arousing interest in and sympathy toward social service, and
developing efficiency in adapting the individual to society.
1. Idealism
1.1 Nature
- Idealism is a philosophy that proclaims the spiritual nature of men and the universe, its basic
viewpoint stresses the human spirit, soul, or mind as the most important element in life.
- It holds that the good, true and beautiful are permanently part of the structure of the related
coherent, orderly, and unchanging universe.
- All of reality is reducible to one fundamental substance - Spirit. Matter is not real, only the mind
is real
1.2 Aim of Idealist Education

- The aim of idealistic education is to contribute to the development of mind and self. The school
should emphasize intellectual abilities, moral judgments, aesthetics, self-realization, individual
freedom, individual responsibility and self-control.
1.3 Curriculum
- The curriculum of Idealism is a body of intellectual subject-matter, which is ideational and
conceptual on subjects, which are essential for the realization of mental and moral development
- Subject matter should be made constant for all. Mathematics, History and Literature rank high
in relevance since they are not only cognitive but value-laden
1.4 Methodology
- Idealists encourage accumulation of knowledge and thinking and must apply criteria for moral
evaluation- Suggested methods are questioning and discussion, lecture and the project, whether
done singly or in group. Although learning is a product of the learner's own activity, the teaming
process is made more efficient by the stimulation, which comes from the teacher and school
environment. The learner is immature and is seeking the perspective into his own personality.
1.5 Role of Teacher

- The idealist teacher should be conversant with a variety of methods and should use the
particular method that is most effective in securing the desired results. Teachers are revered
persons central to the educational process. They must be excellent mentally and morally in personal
conduct and convictions. They must exercise creative skills in providing opportunities for pupils -
mind to analyze, discover, synthesize and create. They should see his role in assisting the learner to
realize the fullness of his own personality.
1.6 Implication to Social Sciences Education

- Idealism is often considered a conservative philosophy of education because much of its thrust
is to preserve cultural traditions.
- This is because of the concern for perennial and ultimate truths and the notion that education is
largely a matter of passing on to the young the nation's cultural heritage.
- There is great concern for morality and character development
- Idealistic education emphasizes the cognitive side, intellectualism or elitist, to the detriment of
the physical and affective side of development.
- Character development in idealistic philosophy was pictured as:

o The first rule to be learned by all students is order.
o Students must conform to rules and regulations and repress everything that interferes with the
function of the school.
- Pupils must have their lessons ready on time, rise and sit at a given signal, learn habits of silence
and cleanliness.
Realism
2.1 Nature
- Realism may be defined as any philosophical position that asserts the objective existence of the
world and beings in it and relations between these beings independent of human knowledge and
desires. The knowability of these objects as they are in themselves and the need for conformity to
the objective reality in man's conduct.
- Realism holds that reality, knowledge and value exist independent of the human mind. For the
realist, matter is real.
- The most important part of realism is the thesis of independence. Sticks, stones, trees exist
whether or not there is a human mind to perceive them.
- Realists refer to those universal elements of man that are unchanging regardless of time, place
and circumstance.
- Realists generally maintain a materialistic concept of human nature biased toward social control
and social order.
- They tend to see the universe in terms of an independent reality with its internal and systematic
order; therefore, human beings must adopt and adjust to this reality, and dreams and desires have
to be subsumed under its demand.
2.2 Aim
- The aim of a realist education is to provide the students with the essential knowledge that he
will need to survive in the natural world.
2.3 Curriculum
- The curriculum is called the subject-matter approach, which is composed of two basic
components, the body of knowledge, and the appropriate pedagogy to fit the readiness of the
learner. The liberal arts curriculum and the math science disciplines consist of a number of related
concepts that constitute the structure of the discipline.
2.4 Methodology
- The teacher is expected to be skilled in both the subject matter that he teaches and the method
of teaching it to students.
- Formal schooling means, transmission of knowledge from experts to the young and immature.
- The school's task is primarily an intellectual one
- The administrator's role is to see to it that the teachers are not distracted by recreational and
social functions from performing their intellectual task of cultivating and stimulating the teaming of
students.
- In the elementary level, emphasis is on the development of skills for reading, writing,
arithmetic, and study habits.
- In the secondary and collegiate level, the body of knowledge regarded as containing the wisdom
of the human race with have to be transmitted in an authoritarian manner.
- Students will be required to recall, explain, compare, interpret, and make inferences. Evaluation
is essential, making use of objective measures.
- Motivation will be in the form of rewards to reinforce what has been learned.
2.5 Role of Teachers
- The teacher is a person who possesses a body of knowledge and who is capable of transmitting
it to students.
- Teaching should not be indoctrinating. Learning should be interactive.
- The teacher utilizes pupil interest by relating subject matter to student experiences.
- The teacher maintains discipline by reward and controls the pupil by activity.
- The universal elements in man make up the elements in the education of man. Education
implies teaching, teaching implies knowledge, knowledge is truth, and truth is the same everywhere.
Thus education should be the same everywhere
- Realists are concerned with the necessity of student measuring up to the standard curriculum
or external criteria of excellence.
- They believe that the" superior" students should be given the arts and sciences while the
"slower" students should be given a narrow technical- vocational training
- Realism favors a fact-based approach to knowledge. This had led to the tradition and problem
of "testing" including the IQ as passport to a college education. The Teachers' board as a minimum
requirement for entry into the profession.
The realist believed that hard work and discipline are considered "good" and the student’s heads
should be filled with "factual truth" so that they do not come to a "bad end”
3. Essentialism
3.1 Nature
- Essentialism, a conservative educational theory rooted in idealism and realism, arose in
response to progressive education. The essentialists were concerned with a revival of efforts in the
direction of teaching the fundamental tools of learning as the most indispensable type of education.
3.2 Aims
- The essentialist have as their ultimate aim " to fit the man to perform justly, skillfully and
magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war"'
- The indispensable cultural objectives of humanity, the essentials, are goals that must be achieve
-sometimes incidentally- but more often by direct instruction. Informal learning helps, but this
should only be supplementary and secondary.
- The essentialist believed that the essential skills, knowledge and attitude needed by the
individual in making has adjustment to the realities of life should be systematically planned so that
these recognized essentials will be recognized.
- The essentialists emphasize the need for a curriculum that transmits significant race
experiences and the need to present this racial experience through organized subject matter
courses.
- Thus, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, history, geography, hygiene, elementary science,
drawing, language, art .manual training, and domestic arts - all traditional subjects of the elementary
school- are given a new justification and emphasis as basic essential in the training of children.
- Among the common themes found in the essentialist point of view are:
1. The elementary school curriculum should aim to cultivate basic tool skills that contribute to
literacy and mastery of arithmetical computation.
2. The secondary curriculum should cultivate competencies in History, Mathematics, Science,
English, and foreign languages. Mastering all these subjects and skills prepare the student to
function as a member of a civilized society
3. Schooling requires discipline and a respect for legitimate authority; and
4. Learning requires hard work and disciplined attention
3.4 Methodology
- The essentialist method emphasizes habituation more than experience, guidance more than
incidentalism, discipline more than freedom, effort more than interest, and self-examination more
than expression.
- Essentialists do not believe In building up generalization by the slow method of induction, but
rather in properly guiding pupils in a few hours or days in the acquisition of general laws and
principles then using them in the solution of immediate and pressing problems.
- The essentialists are concerned with the most effective method of forming habits and
developing skills; thus, drill has a definite place in the classroom.
- The essentialists emphasize the necessity of teaching pupils how to think systematically and
effectively.
- They believe that effective thinking cannot take place by looking at the world en masse, or by
picking up knowledge piecemeal.
- Methods of systematic analysis and systematic synthesis must be used; the essential elements
of knowledge must be separated from the worthless chaff, and these essentials must be organized
into meaningful wholes, with close attention to the interrelationships of each of these entities.
- The essentialists recognize that interest is a strong motivating force of learning. Learning
however, that is not immediately appealing and interesting to the child should not be totally
eliminated from the child's education.
- The more valuable and more permanent interests may grow out of efforts that are at first
disagreeable and monotonous.

