Page
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................ vi
.
CHAPTER 1 COUNTERING THE THREAT
Introduction ................................................................................................... 1-1
Threats to Watercraft ...........................................................................1-1
Air Threat ......................................................................................................I- 1
Water Threat ..................................................................................................1-1
Land Forces Threat .......................................................................................1-1
Electronic Warfare Threat .............................................................................1-1
hl w u ................................................................................... 1-2
Pn.lrrtnA+rrr tkn T **at
u I 6 ulr
uuuIub1 1
.
CHAPTER 2 ORGANIZATIONSAND EQUIPMENT
Introduction ..................................................................................................
2-1
Types of Watercraft ....................................................................................... 2-1
-
uesign lypes .................................................................................................
m
2-1
Use Types ......................................................................................................
2-1
Command Relationships ................................................................................ 2-2
Mobility Requirements .................................................................................. 2-2
Army Water Transport Units ......................................................................... 2-2
Transportation Medium Boat Company (TOE 55-128) ................................ 2-2
m __ .._ -- TJ ..... - 0 - . n1 UL Jc J-127)
.LA:
1 Tansy01tailun n 3 a v y Buar w n q ~ a n yI
.. I n\
................................... 2-6
Transportation Medium Lighter Company (ACV) (TOE 55-137) ................2-8
Watercraft Teams ..........................................................................................2-11
Army Watercraft Crewing ...................... . ...................................................2-16
.
CHAPTER 6 SHORE-TO-SHORE OPERATIONS
Introduction ......................... .
...
............................................................
6-1
Control Points ...............................................................................................
6-1
Assembly Areas .............................................................................................
6-1
River Crossings .............................................................................................
6-1
Page
.
CHAPTER 9 MAINTENANCE SUPPORT
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
Army Watercraft Maintenance Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
Categories of Watercraft Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
Recovery and Evacuation of Watercraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3
Transportation Company (Watercraft Maintenance) (GS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4
Transportation Floating Craft Maintenance Detachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
Staff Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
Maintenance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
Equipment Records and Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6
iii
Page
.
CHAPTER 10 WATERCRAFT ACCIDENT REPORTING AND INVESTIGATION
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10.1
Watercraft Accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10.1
n...
...
Keasuns T.
...
. .. .
iu mvesiigaic:
A- A
. .f n .
L.
anu ..
. c A ..?.I..
nt;purL fiw1ut;nrs
.A
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . , , . . . . .Lu.1
in I
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.1
Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.1
Types of Towing Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.1
Towing Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.2
Seaworthiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I2.2
Towing Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.3
Routine and Rescue Towing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I2.3
Manned Tows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.3
Unmanned Tows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I2.3
Inspectinn of Tows .............. ,,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.3
GLOSSARY
Section I. BBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Glossary-1
Section I1. DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glossary-2
In a theater of operations, all modes of transport - air,motor, rail, and water - move cargo from the water's
edge in the communications zone (COMMZ) through the corps and into the division areas. This manual
describes the transportation doctrine and organizational structures required for Army water transport opera-
tions in a generic theater.
During a protracted contingencyoperation, strategic sealift transports 90 percent of the supplies and equipment
required by operating military forces. Strategic sealift consists of government-owned and/or -controlled vessels
and commercial merchant vesseis. Tiis group bcludes military-specificdesigned ships such as auxiliary crane
ships and common merchant designs such as roll-odroll-off (RO/RO) ships, containerships, and large tankers.
These ships transport supplies and equipment to a conflict area and discharge either at ports with fried facilities
or at &proved beach locations. The TransportationCorps is the primary operator of these contingencywater
terminals. It must plan and conduct discharge operations and identlfy the watercraft resources required to
accomplish assigned missions.
In a theater of operations, Army water transport units (companies, teams, and detachments) provide watercraft
to support port, inland waterway, logistics-over-the-shore (LOTS), and intratheater movement operations.
This manual is primarily for unit and vessel masters, key personnel, higher headquarters staffs, theater planners,
c~maandersof operatiend dhed usits. I t coversroles, ~issions, and concepts of tXip!~jiiitXitfm iiidi-~idiid
craft, entire units, and groups of units.
This publication implements the following international agreement:
QSTAG 592, Forecast Movement Requirements - Rail, Road, and Inland Waterways, 1979.
The proponent of this publication is Headquarters, Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC). Send
comments and recommendations on DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms)
directly to Commandant, US Army TransportationSchool, ATT'N: ATSP-TD, Fort Eustis, %rginia 23604-5399.
Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.
Change 1 HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Washington, DC, 22 March 1995
I and if i and ii
2-15 2- 15 through 2-24
2. A star (*) marks new or changed material.
GORDON R. SULLWAN
General, United States Army
Official: Chief of Staff
DISTRIBUTION:
CHAPTER 1
1-1
FM 55-50
or jam communications and can target transmitters Defense Against the Water Threat
using direction-finding equipment linked to indirect Defending against a water threat is much more
fire delivery systems.
difficult than against air threat. Although the US
COUNTERING THE THREAT Navy and the US Coast Guard (USCG) are respon-
The first priority in countering the threat is to sible for offshore security, watercraft units must con-
identify it. Since watercraft units rarely operate on stantly guard against attack from the water. The
their own, usually a higher command will assist them. same passive measures described above apply to
The S2, G2, or J2 should provide a detailed analysis water threat.
of the types of threat forces available, their Active Measures. Active measures include –
capabilities, and probable courses of action. Specific • Using evasive action to outrun or out-
countermeasures can then be effected. Sections of maneuver the attacker. US Army watercraft
watercraft units that are on the beach or shore should
counter all threats according to doctrine for land are not particularly fast or agile, so it will be
forces. difficult to adopt this in open water.
• Using all organic weapons to defeat the threat.
Defense Against the Air Threat
Again, the light armament aboard watercraft
Defending against the air threat involves passive renders this option fairly ineffective. Escorts,
and active measures. both vessel and aircraft, can provide security
Passive Measures. Passive measures include and firepower. All options to increase
using maximum cover and concealment, dispersing, firepower on board the vessel such as adding
and reducing heat and electronic signatures. When- MK 19 grenade lanchers, should be explored.
ever possible, watercraft units should use nets or Options are limited only by what can be carried
tarps to cover the boat or its cargo. The threat may on board, weapons available, and whether the
prioritize targets by cargo importance. Units should situation will allow forces to support the
seek cover in coves, inlets, or small harbors that are watercraft units.
difficult to attack from the air. All vessels should be • Trying to run the attacking vessel aground by
hardened using sandbags or metal plate to protect running for shallow water. Use the deception
crew quarters and/or crew stations. Any hardening method described above.
adds to the weight of the vessel and must be con- • Constantly watching for mines. When travel-
sidered. Watercraft units should disperse whenever ing independently, vessels must reduce
possible to reduce the risk of multiple hits or sym- speed, and crews must watch for mines. The
pathetic explosions from a single aircraft pass. Light crew must put on life jackets and prepare
discipline should be strictly enforced. survival gear in case they must abandon ship.
Active Measures. Active measures include using Units must report the location of mines im-
all available weapons against attacking aircraft. The mediately and request operations cease until
watercraft unit commander must know the air mines are cleared.
defense plan for the area of operations. Air attack • Using underwater barriers, counter-swimmers,
warnings, weapons status, and self-defense proce- concussion grenades, and searchlights to defeat
dures must be thoroughly understood and integrated. underwater swimmers. These measures must
Because a watercraft unit cannot defeat an inbound be part of an integrated plan so that they do not
missile by itself the best defense lies in the measures violate the overall defensive scheme.
of dispersing and hardening. Boat crews may
deceive the enemy by burning diesel fuel and scraps Defense Against the Land Threat
in a fireproof container. The smoke may fool threat Land forces significantly threaten watercraft
forces into believing the vessel has been hit. If the
situation allows and forces are available, air defense units. During amphibious offensive or retrograde
teams can ride on vessels to provide short-range operations, land forces may directly fire on
defense. watercraft units. The mission dictates whether the
1-2
FM 55-50
watercraft can leave the area or must continue to A more probable threat comes from special
operate. If they must continue, all weapons and sup- operations forces, saboteurs, and terrorists.
porting unit weapons must be used. Smoke could be Counterterrorist measures outlined in FM 100-37
used to screen operations. provide an effective defense against all Level 1
Land forces could be far enough away that water threats.
units are only within indirect fire range. Again, the Defense Against Electronic Warfare Threat
mission dictates whether the unit must remain in the FM 24-1 best describes how to counter
area. The same passive measures discussed above electronic warfare. These measures fully apply to
apply. In addition, sections that are ashore need to watercraft units.
protect themselves with bunkers or other types of
shelters.
