Weather hazards

THUNDERSTORMS
Three conditions are necessary to create a thunderstorm – air that has a tendency toward
instability, some type of lifting action, and relatively high moisture content. The lifting action
may be several factors, such as rising terrain [orographic lifting], fronts, or heating of the
earth’s surface [convection].

LIFE CYCLE
Thunderstorms progress through three definite stages – cumulus, mature, and dissipating.
You can anticipate the development of thunderstorms and the associated hazards by
becoming familiar with the characteristics of each of these. [figure 4-28]

Fig

Figure 4-28. These distinctive cloud shapes signal the stages of a thunderstorm. Although
not every cumulus cloud develops into a thunderstorm, all storms do begin at the cumulus
stage. You should be aware that other weather phenomena may prevent you form seeing
these characteristic shapes. For example, a cumulonimbus cloud may be embedded, or
obscured, by massive cloud layers. There may also be a number of thunderstorms in an
area, all in different stages of development.

In the cumulus stage, a lifting action initiates the vertical movement of air. As the air rises
and cools to its dewpoint, water vapour condenses into small water droplets or ice crystals. If
sufficient moisture is present, heat released by the condensing vapour provides energy for
continued vertical growth of the cloud. Because of strong updrafts, precipitation usually does
not fall. Instead, the water drops or ice crystals rise and fall within the cloud, growing larger
with each cycle. Updrafts as great as 3,000 feet per minute [f.p.m] may begin near the
surface and extend well above the cloud top.

As the drops in the cloud grow too large to be supported by the updrafts, precipitation begins
to fall. This creates a downward motion in the surrounding air and signals the beginning of
the mature stage. The resulting downdraft may reach a velocity of 2,500 f.p.m. The down-
rushing air spreads outward at the surface, producing a sharp drop in temperature, a rise in
pressure, and strong, gusty surface winds. The leading edge of this wind is reffered to as a
gust front, or the first gust. As the thunderstorm advances, a rolling, turbulent, circular-
shaped cloud may form at the lower leading edge of the cloud. This is called the roll cloud.
Early in the meture stage, the updrafts continue to increase up to speeds of 6,000 f.p.m. The
adjacent updrafts and downdrafts cause severe turbulence. The most violent weather occurs
during this phase of the life cycle.

As the mature stage progresses, more and more air aloft is disturbed by the falling drops.
Eventually, the downdrafts begin to spread out within the cell, taking the place of the
weakening updrafts. Because upward movement is necessary for condensation and the
release of the latent energy, the entire thunderstorm begins to weaken. When the cell
becomes an area of predominant downdrafts, it is considered to be in the dissipating stage.
During this stage, the upper level winds often blow the top of the cloud downwind, creating
the familiar anvil shape. The anvil, however, does not necessarily signal the storm’s
dissipation; severe weather can still occur well after its appearance.

Occasionally, a thunderstorm doesn’t dissipate in the typical manner. If winds become

markedly stronger with altitude, the upper portion of the cloud may be “tilted,” or blown
downwind. In this case, precipitation falls through only a small portion of the rising air, or it
may fall completely outside the cloud. As a result, the mature stage can be prolonged as the
updrafts continue, until their source of energy is exhaust. This is commonly referred to as a
steady-state thunderstorm, which can produce very severe weather.

TYPES OF THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorms usually have similar physical features, but their intensity, degree of
development, and associated weather do differ. They are generally classified as airmass or
frontal storms. Airmass thunderstorms generally form in a warm, moist airmass and are
isolated or scaterred over a large area. They are usually caused by solar heating of the land,
which results in convection currents that lift unstable air, and are most common during
summer afternoons or in coastal areas at night. Airmass storms can also be caused by
orographic lifting. Although they are usually scattered along individual mountain peaks, they
may cover large areas. They may be embedded in other clouds, making them difficult to
identify when approached form the windward side of a mountain. Nocturnal thunderstorms
can occur in late spring and summer during the late night or early morning hours when
relatively moist air exist aloft. They are usually found from the Mississippi Valley westward.
Nocturnal storms cover many square miles, and their effects may continue for hours at a
given location.

Frontal thunderstorms can be associated with any type of front. Those which occur with a
warm front are often obscured by stratiform clouds. You should expect thunderstorms when
there is showery precipitation near a warm front. In a cold front, the cumulonimbus clouds
are often visible in a continuous line parallel to the frontal surface. Occlusions can also
spawn storms.

A squall line is a narrow band of active thunderstorms which normally contains very severe
weather. While it often forms 50 to 300 miles ahead of a fast-moving cold front, the existence
of a front is not necessary for a squall line to form.

THUNDERSTORM HAZARDS
Thunderstorms typically contain many severe weather hazards. In addition to lightning, they
may include, hail, turbulence, gusty surface winds, or even tornadoes. These hazards are not
confined to the cloud itself. For example, you can encounter turbulence in VFR conditions as
far as 20 miles from the storm. It might help to think of a cumulonimbus cloud as the visible
part of a widespread system of turbulence and other weather hazards. In fact, the
cumulonimbus cloud is the most turbulent of all clouds. Now, let’s look at some of the
associated weather elements separately.

Lightning is one of the hazards which is always associated with thunderstorms. While it rarely
causes crew injury or substantial damage to the aircraft structure, it can cause temporary
loss of vision and puncture the aircraft skin or damage electronic navigation and
communications equipment.

Hail can occur at all altitudes within or outside a storm. You can encounter it in flight, even
when no hail is reaching the surface. In addition, large hailstones have been encountered in
clear air several miles downwind from a thunderstorm.

Thunderstorm turbulence develops when air currents change direction or velocity rapidly
over a short distance. The magnitude of the turbulence depends on the differences between
the two air currents. Within the thunderstorm cloud, the strongest turbulence occurs in the
shear between the updrafts and downdrafts. Near the surface, there is a low-level area of
turbulence which develops as the downdrafts spread out at the surface. These create a
shear zone between the surrounding air and the cooler air of the downdraft. The resulting
area of gusty winds and turbulence can extend outward for many miles from the center of the
storm.
Funnel clouds are violent, spinning columns of air which descend from the base of a cloud.
Wind speeds within them may exceed 200 knots. If a funnel cloud reaches the earth’s
surface, it is reffered to as a tornado. If it touches down over water, it is called a waterspout.

TURBULENCE
We discussed turbulence briefly with relation to thunderstorms. Now, lets take a closer look
at this dangerous weather phenomenon. There are many causes of turbulence, including
wind shear, convective currents, obstructions to wind flow, clear air turbulence, and wake
turbulence. Its effect can vary from occa