- It is the duty of the teacher to help the learner grow into these higher interests rather than limit
all school activities to those ephemeral things that appeal only to natural and childish interest.
During the immature years of childhood and youth there is a need for competent, sympathetic and
firm teachers to help them see the truth and to help them adjust themselves to inexorable facts.
- In this view, teachers should be restored to instructional authority.
- They must be well prepared and held accountable for the children's failure to learn. Instruction
should be geared to organized learning.
- The method of instruction should center on regular assignments, homework, recitation, and
frequent testing and evaluation.

- Essentialists are particularly concerned with the fundamentals of education, the skill and
knowledge without which person cannot be either individually or socially efficient.
- They emphasize the authority of the teacher and the value of a subject curriculum .
- The essentialist prescribed the following rubrics for their educational program:
1. A fixed curriculum;
2. Certain minimum "essentials" literature, mathematics, history, etc;
3. Preconceived educational values ;
4. Education as Individual adoption to an absolute knowledge which exist independently of
individual.
- The essentialists believe that the intellectual disciplines are the necessary foundation of modem
life
- The school has the responsibility to Channel the accumulated experiences of humankind into
organized coherent and differentiated disciplines.
- Mastering these basic disciplines will enable the students to use them in solving personal, social
and civic problems
Perennialism
4.1 Nature
- Perennialism is an educational theory that Is greatly influenced by the principles of realism. It
has a conservative/ traditional view of human nature and education.
- Perenniaiists contend that truth is universal and unchanging, and. therefore, a good education
is also universal and constant.
4.2 Aim
- The perennialists have for their aim the education of the rational person. The central aim of
education should be to develop the power of thought.
- They view the universal aim of education as the search for and dissemination of truth. They look
up to the school as an institution designed to develop human intelligence.
4.3 Curriculum
- The perennialist view education as a recurring process based on eternal truths; thus, the
school's curriculum should emphasize the recurrent themes of human life
- It should contain cognitive subjects that cultivate rationality and the study of moral, aesthetics,
and religious principles to develop the attitudinal dimension.
- The perrenialist prefers a subject matter curriculum, which includes history, language,
mathematics, logic, literature, the humanities, and science.
4.4 Methodology
- As for the methods of teaching, the curriculum of a perenniallst education would be subject-
centered, drawing heavily upon the disciplines of literature, mathematics, language, history, and the
humanities.
- The perenniaiists suggest that the best means to attaining this enduring knowledge is through
the study of great books of Western Civilization
- The method of study would be the reading and discussion of these great works which, in turn,
discipline the mind.

- The teacher, accordingly, must be one who has mastered discipline, who is a master teacher in
terms of guiding truth, and whose character is beyond reproach.
- The teacher is to be viewed as authority and his expertise not to be questioned.
- The role of the school becomes one of training intellectual elite who will one day take charge of
passing this on to a new generation of learners.

- Perennialism represents a conservative theoretical view centered in the authority of tradition
and the classics. Among its major educational principles are:
1. Truth is universal and does not depend on the Circumstances of place, time or person;
2. A good education involves a search for and an understanding of the truth;
3. Truth can be found in the great work of civilization; and
4. Education is the liberal exercise that develops the intellect.
5. Sociological Movement
Sociological movement focused on the contribution of education to the preservation and progress of
society; this is called the social function of education. Social educationists were concerned with the
individual's development and his relationship to the social structure.
5.1 Social traditionalism.

Aim
- This aimed at giving all pupils an insight into their traditions, arousing interest in and sympathy
toward social service, and developing efficiency in adapting the individual to society.
- Tradition is a record of man's accomplishment and the accumulation of human experience. Each
generation acquires and transmits traditions to preserve its continuity.
- The school is seen as the agency that prepares an individual for all phases of social life.
- One of the purposes of education is the formation of common
- Habits of social life and the education of the child away from crime, drugs, unemployment,
diseases and other social ills.
Types
- Social education, in its broadest sense, covered all types of education that would prepare the
individual for adjustment to society.
- In its narrowest sense, social education referred to the development of social communication
skills, etiquette, and harmonious human relationships.
- The latter included training in the physical, vocational, civic, domestic, vocational, moral, and
religious, all essential in the development of social efficiency.
Content
- The school curriculum was supposed to teach for real social living.
- School activities were drawn from varied activities in life.
- The lower school level was expected to teach the essentials of social living and the rudiments of
etiquette.
- Drills in arithmetic calculation, oral and written language, hygiene, good manners, and art
appreciation were important.
- The high schools had to give experience in science and math, language and history but emphasis
should be on health, moral conduct, home and leisure and the vocations.
- In college, work travel and study replaced the traditional academic subjects.
- The results of social education brought about extra-curricular activities in the school program.
Extra-curricular activities, when properly controlled and directed, were of value in providing
experience in various phases in life.
- Athletics, dramatics, public speaking activities, musical activities, and assemblies were all
sources of training for the various aspects of social life.
Method
- Social communication, social cooperation, and social science were the methods used in teaching
the child to adjust to life.
- The teacher worked with the social interests of the child in mind to develop social
consciousness.
- Student's participations in school activities and school government were effective methods of
teaching leadership and responsibility.
- Students were taught cooperation rather than competition; to face the class rather than the
teacher, and to deal with small groups for cooperative effort.
5.2 Social Experimentalism