1-3
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 2
2-1
FM 55-50
These systems complement each other. The plan- must be treated as an integrated pipeline. The in-
ner must develop a LOTS support package that dividual capacities of the various components must
blends the advantages of the different equipment complement the overall objective.
into an efficient force mix package. The terminal battalion (TOE 55-816L) is the
Intratheater Support. Intratheater support takes basic operating element of the theater terminal struc-
the nature of a transshipping concept that applies to ture. The terminal battalion commands, controls,
contingency operations in underdeveloped plans, and supervises attached units. These units are
countries. The few available major ports must be required to discharge up to four ships simultaneously
efficiently used in conjunction with other ports or at an established water terminal or up to two ships at
limited capacity sites not served by military sealift a LOTS site. The terminal battalion also commands
command operations. Vessels that best support this two to seven companies and operationally controls
type of use are craft with relatively shallow draft that special units assigned to provide security or other
can transport a variety of cargoes and whose sus- support to the battalion.
tainability permits extended operation. The LSV has MOBILITY REQUIREMENTS
been specially acquired for this use. The 2000 class
landing craft, utility (LCU), although of far less Generally, the transportation unit’s location on
capacity than the LSV, can augment intratheater sup- the battlefield dictates its mobility requirements.
port when not required in its primary LOTS role. Requirements based on echelon of assignment are
as follows:
• Units located in the division and forward
COMMAND RELATIONSHIPS require 100 percent mobility.
The command element in the COMMZ is the • Units located in the corps require 50 percent
theater Army headquarters, which provides an in- mobility.
tegrated support system for two or more corps. The
theater Army operational area extends from the • Units located in echelons above corps (EAC)
ocean terminals of the theater to the rear boundary require 33 percent mobility.
of the corps. It links the combat force to its source ARMY WATER TRANSPORT UNITS
of manpower and materiel replenishment. The Three major types of company-sized water
transportation command is one of the four functional
commands of the theater Army. transport units in the Army are: the medium boat
company, the heavy boat company, and the medium
Army water transport units normally operate as lighter company (ACV). Also, several separate
part of a terminal service organization. These units watercraft teams with tables of organization and
are attached to and commanded by elements of the equipment (TOEs) are designed to perform special
terminal service organization, which is a terminal marine service support functions when less-than-
group. The terminal group commands, controls, company-size units are required. When required,
plans, and supervises the operations of up to six these teams can augment other watercraft or ter-
terminal battalions. minal service units.
The terminal structure in Figure 2-1 shows the Transportation Medium Boat Company (TOE 55-
command relationships within the theater Army. 828L)
Units under the terminal battalion are structured The transportation medium boat company
according to their mission, physical terminal provides and operates landing craft to move person-
layout, and most efficient mix of watercraft units nel and cargo in Army water terminal operations and
and terminal service units required to support the waterborne tactical operations. It also augments
terminal. The planner must ensure that the naval craft in joint amphibious operations when re-
capabilities of the terminal service units equal or quired. The task lighter is a landing craft,
exceed those of the watercraft units hauling the mechanized (LCM).
cargo. This requirement prevents bottlenecks at
the terminal and maximizes the use of watercraft. The company is assigned to a transporta-
The wholesale logistical transportation system tion command (TRANSCOM), a subordinate
2-2
FM 55-50
functional command of the theater Army in a The capability data in the following paragraphs
theater of operations. It is normally attached to a has been extracted from TOE 55-828L. However, for
transportation terminal battalion (TOE 55-816L) or unit capability planning on a daily basis, the com-
to a transportation terminal group (TOE 55-822). It mander may prefer the craft capability data and turn-
may be attached to the Navy to support a joint am- around formula in the second paragraph more
phibious operation. It may also operate separately helpful.
under an appropriate commander, such as a theater
Army area command (TAACOM), in an independent
logistics support area where no combat zone exists.
2-3
FM 55-50
At Level 1, operating on a 24-hour basis with a Elements of the supply and maintenance platoon are
75 percent availability of equipment, this unit can– the platoon headquarters and supply section and the
• Transport an average of 1,000 short tons maintenance and salvage section. Each of the two
boat platoons is made up of a platoon headquarters
(STONs) of noncontainerized cargo daily. and two boat sections.
(This estimate is based on each of the 12
landing craft transporting an average of 42 The company headquarters provides command,
STONs per trip and making two trips daily administration, and control for all elements of the
[12 x 42 x 2 = 1,008].) company. This includes planning, direction, super-
• Transport a maximum of 720 STONs of non- vision, supply, subsistence, communications, boat
containerized cargo on a onetime lift using 12 control, and clerical services. The company head-
landing craft. quarters has one task LCM-8 used during the com-
mand and control exercises. The craft can be
• Transport 240 20-foot equivalent containers equipped to serve as a floating command post and
or trucks per day using 12 landing craft each communication center. If a boat section or platoon
making 20 trips per day. is dispatched to another operational site or if the
• Transport 2,400 combat-equipped troops on landing craft is operating at widely dispersed loca-
a onetime lift using 12 landing craft. tions, it is used where it can best exercise command
and control.
One landing craft, mechanized (LCM-8) can– The supply and maintenance platoon has a
• Transport 60 STONs of noncontainerized cargo. platoon headquarters and supply section and a main-
(Normally the boat runs out of cargo space tenance and salvage section. The platoon leader is
before it reaches cargo weight limitations.) responsible to the company commander for supervising
• Transport one 20-foot equivalent container. the platoon engineer; a marine engineering warrant
(The design maximum gross weight of a fully officer (military occupational specialty [MOS] 881A2)
supervises the maintenance and salvage section.
loaded 20-foot container [ammunition/general
cargo] is 44,800 pounds or 22.5 STONs.) The platoon headquarters and supply section
• Transport one truck and trailer or several performs overall supervision and planning. It also
requests, receives, inspects, classifies, stores, issues,
small vehicles that do not exceed the cargo and accounts for repair parts and supplies.
space of the boat (42.75 feet) or a lift capacity
of 60 STONs. The deck is 42.75 feet long and The maintenance and salvage section performs
14.5 feet wide. unit and direct support levels of maintenance and
• Transport 200 combat-equipped troops salvage operations for organic watercraft. One
LCM-8 is assigned to the maintenance and salvage
(over short distances). section for use in contact repair and maintenance and
• Cruise 150 nautical miles when loaded. salvage operations. The transportation floating craft
• Operate in a water depth of 6 feet when general support maintenance company (TOE 55-
loaded. 613L) provides general support maintenance from a
nonpropelled floating machine shop (FMS).
The transportation medium boat company has Each of the two boat platoons in the medium
18 LCM-8s at Level 1. One is authorized for the boat company consists of a platoon headquarters and
company headquarters; one, for the maintenance two boat sections. This organization lets a boat
and salvage system; and sixteen are distributed platoon or a boat section be relatively independently
evenly to the four boat sections of the two boat used. For example, either a platoon or a section may
platoons. The unit also has several wheeled be detailed temporarily from the company as part of
vehicles and trailers and two bulldozers. Refer to a lighterage task force at another location. When
TOE 55-828 for a description of equipment. detailed, the element must be supported by a contact
The medium boat company consists of a com- maintenance team from the supply and maintenance
pany headquarters, a supply and maintenance platoon. Each platoon headquarters has a platoon
platoon, and two boat platoons (Figure 2-2). leader and a platoon sergeant. Each boat section has
2-4
FM 55-50
four task LCM-8s and crew for around-the-clock with two V-12 engines. In light of this change of
operation. The section sergeant also serves as a engines, speed may increase.
coxswain on one of the section trail. Crew assign- The LCM-8’s characteristics are –
ments to individual boats should be stabilized as
much as possible to promote healthy competition • Length overall-73 feet 8 inches.
between crews in operating and maintaining their • Beam, extreme -21 feet.
craft and to pinpoint responsibilities. Each craft has
two landing craft operators, two marine engine men • Mean draft, loaded -4 feet 7 inches.
and two landing craft seamen. • Cargo capacity-60 STONs.
The company has 18 LCM-8s. The LCM-8 is a • Cargo space:
welded steel, twin-screw craft used to land equip-
ment, trucks, trailers, and tracked vehicles (Figure – Length, 42 feet 9 inches.
2-3). It also transports cargo and personnel during – Width, 14 feet 6 inches.
LOTS and amphibious operations. The LCM-8 is
used in rough or exposed waters. It can operate • Speed:
through breakers, remain upright and tight when — Loaded, 9 knots.
ground on a beach, and retract from the beach under
its own power. The craft is propelled by four main — Modification II, 11 knots.
diesel engines assembled as two twin-engine propul- • Weapons:
sion units. The service life extension program
(SLEP) for the LCM-8 is to replace the four engines — Two .50 caliber machine guns.
— Two .40 millimeter grenade launchers.
2-5
FM 55-50
Transportation Heavy Boat Company (TOE 55- At Level 1, based on 75 percent of landing craft
829L) available to operate on a 24-hour basis, this unit
The transportation heavy boat company can–
provides and operates landing craft to transport • Transport 1,600 STONs of noncontainerized
personnel, containers, vehicles, and outsize cargo cargo. Each vessel makes one trip daily.
in offshore discharge operations. The heavy boat • Transport 288 containers. Each vessel makes
company augments lighterage service in a port or 7.2 trips daily.
harbor, in inland or coastal waters, or between
islands. The company also provides lighterage ser- • Transport 3,200 combat-equipped personnel.
vice required in joint amphibious or other water- Each vessel makes one trip daily.
borne tactical operations. The task craft is the Table 2-1 shows the capabilities of the individual
landing craft, utility (LCU). craft. The plans for a sustained unit capability uses the
The company is normally assigned to a maintenance factor of two LCUs. The two classes of
TRANSCOM, a subordinate functional command of LCUs are primarily designed to carry RO/RO, outsize,
the theater Army, and attached to a transportation and heavy-lift cargo from ship to shore.
terminal battalion (TOE 55-816L) or terminal group The heavy boat company consists of a company
(TOE 55-822L). It maybe attached to the Navy in headquarters, two boat platoons, and a maintenance
support of a joint amphibian operation. It may also platoon with a direct support maintenance section
operate separately under an appropriate command, (Figure 2-4).
such as a TAACOM, in an independent logistics
support area where no combat zone exists. The company headquarters is organized and
functions in a manner similar to the headquarters of
The capability data provided in TOE 55-829L is a medium boat company.
designed for broad transportation planning. Plan-
ners should be cautious when planning LCU opera- Each of the two platoons has a lieutenant as the
tions. There will be two classes of LCUs employed platoon leader who is responsible to the company
and a unit may have more than one class assigned. commander for operations. The vessel master is
LCUs are often individually- or group-tasked in responsible for the safe and efficient operation and
preference to unit. maintenance of his craft.
