MAJOR TRAINING REPORT

ON
TRACTION MACHINES ENGINEERING (TME)

PERIOD FROM - 7 TH MAY 2012 TO 2ND JUNE 2012

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED

BHOPAL (M.P.)

SUBMITTED TO: DIRECTED BY: PREPARED BY:

MR. PRADHAN MR. K.K.DAS RAKESH JAYAL

TRAINING Sr. DESIGN ENGINEER B.Tech IIIRD YEAR
COORDINATOR TME DIVISION ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I acknowledge my sincere gratitude to Human Resources and Development

Department of BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED (BHEL) Bhopal for
providing me the opportunity to get beneficial and fruitful vocational training here.
My sincere thanks to Shri M. Bhakta , AGM (TME)
Along with:-

1 MR. SHISHUPAL, Design Engineer (TME)

2 MR K. K. DAS, Sr. Design Engineer (TME)
3 MR KUNAL DUGVEKAR, Design Engineer (TME)

This project would not have been possible without their guidance , assistance,
inspiration and cooperation.

I am also thankful to the staff of TME- BHEL , BHOPAL for their help and
assistance during my training period.
I would also thankful to almighty god for his grace and mercy to successfully
complete this training.

2 June 2012 RAKESH JAYAL

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 Table of Contents
PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................. 4
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 5
IMPORTANCE OF TRANPORTATION ...................................................................................................... 10
ROLE OF BHEL ....................................................................................................................................... 10
MORDERNISATION EFFORTS IN BHEL ................................................................................................... 16
INTRODUCTION TO LOCOMOTIVE ........................................................................................................ 19
TRACTION .............................................................................................................................................. 38
TXM ....................................................................................................................................................... 39
DIRECT CURRENT TRACTION MOTORS ................................................................................................. 54
ELECTRIC TRACTION DRIVES ................................................................................................................. 60
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................... 63

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 PREFACE

The summer training is an integral part of B. TECH course.

I undertook the summer training at BHEL-Bhopal, the duration of training is from 07-
May-2012 to 02-June-2012, during this period of, I visited ‘Traction Machine
Manufacturing Division’ of the organization and also presenting reports of the same.

The B. TECH Course helped in lots of learning and summer training is one of
the parts to enhance our practical learning skills. It was a life time experience of
visiting this esteemed organization, which gave me a vision by visiting its
wonderful shop.

In this report, I have put my best efforts to compile the data, to the highest level of
accuracy.

-Rakesh Jayal

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 INTRODUCTION

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) BHEL is one of the oldest and largest
state-owned Engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the energy-related
and infrastructure sector which includes Power, Railways, Transmission and
Distribution, Oil and Gas sectors and many more. It is the 12th largest power
equipment manufacturer in the world[ BHEL was established more than 50 years ago,
ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in India. The
company has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and paying dividends
since 1976-77. 74% of the total power generated in India is produced by equipment
manufactured by BHEL.

It is one of India's nine largest Public Sector Undertakings or PSUs, known as the
navratnas or 'the nine jewels’. A dream that has been more than realized with a well-
recognized track record of performance.

BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product group and caters to
core sector of Indian economy .the wide network of BHEL 14 manufacturing units
,four power sector regional centers ,over 100 project sites 8 service centers and 18
regional offices ,enables the company to promptly serve its customers and provide
them with suitable products and services efficiently and at competitive prices .the
level of quality and reliability of its products is due to emphasis on design
,engineering and manufacturing to international standards by acquiring and adapting
some of the best technologies from leading companies in the world ,together with
technologies developed at its own R &D center.

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1. BHEL’s Capabilities

*Installed equipment for over 90,000 MW of power generation -- for Utilities,

Captive and Industrial users.

*Supplied over 2,25,000 MVA transformer capacity and other equipment operating in
Transmission & Distribution network up to 400 kV (AC & DC).

*Supplied over 25,000 Motors with Drive Control System to Power projects,
Petrochemicals, Refineries, Steel, Aluminium, Fertilizer, Cement plants, etc.

*Supplied Traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000 kms Railway
network.

*Supplied over one million Valves to Power Plants and other Industries.

The fourteen manufacturing Divisions are located at

*Bhopal(Madhya Pradesh)

* Ranipur, Haridwar (Uttarakhand)

*Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh)

*Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh)

*Tiruchirapalli(Tamil Nadu)

*Ranipet (Tamil Nadu)

*Bangalore (Karnataka)

*Jagdishpur (Uttar Pradesh)

*Rudrapur (Uttrakhand)

*Goindwal (Punjab)

*Bharat Heavy Plates and Vessels Limited (Vizag)

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 The Research and Development arm of BHEL is situated in Hyderabad and two
repair shops are at HERP(Heavy Equipment Repair Plant),Varanasi and
EMRP(Electric machines repair plant) Mumbai BHEL covers a wide area of business
through which research is done in a wide area. These areas are mentioned below:-

Power: Provide a gamut of equipment for Thermal, Hydro and Nuclear Power Plants.
Range includes products and systems for the power generation, transmission and
utilization.

Transmission: BHEL is manufacturing transmission equipments for all voltage rating

including the 400 KV class transformers switch gears, control and relay panel,
insulators, capacitors and other substation equipments.

Industry: Offers a comprehensive range of electrical, electronic and mechanical

equipment for a host of industries fertilizers, petrochemicals , refineries ,paper ,sugar
,rubber ,cement, coal, steel, aluminium and mining.

Transportation: BHEL offers a variety of transportation equipment to meet the

growing needs of country. 65% of Indian Railways are equipped with BHEL
manufactured traction equipment. Underground metro also runs on drives and control
supplied by BHEL.BHEL has taken up the manufacturing of locomotive to provide a
pollution free transportation. BHEL also offers a battery operated passenger van to
Delhi Government.

Non Conventional: BHEL is playing a vital role in helping to harness the vest
renewable sources of solar, wind and biogas energy. BHEL has supplied several water
heating system, windmills generators and photo voltaic system.

Tele Communication: BHEL has entered the field of telecom with electronics PABX
system based on indigenous technology from C-DOT.

Oil and Gas: Equipment for oil and gas exploration and transportation is
manufactured by BHEL. The range covers super deep drill rigs with matching draw
works and hosting equipment.

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2. Vision, Mission, Values

VISION- A global engineering enterprise providing solutions for a better tomorrow.

MISSION

The leading Indian engineering enterprise providing sustainable business solutions in

the fields of energy, industry & infrastructure.

VALUES

 Governance
 Respect
 Excellence
 Loyalty
 Integrity
 Commitment
 Innovation
 Team Work

Profitability of the Organization depends on its utilization. If their utilizations done

properly Organization will make profit otherwise it will make loss.

To do a good research in a proper market BHEL needs right man at right place in right
time. This information is obtained through a proper research. BHEL procure
manpower in very scientific manner.

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3. ABOUT BHEL BHOPAL

BHEL’S Bhopal plant is the company’s oldest unit with updated & state of the art
manufacturing facilities .The product range at BHOPAL includes hydro , steam ,
marine & nuclear turbines, hydro and turbo generators ,transformers , switchgears ,
control gears ,transportation equipments , capacitors , bushings, electrical motors ,
rectifiers, oil drilling rig equipments and diesel generating sets .BHEL Bhopal is
certified to ISO:14001 and OHSAS 18001 . It has its own laboratories for material
testing and instrument calibration which is accredited by NABL to ISO 17025 .The
hydro laboratory ,ultra high voltage laboratory and centre for electric transportation
are the only laboratories of its kind in entire Asian region.

Located in piplani area, BHEL Bhopal spans its operation in a diverse range of fields.
from power and transmission to power utilization and renovation and maintenance of
various power plants .Bharat heavy electrical limited in Bhopal is a renowned
electrical unit .

The prime products manufactured at BHEL Bhopal are slip ring induction motor,
squirrel cage induction motor ,variable frequency drive motor, industrial turbo and
diesel alternators and synchronous motors.

The installed capacity of BHEL Bhopal is 1000 nos per annum and the annual sales
turnover of the unit is around US 25 $ million .equipped with 25000 sq mt of total
area and manpower of more than 25000,BHEL Bhopal is a known and recognised
name which is considered as the best name in power system generation utilities.

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 IMPORTANCE OF TRANPORTATION
The world that we live in now will most likely be impossible had it not been for
innovations in transportation. There would not have been any great infrastructure,
industrialisation, or massive production, if transportation was incompetent. Life would
not have kept up with the fast changing times if there were no huge trucks, bulldozers,
trailers, cargo ships, or large aircrafts to carry them to different places. In other words,
the global society would not have experienced comfort and convenience had it not
been for advancements in the transportation sector. Today, humanity has technology
to thank for all the wonderful things that it currently enjoys now.

ROLE OF BHEL

BHEL’s involvement I the transportation sector has been marked with rapid growth.
Today over 85% of Indian Railways, one of the largest railway network in the world,
is equipped with traction equipment built by BHEL.

The range includes traction motors, traction generator/alternators, transformers, sub

station equipment, vacuum circuit breakers, locomotive bogies, smoothing reactors,
exciters, convertors, invertors, choppers and associated control equipments , viz.
master controllers, HSCBs, chopper controllers brake and door equipment, electronic
control including software based controls extending to rolling stock and transport
applications.

BHEL has manufactured and supplied large no. of electric locomotive ( upto 5000Hp)
to Indian Railways and Diesel Electric Locomotive ranging from 350Hp to 2600Hp to
cement steel and fertilizer plants, thermal power stations, coalfields, ports, and other
medium and large industries. This has established BHEL as a leading locomotive
manufacturer in the country.

Diesel Multiple Units, underground Metro Railway system at Kolkata, Electric

Multiple Unit(EMU) services at Mumbai , Kolkata, Chennai & Delhi operate on
drives and controls supplied by BHEL.

BHEL has started the supply of equipment for dual Voltage EMUs with 3 phase
technology.

To control air pollution & to conserve mineral oil resources, battery powered road
vehicles are in operation in various cities, BHEL is also ready to undertake turnkey
execution of LRT, MRTS & electric trolley buses.

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BHEL is one of the world’s leading organization in the transportation field today with
latest technology, modern facilities, requisite expertise and experience, BHEL is well
equipped for rendering all types of assistance to the customer including project
execution on turnkey basis, training of personnel, supply of spare and comprehensive
after sales services.