Aim
- The social experimentalists believe that the school prepares for a progressive structuring of the
social order since social tradition was not concerned with social change.
- The school should direct the pupil in learning to meet the needs of a changing society, not only
for immediate needs, but also for future needs under changing social conditions
- The experimentalists emphasized the training for intelligence in all phases of human activity.
Students should learn sources of facts and realities of social conditions and problems and learn to
verify, weigh alternatives, and take sides on controversial issues. Students' emotions had to be
trained to intelligence for beneficial social results.
Content
- The social sciences came to the foreground among the experimentalists because of the
emphasis put on the teaching of controversial issues; the social, economic and political activities of
the local community were used as materials for teaching.
- Extra -curricular activities and field trips were dominant strategies of teaching since they were
pupil-planned, pupil dominated and centered. Their purpose was to prepare students for social
planning.
6. Progressivism.
- The educational theory of progressivism is in contrast to the traditional views of essentialism
and perennialism.
- This movement is based largely in the philosophy of pragmatism or as Dewey puts it
instrumentalism.
- It stressed the view that all learning should center on the child's interests and needs.
- Progressive education is based on a philosophy based on experience, the interaction of the
person with his environment.
- The end product of education was growth- an on-going experience which led to the direction
and control of subsequent experience.
- Progressive education must use the past experiences to direct future experiences.
Aim
- The aim of progressive education is to meet the need of a growing child.
- The school should be a pleasant place for learning.
- It objects to extreme reliance on bookish methods of instruction, memorization of factual data,
the use of fear as a form of discipline and the four -walled philosophy of education that isolated the
school from the realities of life .
Content
- Progressive education was not interested in a prepared, prescribed curriculum to transmit
knowledge to students
- Curriculum must come from the child so that learning would be active, exciting, and varied.
- The contents of the subject are done by the teacher and the students as a group project or a
cooperative effort. The teacher served as facilitator.
- Progressive education is characterized by the following contributions to education:
1. Emphasis on the child as the learner, rather than the subject matter
2. Stress on activities and experiences, rather than on textbook reliance and memorization
3. Cooperative learning, rather than competitive lesson learning
4. Absence of fear and punishment for disciplinary purposes
7. Reconstructionism.
- Reconstructionism is more concerned with social change rather than the individuality of the
child.
- It believes that schools should originate policies and progress, which would bring about reform
of the social order. Teachers should use their power to lead the young in the program of social
reform.
- Educational philosophies must be culturally based and man can re-shape his culture so that it
promotes optimum possibilities for development.
- Society has to reconstruct its values, and education has a major role to play in bridging the gap
between the values of culture and technology.
- It is the task of the school to encourage the critical examination of the cultural heritage and find
the elements that are to be discarded and those that have to be modified.
Aim
- The aim of Reconstructionism is to awaken the student's consciousness about social problems
and to actively engage them in problem solving.
- Teachers and schools should initiate a critical examination of their own culture and should
identify controversies and inconsistencies and try to solve real life problems.
- The Curriculum should include learning to live in a global milieu.
- Reconstructionism proposes educational policies related to national and international problems
as a means of reducing world conflict.
- The school becomes the center of discussions of controversies
Method
- The methodology employed is problem oriented.
- Students and teachers participate in discussion of issues and in a definite program of social,
educational, political, and economic change as a means to total cultural renewal so that they will
learn to live in a global village.
1. Philosophical Analysis.
- Philosophical analysis is a method of examining the language used in making statements about
knowledge, education and schooling and of seeking to classify it by establishing its meaning with the
formulation of educational goals and policies.
- The aim is to reduce statements about education to empirical terms. The function of philosophy
is to formulate the rules that are the bases of language. For education should be attuned to the
logical complexities of language.
- The analysts prefer to look at what we mean by education in the first place and what
advantages may accrue from the clarified concepts of education.
2. Existentialism
- Existentialism is a way of viewing and thinking about life in the world so that priority is given to
individualism and subjectivity.
- The existentialists believe that the human being is the creator of his own essence; he creates his
own values through freedom of choice or individual preference.
- The most important kind of knowledge is about the realities of human life and the choices that
each person has to make.
- Education is the process of developing awareness about the freedom of choice and the meaning
and responsibility for one's choice.
Emerging Themes of Contemporary Educational Philosophy