2-6
FM 55-50
The maintenance platoon performs organiza- The company has 10 LCUs. The two types of
tional, intermediate, and direct support levels of LCUs are the LCU 1600 (1667/1671) class and the
maintenance on the assigned landing craft and LCU 2000 class.
associated equipment.
2-7
FM 55-50
The LCU 1600 has twin screw, twin engines During deployments the Military Sealift Com-
with four rudders, including two flanking rudders mand (MSC) has operational control (OPCON) and
(Figure 2-5). The engines are located in two provides optimum track ship routing (OTSR).
separate engine compartments in the stern of the Other considerations and options for com-
vessel. One engine compartment is forward on the
port side; the other is offset aft on the starboard manders are as follows:
side. The crew spaces and the pilot house are on • Deploy in convoy, preferably escorted by a
the starboard side. These features allow the deck vessel with ocean towing and salvage
to be left open from bow to stern for maximum use capability.
of cargo space and ease of loading and discharge. • Additional towing, salvage equipment, and
The vessel also has a drive-through capability. spare parts may be required on board during
The LCU 2000 class has twin screw, dual marine ocean voyages.
engines with dual rudders and bow thruster (Figure • Plan for intermediate ports of call to
2-6). The crew spaces are in the superstructure at the replenish fuel, food, and other required items
stern of the vessel. There is no drive-through as required.
capability. The bow thruster with remote control
helps direct the vessel against winds and currents. • When manning cannot be augmented for
The LCU 2000 class is designed to be self- ocean transit, tow LCUs by ocean tugboats
delivered overseas. During a deployment the LCU or carry LCUs aboard semi-submersible
2000 class vessel is considered a class A-2 vessel and (float-on/float-off) ships.
is manned accordingly. Transportation Medium Lighter Company (ACV)
Deployment crew complement is 16: the (TOE 55-137)
employment crew augmented by 4 additional mem- The medium lighter company operates its
bers. The augmentation crew consists of an MOS lighter air-cushion vehicle (LACV-30) for lighterage
880A2, master; MOS 881A2, chief engineer; MOS between ship and shore or from shore to shore in
91B20, medical aid specialist; and MOS 31C20, LOTS operations. It can also support coastal, har-
radio operator. LCU 2000 deployment manning bor, and inland waterway container transport re-
provides the necessary crew to safely sustain long- quirements. The unit is a lighter unit that specializes
range ocean transit operations. Upon arrival at the in quick movement of containers (up to 20-foot) in
employment site, the manning is returned to the all types of operations. The unit is especially useful
employment mission level. in swampy areas and in contingency areas where the
beach gradient is very slight.
2-8
FM 55-50
2-9
FM 55-50
The medium lighter company (ACV) has the Due to the impact of containerization and trans-
same assignment as the medium boat company. forming the US flag fleet to predominately fully cel-
At TOE Level 1 (full strength), the medium lular non-self-sustaining vessels, the normal use of
lighter company can– the unit is visualized as an integral unit at designated
battalion level terminal sites. The US Navy’s
Transport two 8 - x 20-foot containers or auxiliary crane ship (TACS) interfaces between non-
cargo up to its maximum payload of 30 self-sustaining containerships and US Army lighters.
STONs per craft. From this focal point, and considering the varying
• Transport 24 containers or 300 STONs of cargo commodities to be handled, loaded lighters are
cargo on a onetime maximum lift, using all 12 dispatched to designated unloading sites on or
ACVs. beyond the beach.
The medium lighter company consists of a When considering to use separate elements of
company headquarters, three lighter platoons, the medium lighter company, analyze maintenance
and a maintenance platoon. The unit provides support requirements carefully. The TOE is struc-
around-the-clock operations and has sufficient tured to provide an amalgamation of direct and
personnel to support a two-shift operation. general support maintenance into the unit main-
Refer to Figure 2-7. tenance organization. These resources cannot sup-
port separate platoon operations at sites that are
The transportation medium lighter company, located at extended distances from the company
equipped with the lighter air-cushion vehicle base.
(LACV-30), can uniquely support LOTS operations. The LACV-30 (Figure 2-8) is a fully amphibious,
The terrain-independent characteristics of the high-speed craft designed to transport military cargo
LACV-30 give the planner a far wider range of
employment options compared to displacement-type in LOTS operations. Its two twin-pack, turboshaft
lighters. The LACV-30 was principally developed as engines use standard aviation kerosene fuel (JP4).
a container carrier. However, it can carry other types The 150-horsepower auxiliary power unit (APU)
of cargo, to include wheeled and tracked vehicles, provides 115 volts, 400-cycle AC power to run the
commensurate with its overall capacity. The LACV- swing crane and the drive for the air management
30 with its high overwater speeds also allows the system fan. The fan provides filtered, positive pres-
planner to consider greater dispersion of vessels and sure for the air for the engines, the cabin, and the
unloading sites without significantly degrading intakes of its own system. The basic hull structure is
operations. of hollow-core aluminum and can be disassembled
into sections for transport.
2-10
FM 55-50
2-11
FM 55-50
The LA Team provides the crew for non- barge can transport 4,160 barrels of liquid cargo or
propelled dry cargo barges. The barges vary in size 655 STONs of dry cargo.
from 45.5 feet long to 120 feet long. The capacity
varies from 20 to 578 long tons. The larger barges The LD Team has the necessary personnel to
can carry bulk liquid or deck cargo. operate the 70-foot tug (small tug [ST]) on a 24-
hour basis. This team performs operational mis-
The LB Team operates picketboats (J-boats) sions including fire fighting, shifting and towing
and coastal, harbor, inland (CHI) boats, 65-feet and barges, and helping to dock and undock large ves-
smaller. Picketboats provide water transportation, sels (Figure 2-10).
water patrols, command, inspection, and general
utility services to support port and inland waterway The LE Team loads and discharges heavy-lift
operations (Figure 2-9). cargo that is beyond the capability of the ship’s gear.
It provides crews for the 68-STON non-self-
The LC Team consists of marine engineer and propelled floating crane and the 100-STON floating
deck personnel required to operate the pumps and crane (Figure 2-11). These cranes can be operated
to crew the 120-foot, non-self-propelled liquid cargo on a 24-hour basis. The 68-STON crane has been
barge to transport deck or bulk-liquid cargo. The reclassified to contingency and training because of
age and limited use.
2-12
FM 55-50
The Team FJ provides a 24-hour operating towing operations and limited salvage operation
capability for the 100-foot huge tug (LT). The team (Figure 2-13).
is capable of heavy tows within a harbor area or The LJ Team can carry cargo and/or equipment
limited offshore towing between terminals, berthing, throughout a theater of operations or intertheater
and unberthing oceangoing vessels. It can also routes not otherwise serviced by MSC. The 272-foot
transport itself with a qualified escort in transoceanic self-propelled vessel can carry up to 2,000 short tons
voyages. The 107-foot LT maybe rated as a 100-foot of cargo along inland and coastal waterways, between
tug (Figure 2-12). (Team FJ is still in the system. It islands, and on the open seas. The LSV will also
will become obsolete with the advent of the new large assist in RO/RO or LOTS operations, particularly
tug.) with container-handling equipment, vehicular, and
The LI Team provides a 24-hour operating other oversize/overweight cargo. Beaching cargo
capability for the 128-foot large tug (LT). The team capacity is rated as 900 short tons on a 1:30 gradient
can dock and undock vessels and conduct barge beach or better (Figure 2-14).
2-13
FM 55-50
2-14
C1,FM 55-50
There are two additional types of transportation watercraft that are not authorized in the com-
pany-size units or teams discussed in this chapter: The non-self-propelled floating marine equipment
repair shops (Figure 2-16) and the non-self-propelled self-elevating barge piers (Figure 2-17). The float-
ing repair shop is authorized in the transportation floating craft general support maintenance company
(TOE 55-157). The barge piers are self-elevating piers. Two are authorized in TOE 55-119 as platforms
for the 240-ton container crane. The A DeLong pier is 300 feet by 80 feet and the B DeLong,150 feet by
60 feet. They may also be obtained as required by initiating table of distribution and allowances (TDA)
requests.
2-15
C1,FM 55-50
2-6. ARMY WATERCRAFT CREWING. All types of Army watercraft require appropriate crewing.
Proper crew size and configuration for a given watercraft depend upon its type and designed function.
Generally there are three types of Army watercraft which consist of the following vessels.
a. Self- propelled Vessels Designed for Continuous Operation. These vessels are designed as
Class A vessels. This class includes tugs, LSVs, and large landing crafts (LCU-1600 and LCU-2000).