BHEL manufactures a wide range of traction devices at their Bhopal, Jhansi, &
Banglore works commencing from the year 1962,BHEL is engaged in system design,
equipment design, manufacture, supply, erection and commissioning of variety of
equipment required for electric and diesel electric traction. The range starts from
complete traction electrics of different kinds and extends to items like AC/DC traction
substations, supervisory remote control system, shunt and series compensation
equipments, insulators and captive/standby power generating equipments.

BHEL has subsequently diversified into design and manufacture of diesel electric, AC
& AC/DC locomotives and battery powered road vehicles. BHEL is now geared up
for taking up complete system design for electric and diesel electric locomotives ,
Electric Multiple Unit Trains and metro Railways. BHEL can also undertake turnkey
execution of Electric Trolley Bus ,Monorail ,Light Railway Transit and Mass Rapid
Transit system in the urban transportation Sector.

BHEL has also stared the supply of equipments for dual voltage EMUs with three
phase technology.

In order to cop-up with the technological advancement and continuous improvement

of the equipment and transportation system, BHEL has set up a center for Electric
Transportation under United Nations Development Programmed. The center
comprises of facilities for complete vehicle testing and computer simulation of service
operation .

BHEL has been accredited and awarded ISO-9001 certification by BVQL,UK.

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BHEL’s customers for Traction Machines

BHEL has supplied electrics as well as rolling stock and other transportation system
equipments to the following customers :-

 M/s Diesel Locomotive Works –Varanasi.

 Diesel Component Works –Patiala.
 M/s Chittaranjan Locomotive Works –Chittaranjan
 M/s Integral Coach Factory –Chennai.
 M/s Rail Coach Factory –Kapurthala.
 M/s Jessops- Kolkata.
 BEML(Bharat Earth Mover Ltd) Banglore
 All Zonal Railways, Steel Plants, Power Projects, State Electricity Boards, Port
Trusts etc.

BHEL has also supplied equipments for export to the following Customers.

 Srilanka Railways
 Bangladesh Railways
 Tazanian Railways
 Vietnam National Railways

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BHEL’s Capability and experience I
Transportation
Complete Vehicle System Range

Diesel Electric Loco & DEMU of 350 HP with DC-DC drive

Diesel electric Loco & DEMU of 700 & 1400 HP with DC-DC & AC-DC drive.
Diesel electric loco 2400 HP with AC-DC drive.
25 KV AC freight loco of 4000 HP with AC-DC drive.
Dual voltage 5000 HP mixed traffic loco with thyristor controls.
Dual voltage freight and passenger 5000HP Electric locos.

Electricals

Diesel electric freight, passenger and shunting locos with DC drive.

25 KV AC and 1500 VDC freight and passenger Electric locos.
25 KV AC and 1500 VDC electrical multiple units (EMU).
Diesel electrical multiple units.
Metro systems.
Battery powered vehicles.

Product Range

TRACTION ALTERNATORS
Traction
Application Remarks
Alternators
3100 HP DE Loco TA10102CW/DW Slip Ring Traction Alternator
3300 HP DE Loco TA10102EV With Top Mounted Rectifier
4000 HP DE Loco TA9901AZ For GM Loco
4000 HP DE Loco AA9201AZ Companion of TA9901AZ
1350 HP DE Loco TA10106CY For Meter Gauge Loco
3300 HP DE Loco TA10103AZ New Alternator with Hotel Load capability
3300 HP DE Loco CA10104AZ Companion Alternator of TA10103AZ

DEMU ALTERNATORS
Traction
Application Remarks
Alternators
700HP DEMU TA7005BY Cylindrical Rotor Design
700HP DEMU TA7006AZ Updated & Replaced with TA7005BY
1400HP DEMU TA7003AY DEMU
1400HP DEMU TA7003BX Light Weight Traction Alternator
700 HP for shunter Application TA6301AZ Top Mounted Rectifier
1400 HP for shunter Application TA7003AZ Top Mounted Rectifier
1600HP AC-AC DEMU TA7004AZ Offer Submitted to M/s ICF ( New Development)
2200HP DEMU TA7007AZ For Export to Sudan Railways( New Development)

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TRACTION GENERATORS
Traction
Application Remarks
Generators
Broad gauge DE loco (Not in
2600HP DE Loco TG10931AZ
regular Production)
Meter gauge DE loco (Not in
1350HP DE Loco TG10919AZ
regular Production)
350HP shunters TG4302AZ For Shunters at Jhansi
350HP MG-DEMU TG4302BY For Meter Gauge DEMU

DC TRACTION MOTORS
Application Traction Motors Remarks
3100 HP BGDE Regular traction motor for
TM4907AZ/BZ
Loco WDM2 etc.
3100 HP BGDE Light weight compared to
TM5002AZ/BY/BX
Loco TM4907AZ
3100 HP BGDE
TM5002BW Dog-Link Arrangement
Loco
3100 HP BGDE New development of light
TM4701AZ
Loco weight traction motor
25 kV AC EMU TM4303BY with Hitachi insulation
1400 HP HHP- Modified Class 200 Insulation
TM4303DY
DEMU System
25 KV AC EMU TM4601AZ/BZ/BX Also used in 700HP DEMU
2300 HP DE
TM4501AV With roller suspension bearing
LOCO
350 HP MG-
TM3801AZ New Motor for MG-DEMU
DEMU
Battery powered Road
For BPRV TM1701AZ
Vehicle
For NSTL M3001AZ High power to weight ratio
25 KV AC for 4000 HP locomotive type
HS15250A
locomotive WAG5.

AC TRACTION MOTORS
Application AC Motors Remarks
6000HP AC Loco 6FRA6068 Goods Loco WAG9
High torque m/c developed to
6000HP AC Loco IM4801AZ/HT
replace 6FRA6068
6000HP AC Loco 6FXA7059 Passenger Loco WAP5
4000HP Loco IM4507AZ For GM Alternator
Dual Voltage EMUs for
25 kV AC-DC EMU DMKT 53/42
Mumbai Suburban Area
New Design with Delta
1600 HP DEMU IM3401AZ
connected stator

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AUXILIARY MACHINES
Application Aux Machines Remarks
3100HP & 3300 For TA10102DW &
AG3101AY-1
HP DE Loco TA10102EV AG / Exciter
Foot Mounted AG for
2300 HP Loco AG3102AZ
Malasian Loco
2600 HP DE
AG51/M For TG10931AZ
Loco
1350 HP DE
AG2513AZ For TG10919AY
Loco
1350 HP DE
AG2501AZ For TG10919AY
Loco
1350 HP /2300
AG2702AX/BX/BY For TA10106CY
HP DE Loco
Offer Submitted to M/s ICF (
350 HP DEMU AG1702AZ
New Development)
25 kV AC Loco BM2101AZ For Electric Loco
Foot Mounted AG for
2300 HP Loco DY3423BY/M
Malasian Loco

BRUSHLESS EXCITERS
Brushless Exciter for
For 700HP DEMU, 1400HP
TA7006AZ,
OE2501AZ DEMU & 1215 kVA Oil Rig
TA7003AY,
Alternator
OA7001AY
Brushless Exciter for
For 700HP Shunters & 1430
TA6301AZ, OE2501BZ
kVA Oil Rig Alternator
OA6301AY
Brushless Exciter for
OE2901AZ For 700HP DEMU
TA7005BY
Brushless Exciter for For Light weight TA 1400 HHP
OE2902AZ
TA7003BX DEMU
Brushless Exciter
EX2904AZ For 1430kVA Oil Rig Alternator
forOA7002AZ
Brushless Exciter for
EX2904BZ For Ballast Cleaning Machine
TA6303AZ

The traction machines manufactured by BHEL conform to International

Specification IEC 349.

15
MORDERNISATION EFFORTS IN BHEL
With a view to cope up with technological advancement and continuous improvement
in equipment in the transportation systems and to cater to the on-going requirement of
Indian Railway – one of the major customers of BHEL, steps are being taken by
BHEL for Modernization of its facilities with state-of-art technology to meet the
challenges and expectations. This has resulted into:
· Increase in productivity by automation, quality improvement and managing
operations
· Improvement in material handling & storage facilities
· Shorter deliveries
· Low level rejection
· Reduced failures
· Capable to cater to the need of Indian & Export market
· Better performance of products

Some of the salient features of the measures adopted towards modernization by BHEL
are:
· Computer aided design and drafting systems
· CNC notching line for stampings
· Electro-slag welding for stator magnet frames
· Vacuum pressure impregnation plants for field coils and armatures
· TIG welding equipment for armature coil to commutator connection joints
· Plant for high speed dynamic seasoning of commutator
· CNC machining center for magnet-undercutting & commutator surface
finishing equipment
· Field coil forming equipment
· Automatic taping machines for armature coils
· Microprocessor controller induction hardening equipment for gears
· Gear teeth cutting, grinding and profile checking equipment
· CNC lathes and copy turning lathes
· Internal & external; grinding machines
· High frequency brazing equipment for traction generator commutator risers
· Traction test plant with pulsating current testing facility
· Sophisticated quality control equipment with 3-D measuring systems
· Advanced test facilities for materials and components
· Completely automated modern plant for zinc, tin, silver, nickel & manganese
phosphate
· Automatic plant for powder coating
· Computerized automated test facility for control gear equipment with the help
of Hewlett Packard
· Automated storage & retrieval system for handling components from Kardex,
Germany
· Auto wire stripping & cutting machine from ARTOS, UK
· Special purpose Induction Brazing machine for resistor terminals

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R & D Efforts of BHEL towards modernization of
Railway Fleet

The Centre for Electric Transporation (CET) has been established by Bharat Heavy
Electricals Limited at Bhopal with assistance from United Nation Development
Programme (UNDP). The centre is envisaged to act as focal point for systems oriented
research in the area of electric transportation.