Contemporary philosophical themes have direct bearing not only to the social sciences education
but to education as a whole. These are the following:
1. Man as embodied spirit - This concept rejects the definition of man as a rational animal or a
composite of body and soul. The problem with this definition is that it is dualistic and separates the
single reality that is man into two realities; matter and spirit. Rationality is emphasized to the
detriment of animality. Yet it is animality that defines man.
Phenomenologist sees man as an embodied subjectivity - unique core or center, source, depth,
wellspring of initiative and meaning. It involves the rational, the affective, and the emotional - The
total man.
Since education is the process of developing man-the embodied subjectivity, Development must be
seen now as the total development of man. Education is not anymore seen as a conglomeration of
disciplines with their own individual tasks of cultivating a specific part of man. Education should not
look down upon material development as merely a steppingstone to rational or spiritual
development but an essential part of it.
2. Man as a being in the world. Each embodied spirit is in his own world, which form a network of
meanings, in and on and around which man organizes his life it is different from environment for this
is only proper to animals. When we speak of man we speak of his world not environment for it is
only man that gives meaning to an environment through intentionality of consciousness.
Social Sciences Education likes to dwell on cumulative justice or injustice yet contemporary man is
more aware of a complex world of social justice or injustice and of unjust structures. We should
therefore address in the social sciences an awareness of unjust structures, of internal change that
need to be situated, of the need to humanize the world we live in by our work.
3. Man as Being - with: the interhuman and the socius. The worid of man is not just a world of things
but also the worid of fellowmen. True education if it is to be different from propaganda is such an
unfolding to bring out in the other, the student, a certain disposition of him to see for himself the
true, the good and the beautiful. Society is not something that one enters into by contract to achieve
some common end, as Rousseau and other social contract theorists put it The social is within each
man: man does not live in society, society lives in man. It is borne out of the historicity of man. Man
carves a meaning from his past in view of some project in the future thus man is a cultural being.
Thus social consciousness must have a bearing in the philosophy of education for education cannot
just be based simply on ultimate ends, on absolute, eternal truths as the perreniatists put it. Neither
can we be simply content with a general formulation of educational objective as preparing the
student to become good citizen in a democracy, since the universal truth exists in the particular.
Thus any Philosophy of education must be predicated on a clearly formulated conception of a way of
life in a definite society as Isaac Berkson says.
4. Man as a person and his crowning activity is love, which presupposes justice. The final aim of
education, formal or informal is becoming a person. The individuality of man is one that he has
become freely and consciously in time, in the worid. This task consists in integration, in becoming
whole and in the fundamental option to love. Thus we can no longer conceive of educational
objectives in terms of personal development or self-realization with no end beyond itself. Education
must include social aims for self-realization is no longer possible apart from socialization. Our
educational policies must aim at specific personal and social values: of justice, love, and honesty.
Total development is not just the education of the mind but also the heart and we can educate the
heart only by being exemplars of what we teach. The bearer of moral values is the person himself.
Other themes of Contemporary Philosophy
The task of man is man himself. All other tasks, responsibilities and obligations are simply to support
man become the person he has the potential to become. Man is an embodied spirit and thus he is
obligated to develop the total man. His having a body makes him an individual with material needs
and desires. He is a self who relates with other selves in order to satisfy these material needs, in the
quest for things that will satisfy his needs, he develops social relationships for he lives through-the-
other and he is not only a self but a self –in community—a person who transcends materiality. Thus
he develops interhuman relationships, the I-thou or the relationship of a neighbor. This relationship
is not limited to the sharing of material things but the sharing of persons In a genuine dialogue.
Being as opposed to seeming. True interhuman relationship must transcend seemingness. It must go
beyond the mask that we create to make us acceptable to others. We must be true to our being by
relating to others with outmost sincerity and genuine presentation of who really we are. Our
relationship must be characterized by openness and genuine acceptance of our nature and must be
devoid of pretensions. It is only when we are true to each other that we are able to accept each
other in an interhuman realm.
Person making, present. A man must be open and willing to freely give himself in an interhuman
relation. He must b© "there" to the other. The "thereness" may not be physical. It may be empathy
or sympathy with the other, or simply the willingness to be one with the other - a commitment of
unity and mutual support.
Unfolding as opposed to imposition. Our relationship with our fellowmen must be characterized by
mutual unfolding of oneself. A free personal relation of one's true being. A mutual actualization of
one's true potentials. The interhuman relations should never and cannot be imposed because
imposition is a mark of Individuality and selfishness. We should not force the other to reveal himself
to us or to become what we want them to become for they are the end in themselves and not the
means. They are persons not things. The decision to reveal oneself must come from the person and
not be imposed by others for interhuman relations are free interactions between and among
persons who voluntarily choose to be with the other. What we could do is to provide the necessary
climate for his unfolding.
Genuine Dialogue. This is the turning to the partner that takes place in all truth that is turning of
being. Genuine dialogue is the mutual sharing between persons. This happens when one person
beyond the world of seeming centers into communication with the other being.
Summary of Specific Points of the Different Themes Presented
1 A human being is a social being and an inter-human being. He cannot live by himself for he
depends on others for the things he needs in order to survive. He is not self sufficient thus he relates
with the material world and with his fellowmen in his pursuit of the material things that will satisfy
the needs of his body.
2. But a human being is not only a body. He Is an embodied spirit and therefore his relationship is
not limited only to the physical, bodily or social realm but also to the realm of the inter-human.
3. For a human being is primarily a person who becomes actuated through relations. Togetherness is
a value that involves the existence .of a human being not just a being-through-others but more so as
a being-for-others.
4. A human being exists through the other by using the products that are fruit of the labors of
others. However, he also works for others as manifested in the service oriented work like the
teaching profession.
5. Thus, human beings relate to each one not only for material things but for the sharing of persons
that ultimately actualizes his potentials. The interhuman relationship is achieved by transcending
seemingness and entering into a genuine dialogue with the other through an I-thou relationship.
This relationship is founded on the true nature of person, the willingness to make himself present
and the unfolding of the true self in the mutual sharing of persons. It is through this relationship that
he fulfills his nature and helps others fulfill theirs in a community of persons journeying towards
their actualization.
6. Togetherness as a focal point of values: human existence has a historical character, we need
others to enter into the human world of meaning and to make it our own, being together is a
fundamental value which gives authentic fulfillment in our life.
7. Our existence is an existence for one another. We exist for others, we strive to be significant to
others, and our existence is meaningful only If others accept it as meaningful,
8. The family system is the locus of interaction between the individual and the society. If
development is to be a human development st must foster the integration of the family.
Participative decision making process and a feedback mechanism is imperative.
9. According to Habermas, economic development cannot be divorced from moral development
10. Social formation or transformation cannot be brought about by class conflicts but by bi-
dimensional leaning process. Economic liberation is only a step to total liberation
11. Peace and order situation is built on freedom not on constraint; it is built on human values
which, is essential to moral quests and to politics. Truth, love, freedom and its practice.
12. Thus, there is a need for equal and equitable distribution of wealth-Social Justice.
13 Social Justice was traditionally equated with legal justice- but what is legal may not necessarily be
just, then justice was equated with the reasonable and understood now in the context of passion.
14 Social Justice as a virtue means the habit whereby a man renders to each one his due by a
constant and perpetual will
15 As a value, Social Justice is properly the object of man's intentional; feeling and is linked
intimately with other values of truth, love and the dignity of person.
16. Social Justice is legal justice guided by the spirit of love and the search for truth and should be
side by side with the value of a person.
17. Social Justice must become more important than commutative justice
Emerging Social Values Relevant to Education