These vessels have numerous critical subsystems (such as propulsion, electrical power generation, envi-
ronmental control, navigation/commo, and firefighting) which demand constant attendance. When a
major subsystem on such a vessel fails, the vessel, though not mission capable, is still afloat and still
subject to the common hazards of wind, tide, and sea state. The crew remains on board (they usually live
on board) and repairs the subsystem to return the vessel to service. These vessels are capable of long
duration, independent mission profiles; some of them are capable of independent ocean crossing voy-
ages. These vessels must be crewed for 24 hour-per-day operations using watch standing techniques
and procedures. Within this class of vessels are two sub-classes. They are as follows:
There are two types of non-self-propelled watercraft that, except for lack of propulsion sub-
systems, meet all the requirements for watch standing crew. They are the floating crane and the FMS.
Although both these vessels are barges, they have substantial power generation, communications, envi-
ronmental control, and firefighting subsystems requiring constant attendance. They also have live aboard
capability for their crews. These vessels must be crewed for 24 hour-per-day operations using watch
standing techniques and procedures. Masters and chief engineers on all Al vessels stand a normal under-
way watch and remain on call during off-duty hours. On class A2 vessels, the master and chief engineer
are not part of the watch standing rotation, but remain on call 24 hours a day.
b. Self-propelled Vessels Designed for Intermittent Use or for Relatively Continuous Use
in Localized Areas. These vessels are designated as Class B vessels. This class includes smaller landing
craft (LCM-8) and all amphibians. Because they generally operate in confined areas such as harbors or
at LOTS sites, they typically have significant shoreside support capability available; amphibians (and
their crews) berth ashore. Their crews are smaller and they do not have crew living accommodations.
Their onboard subsystems are less complex than those of the larger vessels. Crewing for this type vessel
generally is shift oriented and two separate crews are required for 24 hour operations.
c. Non-self-propelled Watercraft. These vessels are designated as Class C vessels. This class
includes all barges. The crew requirements vary widely with the purpose and design of the barge. Re-
gardless of their specific function, they are always afloat and, therefore, subject to wind, tide, and, sea
state. They have a constant requirement for tending, even when not being actively employed for their
designed purpose. Except for the floating crane and FMS noted above, crewing for these vessels is
generally shift oriented.
Watercraft are crewed regardless of the class type vessel. No watercraft can safely operate
without a full crew. Generally, fractional crewmembers (such as one marine engineman for two vessels)
will not work in watercraft units as the individual craft, even those operating in the same harbor do not
necessarily operate in close proximity to each other. For vessels that are watch crewed, fractional
crewmembers are entirely inappropriate.
2-16
C1,FM 55-50
A vessel crew, even a shift oriented one, remains on the vessel whether the vessel is operating,
standing-by awaiting an operation, or deadlined for maintenance or repairs. Afloat vessels must always
be tended. Amphibians sitting ashore awaiting a mission must still have a crew on board (or, at least,
immediately available). When any vessel is underway or under tow, a critical subsystem (such as the
main propulsion system) failure, subjects the vessel to the common seagoing hazards. Also, the vessel
becomes a hazard to navigation. A full crew must be available to effect repairs or jury rig the vessel to
reach safe haven.
The following subparagraphs define appropriate crews for Army watercraft. Some of the vessels
are specifically defined by Line Item Number (LIN) and others are more generic.
2-17
C1,FM 55-50
2-18
C1,FM 55-50
2-19
C1,FM 55-50
2-20
C1,FM 55-50
2-21
C1,FM 55-50
2-22
C1,FM 55-50
2-23
C1,FM 55-50
2-24
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 3
3-1
FM 55-50
3-2
FM 55-50
Dispersing water transport units greatly increases • Length and width of beach.
reliance on radio communications for effective com- • Depth of water close inshore.
mand, control, and coordination. Therefore, com-
munications security (COMSEC) and electronic • Tidal range and period (duration and varia-
countermeasures (ECCM) are even more critical to tion of high and low water) effect of tides on
maintaining reliable communications. the beach width.
BEACH SITE • Wind and weather conditions in the area.
The first step in planning beach operations is to OPERATIONAL PLANNING
select a beach site. The terminal group or brigade Using lighters in beach operations must be
headquarters selects the general operational area in planned to achieve a balanced operation. The turn-
coordination with the Navy and the Military Sealift around time of the lighters must match (as closely as
Command. possible) the unloading and loading cycle of the ter-
NOTE: In follow-on amphibious opera- minal service units involved. Balance cannot be
tions, the Army takes over beaches selected maintained unless craft are unloaded at discharge
by the Navy and/or the US Marine Corps points at least as fast as they are loaded at shipside.
(USMC). Every effort must be made to ensure that enough
A beach reconnaissance party determines the lighters are available to accept and deliver all the
exact location of the site. The reconnaissance cargo that the terminal service personnel can handle.
party consists of representatives of the terminal Undue delays at loading and unloading points must
group and the military police; the commander and be minimized. The operation should be such that a
the operations officer of the terminal battalion that lighter is alongside the hatch each time the cargo
will operate the site; and the commanders of the hook is ready to lower. This is done by having one or
terminal service, boat, and amphibian companies more craft stand by at shipside while one is being
loaded, and dispatching others from the beach at
involved. During the reconnaissance, the terminal intervals equal to the loading time at the hatch. In-
battalion commander selects and assigns company formation obtained from actual operating ex-
areas and frontages, indicates areas of defense perience should be used when planning for lighter
responsibilities, and tentatively organizes the area employment in beach operations. If information is
of operations. Appendix C contains additional not available, factors noted in this manual and in
information on beach reconnaissance. FMs 101-10-1/1 and 55-15 maybe substituted.
The water transport unit commanders provide Throughout the planning phase, the terminal
advice and recommendations on factors and condi- commander appraises the situation. He bases the
tions that affect their units’ use. These recommenda- appraisal on directives and information from higher
tions bear directly on the final choice of the exact headquarters and on studies made by his staff. The
operational sites. appraisals decide the most effective use of the boat
When nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) units. On the commander’s final decision, the staff
operations are suspected, the beach reconnaissance members prepare a detailed plan of operation. After
party conducts radiological monitoring, surveys, and the plan is approved and incorporated into the ter-
chemical agent detection activities to determine pos- minal battalion’s operational plan for that particular
sible contamination of prospective beach sites. site, it is forwarded to the terminal higher head-
BEACH CHARACTERISTICS quarters. The plan is in the form of a standard
operation order.
When selecting a specific area for beach opera- The operation plan covers all units assigned or
tions, the water transport unit commander is par- attached to the terminal. It details the preparation and
ticularly interested in the following physical and actual movement of boat units to the terminal sites. The
environmental characteristics: appropriate terminal command or battalion plans the
• Composition of the beach. operations of the attached boat units at the site.
• Beach gradient at various tide stages.
3-3
FM 55-50
However, the watercraft unit’s operation plan provides • Photographic surface models. These
for operational items such as fuel and maintenance photographs are printed on a molded plastic
support. The operation order includes– relief model of the area. They serve the same
• Assignment of boat companies to ships purpose as a conventional relief map and can
providing transportation to the far shore. be distributed more conveniently.
• Shoreline photographs taken through sub-
• Far shore assignments.
marine periscopes.
• Probable bivouacs and anchorages. • Relief maps, preferably with grids, about
• Refueling and resupply plans and facilities, to 1:5,000 with at least a 2:1 exaggeration in
include hazardous waste disposal. vertical relief. Maps should be as completely
• Communications instructions. detailed as possible.
• Special studies prepared by theater in-
• Location and operations of the floating craft
depot maintenance company. telligence agencies or other agencies.
Appendix D is an example of what es-
The operation order and the overlays that sential elements of information (EEI)
accompany it must be in a clear and simple may be for terminal or beach operations.
form. The mission and responsibilities of the • Reports from interrogations of prisoners-of-
unit should be clear. war, from former residents of the area of
Detailed alternate plans are prepared in case operations, and from underground sources.
the operation plan proves infeasible when the unit • Terrain studies.
arrives at the objective area. Alternate plans con-
sider such possibilities as adverse weather and surf • Geographical annex.
conditions, the loss of ship and craft, changes in the • Maps, charts, shoreline sketches, and
enemy situation, and possible changes in the beach photographs of the beach area.
landing area.
The terminal command or higher head- Commanders of boat units and their staffs
quarters provides subordinate boat units with carefully study these aids. Staffs study the beach
approaches, hydrography, and terrain as they af-
various aids useful in planning and operations. fect boat operations. The operations officer of
These may include– the boat battalion secures or prepares additional
• Aerial photographs. Photographs maybe aids, if required.
vertical, low oblique (preferably 1:3,000 at One of the most useful sources of information
shoreline), high oblique, and stereopairs. about the area of operations is the geographical
Photographs taken at low tide are annex. Issued by the terminal command or a higher
preferred when showing the foreshore. headquarters, it is often distributed early in the plan-
• Beach reports based on interpretation of ning phase as a reference for subordinate units. (The
aerial photographs. They detail information geographical annex is usually issued as shown in
about the length and width of the beach and Appendix E.)
offshore approach conditions. These include As soon as the mission is received, the intel-
landmarks and anchorages; inshore hydrog- ligence officer (S2) determines the requirements of
raphy, including tidal range, underwater the battalion commander and staff for additional
obstructions, gradient, and nature of bottom; information. The S2 immediately initiates requests
and suitability of the beach for various types
of landing craft and craft maintenance.