Scope of CET
Evaluation of propulsion system of rail vehicles under simulated load conditions by:

 Computer simulation (empirical models)

 Testing on Performance Simulator (Roller Rig).
 Study of vehicle dynamics of rail vehicles by computer
simulation using mathematical models with in-house validation
facility.
 Automation system for real time computer control and data
acquisition
 Assistance in evaluation, selection and introduction of mass
transit systems in large cities
 Technology scanning and technical documentation library

Facilities in the centre

 Performance Evaluation Lab
 Vehicle Evaluation Lab

Performance Evaluation Lab

Evaluation by computer simulation and testing on performance simulator

Computer Simulation
Software capable of evaluating propulsion system performance

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Performance Simulator (Roller Rig)
Capable of testing powered rail vehicles for:
 Powering
 Coasting
 Braking
 Speed Limit
 Wheel Slip

Vehicle Evaluation Lab

Dynamic/Structural Analysis and Testing

Dynamic Analysis of vehicle as multi-body by math-modeling
 Stability Analysis
 Vertical Dynamics
 Steady State Curving
 Ride Quality Analysis

Structural Analysis
 Structural Integrity analysis by finite element method
Test set up
Servo hydraulic closed loop test system for:
 Component characterization
 Validation of simulation results
 Life cycle test of components and sub-assemblies

CET at BHEL also assists in introduction of appropriate technology for Urban

Mass Transit System for large cities. It has the capability to carry out feasibility
and detailed project report.

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 INTRODUCTION TO LOCOMOTIVE
Locomotive, any of various self-propelled vehicles used for hauling railroad cars on
tracks. A locomotive is a railway vehicle that provides the motive power for a train.
The word originates from the Latin loco – "from a place", ablative of locus, "place" +
Medieval Latin motivus, "causing motion", and is a shortened form of the
term locomotive engine, first used in the early 19th century to distinguish between
mobile and stationary steam engines.

Although motive power can be incorporated into a car that also has passenger,
baggage, or freight accomodations, it most often is provided by a separate unit, the
locomotive, which includes the machinery to generate (or, in the case of an electric
locomotive, to convert) power and transmit it to the driving wheels. Today there are
two main sources of power for a locomotive: oil (in the form of diesel fuel) and
electricity. Steam, the earliest form of propulsion, was in almost universal use .

A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its sole purpose is to move the
train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying
vehicles. These are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to
as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these self-propelled vehicles is
increasingly common for passenger trains, but rare for freight . Vehicles which
provide motive power to haul an unpowered train, but are not generally considered
locomotives because they have payload space or are rarely detached from their trains,
are known as power cars.

Types of locomotive:-

 Steam locomotive
 Diesel locomotive
 Electric locomotive
 Hybrid locomotive

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STEAM LOCOMOTIVE
In the 19th century the first railway locomotives were powered by steam, usually
generated by burning coal. Because steam locomotives included one or more steam
engines, they are sometimes referred to as "steam engines".

The first steam locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick; it first ran on 21 February
1804, although it was some years before steam locomotive design became
economically practical. The first commercial use of a steam locomotive was The
Salamanca on the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in Leeds in 1812. The
locomotive Fairy Queen, built in 1855 runs between Delhi and Alwar in India and is
the oldest steam locomotive in regular service in the world, and the oldest steam
locomotive operating on a mainline.

DIESEL LOCMOTIVE
As is the case with any vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine, diesel
locomotives require some type of power transmission system to couple the output of
the prime mover to the driving wheels. In the early days of diesel railroad propulsion
development, electric, hydraulic and mechanical power transmission systems were all
employed with varying degrees of success.

Diesel locomotives require considerably less maintenance than

steam, with a corresponding reduction in the number of personnel needed to keep the
fleet in service. The best steam locomotives spent an average of three to five days per
month in the shop for routine maintenance and running repairs. Heavy overhauls were
frequent, often involving removal of the boiler from the frame for major repairs. In
contrast, a typical diesel locomotive requires no more than eight to ten hours of
maintenance per month and may run for many years between heavy overhauls.

The Diesel Engine

The diesel engine was first patented by Dr Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) in Germany in
1892. The diesel engine is a compression-ignition engine, as opposed to the petrol (or
gasoline) engine, which is a spark-ignition engine. The spark ignition engine uses an
electrical spark from a "spark plug" to ignite the fuel in the engine's cylinders,

20
whereas the fuel in the diesel engine's cylinders is ignited by the heat caused by air
being suddenly compressed in the cylinder. At this stage, the air gets compressed into
an area 1/25th of its original volume. This would be expressed as a compression ratio
of 25 to 1. A compression ratio of 16 to 1 will give an air pressure of 500 lbs/in² (35.5
bar) and will increase the air temperature to over 800°F (427°C).

Diesel Engine Types

There are two types of diesel engine,
1)the two-stroke engine and
2) the four-stroke engine.
As the names suggest, they differ in the number of movements of the piston required
to complete each cycle of operation.
The simplest is the two-stroke engine. It has no valves. The exhaust from the
combustion and the air for the new stroke is drawn in through openings in the cylinder
wall as the piston reaches the bottom of the downstroke. Compression and
combustion occurs on the upstroke. As one might guess, there are twice as many
revolutions for the two-stroke engine as for equivalent power in a four-stroke engine.

The four-stroke engine works as follows: Downstroke 1 - air intake, upstroke 1 -

compression, downstroke 2 - power, upstroke 2 - exhaust. Valves are required for air
intake and exhaust, usually two for each. In this respect it is more similar to the
modern petrol engine than the 2-stroke design.

A diesel-mechanical locomotive is the simplest type of diesel locomotive. A

mechanical transmission on a diesel locomotive consists a direct mechanical link
between the diesel engine and the wheels. In the example below, the diesel engine is
in the 350-500 hp range and the transmission is similar to that of an automobile with a
four speed gearbox. Most of the parts are similar to the diesel-electric locomotive but
there are some variations in design mentioned below.

21
Fluid Coupling
In a diesel-mechanical transmission, the main drive shaft is coupled to the engine by a
fluid coupling. This is a hydraulic clutch, consisting of a case filled with oil, a
rotating disc with curved blades driven by the engine and another connected to the
road wheels. As the engine turns the fan, the oil is driven by one disc towards the
other. This turns under the force of the oil and thus turns the drive shaft. Of course,
the start up is gradual until the fan speed is almost matched by the blades. The whole
system acts like an automatic clutch to allow a graduated start for the locomotive.

Gearbox
This does the same job as that on an automobile. It varies the gear ratio between the
engine and the road wheels so that the appropriate level of power can be applied to the
wheels. Gear change is manual. There is no need for a separate clutch because the
functions of a clutch are already provided in the fluid coupling.

Final Drive

The diesel-mechanical locomotive uses a final drive similar to that of a steam engine.
The wheels are coupled to each other to provide more adhesion. The output from the
4-speed gearbox is coupled to a final drive and reversing gearbox which is provided
with a transverse drive shaft and balance weights. This is connected to the driving
wheels by connecting rods.

22
Electric locomotive:-
The electric locomotive is supplied externally with electric
power, either through an overhead pickup or through a third rail. While the capital
cost of electrifying track is high, electric trains and locomotives are capable of higher
performance and lower operational costs than steam or diesel power.

Electric locomotives, because they tend to be less technically complex than diesel-
electric locomotives, are both easier and cheaper to maintain and have extremely long
working lives, usually 40 to 50 years there are many examples of electric locomotives
operating for more than half a century with minimal overhaul, and it is not unusual for
electric locomotives to be operating close to their centenary.

Operating principle:-

Basically compressed air raises and spring lowers the pantograph. The sole function
of compressed air is to cancel the lowering effect of the spring and it has no direct
effect on the pantograph.

When pantograph is raised and the pressure is maintained in servomotor, the

piston is kept still and articulation system is entirely kept pantograph free raised only
by the raising spring. Raising spring controls the oscillation of pantograph. Should
lack of air occur, the pantograph collapse by itself gradually by lowering spring
against the raising spring. The whole pantograph is alive, its own parts are used as
conductor and the current collection is mode on the frame with the flexible shunts at
moving parts.

23
Details of Electric Locomotive
Line diagram:-

Pantograph

Roof Bar

Circuit Breaker

Main bushing(Cabel head termination)

Arno Transformer+ Tap changer

Rectifier

Smoothing reactor

Traction motor

Wheel axle

Bogie frame

Centre pivot

Loco body

CBC

Connected load

24
3 phase AC locomotive

The input (single-phase AC) from the OHE is rectified and then 3-phase AC is
generated from it, whose voltage, phase, and frequency can be manipulated widely,
without regard to the voltage, phase, frequency of the input power from the OHE. AC
traction motors can thus be driven with a great degree of control over a wide range of
speed and torque.

Details: There are 3 main stages in the power circuit of a 3-phase AC loco.

Input Converter : This rectifies the AC from the catenary to a specified DC voltage
using GTO (gate turn-off) thyristors. A transformer section steps down the voltage
from the 25kV input. It has filters and circuitry to provide a fairly smooth (ripple-free)
and stable DC output, at the same time attempting to ensure that a good power factor
presented to the electric supply. There may also be additional mechanisms such as
transformers, inductors, or capacitor assemblies to improve the power factor further.

The transformer section is designed with high leakage impedance and other
characteristics, which together with the fine control possible with the GTO switching,
allow the loco to present nearly unity power factor, a very desirable situation from the
point of view of the electricity suppliers (the grid). The main transformer also has
some filter windings which are designed to further attenuate harmonics from the loco's
traction motors which may pass through the filtering in the DC link.

25
DC Link : This is essentially a bank of capacitors and inductors, or active filter
circuitry, to further smooth the DC from the previous stage, and also to trap harmonics
generated by the drive converter and traction motors. Since the traction motors and
drive converters present non-linear loads, they generate reactive power in the form of
undesirable harmonics; the DC link acts as a reservoir for the reactive power so that
the OHE supply itself is not affected.

During regenerative braking this section also has to transfer power back to the input
converter to be fed back to the catenary. The capacitor bank in this section can also
provide a small amount of reserve power in transient situations (e.g., pantograph
bounce) if needed by the traction motors.

Drive Converter : This is basically an inverter which consists of three thyristor-based

components that switch on and off at precise times under the control of a
microprocessor (pulse-width modulation). The three components produce 3 phases of
AC (120 degrees out of phase with one another). Additional circuitry shapes the
waveforms so that they are suitable for feeding to the traction motors. The
microprocessor controller can vary the switching of the thyristors and thereby produce
AC of a wide range of frequencies and voltages and at any phase relationship with
respect to the traction motors. Various kinds of thyristor devices are used to perform
the switching.