1. Personalization- The primacy of the human person. Man is a person and his crowning activity is
love, which presupposes justice. The stress is towards the personalistic character of education.
2. Socialization - Man exists through the other and for others. The task of man is man himself and he
becomes actuated through the others. Personalization and socialization are but two sides of a single
process in education, and in life.
3. Existential Dialogue – presupposes an encounter, an invitation to authentic being existential
presence, and existential union to create a community of persons.
4. Authentic Being- Being as opposed to seeming, ah unfolding as opposed to imposition. Education

must bring about the true being of an individual person.
5. The Human World- The world of man is a world of meaning. Man is a being in the world.
Education must help man gives meaning to his world and the world of others, ft must be in context
of the students' world
6. Convergence of worlds and synergy-man is a subjectivity incarnating itself in a converging world
that defines his essence. The phenomenology of the we-experience Is a reality that education must
stress.
7. Community- as a union of persons living an authentic existence with love, truth and justice.
Schools must become communities where total human development is possible.
8. Vigilance-critical, moral, political vigilance
Implications to Education of the Themes Presented

1. Education must be based on the supremacy of the human person, thus its aims must be the total
development of man in the context of his world.
2. Education must be a "we experience" where existential dialogues of authentic being, convergence
of worlds and synergy are possible.
3. Education should not only be viewed as an investment of human capital or consumption but a
meaningful becoming borne out of reasonable and responsible exercise of freedom.
4. Education is for personalization and socialization not only for life but for a meaningful
life.
5. The teaching profession must really be promoted in the context of the embodied spirit. The flight
of teachers in terms of economic, political, social and academic aspects must be addressed. Make
teachers motivated motivators. ;
6. The affective and the emotional aspects must be developed together with the rational aspect of
man. The student must be viewed as a totality and subject fields are simply part of this totality.
World History

I. NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS AND VALUE OF HISTORY
A. History is the story of man through the ages, his failures as well as his achievements
B. Nature of History
It attempts to assess, interpret and give recognition to the achievements of people
It is constant controversy because historians view events from different perspectives
Historical interpretations vary because events are considered in terms of its occurrence in time and
place.
C. Characteristics of History as a Discipline
Content-oriented
Process oriented
Value oriented
D. Value of History
Best expressed in this saying "Knowing the past makes it easier to understand the present and less
difficult to visualize the future".
E. Elements of History
Place (Geography) - location, topography, etc. affect economic development, scientific
advancement, political and social systems are belief system evolved by men
Time - people's achievement and failures are judged in the context of the period in which they live
in.
Man - the dynamic factor in History. The chief cause of the human actions is due to the nature of
human being itself.
II. PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD:

Primitive Times.
A. Paleolithic Age
B. Neolithic Age
C. Metal Age
III. HISTORIC PERIOD:

Traces the development of civilization.
Ancient Period
ASIA and AFRICA = cradles of civilization
1. Early civilizations developed in the river valleys

A. Mesopotamian civilization (or Fertile Crescent) - along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers
B. Egyptian civilization - along the banks of the Nile River in Africa
C. Indian civilization - in the valleys along the Indus River
D. Chinese civilization - along the yellow river (or Huang Ho River)
2 Early religions originated in Asia

A. Hinduism-India -
B. Zoroastrianism - Iran (formerly Persia)
C. Judaism - Israel (formerly Palestine)
D. Christianity - Israel (formerly Palestine)
E. Islamism - Saudi Arabia
F. Buddhism - India
3. Important achievements or contributions of Ancient world to civilization