3-4
FM 55-50
to the appropriate headquarters to secure informa- craft can deliver. Turnaround time is the total
tion, as well as any maps, charts, or other planning elapsed time that a single lighter takes to load, travel
aids that may be required. to the discharge point, unload, and return to shipside
ready to be loaded again. The elements involved are
The commander of the boat unit must secure as average speed in the water and on land (for am-
much detail as possible about the proposed landing phibians), distance to be traveled, loading time, un-
beaches and how to approach them. Reconnaissance loading time, and predictable delays. An estimated
provides much of this information. Additional infor- turnaround time must be worked out for each new
mation is in intelligence documents and various pub- operational site and mission and for each change in
lications distributed by higher headquarters. Any any of the elements given above. Sea and terrain
additional data must be secured by requests to higher conditions affect speed, and variations in loads alter
headquarters or through studies made by the bat- loading and unloading times. Average turnaround
talion staff. time is computed by using the following formula:
The battalion headquarters must ensure that all Turnaround
units are adequately supplied with maps and charts time =
about the area of operations. The following types of in hours
nautical charts are used:
• Sailing charts are used to fix a position in
long-distance navigation. They usually
employ Mercator’s projection. Scales are
1:6,000,000 and smaller.
• General charts of the coast are used the same
as sailing charts and also for near-shore
navigation. They employ Mercator’s projec-
tion. Scales are from 1:150,000 to 1:600,000.
• Coast charts are used for coastwide naviga-
tion and to approach a shore from a long
distance offshore. They show details of land
formations and artificial landmarks which NOTE: Land distance only applies when
help fix positions. Scales are 1:50,000 to computing turnaround time for amphibians
1:150,000. or air-cushion vehicles.
• Harbor charts are used to navigate harbors
LIGHTER REQUIREMENTS
and their approaches. They greatly detail
terrain and artificial objects. Scales are Once an average turnaround time is established
usually larger than 1:50,000. the number of lighters required to deliver an assigned
Two general types of hydrographic charts are daily tonnage can be computed by using the following
used to operate a boat unit: coastal charts and formula:
harbor/approach charts. Coastal charts show
limited terrain contour lines and details of natural
and artificial features. Harbor/approach charts
show greater detail of harbor natural and artificial
features as well as the existence of hazards and/or
routes of safe approach to the harbor.
TURNAROUND TIME
Turnaround time is the basic factor to determine
lighterage capabilities and requirements. It is used DAILY TONNAGE CAPABILITIES
to compute the number of craft for a specific opera- Sometimes it is necessary to forecast the amount
tion or the amount of tonnage that a given number of of tonnage that the available craft can transport over
3-5
FM 55-50
a specified period of time under existing conditions. (NCO) must consider the conditions under which the
Daily tonnage capabilities are computed by using the ship is being unloaded. He must constantly coor-
following formula: dinate with the lighter crews at shipside to ensure
safety precautions are being followed.
If the NCO determines that continuing the dis-
charge operation is dangerous, he must immediately
notify the ship’s captain, the lighter control center,
and the various unit commanders supporting the
operation. The terminal commander or vessel
master will decide whether to continue operations or
CONTROL SYSTEM suspend them until conditions improve.
The operations of the lighterage companies The following factors influence the ship dis-
must respond to the needs of the terminal service charge rate:
units handling the cargo at shipside and at the beach. • Type of cargo to be unloaded (mobile, con-
To maintain a smooth and continual flow of cargo tainerized, unitized, or loose).
over the beach, the lighterage unit commander must • Characteristics of the cargo ship.
be aware of the status and location of his craft.
Having this knowledge allows him to relocate • MHE available.
platoons, sections, and individual lighters or to assign • Experience of the cargo handling personnel
new or additional missions as rapidly as possible.
on the ship and ashore.
Flexibility of operations requires a responsive, • Weather conditions.
closely monitored control system. Control, main-
tained mainly by radio communication, is exercised • Distance cargo ships are from the beach.
through a lighter control center and various control • Beach characteristics.
points on the beach, at shipside, and in the discharge
areas (for amphibians). The extent of the control • Distance amphibian discharge points are
system depends on the size of the operational area, from the beach.
the dispersion required, the ship-to-shore distance to • Enemy air, ground, and naval action.
be traveled, and the type of lighter being used. In
average situations, particularly when working two Unless unusual wind or tidal currents exist, the
ships simultaneously, decentralizing operations to ship normally anchors bow to either the wind or
platoon level gets the best results. Decentralizing current, whichever is stronger. If all hatches are
operations reduces communication problems and being worked, lighters may receive cargo over both
simplifies overall control. The greater the disper- sides of the ship. For example, the cargo from Hold
sion, the more important decentralization is. 1 may be discharged over the starboard side and
Under decentralized platoon operation cargo from Hold 2 over the port side.
and maximum dispersion, a typical control sys- If sea and weather conditions prevent cargo
tem includes– discharge from both sides of a ship at anchor, the
• A lighter control center. method of discharge must be changed. The vessel
must be moored both bow and stern to avoid swinging
• A shipboard control point on each ship being to the tide or wind. The lighters should come along
worked. the lee side of the vessel and be moored to the vessel
• A discharge control point (for amphibians). to receive cargo. This operation reduces the dis-
charge rate about 50 percent.
SHIPSIDE PROCEDURE Beach control personnel or the shipboard control
Loading cargo into a lighter from a vessel anchored point NCO direct lighter operators to the number of the
in the stream is difficult and somewhat dangerous. The hatch and the side of the ship where they should moor.
shipboard control point noncommissioned officer
3-6
FM 55-50
Detailed procedures for coming alongside, mooring, from the craft should be used. Amphibians may be
and clearing shipside are in FM 55-501. able to moor alongside or at the lowered ramp to
Drafts of nonunitized small items of cargo permit the transfer of small cargo items by hand.
are usually handled in cargo nets, which are un- Cargo in small, packaged containers up to 40 pounds
hooked and left in the craft. Empty nets are can be handed over the side. Cargo boxes placed at
returned to the ship each time the lighter comes the rail of the craft may serve as steps and facilitate
alongside for another load. cargo handling. Rough-terrain cranes may lift cargo
too heavy to be moved by hand. The crane is driven
USE OF JUMPERS to the stranded craft if intervening depth and surf
Aboard small lighters, crew members normally conditions permit.
perform all shipside cargo-handling operations. If A bulldozer may push stranded craft back into
one or more crew members are operating or main- the water. The blade of the bulldozer must be
taining their craft and cannot be spared for cargo padded by fenders, salvaged tires, or similar material
handling duties, the unit commander may provide to prevent damage to the hulls or ramps of the craft.
extra crewmen, called jumpers, to position and To maximize salvage capability, one bulldozer should
secure cargo in the lighter for movement to the be readily available to each operational beach.
beach. When available, extra crewmen are taken No craft is ever left on the beach unattended or
from deadlined or standby lighters. Otherwise, the
unwatched. The operator must remain constantly at
terminal service company may provide them. the controls while beaching, loading, unloading, and
Aboard larger lighters, such as LCUs, a forklift retracting.
is the most prompt method to position and stack ANTIBROACHING MEASURES
unitized or palletized cargo. The terminal service
company provides and operates forklifts. Because The best insurance against broaching to is an
transferring personnel from one craft to another alert, skilled operator who knows the capabilities and
alongside the ship is potentially hazardous, jumpers limitations of his craft. Normally, antibroaching aids
and forklift operators should board and debark the are not used if the craft is to be unloaded quickly and
lighter at the beach. retracted from the beach immediately. Under most
conditions, antibroaching lines from the bow or stern
SALVAGE OPERATIONS of the beached craft are impractical. In extreme surf
The main objective of salvage operations is to conditions where a crosscurrent may cause broach-
keep the beach and sea approaches clear. Ex- ing, antibroaching lines maybe used. However, the
perienced salvage men never lose sight of this mis- operator must keep in mind that this method is time-
sion; even when freeing a single stranded or disabled consuming, severely restricts the number of craft that
craft they do not impede beach or offshore opera- can be off-loaded along a specific sector of the beach,
tions. To keep the beach clear, craft that can be and is an ineffective method to prevent broaching.
repaired or removed quickly are given priority. The master of an LCU or an LCM-8 keeps his
Boats that cannot be salvaged readily are anchored craft in position on the beach by properly using en-
securely and left at the beach until traffic eases and gines, rudders, and stern anchors. (The LCM-8 is
more time can be devoted to them. not equipped with a stern anchor.) If the LCU and
When a landing craft broaches to and is LCM-8 are beaching on the same sector of beach, the
stranded, salvage crews must act quickly. Speedy LCM-8 is somewhat protected if it is beached
assistance often prevents serious damage to boats, leeward of the LCU. For example, if three LCUs are
especially in heavy surf. Fast recovery from on the same beach, one or two LCM-8s can be
seaward is usually the best procedure for salvaging beached and discharged in the partially protected
broached-to boats. Methods of recovery are in zone on the lee side of each LCU. When the LCM-8
FM 55-501. and LCU are loaded with similar cargo, two or more
When a loaded craft is aground offshore, any LCM-8s can usually be unloaded in the time required
practical system to expedite the unloading of cargo to discharge an LCU. Preventive and recovery pro-
cedures for broached-to craft are in FM 55-501.