26
Diesel Electric Locomotive
Parts of a Diesel-Electric Locomotive

Tractive Effort, Pull and Power

The ‘tractive effort’ is a measure of how large a load the loco can pull and set in
motion from a standstill — the maximum force it can exert at the drawbar or
coupling;is usually expressed in pounds (lbs) or kilo Newtons (kN).. While the raw
horsepower rating of the loco is important, it is not the whole story. The loco's weight
also comes into play, as a heavier loco can pull a larger load without its wheels
slipping. Once the wheels begin slipping, the force that can be exerted by the loco
drops dramatically. (Slipping occurs more with the front wheels because the front of
the loco tends to lift slightly due to the reaction torque exerted by the rails on the
loco.) Modern locos tend to have electronic slip control to control the power applied
to each axle separately to minimize slip and maximize the tractive effort under
different conditions.

Starting
A diesel engine is started by turning over the crankshaft until the cylinders "fire" or
begin combustion. The starting can be done electrically or pneumatically. Pneumatic
starting was used for some engines. Compressed air was pumped into the cylinders of
the engine until it gained sufficient speed to allow ignition, then fuel was applied to
fire the engine. The compressed air was supplied by a small auxiliary engine or by
high pressure air cylinders carried by the locomotive.

Electric starting is now standard. It works the same way as for an automobile, with
batteries providing the power to turn a starter motor which turns over the main
engine. In older locomotives fitted with DC generators instead of AC alternators, the
generator was used as a starter motor by applying battery power to it.

27
Governor
Once a diesel engine is running, the engine speed is monitored and controlled through
a governor. The governor ensures that the engine speed stays high enough to idle at
the right speed and that the engine speed will not rise too high when full power is
demanded. The governor is a simple mechanical device which first appeared on steam
engines. It operates on a diesel engine as shown in the diagram below.

The governor consists of a rotating shaft, which is driven by the diesel engine. A pair
of flyweights are linked to the shaft and they rotate as it rotates. The centrifugal force
caused by the rotation causes the weights to be thrown outwards as the speed of the
shaft rises. If the speed falls the weights move inwards.

The flyweights are linked to a collar fitted around the shaft by a pair of arms. As the
weights move out, so the collar rises on the shaft. If the weights move inwards, the
collar moves down the shaft. The movement of the collar is used to operate the fuel
rack lever controlling the amount of fuel supplied to the engine by the injectors.

Fuel Injection
Ignition is a diesel engine is achieved by compressing air inside a cylinder until it gets
very hot (say 400°C, almost 800°F) and then injecting a fine spray of fuel oil to cause
a miniature explosion. The explosion forces down the piston in the cylinder and this
turns the crankshaft. To get the fine spray needed for successful ignition the fuel has
to be pumped into the cylinder at high pressure. The fuel pump is operated by a cam
driven off the engine. The fuel is pumped into an injector, which gives the fine spray
of fuel required in the cylinder for combustion.

Fuel Control
In a diesel engine the amount of air applied to the cylinder is constant so power is
regulated by varying the fuel input. The fine spray of fuel injected into each cylinder
has to be regulated to achieve the amount of power required. Regulation is achieved
by varying the fuel sent by the fuel pumps to the injectors. The control arrangement is
shown in the diagram.
The amount of fuel being applied to the cylinders is varied by altering the effective
delivery rate of the piston in the injector pumps. Each injector has its own pump,
operated by an engine-driven cam, and the pumps are aligned in a row so that they can
all be adjusted together. The adjustment is done by a toothed rack (called the "fuel
rack") acting on a toothed section of the pump mechanism. As the fuel rack moves, so
the toothed section of the pump rotates and provides a drive to move the pump piston
round inside the pump. Moving the piston round, alters the size of the channel
available inside the pump for fuel to pass through to the injector delivery pipe.

The fuel rack can be moved either by the driver operating the power controller in the
cab or by the governor. If the driver asks for more power, the control rod moves the
fuel rack to set the pump pistons to allow more fuel to the injectors.

28
Engine Control Development
The drivers control was combined with the governor and hydraulic control was
introduced. One type of governor uses oil to control the fuel racks hydraulically and
another uses the fuel oil pumped by a gear pump driven by the engine. Some
governors are also linked to the turbo charging system to ensure that fuel does not
increase before enough turbocharged air is available.

Power Control
The diesel engine in a diesel-electric locomotive provides the drive for the main
alternator which, in turn, provides the power required for the traction motors. We can
see from this therefore, that the power required from the diesel engine is related to the
power required by the motors. So, if we want more power from the motors, we must
get more current from the alternator so the engine needs to run faster to generate it.
Therefore, to get the optimum performance from the locomotive, we must link the
control of the diesel engine to the power demands being made on the alternator.

On locomotives with an alternator, the load regulation is done electronically. Engine

speed is measured like modern speedometers, by counting the frequency of the gear
teeth driven by the engine, in this case, the starter motor gearwheel. Electrical control
of the fuel injection is another improvement now adopted for modern engines.
Overheating can be controlled by electronic monitoring of coolant temperature and
regulating the engine power accordingly. Oil pressure can be monitored and used to
regulate the engine power in a similar way.

Cooling
The diesel engine needs to work at an optimum temperature for best efficiency. When
it starts, it is too cold and, when working, it must not be allowed to get too hot. To
keep the temperature stable, a cooling system is provided. This consists of a water-
based coolant circulating around the engine block, the coolant being kept cool by
passing it through a radiator.

The coolant is pumped round the cylinder block and the radiator by an electrically or
belt driven pump. The temperature is monitored by a thermostat and this regulates the
speed of the (electric or hydraulic) radiator fan motor to adjust the cooling rate. When
starting the coolant isn't circulated at all. Some radiators are provided with shutters to
help regulate the temperature in cold conditions.

A problem with engine cooling is cold weather. Water freezes at 0°C or 32°F and
frozen cooling water will quickly split a pipe or engine block due to the expansion of
the water as it freezes. In cold weather, the engine is left running or the locomotive is
kept warm by putting it into a heated building or by plugging in a shore supply.
Another reason for keeping diesel engines running is that the constant heating and
cooling caused by shutdowns and restarts, causes stresses in the block and pipes and
tends to produce leaks.

29
Lubrication
Lubricating oil is distributed around the engine to the cylinders, crankshaft and other
moving parts. There is a reservoir of oil, usually carried in the sump, which has to be
kept topped up, and a pump to keep the oil circulating evenly around the engine. The
oil gets heated by its passage around the engine and has to be kept cool, so it is passed
through a radiator during its journey. The oil has to be filtered to remove impurities
and it has to be monitored for low pressure. If oil pressure falls to a level which could
cause the engine to seize up, a "low oil pressure switch" will shut down the engine.
There is also a high pressure relief valve, to drain off excess oil back to the sump.

Transmissions
Like an automobile, a diesel locomotive cannot start itself directly from a stand. It
will not develop maximum power at idling speed, so it needs some form of
transmission system to multiply torque when starting. It will also be necessary to vary
the power applied according to the train weight or the line gradient. There are three
methods of doing this: mechanical, hydraulic or electric. Most diesel locomotives use
electric transmission and are called "diesel-electric" locomotives.

Diesel-Electric Types
Diesel-electric locomotives come in three varieties, according to the period in which
they were designed. These three are:-
DC - DC (DC generator supplying DC traction motors);
AC - DC (AC alternator output rectified to supply DC motors) and
AC - DC - AC (AC alternator output rectified to DC and then inverted to 3-phase AC
for the traction motors).

Diesel Engine
This is the main power source for the locomotive. It comprises a large cylinder block,
with the cylinders arranged in a straight line or in a V. The engine rotates the drive
shaft at up to 1,000 rpm and this drives the various items needed to power the
locomotive. As the transmission is electric, the engine is used as the power source for
the electricity generator or alternator.

Main Alternator
The diesel engine drives the main alternator which provides the power to move the
train. The alternator generates AC electricity which is used to provide power for the
traction motors mounted on the trucks (bogies). In older locomotives, the alternator
was a DC machine, called a generator. It produced direct current which was used to
provide power for DC traction motors. The next development was the replacement of
the generator by the alternator but still using DC traction motors. The AC output is
rectified to give the DC required for the motors.

30
Auxiliary Alternator
Locomotives used to operate passenger trains are equipped with an auxiliary
alternator. This provides AC power for lighting, heating, air conditioning, dining
facilities etc. on the train. The output is transmitted along the train through an
auxiliary power line.

Motor Blower
The diesel engine also drives a motor blower. As its name suggests, the motor blower
provides air which is blown over the traction motors to keep them cool during periods
of heavy work. The blower is mounted inside the locomotive body but the motors are
on the trucks, so the blower output is connected to each of the motors through flexible
ducting. The blower output also cools the alternators. Some designs have separate
blowers for the group of motors on each truck and others for the alternators.
Whatever the arrangement, a modern locomotive has a complex air management
system which monitors the temperature of the various rotating machines in the
locomotive and adjusts the flow of air accordingly.

Air Intakes
The air for cooling the locomotive's motors is drawn in from outside the locomotive.
It has to be filtered to remove dust and other impurities and its flow regulated by
temperature, both inside and outside the locomotive. The air management system has
to take account of the wide range of temperatures from the possible +40°C of summer
to the possible -40°C of winter.

Rectifiers/Inverters
The output from the main alternator is AC but it can be used in a locomotive with
either DC or AC traction motors. DC motors were the traditional type used for many
years but, in the last 10 years, AC motors have become standard for new locomotives.
They are cheaper to build and cost less to maintain and, with electronic management
can be very finely controlled.

To convert the AC output from the main alternator to DC, rectifiers are required. If
the motors are DC, the output from the rectifiers is used directly. If the motors are
AC, the DC output from the rectifiers is converted to 3-phase AC for the traction
motors.

Electronic Controls
Almost every part of the modern locomotive's equipment has some form of electronic
control. These are usually collected in a control cubicle near the cab for easy access.
The controls will usually include a maintenance management system of some sort
which can be used to download data to a portable or hand-held computer.

31
Control Stand
This is the principal man-machine interface, known as a control desk in the UK or
control stand in the US. The common US type of stand is positioned at an angle on
the left side of the driving position and, it is said, is much preferred by drivers to the
modern desk type of control layout usual in Europe and now being offered on some
locomotives in the US.

Cab
The standard configuration of US-designed locomotives is to have a cab at one end of
the locomotive only. Since most the US structure gauge is large enough to allow the
locomotive to have a walkway on either side, there is enough visibility for the
locomotive to be worked in reverse. However, it is normal for the locomotive to
operate with the cab forwards. In the UK and many European countries, locomotives
are full width to the structure gauge and cabs are therefore provided at both ends.