a. Oriental/Eastern world
1) Mesopotamia or Fertile Crescent -- comprised of different groups
Sumerians - invention of wheels; irrigation system; cuneiform writing
Babylonians - unification of city states in the Fertile Crescent under Hammurabi and formulation of
the Code of Hammurabi
Assyrians - organized or highly centralized government
Chaldeans - under Nebuchadnezzar, rebuilt the City of Babylon; built the Hanging Gardens; made
Hebrew captive in what was known as the Babylonian Captivity
Hebrews - settlers in Palestine (presently Israel) from the tribe of Abraham who spread the
monotheistic idea (worship of one God Yahweh); Moses, a descendant of Abraham was given the
Mosaic Law (Ten Commandments) by God
Phoenicians - settlers of Phoenicia (presently Lebanon) who were known as ancient world's great
maritime traders who gave us the alphabet of 22 letters (known as Phonetic alphabet)
Persians - established the first world empire whose territory is presently known as Iran; adopted the
teaching of Zoroaster
2) Egypt
Built the great pyramids; invented a form of writing known as hieroglyphics; known for
mummification; devised a calendar of 365 days
3) India
Earliest inhabitants were Dravidians who had an organized system of settlements in Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro. Aryan invasion and their settlement along the Indus River valley later gave them
identity as Hindus.
Hinduism evolved from the merging of Dravidian and Aryan manner of worship, main features of
which are reincarnation and a rigid social class known as Caste System.
4) China
Name derived from Chin dynasty founded by Shih Huang Ti who was also responsible for the
construction of the Great Walls. China is also credited for the invention of printing press; for
requiring civil service exams for government officials; invented gun powder; produced silk and was
known for its great philosophers, Confucius (golden rule); Lao Tzu (Taoism) and Mencius.
b. Western World
1) Greece
A. Hellas - early name and its civilization was termed Hellenic
B. Athens and Sparta - famous city states (polis)
C. Homer - famous author of (Iliad and Odyssey)
D. Solon, Cleisthenes and Pericles - famous Athenian reformers who laid the foundation of a
democratic system of government
E. Famous / Significant events:
- Persian war - Athens led the Greeks in repulsing Persia
- Petoponnesian War" was fought between rival Greek states Athens and Sparta. Sparta prevailed
- Macedonian invasion - invasion of "barbaric" Macedonians led by Philip II who eventually
became Master of Greece. His son Alexander the Great succeeded him.
F. Golden Age of Greece - 5th to 4th Century BC) - attained by Athens after the Persian War.
Famous personalities: Pericles, statesman, Demosthenes, orator, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle,
philosophers; Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes (dramatists); Herodotus (Father of History),
Thycydides and Xenophon - historians; Colonium, architect of the famous Parthenon
G. Alexander the Great - Successor of Philip of Macedonia, tutored by Aristotle and extended
Greek empire to the East. He was responsible in blending Hellenic culture with the East and such
combination was referred to as Hellenistic culture. After his death, the empire broke up into Egypt,
Syria and Macedonia and by 150 BC the Romans conquered Greece.
2) Rome
Romulus - legendary founder of Rome in 753 BC
Etruscans - established a strong monarchy in the 6th century but their autocratic rule led to their
downfall when the Romans overthrew them
Romany established a Republic
Two classes of people: Patricians and Plebeians
Senate - the ruling body in the Republic but dominated by Patricians (upper class)
Twelve Tables -a legislation which gave Plebeians (lower class) equal participation in government
Punic Wars-fought by Rome against Carthage and resulted in Rome's acquisition of Spain a group of
continued the
First Triumvirate (Julius Caesar, Pompey, Cassius) military leaders responsible for the expansion of
Rome
Second Triumvirate (Anthony, Lepidus, Octavius) work started by the First Triumvirate
Octavius (later known as Augustus Caesar) - was responsible for further expansion of Rome;
bestowed the title "Prince?" (First citizen); crowned the first emperor of the Roman Empire under
whose reign. PAX ROMANA prevailed
Weak successors later split the empire into two: Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire
(later known as Byzantine Empire.
Fall of Rome (476 A.D.) was due to the attack of Teutonic Germanic tribes. Only the Western Empire
fell. Eastern Roman Empire gained strength and later on flourished as the Byzantine Empire.
Medieval Period
1. Dark Ages - ushered in the Middle Ages. Barbarians from Germany dominated the Western
Roman Empire after Its fall thus the grandeur of Rome was lost.
2. Franks - barbaric tribe that settled in Gaul (presently France). Their conversion to Christianity
inspired them to restore Europe into a civilized world again. Charles Martel defended Europe from
being dominated by the Moslems, Under Charlemagne; France expanded its territory at the same
time spreading the Christian faith. In recognition of his work for the Church, he was crowned by the
Pope and was given the title Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
3. Supremacy of the Christian Church

a. Pope, the head of the Church was looked up to by rulers of kingdoms
b. Church was responsible in reviving education because monasteries had kept literary works
and works of arts
c. The Church through its officials received material favors from monarchs and noblemen such
that the Church became wealthy.
4. Feudalism
social, economic and political system
characterized by strong lord and vassal relationship where the lord gave protection to the vassal and
the vassal rendered services to the lord (act of fealty)
Chivalry - in reference to the trait expected of a Knight where he had to manifest refinement in
manners and courage and commitment in the defense of his lord.
Manorial system - where economic activities revolve around agriculture to generate income for the
lord.
5 Crusades
A series of military expeditions by the Christians of Western Europe during the 11th and 13th
century to take back the Holy Land (Jerusalem) from the Muslims.
6. Guild System
Modem Period
1. Renaissance - this movement to revive the study of Graeco-Roman classics ushered in the
modern times. Humanism of the Greeks and Romans was revived such that liberalism characterized
this period.
2. Age of Revolutions
a. Intellectual Revolution
• started with the age of enlightenment or age of reason
b. Scientific Revolution
• where discovery and inventions took place This ushered in the Age of Discovery and exploration
of territories.
c. Industrial Revolution
• marked by change in economic life. Hard labor was replaced by machineries. Industrial
Revolution started in England and it is still in progress today. Commercial Revolution was an offshoot
of Industrial Revolution.
d. Political Revolution
• This revolution is aimed at changing government. This was an offshoot of the spread of liberal
ideas. Two Famous revolutions; French Revolution (1789-1799); American Revolution (1775-1783).
e. Religious Revolution
• Reformation - a move started by Wycliffe and Hus and pursued by Martin Luther aimed at
reforming some practices of the Christian Church.
• Counter-reformation - a movement undertaken by the Catholic Church to reform its own ranks.
GLOBAL WARS
World War I - immediate cause was the assassination of Archduke Frances Ferdinand of Austria on
June 28, 1914. Warring groups: Triple Entete (Allied Powers) composed of England, France and
Russia; Triple Alliance (Central Powers) composed of Germany, Austria and Turkey. United States
declared neutrality but joined the Allied Powers when Germany torpedoed the British ship
"Lusitanian" where several Americans were on board.
World War II (1939-1945) - war of ideology (Democracy vs. Totalitarianism). Immediate cause was
invasion of Poland by Hitler on September 1, 1939. Warring groups were: Allied Powers (England,
France and Russia) and Axis Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan). Axis powers advocated
Totalitarianism (Hitler's Nazism; Mussolini's Fascism and Hirohito's Totalitarianism). United States
entered the war in 1941 when Japan bombed its biggest military base in the Pacific on December 8,
1941. US entry turned the tide of the war in favor of the Allied Powers to where US sided. Germany
and Italy readily surrendered in early 1945- War finally ended after US decided to drop atomic
bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 when Japan refused to peacefully surrender.
Postwar Period - characterized by cold war between US (democracy) and USSR (communism). Cold
War is a state of diplomatic tension or war of nerves without resulting to actual fighting. Struggles
for supremacy between US and USSR were manifested in Korean War (North and South Korea).
Benin Crisis (East and West Germany); Vietnam War (North and South Vietnam); Space race; Arms
Race.
In 1949 Mainland China came under communist rule when Mao TseTung successfully entrenched
himself in power, President Chang Kai-Shek was forced to go in exile in Taiwan (Formosa) and
continued to administer the nationalist government there. This conflict between Mainland China and
Taiwan raised the issue of "One China or Two China policy".
League of Nation was replaced by United Nations in October 24, 1945.
1991 saw the disintegration of USSR when Mikhail Gorbachev advocated the "glasnost and
"perestroika". East and West Germany also united.
As the world moved towards the 21st century, globalization was pursued. The five areas emphasized
are:
1. Globalization of markets
2. Globalization of communication
3. Globalization of culture
4. Globalization of ideology
5. Political globalization
September 11, 2001 - the world was shaken when the World Trade Center in New York City US was
destroyed where thousand of people died. Suspected brain of such terrorist attack was Osama Bin
Laden who to this day is still being hunted.
Asian Studies