3-7
FM 55-50
3-8
FM 55-50
3-9
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 4
4-1
FM 55-50
4-2
FM 55-50
The US Army Corps of Engineers operates and over a waterway are the restricting width and depth
maintains the inland waterway in a generic theater or of channel; horizontal and vertical clearance of
in CONUS. However, the host country normally bridges; and number of locks, their method of opera-
maintains and operates developed inland waterway tions, and length of time required for craft to clear
systems in overseas theaters. Aids to navigation on them. Freeze-ups, floods, and droughts also affect a
the inland waterways differ all over the world. Some waterway’s capacity. The transportation planner
areas do not use aids, while others use the interna- must know when to expect these seasonal restrictions
tional ocean system. The US uses many different and and how long they may last. He is concerned with
highly sophisticated systems. For illustrations of speed, fluctuation, and direction of water current as
navigation aids, refer to FMs 55-501 or 55-501-2. well as availabtity of craft, labor, terminal facilities,
The inland waterway terminal (Figure 4-3) is and maintenance support.
similar to any other inland terminal, except that it is QSTAG 592 standardizes documents that are
where cargo is transferred between some form of common to several means of transport. This agree-
lighterage and land-based transportation. Inland ment helps terminal operators predict movement
terminals vary in size and design. Some are designed requirements.
for one commodity, others, for general purposes.
For military purposes, the available inland terminal On an inland waterway, one of the following
may not be what is needed; therefore, the planner situations determines the method for calculating the
and user must adapt (at least until engineers can waterway capacity:
modify the terminal). Quays running along the in- • The daily capacity can be estimated by deter-
land waterway, finger piers at wider points, or basin- mining the number of craft per day that can
type terminals could be adapted by installing pass through the most limited restriction
DeLong piers as quays or piers, installing regular such as a lock, lift bridge, or narrow channel
barges by either partially sinking or driving pilings to and multiplying this figure by the average net
hold them in place, or using a beach that could be capacity of the barge or craft in use.
improved. • When the capacity of a waterway is so large
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING or the number of barges so limited that not
The transportation planner’s interest in an in- enough barges are available to fill or exceed
land waterway is in its capability to move cargo. the waterway capacity, the planner deter-
Therefore, he is interested in the effect of its physical mines the required capacity for military
features on its ability to carry cargo. Among the purposes.
physical features that determine what can be moved
4-3
FM 55-50
Waterway capacity is based on turnaround time. • Time consumed in locks. This is the time it
Turnaround time is the length of time between leav- takes a craft and its tow to pass through a
ing a point and returning to it. Since barges are being lock. When exact data is lacking, assume lock
picked up at a wharf or stake barge, barge loading time is one hour per single lock (step).
time is not part of the computation. If barges are • Hours of operations. This figure is usually
picked up at shipside without marshaling at a wharf planned as 24 hours per day. Maintenance
or stake barge, loading time of the barge would be- factors are applied in equipment require-
come a factor of turnaround time. The following ments as shown later in formulas.
items must be known to calculate turnaround time:
• Transit time. This is the time to move the
• Length of haul. This is the trip distance be- craft the length of the haul and directly
tween the barge pickup point and unloading related occurrences. To determine transit
points or the reverse trip. time, add the time to make up the tow, the
• Speed. This is influenced by wind, current, distance divided by the speed of the tow;
power of craft, and size of load. If the craft’s the time consumed to pass through the
speed cannot be determined, assume it is 4 locks; and the time to break up the tow.
miles per hour in still water (6.4 kilometers • Speed control. Because of possible damage
per hour). Speed and direction of current to the inland waterway, speed is controlled.
can frequently be discounted since resistance
in one direction may be balanced by assis- • Barge, tugboat, or craft requirements. When
tance in the other direction. However, this is determining the number of barges, tugboats,
not always the case. or craft requirements, always roundup to the
nearest whole number. Then apply the main-
• Loading and unloading time. This is the tenance factor and round up again.
time to load and unload a craft at origin and
destination. Two basic types of inland waterway watercraft
systems are: barge-carrying ships and ships’ cargo
discharged onto barges at the ORP.
4-4
FM 55-50
The most current type of barge-carrying ships Use Table 4-1 when planning for turnaround times
are LASH and SEABEE. These ships furnish and equipment requirements using barge-carrying
preloaded barges. Therefore, the ship schedules fur- ships.
nish the barges used on the inland waterway system.
4-5
FM 55-50
4-6
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 5
AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS
5-1
FM 55-50
Lighterage is moved to the amphibious objective the combat readiness of participating forces. It en-
area aboard landing ships or assault ships. The type sures all echelons are familiar with the plan. The
and numbers of lighters that each ship of the three types of exercises are–
transport group carries are identified by hull num-
ber. Representatives of the landing force coordinate
with the appropriate naval transport echelon to • Separate force rehearsals. Elements whose
determine them. tasks are not closely associated with those of
The senior water transport unit representative the main body of the amphibious task force
on each ship, the commanding officer of troops, and normally conduct separate rehearsals. The
the ship’s combat cargo officer arrange the following: advance force and the demonstration force
are examples of elements that conduct
• Billet assignments. separate rehearsals.
• Assignment of crews, relief crews, and main- • Staff rehearsals. All staffs scheduled to par-
tenance teams. ticipate in the operation conduct staff re-
• Assignment of working parties. hearsals. Conducted before integrated
rehearsals, they usually take the form of com-
• Storage for fuel, lubricants, and maintenance mand post or game board exercises. If pos-
material. Items must be available en route sible, these exercises test communications
and during initial stages of the assault. facilities.
• Security details. • Integrated rehearsals. The rehearsal phase
• Messing procedures. should include at least two integrated re-
hearsals for the assault phase. The first
• Stowage of weapons and ammunition. rehearsal omits actual bombardment and
Supplies and equipment must be prepared for unloading supplies but stresses com-
munications and control in executing ship-
loading before the assault shipping arrives in the to-shore movement. The final rehearsal
embarkation area. Lighters should be completely uses the actual operations plans. It in-
serviced, fuel and water cans filled, accessories cludes token naval gunfire, air support with
placed, and radio and navigation equipment live ammunition, extensive troop participa-
waterproofed. A final inspection ensures all craft tion and sufficient unloading to adequately
and equipment are in proper condition, securely test tactical and logistical plans, operation
lashed, adequately protected, and ready for the of ship-to-shore movement control or-
operation. ganization, and the functioning of the shore
If ships are to be loaded offshore, the embarka- party.
tion area should be organized so that amphibians use MOVEMENT PHASE
different beach areas. Lighters to be embarked
aboard the same ship are marshaled together and The fourth phase of an amphibious operation is
escorted by naval guide boats to their assigned craft. the movement of the task force to the amphibious
Craft are loaded aboard assault shipping so that area. This includes the departure of ships from load-
debarkation in the amphibious objective area is in the ing points, the passage at sea, and the approach to
proper order. and arrival in assigned positions in the objective area.
The task force is divided into movement groups
REHEARSAL PHASE which proceed on prescribed routes. Alternate
The rehearsal phase of an amphibious opera- routes are designated for emergency use. Movement
tion is the period where elements of the task force, groups are organized based on the speed of the ships
or the task force in its entirety, conduct one or involved and the time they are needed in the objective
more exercises under conditions similar to those area.
expected at the beachhead. The purpose of the Some movement groups are scheduled to arrive
rehearsal is to test the adequacy of plans and com- in the objective area before D-day; some, on D-day;
munications, the timing of detailed operations, and and others, after D-day.
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FM 55-50
Movement groups that arrive before D-day are The organization of landing ships, landing
the advance force. If surprise is essential, such a craft, and amphibious vehicles employed in assault
force may not be used. The advance force prepares landings parallels the landing force organization.
the objective area for assault. It conducts reconnais- The landing force is organized into a landing team.
sance, minesweeping, preliminary bombardment, The naval organization has boat groups, waves, and
underwater demolitions, and air operations. flotillas.
Movement groups arriving on D-day are the Landing teams consist of an infantry battalion or
main body of the task force. They consist of one or similar level combat unit reinforced with combat
more transport groups, landing ship groups, support support and combat service support units. The
groups, or carrier groups. Movement groups that teams, normally waterborne or helicopter-borne, are
arrive after D-day provide resupply after the initial organized into waves that contain troops and equip-
assault. These massive operations involve moving ment that land at the same time.
materiels and personnel into the theater of opera- Boat groups are the naval force’s basic task
tions to sustain the combat effort. organization for controlling amphibian vehicles and
Movement groups that arrive after D-day pro- landing craft afloat. One boat group is organized for
vide resupply after the initial assault. These massive each battalion landing team or its equivalent. The
operations involve moving materiels and personnel boat group lands in the first wave of landing craft or
into the theater to sustain the combat effort. amphibians.