Batteries
Just like an automobile, the diesel engine needs a battery to start it and to provide
electrical power for lights and controls when the engine is switched off and the
alternator is not running.

Traction Motor
Since the diesel-electric locomotive uses electric transmission, traction motors are
provided on the axles to give the final drive. These motors were traditionally DC but
the development of modern power and control electronics has led to the introduction
of 3-phase AC motors. There are between four and six motors on most diesel-electric
locomotives. A modern AC motor with air blowing can provide up to 1,000 hp.

Pinion/Gear
The traction motor drives the axle through a reduction gear of a range between 3 to 1
(freight) and 4 to 1 (passenger).

Fuel Tank
A diesel locomotive has to carry its own fuel around with it and there has to be
enough for a reasonable length of trip. In addition to fuel, the locomotive will carry
around, typically about 300 US gallons of cooling water and 250 gallons of lubricating
oil for the diesel engine.

Air Reservoirs
Air reservoirs containing compressed air at high pressure are required for the train
braking and some other systems on the locomotive. These are often mounted next to
the fuel tank under the floor of the locomotive.

32
Air Compressor
The air compressor is required to provide a constant supply of compressed air for the
locomotive and train brakes.

Drive Shaft
The main output from the diesel engine is transmitted by the drive shaft to the
alternators at one end and the radiator fans and compressor at the other end.

Gear Box
The radiator and its cooling fan is often located in the roof of the locomotive. Drive to
the fan is therefore through a gearbox to change the direction of the drive upwards.

Radiator and Radiator Fan

The radiator works the same way as in an automobile. Water is distributed around the
engine block to keep the temperature within the most efficient range for the engine.
The water is cooled by passing it through a radiator blown by a fan driven by the
diesel engine.

Turbo Charging
The amount of power obtained from a cylinder in a diesel engine depends on how
much fuel can be burnt in it. The amount of fuel which can be burnt depends on the
amount of air available in the cylinder. So, if you can get more air into the cylinder,
more fuel will be burnt and you will get more power out of your ignition. Turbo
charging is used to increase the amount of air pushed into each cylinder. The
turbocharger is driven by exhaust gas from the engine. This gas drives a fan which, in
turn, drives a small compressor which pushes the additional air into the cylinder.
Turbocharging gives a 50% increase in engine power.

The main advantage of the turbocharger is that it gives more power with no increase
in fuel costs because it uses exhaust gas as drive power. It does need additional
maintenance, however, so there are some type of lower power locomotives which are
built without it.

Sand Box
Locomotives always carry sand to assist adhesion in bad rail conditions. Sand is not
often provided on multiple unit trains because the adhesion requirements are lower
and there are normally more driven axles.

Truck Frame
This is the part carrying the wheels and traction motors of the locomotive.

33
BOGIE
The bogie comes in many shapes and sizes but it is in its most developed form as the
motor bogie of an electric or diesel locomotive or an EMU. Here it has to carry the
motors, brakes and suspension systems all within a tight envelope. It is subjected to
severe stresses and shocks and may have to run at over 300 km/h in a high speed
application.

Hybrid locomotive:-
Besides locomotives which use only a fuelled power source
(e.g. an internal combustion engine), and a electrical engine, there are also hybrids
that additionally use a battery. Here, the battery acts as a temporary energy store,
allowing e.g. the implementation of regenerative braking and switching off the
hydrocarbon engine when idling or stationary (as used in automobiles).

34
MULTIPLE UNIT
The term multiple unit or MU is used to describe a self-propelled carriages capable
of coupling with other units of the same or similar type and still being controlled from
one driving cab. The term is commonly used to denote passenger trainsets consisting
of more than one carriage. Single self-propelling carriages (also called railcars, rail
motor coaches or rail buses) can be referred to as multiple units if capable of operating
with other units.
Multiple units are classified by their power source and are of two main types:-
electric multiple unit (EMU),
diesel multiple unit (DMU).
Diesel-powered units may be further classified by their transmission type: diesel-
electric (DEMU), diesel-mechanical (DMMU) or diesel-hydraulic (DHMU).
Locomotives utilising multiple-unit train control are not multiple units.

Diesel Multiple Units (DMUs)

The diesel engines used in DMUs work on exactly the same principles as those used
in locomotives, except that the transmission is normally mechanical with some form
of gear change system. DMU engines are smaller and several are used on a train,
depending on the configuration. The diesel engine is often mounted under the car
floor and on its side because of the restricted space available. Vibration being
transmitted into the passenger saloon has always been a problem but some of the
newer designs are very good in this respect.

Electric Multiple Units (EMUs)

An electric multiple unit or EMU is a multiple unit train consisting of self-propelled
carriages, using electricity as the motive power. An EMU requires no
separate locomotive, as electric traction motors are incorporated within one or a
number of the carriages. Most EMUs are used for passenger trains, but some have
been built or converted for specialised non-passenger roles, such as carrying mail or
luggage, or in departmental use, for example as de-icing trains. An EMU is usually
formed of two or more semi-permanently coupled carriages, but electrically powered
single-unit railcars are also generally classed as EMUs.
EMUs are popular on commuter and suburban rail networks around the world due to
their fast acceleration and pollution-free operation. Being quieter
than DMUs and locomotive-drawn trains, EMUs can operate later at night and more
frequently without disturbing residents living near the railway lines. In addition,
tunnel design for EMU trains is simpler as provisions do not need to be made for
diesel exhaust fumes.

35
Diesel-electric Multiple Units (DEMUs)
In a diesel-electric multiple unit (DEMU) a diesel engine drives an electrical
generator which produces electrical energy. The generated current is then fed to
electric traction motors on the wheels or bogies in the same way as a
conventional diesel electric locomotive.
In modern DEMUs, such as the Bombardier Voyager family, each car is entirely self-
contained and has its own engine, generator and electric motors.In older designs, such
as the British Rail Class 207, some cars within the consist may be entirely unpowered
or only feature electric motors, obtaining electrical current from other cars in the
consist which have a generator and engine.

36
37
 TRACTION
Introduction:-
Traction refers to the maximum frictional force that can be produced between
surfaces without slipping.

Or it can be defined as:

..a physical process in which a tangential force is transmitted across an interface

between two bodies through dry friction or an intervening fluid film resulting in
motion, stoppage or the transmission of power.

The traction produced by a vehicle if expressed as a force is synonymous with tractive

effort, and closely related to the term drawbar pull.

Types of traction:-

There are three types of traction

1. Steam Traction
2. Electric traction
3. Diesel traction

38
 TXM
(Traction Machines Manufacturing ) Division
Broadly Classification of Traction Motor Construction is of two parts: -
1) Stator. ( Magnetic Frame )
2) Rotor. (Armature Core)

STATOR-MANUFACTURING
Casting Marking Vertical Boring Marking Drilling Tapping All Round
MachiningPole Pad Machining- Axle Bore Facing-Spot Facing-Final
Boring- Deburring- Block Welding- Main pole and Inter-pole assembly

MACHINING SHOP
MAGNETIC FRAME MANUFACTURING
1) MAGNET FRAME CASTING: - First of all, a rough structure of magnetic frame
is casted in the foundry section of BHEL. After casting, there is always some extra
material is there for precautionary consideration.

2) MARKING: - Marking play a very important role to reduce the eccentricity.

Marking gives the idea about how much extra material is there in frame for further
machining process. With this the centering of the machine is done, i.e. The center of
the whole structure is founded, which becomes a reference for further operations.

3) VERTICAL-BORING :- Initially frame is mounted on the vertical boring

machine at commutator end and a register cut (within the limits of tolerance) is
applied at the pole mounting pad. If equal depth of the material is cut then the center
of which machine is mounted is correct. In case of unequal material cutting, the center
is adjusted accordingly. The facing and boring of specified dimension are machined
at Pinion end (PE). After that facing and boring of specified dimension are machined
at Commutator End (CE).

4) MARKING : - After two times vertical boring, it is necessary to confirm about the
location of the center. So again centering of the machine is done. In spite of this, there
should be marked on the face of CE and PE is done, for the drilling on the CE and PE
respectively.

39
5) DRILLING : - In this Process, with the help of fixture and jigs, the drilling of the
bore of CE and PE is done. And the drilling of the lug hole is done. Lug hole will be
taken as reference for all round machining of the frame.

6) TAPPING :- In this process, the tapping of drilled holes of magnetic frame ( i.e.
On the CE side and on PE side and on the lug hole as well) is done, so that the screw
and nut bolt arrangement is properly fastened through this.

7) ALL ROUND MACHIINING : - This process is done at all round machining

centers, also called as Horizontal Machining Center. It is a fully automatic machine,
which has some added features as compared to a conventional lathe machine. A
robotic arm automatically selects the tool (as specified in the program) from a set of
tools (which can be either arranged on a shelf or on a conveyor belt arrangement ).
The coolant flows through the spindle and one coolant filtration plant is also there to
remove the metallic dust from the coolant coming out of the spindle, so that it can be
reused without blocking off the tip of the nozzle. The additional functions provided in
horizontal machining center are-

 I) Automatic pallet changer.

 II) Automatic Tool Exchanger.
 III) Chip conveyor system.

All round machining performs various functions mentioned below.

 a) Pole hole machining.

 b) The facing of dust and other openings (for brush changing etc.)
 c) Milling of suspension Pad.
 d) Axle tube milling.
 e) Pole pad milling
 f) Joint Face Machining.
 g) Gang Machining.
 h) Resting Pad Machining.
 I) Brush Gear Pad Machining.
 k) Joint Hole.
 L) Cover Machining.
 j) Cable Hole.
 k) Cable Clit.

40
 8) POLE PAD MACHINING : - The Machining of the main pole pad and Interpole
pad is done. By this, desired clearance is found in a magnetic frame and armature
core, and the losses are reduced. After machining of pole pad, it is seen that there are
some very sharp edges at corner arms of pole pads, so those extra material are
removed with the help of droket shaper.

9) AXLE BORE FACING :- In this process, the machining of axle bore is done and
size and shape formed should be in permissible limit. The overall length of the axle is
attained in this process.

10) SPOT FACING OR COUNTER BORE:- The machining of bore is done so that
the depth of bore is maintained and the size of bore is such that washer and bolt are
perfectly adjusted inside the bore.