I. Asia: Geographical features and its development
Geographical Features
World's largest continent (17,139,000 sq. miles – nearly1/3 or the earth’s land).
Geographically it is compact and unified
Boundaries: Ural mountains from Europe; Red Sea and Suez Canal from Africa
It is a continent of physical contrast Mt. Everest, world's highest mountain (29,028 ft); Dead Sea
(1,292 ft. below sea level) as the lowest
Term Asia was derived from an early Aegean term ASER which meant "sunrise". ASIA was first used
by Pindar, a Greek poet.
Regional Divisions of Asia

South Asia - centered on the Indian subcontinent. It includes India, Pakistan. Ceylon, Afghanistan,
Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal, Bhutan and Indian protectorate, Sikkim
Southeast Asia -- a relatively recent term that came into usage during World War II. It covers Burma
(Myanmar), Thailand. Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and
Philippines
East Asia - China and Taiwan (Formosa), Korea, Japan. This region is more often referred to as Far
East by the Westerners because it is the part of Asia
Southwest Asia - known to Westerners as the Near East for these are countries nearest to Europe.
More recently, Westerners refer to this region as Middle East for it is midway between Western
Europe and East Asia. These include Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Saudi Arabia,
and Yemen. People's Republic of South Yemen, Kuwait and the Tracial States.
B. Asia in World History

Asia is the biggest continent
It has very important economic potentials (varied resources)
It also has demographic potentials - more than half of the world's population is in Asia where there is
low death rate. high birth rate and longer life expectancy
Asia was the seat of the world's civilization
Asia's nationalism is a powerful force which is shaping the future of Asia and the world
Asia is the home of religions
C. Pre-historic Asia
1. Earliest man
- Asia is said to be the place which has yielded the greatest number of fossils of simian species.
Ramapithecus fossils were discovered in Pakistan and in the Yunnan Province in China.
Ramapithecus fossils is said to be the closest to man.
- Earliest man's capacity for production was Shown through the development of tools.
Technology divides the evolutionary period of culture into:
· Stone Age
· Bronze Age
· Iron Age
- Activities engaged in during Stone Age: food gathering, hunting. Mastery of fire was a great step
in man's emancipation from the environment
2. Peopling of the Pacific was the greatest feat of colonization. Migration took place in Southeast
Asia, Australia and its island neighbors in the great Oceans (Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia)
D. Birth of Civilization
Bronze Age (3,000 BC - 1800 BC) saw the birth of civilization
Early civilization started in the river valleys
Tigris-Euphrates - Mesopotamia
Nile - Egypt
Indus - India
Yellow River - China
Characteristics / Indicators of Civilization
existence of political system
division of labor / occupation became specialized
system of writing
organized trade
existence of class structure
monumental architecture
representational art
Development of religions
a. Hinduism - India
b. Buddhism - India
c. Christianity - Israel
d. Islamism - Saudi Arabia
e. Judaism - Israel
f. Zoroastrianism - Persia (presently Iran)
g. Shintoism - Japan
E. Warrior Groups Responsible for the Unification of the Peoples of Asia

1. HUNS (from Neolithic Period to about 1200 A.D.) also known as Hsiung Nus -
Horse riding people, semi-nomadic who attempted to move towards the fertile lands of China. They
were based in Mongolia then extended to Manchuria, Central Asia and even reached as far as the
Slavic territories to Germany and Spain in the 5th century.
Greatest leader was Attila who upon reaching Rome was persuaded by Pope Leo the Great to give
up his plans to take Rome.
2. MONGOLS
Based in Central Asia (near Lake Baal), they lived in small groups of few families. Basic social and
political units were patriarchal dans: spiritual life was focused on loyalty to cian. Polygamy
necessitated the acquisition of wives outside of the clan and in most cases, wives were obtained
through seizure.
Genghis Khan (or Chinggis Khan) was formerly known as Temujen. He acquired the name Genghis or
Chinggis (meaning "universal ruler") after successful conquest were made by him. His empire
extended as far as Middle East and Europe. They were noted for espionage and psychological
warfare
3. OTTOMAN TURKS – 11TH Century

Original home near Gobi dessert, Siberia and Turkestan. "Ottoman" was derived from the third
caliph Osman. They moved westward into Europe. Great leader was Sulaiman.
Contribution of the Warrior Groups:
1. Advanced the knowledge of metallurgy
2. Evolved different political systems
3. Fostered international trading
F. Development of Empires
1. Persian Empire (West Asia)
Recognized as the first biggest empire, especially during the time of Cyrus, Captivity of Babylon, the
capital of the Chaldean empire in 539 BC signified the ascendancy of this Aryan race over the older
cultures. The empire included the Iranian Plateau, the Fertile Crescent, Anatolia, Sogdania, Egypt
(conquered by Cambyses). Darius moved westward through the Balkans only to be repulsed by the
Greeks in the famous Battle of Marathon. Eastward, Persian reached as far as Punjab in India.
- Persian empire was known for its organized political system where the empire was divided into
political units known as satrapes ruled by satraps. This satrapes could be the equivalent of present
day provinces.
- Zoroastrianism was advocated most especially during the time of Darius, when he declared that
sovereignty was granted to him by Ahura Mazda because he advocated this god's teaching which
was to act righteously and justly to all men.
- Lengua franca was Aramaic, serving as language of official communication
- Persia developed a system of communication by providing road network where messengers of
the Great King rode back and forth from satrapes
2. Indian Empire (South Asia)