ASSAULT PHASE Boat waves are the landing craft or amphibians
The assault phase of the amphibious operations within a boat group that carry troops to be landed at
begins when the assault elements of the main body the same time. Organizing into waves helps control
arrive at their assigned position in the objective area. the boat group; command is through wave com-
It ends when the task force mission is accomplished. manders rather than directly with individual boat
When the assault phase ends, the amphibious opera- commanders. Boat waves operate as a unit. The
tion ends. Then the amphibious task force is dis- boat group lands in successive waves according to the
solved as an organization, and its elements are assault schedule. The waves are numbered first
reassigned. Responsibility for further operations in wave, second wave, and so forth. Landing ships used
the former amphibious objective area is transferred. to land battalion landing teams are organized as
waves but are not included in an assault group.
The assault phase includes a sequence of six Boat flotillas are formed when the operation
activities or operations: of two or more boat groups require a common
• The assault area is subjected to naval gunfire commander.
missile fire, and air bombardment. Ship-to-shore movement begins when ordered
• Helicopters, landing ships and crafts, and by the amphibious task force commander and ends
amphibians move the landing force. when the unloading is complete. It may be divided
• Assault elements of the landing force land in into two periods: the assault and initial unloading
drop and landing zones and on the beaches. period, and the general unloading period. The
first period is tactical, and the second period is
• Waterborne, helicopter-borne, air-dropped, logistical. For ship-to-shore movement, tactical
and air-landed forces unite and seize the units are divided into special groupings and landed
beachhead. in successive waves. These waves are designated
• Naval forces provide logistic, air, and naval as scheduled, on-call, or nonscheduled units. Fol-
gunfire support throughout the assault. lowing the tactical units, supplies are landed at the
discretion of the appropriate troop commander or
• Remaining landing force elements go ashore as required by the landing force. Supplies so
to conduct any operations required to sup- landed are designated as floating dumps or landing
port the mission. force supplies.
5-3
FM 55-50
Scheduled waves normally consist of elements of general unloading period begins. Then they move
the assault landing team, although other units may be ashore with their control elements to coordinate with
included. Units included in scheduled waves are the shore party commander and the staff of the ter-
needed for the initial assault. The time and place for minal battalion (group) being phased ashore. When
them to land are predetermined. ashore, commanders establish company command
On-call waves are also needed in the initial posts and set up shore-based control systems. While
waterborne, water transport commanders help the
assault, but they have no fixed time and place for naval control officers dispatch and route craft and
landing. On-call boat waves are held in readiness coordinate maintenance and supply activities for
in landing craft, ships, or amphibious vehicles near their units.
the primary assistant central control or approach
lane control ships. On-call waves are landed when BEACH MARKERS
the landing force commander calls for them. A system of beach markers is used while or-
Nonscheduled units are directed to land when ganizing the beach to receive landing crafts, landing
the need for them ashore can be predicted with ships, and amphibians. The markers help vessel
reasonable accuracy. They are held in readiness for operators locate the correct beach in daylight or
landing during the initial unloading period but are darkness. Shore party personnel install the markers
not included in either scheduled or on-call waves. as soon as possible after the initial assault of an
Floating dumps provide emergency supplies. amphibious operation.
They are preloaded in landing craft, landing ships, or Beaches under attack are color designated,
amphibian vehicles to meet anticipated supply re- such as red beach or green beach, with markers of
quirements. They remain near the line of departure corresponding colors. The daylight markers are
and land when requested by the appropriate troop made of cloth and held aloft as shown in Figure 5-1.
commander. During daylight, a horizontal rectangle identifies
Landing force supplies are the supplies that the left flank of a beach, as seen from the sea; a
square, the center of the beach; and a vertical cloth
remain in assault shipping after initial combat sup- rectangle, the right flank. During night operations,
plies and floating dumps have been unloaded. a system of white and appropriately colored lights
Army watercraft do not normally land with the is used (Figure 5-l).
initial assault waves. They usually serve as floating When the tactical plan dictates that a number of
dumps or on-call elements or deliver landing force beaches be used, each colored beach may be further
supplies. Following landing of the initial waves, divided into beach number one, beach number two,
Army watercraft are stationed at designated control and so forth. When the colored beaches are so
points until dispatched ashore by the naval control divided, the markers are erected in pairs (Figure
officer. When dispatched ashore, the crafts move to 5-l).
the designated beach for unloading. After unload-
ing, they move to assigned assembly areas until HYDROGRAPHIC MARKINGS
routed to a specific ship for reloading. Army Hydrographic markings, such as those in
watercraft continue to function in this manner Figure 5-2, have been developed for use near the
throughout ship-to-shore movement until released shore in areas otherwise unsuitable for marking.
by the shore party commander. Then they revert to The shore party commander determines the need
the control of their parent organization. for hydrographic markings and installs them.
In amphibious operations, the commander of These markings have no relation to Coast Guard
the amphibious task force via the naval control officer aids to navigation. (FMs 55-15 and 55-501 describe
exercises control of ship-to-shore movement. The the navigational aids and the US buoyage system.)
shore party via attached naval beach parties carries Figure 5-2 shows hydrographic markings for beach
out near beach movement control. Water transport operations.
unit commanders remain waterborne until the
5-4
FM 55-50
5-5
FM 55-50
COMMUNICATIONS FOR AMPHIBIOUS ready to work as soon as the unit control system is
OPERATIONS established ashore. This net and the control proce-
The physical conditions in amphibious dures for its use must be provided for during the
operations require almost complete dependence on planning phase.
radio communication during the initial landings and MAINTENANCE SUPPORT
unloading periods. Because of the large number of During the actual conduct of an amphibious
radios available in landing force crafts and vehicles operation, only unit maintenance sections and direct
and with the combat elements, strict adherence to support teams will provide floating craft main-
sound signal security practices is essential. Because tenance support. Direct support and general sup-
of this complexity, wire communication should be port companies (Chapter 9) are not phased in until
established between shore installations as early as the situation ashore is completely established.
possible.
During the initial phases of the operations, Every effort must be made to establish organiza-
the naval control system controls the lighters tional and direct support maintenance personnel and
afloat and the shore party control system controls equipment ashore as soon as practicable. Prompt
them ashore. Communication between elements delivery of supporting personnel and supplies
of the water transport units and company head- prevents any serious impairment that an insufficient
number of operational lighters may cause.
quarters is virtually nonexistent. However, the
initial intracompany communications net must be
5-6
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 6
SHORE-TO-SHORE OPERATIONS
6-1
FM 55-50
slope should gradually drop off at the water’s edge. amphibians. Using underwater bridges constructed
During operations, amphibians should use multiple of sandbags can sometimes remedy these conditions.
routes into and out of the water to avoid forming deep
ruts that would cause the craft to belly down. Earth- RIVER CURRENTS
moving equipment may be used to decrease the slope Operation in rivers with swift currents (more
of high banks and to level off entrances and exits. than 4 mph) requires highly skilled, experienced
Also consider the type and consistency of the operators. When exceptionally swift currents are
soil at the crossing sites. Avoid marshy, swampy encountered, it maybe possible to rig a cable from
areas and soils with a clay base. When no hard- one bank to another to assist craft in crossing. If this
packed sand entrances and exits are available in cannot be done, amphibians should back into the
the operational area, pierced steel planking, brush, stream so that the rudder and propeller enter the
and netting may be used to increase traction. water first. This approach gives the operator maxi-
Earth-moving equipment may be used to improve mum control of the craft. It also causes the stern to
the trafficability of the entrance and exit routes at float first so that it swings around and heads the bow
the crossing site. into the current as the craft becomes waterborne.
RIVER BOTTOMS RIVER OBSTACLES
Ideal conditions for a crossing site are a sandy It is unlikely that obstacles will be encountered
shoreline with a gradual slope; clear, deep water; in the center of the river, but conventional antitank,
and a clear river bottom. However, these conditions antipersonnel, chemical, and antiamphibious mines
are not often encountered in the field. Mud, the most may be laid below the high waterline. Early recon-
difficult terrain to cross in an amphibian, is the type naissance by the tactical unit should locate mine
of soil usually found in and around rivers. Shallow fields in the area of operations so they can be
rivers with soft bottoms are particularly difficult for removed or avoided during crossing. Water
these craft. If the river is too shallow to float an transport unit personnel must be trained to look out
for mines and to mark and report their location.
amphibian, its wheels will sink into the muddy bot- Naval mines probably will not be encountered in river
tom immobilizing the craft and increasing the danger crossing operations unless the river is deep enough
of capsizing in swift currents. A shallow river with a for navigation by seagoing vessels. However, crew
bottom of large rocks presents similar problems for members must be alert for floating mines used to
destroy bridges.
6-2
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 7
RIVERINE OPERATIONS
7-1
FM 55-50
The senior Navy commander embarked is in to acquaint Army personnel with embarkation and
tactical control while the afloat base is en route from loading procedures, required action during the water
one anchorage to another. Higher headquarters nor- movement, security at the landing area, and landing
mally directs or approves the relocation of the afloat procedures.
base. The Navy commander of the riverine force is
responsible for moving Navy ships and watercraft Plans for waterborne operations must be
between riverine bases and support facilities outside detailed enough to give all participating units com-
the riverine area. The Army commander in the plete information. Yet, they must be simple and
riverine area is responsible for the security of move- flexible enough to be modified as the tactical situa-
ment for ships within the area. tion changes.