11) FINAL BORING :- In this ,the desired boring dimensions are attained. Clearance
of boring is checked.

12)DEBURRING :- The bur remained in formed in the machining process are

removed in this step for better finishing and for better security precaution and to
reduce losses.

13)BLOCK WELDING :- The carbon brush Pads are welded here, which will be use
in assembly process.

41
FIELDING AREA
FIELD WINDING ASSEMBLY
Main pole and inter pole winding are installed in magnetic frame in this section. First
the windings are mounted on the curved pole section by pressing. After that whole
winding segment is fastened on the magnetic frame with the help of nut and bolts

Brazing:- The main field windings are jointed with each other by Brazing. For
Brazing the filler material used is copper alloy (copper + tin + Zinc +Silver ). In
Brazing, the tips of electrode are holded with Carbon pieces, which heat themselves
and transfer the heat to joint. For cooling purpose water is flown in the equipment. But
it should be taken care that water should not fall on the joints, otherwise Brazing will
fail. For protection of windings from burning, water dipped asbestos tape is used at the
terminals of windings.

The joints are insulated with the coating of Silicon Rubber Tape and on which
Asbestos Glass Tape is wound as heat resistant Material.

For the electric supply in the field windings, a terminal box is there. In this box, the
insulators, connecting pads and RTV(for air tightening) is filled.

After this the stator is transferred to Armature Dropping Area.

42
ARMATURE MANUFACTURING AREA

BRUSH HOLDER FINISHING:- Fabricated brush holder made up of

brass is supplied to TXM by fabrication shop. Brush holders are made from the alloy
of copper and zinc.

Finishing of brush holder involves several operations mentioned below:-

 Machining – top and bottom surfaces are machined to make them parallel.
 Slotting – coarse cutting of brush slot is done.
 Broaching –final finishing of brush slot is done.
 Drilling –holes in brush holder are drilled and tapped.
 Deburring – All sharp edge are smoothened.

After finishing, insulator and pin are installed to Brush Holders. Pin gives the
mechanical strength to the Brush holder against the severe jerks and vibrations. Pin is
made up of iron on which hardener is coated for better mechanical strength. The
insulation used is made up of PTFE ( as PTFE is a good insulator, as well as heat
resistant too).

CORE BUILDING
The armature core is most important part of Traction Motor.
Silicon steel laminated punching of thickness about 0.5 to 0.6 mm is used. The
diameter is depends on the construction parameter of the armature.
Its manufacturing steps are as follows.
1) The fixture for this process is put on the horizontal surface and then End plate is
kept. On this punching are stacked to the particular height and which is again covered
with End Plate.
2) The height of the core punchings are rechecked at particular pressure (in tonnes).
3) Core is heated in oven at high temperature for hours to enhance the strength of the
core.
4) The core is cooled.
5) Core is imposed on shaft.
6) Drifting and Foiling of the Slots to protect windings from wear and tear.

43
COMMUTATOR ASSEMBLY
The sequence of commutator assembly is as mentioned below:-

First of all, Casting of copper commutator segment is done in Foundry section of

BHEL, which are sent to commutator section of TXM.

COPPER SEGMENT FINISHING COMMUTATOR BUILDING BAKING

V-TURNING COMMUTATOR ASSEMBLY  STATIC SEASONING
SKIMMING COMMUTATOR TESTING STATIC BALANCING
DYNAMIC SEASONING PRESSING OF PUNCHING & SHAFT DYNAMIC
BALANCING

COPPER SEGMENT FINISHING :-

1)Flattening of commutator segment :- Manually the commutator surfaces are made
parallel by milleting.
2)Slitting:- Milling operation is done to make slit in riser of commutator segment for
housing the leads of armature winding. If equalizer coils are also to be placed then one
step is made by milling the slit at different width. This step also enables the worker to
easily recognize the placement of equalizer coil and armature coil while assembling
the coils.
3)Deburring – All sharp edge are smoothened.

COMMUTATOR BUILDING:-Alternate layers of commutator segment and mica

segment are arranged manually. For this process, the equipment needed are Bottom
Ring, Building Segments, Clamping Belt, Building Ring. Number of copper segment
depends upon the motor selected.

BAKING PROCESS :-Baking is very important process for enhancement of strength

of the structure. After commutator building process, the structure is prressed by
pressing machine for a specified pressure (in tonnes/cm2) and then transferred to oven
to heat the arrangement (about 150 deg. C to 180 deg. C) for some hours( 6 to 8 hours)
and then cooled for some time. This process is repeated till the inner and outer
diameter of particular dimension and particular tolerance limit does not found. After
first cycle, varnish WI-294[Amber( transparent yellow)] is applied on the commutator
bars.

V-TURNING :-A V-shape profile is structured at both the ends of commutator, so as

to match the seating of steel hub at riser end and steel v-ring at another end. This
operation requires very fine finish of the surface and needs to be done with great
precision. So CNC machine (Computerized Numeric Coded Machine) is used for this.
After completion of V-turning, varnish WSY-195R is applied on the ‘V’ part of ‘V’
turned commutator for HS-15250A machine.

44
COMMUTATOR ASSEMBLY:-Assembling of Commutator is very important
process, as after this copper and mica segment are going to rest on the metal structure
only. Mica bush and Mica V ring are inserted in between Commutator copper bars and
Hub for insulation purpose. Now, Steel V rings is inserted, after that Disc Spring and
then all parts are tightened by Nut –Bolt Assembly. RTV is inserted in between
Commutator and Mica bushes for air tightening. So if we start from one end, then the
sequence of layers will be :- Steel V Ring- Mica V ring- Commutator (riser end side)-
Mica bush- Mica V ring- Steel hub.

STATIC SEASONING :- This involves the heating of commutator in oven in four

cycles. Four cycles include three hot cycle and one last cooling cycle. Each hot cycle
includes continuous heating of commutator at 150degree C for 8 hours and then
tightening of screws in hot condition. After completion of hot cycles, the commutator
is allowed to cool down at room temperature and finally tightening is done in cold
condition.

SKIMMING:-The copper bar and mica segment are not on the same level. So by
skimming, machining on the copper bar is done, so that they become smooth.

COMMUTATOR TESTING :-The testing of commutator assembly is done by two

process :-
1) Bar to Bar Test.
2) Flash Test or High Voltage Test.

1) Bar to Bar Test :- In this test, voltage of about 500 volts is applied between two
adjacent copper bars. By this test, short circuit between adjacent copper bars
are checked.

2) Flash Test or High voltage test :- In this test, all the commutator Bars are short
circuited and voltage of about 2kv to 6kv is applied between this short
circuited terminal and earthing (taken from Hub).

STATIC BALANCING :- If any rotating system is not mechanically balanced then it

performs non-uniform rotation, which decreases the mechanical strength of the
system. In static balancing, it is figured out that the whole assembled commutator is
wheather balanced or not. Sometimes it is seen that, by improper casting and by
improper building affects the arrangements mechanically balanced condition, in other
words the center of mass is displaced from the correct position. So by this balancing,
if any unbalanced condition is found, then it is overcomed by adding material by
welding or removing material by drilling.

45
DYNAMIC SEASONING :- This is tightening process of commutator. It is carried
out to overcome the ovality of the structure. There may be a chance that when the
motor is in running condition, and if there is difference in density at different points,
then it experiences different centrifugal forces. So the curved surface area becomes
oval and carbon brush will suffer by this ovality.
So as to overcome from this condition, in shop the commutator assembly is loaded on
a shaft and this shaft is coupled with seasoning machining rotating points and
commutator is balanced on mandrel. Now it is rotated at more than 200% of the rated
speed with temperature rise of 1.5 times of standard condition for few hours, which is
followed by pressing and tightening. The whole cycle is repeated till the zero
movement is attainted. After seasoning, H.V. Test and Bar to Bar Test are performed.

PRESSING OF PUNCHING & SHAFT :- In this stage, commutator is pressed on

the punching and shaft assembly by this armature core is completed.

DYNAMIC BALANCING :- For this process, Computerized coded machine is used.

In this process, core is rotated at 200% of rated speed and machine sort out the part of
dislocation due to underweight or overweight. So that parts are drilled or welded
accordingly. Now the core is ready for further winding process.

WINDING SECTION
The sequence of processes followed in winding section is given as follows :-

TESTING EQUALISER WINDING TESTING BENDING GROUND

INSULATION MAIN WINDING BAKING TEMPORARY BANDING
WEDGING AND PACKING  FIRST TURNING  IMPULSE TEST TIG
Welding BAKING  PERMANENT BENDING  BAKING  VPI  CURING
 SECOND TURNING  FINAL TURNING  GDP  CLEANING  PTFE
BUSH FITTING  FINAL TESTING

TESTING :- Bar to Bar test (500V) and HV test (at 5.5KV) to checks the soundness
of commutator received from commutator and core area.
EQUALISER WINDING :- In case of Lap winding, Equaliser winding is employed.
The insulation used for the windings are Mica sheet, NOMEX paper, Glass Tape and
Putti. Starting from one end, the sequence of layer will be: Mica sheet, NOMEX
paper, Glass Tape, Equaliser winding, Putti, Mica Sheet, NOMEX paper and Glass
Tape. After completion of winding, the Span Test is carried out to check the
correctness of Pitch of equalizer winding.

TESTING :- Bar to Bar Test- to check the insulation between adjacent conductors of
equalizer coil.

46
BENDING :- There may be possibility that the equalizer windings are not on the
same level. So these are pressed with the help of Resin Glass Bend, so that equalizer
winding settle on the same level, so that further winding process becomes easier. Then
the arrangement is heated in the oven for some hours. Resin Glass Bend is Resin Rich
insulation, which get hardened when heat is applied on it. After Bending process, H.V
test and B/B Test are performed to check performance of insulation.

GROUND INSULATION :- As it is known both side of armature core is of silicon

steel lamination, and windings are going to rest on this core section only. So to
prevent short circuit PE and CE are employed with insulation layers.
When observing from radially outward direction, PE consists of Glass cloth, 7 layers
of Molded Mica, 2 layers of NOMEX paper, Glass Cloth, Glass Tape and Mica Tape.

When observing from radially outward direction, CE consists of 3 layers of Molded

Mica, NOMEX paper, Glass Tape and Mica Tape. It is known that CE has less
insulation layers as enough insulation has been used at the time of equalizer winding.