- Indus valley civilization (Harappa and Mojendro Daro) was disintegrating in 1500 BC when
Aryans entered north-west of India. Aryans or Indo- Aryans were descendants of Indo-Europeans
(from North Iranian plateau)
- Empire building was credited to the Mauryan Dynasty (321-183 B.C.), although to some
historians, the Nanda dynasty laid the foundation of empire building but this was cut short by
Chandragupta Maurya who usurped the throne and in him the imperial idea materialized.
- Political system was similar to that of Persia where the empire was divided into provinces for
administrative purposes.
- Hinduism evolved - which was a religion that blended the aborigines (Dravidians) manner of
worship and the Aryans religious beliefs and practices.
- Brahmannical theories influenced the characterization of Kingship
- Caste system was institutionalized where Indian society was divided into Brahman, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Sudra.
- In 6th century BC, opposition to the rigidity of the Caste system led to the development of
Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhist propagated a new concept of Dharma which emphasized tolerance
and non-violence.
- During the reign of Asoka (3rd century BC) Buddhism was accepted because he himself had
become a zealous follower. He used the Buddhist religious principles for secular purposes such that
his reforms were focused on humanity in internal administration and the abandonment of
aggressive war. He termed his territorial expansion as conquest of Righteousness.
G. Development of Trade
- Commerce between Europe and Asia began as early as the first century A.D.
- Trade / Commerce was conducted through land routes and sea routes
- Trade centers between 200 AD to 1500 AD were:
1. Mediterranean - West Asian Trade Complex
2. Central Asia Trade Complex
3. Strait of Malacca - Indo China Trade Complex
4. Indian Ocean Trade Complex
- Effects of the expansion of Trade
1. Spread of sericulture or silk culture (The Chinese were called "Seres" or "Serices" by the
Romans. These two terms may have originated from the Chinese word for silk)
By the 3rd century A.D. Korea and Japan acquired the knowledge of sericulture and by the 6th
century Byzantium teamed the secret of sericulture
2. Buddhism spread to China and to the rest of Southeast Asia and Far East
3. Christianity and Islamism found their way to China and other parts of Asia
4. By 7th century centers of power were:
Tang Dynasty - China
Islam - West Asia
Byzantine (Turkey) - West Asia
5. Trade played an important role in defining Asia and Asian civilization to the Western word:
Earliest reference to Asia was made by Herodotus who wrote about the "nomad synethians who
dwelt in Asia"
Western world perceived Asia as the source of silk, spices and various exotic products
Asia and Europe were linked. Goods were exchanged and migration of people took place
Asian religions were spread to different parts of the world
Culture was enriched
II. Asia's Transition
A. Age of Exploration and Discovery in Europe
1. European countries set out to explore lands for economic and military reasons.
2. Territories greatly affected were the Americas, Africa and Asia.
B. Imperialism in Asia
Most countries in Asia came under colonial rule particularly those in Southeast Asia, except Thailand
China was under "sphere of influence."
Korea (hermit Kingdom) and Japan went out into isolation to avoid the influences of western
countries but eventually were opened to allow Western countries to trade with them.
C. Asia's involvement with the West dragged her into 2 global wars. In World War II Japan actively
led the war in the Pacific on the side of the Axis Powers. Japan occupied most of the territories in
Southeast Asia.
D. After World War ft, colonies occupied by Japan came again under Western rule but were
eventually given independence. Korea was divided; so with Vietnam due to ideology (Democracy
advocated by USA and Communism by USSR)
E. Experiences from colonial rule changed the outlook of most people in Asia.
III. Great Contribution of Asia to Civilization

A. Architecture and Engineering:
- Great Walls - China (initial construction by Shin Huang Ti)
- Taj Mahal - India (constructed by Shah Jahan)
- Hanging Garden - Babylon (by Nebuchadnezzar)
- Pyramid - Egypt (in Ancient Times, Egypt was considered part of the Orient)
B. Form of Writing:
- Hieroglyphics-Egypt
- Cuneiform-Mesopotamia
- Sanskrit - India
C. Religions - all major religions and many other minor religions of the world originated in Asia
D. Empire building
E. Great Philosophers: Confucius, Lao Tzu, Mencuis

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Anthropology for Teachers

B. Two Major Disciplines of Anthropology

A. Schools of Thought in Cultural Anthropology

B. Types of Research in Cultural Anthropology

II. Human Evolution

B. Theory of Natural Selection proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace

C. Gregor Mendel's experiments

D. Sources of Biological Variation

E. Factors in Human Variation

F. Humans are a product of the interaction of biological and cultural evolution.

G. Physical Variation among Humans

I. Diagram on Human Evolution: Biological and Cultural

Cities and States;

Broad spectrum food collecting; increasing sedimentary

Earliest humans in New

Cave paintings; female figurines; many kinds of blades tools

Neanderthal Homo sapiens

Earliest stone tools

K. Domestication of Plants and Animals (Neolithic Revolution)

L. Population generally Increased after plant and animal domestication.

M. Growth of Cities and States

III. The Study of Culture

C. Theories About the Development of Personality

D. National character - modal characteristics of a people.

E. Objections to National Character Studies

F. Two ways by which culture can be internalized:

G. Language and Culture

H. Sex and Culture

IV. Economic Systems

VI. Marriage and Family

D. Economic Consideration in Marriage

F. Theories on the universality of incest taboo

VII. Social Organization

B. Some Examples of Associations

C. Political Organizations: band, tribe, chiefdom and state

D. Resolution of conflict: community action, informal adjudication without power, ritual

VIII. Religion and Magic

B. Religion is universal for the following .reasons:

Existence of impersonal supernatural forces (e.g. mana and taboo)

F. Religious/Magical practitioners include shamans, sorcerers or witches, mediums and priests

IX. The Arts * ,

PART I: CONTENT UPDATE

Three Traditional Divisions:

* social philosophy falls under this division,

Pragmatism views a person as a problem solver In an environment of pluralism of groups, interests,

The idealist notion of society is not an aggregation or collection of individuals; it is an organism in

Fascism is characterized by the following:

EASTERN SOCIAL PHILOSOPHIES

- Chun-chun, chen-chen; fu-fu, izu'izu

This advocates how:

The fundamental principles of Hinduism:

PART I: CONTENT UPDATE

Major branches of Philosophy

Metaphysics - deals with the nature of being and reality

Logic-systematic treatment of relationship of ideas

Other branches of Philosophy

Cosmology- theories of the nature and origin of the universe

Aesthetics- the study of the nature and appreciation of beauty

Ethics the study of the morality of Human Acts

Philosophies, Theories and Movement in the Social Sciences Education

1.2 Aim of Idealist Education

1.5 Role of Teacher

1.6 Implication to Social Sciences Education