MAIN WINDING :- As we know, for high speed machines Lap winding is

employed. Before winding, there is need to insulate the coils from ground, NOMEX
liner is used in straight portion of slot and in over hanged portion glass mica cloth is
used. It should be known that the Resin glass tape on equalizer winding is removed
before this process. After winding connection are completed, H.V. test is performed.

BAKING :- The armature is heated in oven at for 6 hours at 150 degree C.

TEMPORARY BANDING :- Tinned steel wire or Resin Glass Tape is used at 150
kgf pressure. So that winding adjust on the same level and further process becomes
easier. Further H.V. test is performed at 5 kV.

WEDGING AND PACKING :- In the armature slot, the wedge is inserted. Wedge
protects the winding to withstand against centrifugal forces.
In Packing, small copper strips are placed in between conductors in the commutator
slot (where equalizer and main winding conductors are inserted), which protects
interturn insulation. H.V. test is performed at 5 kV.

FIRST TURNING :-Riser facing and commutator dia turning is done in this process.

IMPULSE TEST :- It is known one coil contains five or four conductors, which are
internally insulated by sufficient layer of PTFE. Due to improper employment of the
conductor there may be chance of internal short circuit in between those conductors,
which affect the commutation. So to check the inter-turn insulation, impulse test is

47
done. In this test about 5kV voltage is applied and the spring shaped curve is formed
on CRO. If there is insulation failure then distorted curve will form.

TIG Welding (Tungsten Inert Gas Welding) :- The conductors in a commutator

segment are welded with each other for better strength against centrifugal forces.

BAKING :- The armature is heated in oven for 6 hours at 165 degree C. After
Baking ,H.V. Test is performed at 5kV.

PERMANENT BANDING :- At over-hanged portion, Resin treated glass tape is

fastened with 150 kgf pressure. This banding is permanent that will not remove in
further process.

BAKING :- The armature is heated in oven at for 6 hours at 165 degree C –used for
curing, also act as preheating of coil before VPI. H.V. Test (at 5 kV) and impulse test
(at comparatively low voltage) is performed in hot condition.

VACUUM PRESSURE IMPREGNATION (VPI) :-VPI cycle may very from

machine to machine, general steps are as follows :-
1) vacuum of 10-20mm Hg is created for 15 min.
2) Resin is transferred to vessel.
3) Vacuum of 40mm Hg is created for 10 min (to remove the air trapped in resin).
4) Insertion of Nitrogen/Dry Air at 5 bar for 30 min.
5)Resin is transferred back to the storage tank.

CURING- curing of varnish in oven at 195degree C for 10-15 hours.

SECOND TURNING :- Inner bearing wiper distances are maintained and ovality of
commutator is removed.

FINAL TURNING :- In this final finishing of commutator is carried out and

movement of motor at speed lower than rated speed is checked. In this case, rotor is
rotated by the Oil Lubricated Slip Bearing.

GDP :-To protect Carbon Brush from Mica contact, Mica undercutting of 1mm is
done in this process. After this, Bevelling of copper bar is carried out to protect from
damage by burr.

CLEANING :- Armature core is cleaned by application of air pressure.

PTFE Bush Fitting : Both end of armature core is fitted with PTFE bush for
insulation and for mechanical strength.

FINAL TESTING :-H.V. test (at 4.5 kV) and Impulse test at 250 V/turn is
performed.

48
ARMATURE DROPPING AREA
First of all, End shield at PE of magnetic frame is fitted with roller bearing assembly.

Then for armature, at CE, roller bearings assembly is fitted.

After that, end shield with bearing assembly is fitted at PE side of armature.
Assembled Brush holders are fitted at appropriate position on the magnetic frame. The
gap between brush holders and commutator segment is checked by the help of a
fixture, whose diameter is same as that of commutator diameter, so according to that
the gap is manipulated.
On the commutator end side of the Stator, the End Shield is installed, which is used
for protection of internal structure from dust and also provide the cooling.
Then the armature is vertically inserted in the frame with precisely maintaining the
required air gap. Both sides are fastened with Bolts.

TESTING AREA :-
All tests are done in shop are as per IEC60349.
First of all, Light Run Test is performed.
Light run Test :- The aim of this test is to check the direction of rotation,
Temperature, Noise, Vibration of the machine in running condition.Insulation
resistance of the system is checked by use of megger which should be greater than
50M-ohms.
I) Verification of direction of rotation & terminal markings in the terminal
box/outgoing cables of traction motor as specified. A & AA are terminals for main

49
poles and F & FF are for interpoles. For HS15250A ,the terminal sequence is
A,AA,F,FF for CW rotation(direction form CE side).

II) Rotate the traction motor for 30 min. each in CW & CCW direction at under
specified RPM + 5% as specified below. Record voltage & current in both the
directions. The voltage & current variation should not be more than 10% in both the
directions for that particular motor. Record Amps, volts, RPM, Ambient
Temperature, Bearing temperature CE & PE and abnormal noise, if any. For
HS15250A the speed of rotation is 1000rpm.

 Carry out the brush bedding before starting the Test to 80%.
 Temperature rise of CE & PE bearings should not exceed 35 deg C.
 Observe for unusual noise & vibrations, if any (rubbing or knocking sound)
during above test and record the same.
 There should not be any amount of sparking on commutator.

III) Carry out the insulation resistance by megger. IR must be more than 50 M-ohms.

IV) Carry out commutator ovality ,which should not be more than 0.02 mm.

V) The commutator riser portion must be free from any dust or foreign material before
taking up either for Routine Test or Dispatch. Carry out Proper cleaning, observe
visually and record.

In second step, there are mainly two type of tests are performed for all machines:
1)Routine Schedule Test or Performance Confirmation Test
2)Type Test.

1) ROUTINE TEST
This test is performed on all type of machines. This test is done to confirm about the
performance of machine. One machine’s shaft is mechanically coupled with same
type of machine, so one is acts as D.C. generator and other one is act as D.C.motor.
Main routine tests are :-

Cold resistance measurement One Hour Heat run test  Over Speed Test 
Commutation Test  Characteristics Test  Dielectric Test  Hot Internal
resistance test H.V. Test Hot Internal resistance test Ovality Test

a) Machine winding cold resistance measurement :-This test is kind of pre-starting

test. In this, by voltmeter-ammeter method, the insulation resistance between armature
winding and ground; field winding and ground; Inter-pole and ground is measured.

50
b) One hour temperature rise measurement :-The machine is run at rated speed,
rate current, rated load, and the voltage drop across field winding and inter-pole
winding is measured. Current drop from initial condition to final condition is
measured. Temperature rise from initial to final condition in machine’s windings,
commutator, bearings are noted. It is checked that all the readings are in permissible
limits.

c) Over Speed Test :- The motor is run in CW and CCW direction at over speed
(200% -230% of rated speed) with 100% field excitation for two minutes, then
temperature rise of motor is checked and the mechanical strength of motor is
rechecked.

d) Commutation Test :- 40% of full field excitation is employed and commutation is

checked. There should not be sparking on commutator. If sparking is there, then
rocker is adjusted till zero commutation is not found.

e) Characteristics Test :- This is the variation of speed of motor with respect to

armature current (load current). Rate of change of the rise of current value must not be
more than 10% in subsequent stage.

f) Dielectric Test :- AC voltage between winding & frame in applied at 3.2 kV for 1
Min. and insulation resistance is measured.

g) Hot Insulation Resistance Test :- In this the insulation resistance between

conductor and ground is measured.

h) H.V. Test :- High voltage test at 5kV is performed.

i) Hot IR Test:- Again Hot IR test is performed to reconfirm about the level of
resistance.

j) Ovality test :- carry out commutator ovality ,which should not be more than 0.02
mm.

2)TYPE TEST :-This test is performed on first 1 or 2 machines (as per

customer’s demand) for a new type of machine. Type test include some additional
tests along with routine tests, which are mentioned below.

a) Continuous heat Run :- In this ,machine is run at rated condition for 6-7 hours and
the temperature rise of the system is noted.

b) Interruption Test :- In running condition, Supply is disconnected for few moments

and then reconnected, i.e. Make and brake of supply. The performance of machine is
noted.

51
c)Black Band Test :- Commutation is tested and strength of poles in checked.

d)Blok rotor Test :-Supply is given to motor and rotor is blocked for few seconds.
Violet coloured spot is formed on commutator, this effect is need to be noted.

e)Maximum Rating Test :- The Rating of the motor is tested in this stage. The
Variation of temperature rise with armature current applied is checked.

f)Efficiency Calculation :- The losses are calculated at rated speed (by back to back
test ) and then efficiency is further calculated.

FINAL ASSEMBLY AREA :- Final assembly of the motor is done.

Pinion is mounted on shaft. Fan chamber, Tube bearing, axle cap, Cable clit, Cable
bus, Fan ,Handle, Axle horn, Bearing Plate, Gear Cap, Monogram and Tag etc.
components are assembled. The commutator riser portion must be absolutely clean &
should be free from any dust or foreign material before taking up either for Dispatch.
Carry out proper cleaning, observe visually and record.

INSPECTION AREA :- After quality control check , final inspection of

machine is done by Customer representative.

FINAL DISPATCHING AREA :- Coloring of machine is done. Now

machine is ready to dispatch for transportation.

52
COMPERISION BETWEEN ELECTRIC TRACTION
AND DIESEL ELECTRIC TRACTION
Trade: Diesel uses oil that's imported with foreign exchange; electricity can be
generated from plentiful domestic coal or hydroelectric plants, etc.

Pollution: Diesel yields nitrogen and sulphur oxides and particulate matter; electrics
are cleaner locally but the power plants generate pollution or may be environmentally
dangerous (hydroelectricity, etc.). Diesel technology is getting cleaner all the time. So
is the pollution control at power plants, where efficiencies of scale help. Clean coal
burning technologies may help further.

Efficiency: Diesel involves the whole petroleum transportation system and is limited
by the efficiency of the internal combustion engine on the loco. Electrics are more
efficient on-board (no need for an engine), and power plants can have better
efficiencies by scale, but there are problems of transmission losses and other
inefficiencies in the distribution of power.

Freight Capability: The placement of the overhead catenary for electric traction
prevents the use of double-stacking of container traffic. However, it is to be noted that
with new, low-height container wagons, double-stacking may still be possible on
electrified lines in India.

Reach: Diesels can obviously travel anywhere; electrics are limited to electrified
lines. On the other hand diesels need to refuel periodicall while electrics can keep
going.

Capital investment: Electrification involves large up-front investment to set up the

OHE and power supply and may not be economic for branch lines or other areas with
low traffic. Heavy freight movement and busy passenger lines are the best suited for
electric traction.

Power: Electrics can supply a lot of additional power for short periods since they can
draw more current as needed from the OHE; diesels are limited in the power they can
provide at any time.

Maintenance: Diesels are generally somewhat more complex to maintain since they
have many more mechanical systems associated with the diesel engine itself.

Plant failures, etc.: OHE failure -- perhaps because of problems at a remote power
plant -- strands all electric locos in a region. Theft of OHE cables also affects all
electric traction in a section.

53
 DIRECT CURRENT TRACTION MOTORS

The DC motor is the mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-
electric for many years. It consists of two parts, a rotating armature and a fixed field.
The fixed field consists of tightly wound coils of wire fitted inside the motor case.
The armature is another set of coils wound round a central shaft. It is connected to
the field through "brushes" which are spring loaded contacts pressing against an
extension of the armature called the commutator. The commutator collects all the
terminations of the armature coils and distributes them in a circular pattern to allow
the correct sequence of current flow.

WORKING:-
The motor works because, when a current is passed through the motor circuit, there is
a reaction between the current in the field and the current in the armature which
causes the armature to turn. The armature and the field are connected in series and the
whole motor is referred to as "series wound".

A series wound DC motor has a low resistance field and armature circuit. Because of
this, when voltage is applied to it, the current is high. The advantage of high current is
that the magnetic fields inside the motor are strong, producing high torque (turning
force), so it is ideal for starting a train. The disadvantage is that the current flowing
into the motor has to be limited somehow, otherwise the supply could be overloaded
and/or the motor and its cabling could be damaged. At best, the torque would exceed
the adhesion and the driving wheels would slip. Traditionally, resistors were used to
limit the initial current.

54
Name plate details:-

 Type HS15250A
 Continuous output 630 KW
 Volts 750 V
 Current 900A
 Speed 895 Rev/min
 Number 6 per loco
 Insulation Class H
 No. of poles Main 6, Commutating 6
 Ventilation 90cubicmetre/minute
 Field Series field with Commutating

SPEED CONTROLLING
DC Resistance Control
As the DC motor starts to turn, the interaction of the magnetic fields inside it causes it
to generate a voltage internally. This "back voltage" opposes the applied voltage and
the current that flows is governed by the difference between the two. So, as the motor
speeds up, the internally generated voltage rises, the effective voltage falls, less
current is forced through the motor and thus the torque falls. The motor naturally
stops accelerating when the drag of the train matches the torque produced by the
motors. To continue accelerating the train, resistors are switched out in steps, each
step increasing the effective voltage and thus the current and torque for a little bit
longer until the motor catches up. This can be heard and felt in older DC trains as a
series of clunks under the floor, each accompanied by a jerk of acceleration as the
torque suddenly increases in response to the new surge of current. When no resistor is
left in the circuit, the full line voltage is applied directly to the motor. The train's
speed remains constant at the point where the torque of the motor, governed by the
effective voltage, equals the drag - sometimes referred to as balancing speed. If the
train starts to climb a grade, the speed reduces because drag is greater than torque.
But the reduction in speed causes the back voltage to decline and thus the effective
voltage rises - until the current forced through the motor produces enough torque to
match the new drag.

55
 All the driver had to do was select low, medium or full speed (called "shunt",
"series" and "parallel" from the way the motors were connected in the resistance
circuit) and the equipment would do the rest.

Motor Control and Protection

As we have seen, DC motors are controlled by a "notching relay" set into the power
circuit. But there are other relays provided for motor protection. Sharp spikes of
current will quickly damage a DC motor so protective equipment is provided in the
form of an "overload relay", which detects excessive current in the circuit and, when it
occurs, switches off the power to avoid damage to the motors. Power is switched off
by means of Line Breakers, one or two heavy-duty switches similar to circuit breakers
which are remotely controlled.
A further protective device is also provided in the classic DC motor control circuit.
This is the "no-volt" relay, which detects power lost for any reason and makes sure
that the control sequence is returned to the starting point (i.e. all the resistances are
restored to the power circuit) before power could be re-applied.

56
DC Power Circuit
This diagram shows a simple traction motor power control circuit. Most DC motor
circuits are arranged to control two or four motors.
The control range is enhanced by changing the connections to the motors as the train
accelerates. The system is known as "series-parallel control".

Series-Parallel Control

This diagram shows the principle of series-parallel control. There are three stages,
"series", "transition" and "parallel", which operate in that order. The connections are
changed automatically as the train accelerates. Upon starting, the motors are in series
with each other and with all the resistance. The resistance is cut out in steps and the
train accelerates to "full series" when all the resistance is out of circuit. The train may
be running at about 30 km/h now.

If full speed has been selected, the transition circuit will provide a parallel connection
between the two legs of the series circuit. Immediately this is done, the two series

57
connections will be opened and the resistances inserted back into each motor circuit.
The resistances are then cut out in steps again until all are out of circuit. The motors
are now running at "full parallel" and the train speed will rise to the design speed.

Field Weakening

The DC motor can be made to run faster than the basic "balancing speed" achieved
whilst in the full parallel configuration without any resistance in circuit. This is done
by "field shunting". An additional circuit is provided in the motor field to weaken the
current flowing through the field. The weakening is achieved by placing a resistance
in parallel with the field. This has the effect of forcing the armature to speed up to
restore the balance between its magnetic field and that being produced in the field
coils. It makes the train go faster.

58
BREAKING
Regenerative Braking
Since the DC motor and a DC generator are virtually the same machine mechanically,
it was immediately realised that a train could use its motors to act as generators and
that this would provide some braking effect if a suitable way could be found to
dispose of the energy. The idea formed that if the power could be returned to the
source, other trains could use it. Trains were designed therefore, which could return
current, generated during braking, to the supply system for use by other trains.
Various schemes were tried over many years with more or less success but it was not
until the adoption of modern electronics that reliable schemes have been available.

Rheostatic Braking
The major drawback with the regenerative braking system is that the line is not always
able to accept the regenerated current. Some railways had substations fitted with giant
resistors to absorb regenerated current not used by trains but this was a complex and
not always reliable solution. As each train already had resistors, it was a logical step to
use these to dispose of the generated current. The result was rheostatic braking. When
the driver calls for brake, the power circuit connections to the motors are changed
from their power configuration to a brake configuration and the resistors inserted into
the motor circuit. As the motor generated energy is dispersed in the resistors and the
train speed slows, the resistors are switched out in steps, just as they are during
acceleration. Rheostatic braking on a DC motored train can be continued down to less
than 20 mph when the friction brakes are used to bring the train to a stop.

Before the advent of power electronics, there were some attempts to combine the two
forms of what we now call "dynamic braking" so that the generated current would go
to the power supply overhead line or third rail if it could be absorbed by other trains
but diverted to on-board resistors if not.

59
 ELECTRIC TRACTION DRIVES
The DC Traction Motor: How it Drives the Axle

The traditional DC (Direct Current) electric motor driving a train or locomotive is a

simple machine consisting of a case containing a fixed electrical part, the stator (called
the stator because it is static and comprising what is called the field coils) and a
moving electrical part, the rotor (because it rotates) or armature as it is often called.
As the rotor turns, it turns a pinion which drives a gearwheel. The gearwheel is
shrunk onto the axle and thus drives the wheels as shown in the diagram above.

The motion of the motor is created by the interaction of the magnetism caused by the
currents flowing the the stator and the rotor. This interaction causes the rotor to turn
and provide the drive.

The stator and the rotor of the DC motor are connected electrically. The connection
consists of fixed, carbon brushes which are spring loaded so that they remain in
contact with an extension of the armature called the commutator. In this way, the
field coils (the stator) are kept in the circuit with the rotor (the armature and
commutator).

60
AC and DC Motors
Both AC (Alternating Current) and DC motors have the same basic structure but there
are differences and, for various reasons, the DC motor was originally the preferred
form of motor for railway applications and most systems used it. Nowadays, modern
power electronics has allowed the use of AC motors and, for most new equipments
built today, the AC motor is the type used. In the early days of electric traction at the
beginning of this century both types were tried. The limits of the technology at the
time favoured the DC motor. It provided the right torque characteristic for railway
operation and was reasonably simple to control.

By the early 1980s, power electronics had progressed to the stage where the 3-phase
AC motor became a serious and more efficient alternative to the DC motor because:

1. They are simpler to construct, they require no mechanical contacts to work (such as
brushes) and they are lighter than DC motors for equivalent power.

2. Modern electronics allow AC motors to be controlled effectively to improve both

adhesion and traction.

3. AC motors can be microprocessor controlled to a fine degree and can regenerate

current down to almost a stop whereas DC regeneration fades quickly at low speeds.

4. They are more robust and easier to maintain than DC motors.

Nose Suspended Motor

The following diagram shows the layout of the traditional DC motor mounted in a
bogie as a "nose suspended motor". In electric trains or locomotives, the DC motor
was traditionally mounted in the bogie frame supported partially by the axle which it
drove and partially by the bogie frame. The motor case was provided with a "nose"
which rested on a bracket fixed to the transom of the bogie. It was called a "nose
suspended motor" and is still common around the world.

61
Its main disadvantage is that part of the weight rests on the axle and is therefore
unsprung. This leads to greater wear on bogie and track. Nowadays, designers try to
ensure all the motor weight is sprung by ensuring it is carried entirely by the bogie
frame - a frame mounted motor.

Quill Drive

This is a simplified diagram of a quill drive. A quill is described in the dictionary as,
"the hollow stem of a feather" and "a bobbin or spindle", as well as a "feather" and,
alternatively, what a porcupine has on its back.

In railway traction terms, a quill drive is where a hollow shaft is placed round the
driving axle and the motor drives the quill rather than driving the axle as it does with a
nose suspended drive. The quill itself is attached, at one end, to one of the wheels by
means of rubber bushed links and, at the other end, to the gearwheel by similar links.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.google.com
 www.irfca.org
 www.railway-technical.com
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.bhelbpl.com
 www.bhel.com
 And other important links

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