CONCEPT OF RIVERINE OPERATIONS Plans for a waterborne operation are usually
developed in the following sequence:
Units conducting riverine operations use water • Scheme of maneuver based on METT-T.
transport extensively to move troops and equipment
throughout the area. Waterborne operations nor- • Assault plan based on the scheme of
mally start from areas where ground forces and maneuver.
watercraft marshal and load and where forces can •
effect coordination. This may be at a land base next Water movement plan based on the assault
to a navigable waterway, at an afloat base on a plan and the scheme of maneuver. (The
navigable waterway, or in an existing area of opera- water movement plan includes composition
tions. Once troops are aboard, the watercraft of the waterborne force, organization of
proceed to designated landing areas within an as- movement serials, formation to be used,
signed area of operations for offensive operations. movement routes, command and control
measures, mine countermeasures, plans for
Unit plans include control measures, such as fire support, and immediate reaction to
phase lines checkpoints, for the entire operation. ambush.)
The commander controls the unit’s movement either • Loading plan based on the water movement
from a command and control boat located within the plan, the assault plan, and the scheme of
movement formation or from an airborne command maneuver.
post. Maneuver unit commanders, embarked in
command and control craft, leave these craft to take • Marshaling plan, when required based on
charge of their units. the loading plan, the water movement plan,
The withdrawal of troops from the area of the assault plan, and the scheme of maneuver.
operations is a tactical movement back to the • Deception plan, when required, based on the
watercraft loading areas. Units are loaded in reverse mission.
sequence to that used in the waterborne assault land- CONDUCT OF WATERBORNE OPERATIONS
ing. The maneuver unit employing a perimeter
security provides the necessary loading area security Units are trained and prepared to conduct
throughout the withdrawal operation. A tactical waterborne operations on short notice. Applying
water movement back to base areas or to another lessons learned in previous waterborne operations
area of operations is performed after loading. keeps SOPs current. Training and adequate unit
PLANNING FOR WATERBORNE OPERATIONS SOPs allow marshaling activities to focus on the
pending tactical operation.
Waterborne operations require detailed plan- Units prepare for the tactical operation, move
ning at all levels and close coordination with a sup- to their loading areas, and load onto assigned
porting naval river assault squadron. Units watercraft according to the water movement table
conducting waterborne operations must be ready to and information in the watercraft loading table. Bulk
begin as soon as possible after receiving orders. Boat supplies and ammunition are transported to the load-
operators require training in operation, main- ing site and loaded and lashed in designated
tenance, and navigation. As a minimum, training watercraft. Several units may use the same loading
consists of briefings in the marshaling or staging area
site. Therefore, loading must be completed and
7-2
FM 55-50
watercraft moved to their assigned rendezvous area Active employment of watercraft during an
according to the time schedule in the water move- offensive maneuver simplifies deception in the ini-
ment table. tial stages of a waterborne withdrawal. The quantity
All water movements outside of the base areas of available hydrographic information increases as a
are tactical moves. They are similar to the approach result of this employment.
march of a movement to contact in ground opera- When possible, waterborne withdrawal is timed
tions; speed of movement and security of the forma- so watercraft can approach loading areas with the
tion are essential. The intent of the operation is to current on the rising tide, load during slack high
move directly to the objective. However, the unit is water, and depart with the current on the falling tide.
prepared for combat at any point along the move- Due to the security problems that accompany
ment route. The terrain and the enemy situation
normally require advance, flank, and rear guards to large waterborne movements and using predictable
protect the main body during the move. routes, loading during the last hours of daylight and
moving during darkness should be considered.
WATERBORNE WITHDRAWAL Moving reconnaissance forward along possible
While preparing for waterborne operations, withdrawal routes several hours ahead of the move-
planners determine the availability of waterways in ment group is a useful deception measure.
the area of operations, the tide and current for the Loading, normally the most critical phase of the
scheduled period of the operation, and suitable load- withdrawal, requires detailed planning when select-
ing sites. This information, kept current during the ing troop assembly areas, loading areas, loading con-
operation, is the basis for planning the waterborne trol measures, and watercraft rendezvous areas.
withdrawal.
7-3
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 8
CONVOY OPERATIONS
8-1
FM 55-50
If the voyage is too short for adequate briefings and distances in nautical miles from the dispersal
aboard the craft, troops are briefed just before areas to the rendezvous areas, from the rendezvous
embarkation. areas to the embarkation points, from the embarka-
BOAT CONTROL tion points to the regulating point, and from the
regulating point to a final convoy formation in the
While the operation is being planned, the boat assembly area. The assembly chart is prepared
navigation officer and a representative of the ter- similarly to the track chart.
minal headquarters (or other unit responsible for An assembly table may accompany the assembly
far-shore operations) thoroughly study landing con- chart. The table prescribes times of departure from
ditions. Tentative plans for boat and beach control the embarkation points and the regulating point. It
are agreed on, including the location of landing also gives the specific times of arrival for boat units
points for craft. or landing teams in the assembly areas.
In a shore-to-shore operation, the boat control CONVOY ORGANIZATION
officer—
• Controls the movement of all craft between The convoy is formed in waves or elements of six
to eight boats, depending on the landing plan. The
the near and far shore. officer responsible for navigation and/or the com-
• Marks control points to regulate boat move mander of the boat unit heads the formation. The
ments and other points designated by the commander of troop personnel travels in the same
higher headquarters. boat as the commander of the boat unit. Control
• Informs the commander of the boat unit of boats are stationed on the flanks. A salvage boat
follows in the rear.
the movement’s progress.
FORMATION
EMBARKATION
The formations used within a convoy vary accord-
Landing craft are kept in dispersal areas on the ing to the situation. They depend on such factors as—
near shore until they are required to form for embarka-
tion. At that time, they proceed to designated rendez- • Tactical plan (for a tactical landing).
vous areas offshore from the embarkation points. • Weather.
Rendezvous areas are assigned for all boat units.
• Time of day.
From the rendezvous area, landing craft are
dispatched to the embarkation points. If possible, • Sea conditions.
the arrival of each craft at the shore is synchronized • Phase of the operation (whether the convoy
with the arrival of the troops and supplies. (The is en route to the far shore or approaching
time required to load troops and supplies must be the beach for the landing).
considered by the unit being transported and the boat
unit assigned to the movement.) To avoid undue • Enemy situation and capabilities (including
fatigue, troops are not loaded in landing craft earlier nuclear).
than necessary. Embarkation begins at the latest Generally, landing craft move in a column for-
possible hour that permits the convoy to depart at the mation before arriving in the landing area. The dis-
designated time. tance between boats, stern to bow, varies between
After being loaded, landing craft are directed 50 and 100 yards, depending on visibility. In poor
via a regulating point to the assembly area location weather, craft must run as close together as possible.
that they will occupy in the convoy. Using the track However, to avoid collisions, they should not move
chart, they then proceed in prescribed formation to closer than one boat length apart.
the far shore. In a convoy that includes LCUs, the LCUs
The staff of the boat battalion along with the usually form astern of the last unit in the boat forma-
headquarters of the units being transported tion. The senior LCU master afloat, instructed via
prepares an assembly chart or an overlay on a small- radio from the convoy control vessel, directs LCU
scale navigation chart. The chart shows true courses formations and speeds.
8-2
FM 55-50
The closed-V formation provides excellent con- Visual communication must be highly efficient since
trol. It permits rapid deployment into an open-V radios must be kept free for traffic other than control
formation in case of air attack. The open-V and messages. Voice-amplifying equipment is desirable
line-abreast formations are used to approach the for all control and salvage boats. Leaders of boat
beach before landing. However, they are difficult to units must ensure that coxswains maintain their posi-
control. Normally, they are used only for short dis- tions in the prescribed formation and follow
tances. The line-abreast formation is normally used specified speeds.
only in a landing (usually tactical) where all boats Night operations are particularly difficult and
must beach at the same time. physically and mentally strain personnel. Strict com-
During formation, efficient control greatly pliance with regulations concerning authorized lights
depends on the alertness of the signalman. When is essential. A single unauthorized light may cause
the signalman gives a signal to change or modify the general confusion in the convoy movement. Bow
formation for the wave leader, the signalmen in all lights on top of the LCM ramp are turned off
other craft in the wave must repeat it immediately. because they tend to blind the coxswain. A lookout
Each signalman must make sure that the boat astern is posted in the bow to watch for hazards.
of his vessel receives and repeats the correct signal. Control boats are used to prevent straggling,
Each signalman repeats the signal until all boats in assist boats in trouble, and aid in navigational control.
the wave have echoed it. After the signal has been They patrol the flanks and rear of the formation and
repeated, each signalman stops transmitting signals. communicate with the navigator. Control boats
An assigned crew member must be trained as the (picketboats) may also serve as messenger boats.
signalman.
If possible, the formation should proceed to a
COMMAND CONTROL safe haven before the onset of bad weather. If the
The senior commander of the boat formation is control officer believes that further movement would
responsible for the control of craft, navigation, and be hazardous, he may order the convoy to move into
local defensive measures. He must– a predetermined closed formation with the control
• Ensure that all landing craft arrive and depart boat in the center. The craft maintain enough way to
keep their positions.
from the embarkation points on time.
• Ensure that craft are in the prescribed forma- NAVIGATIONAL CHART
tions and depart from assembly areas on time Since navigation is based on the unit track chart,
with minimal confusion and delay. copies of the chart are furnished to the coxswain of
• Provide accurate navigation from the near each boat. Instructions are then available if a boat
becomes separated from its formation.
shore to the landing area so that craft arrive
on time and in prescribed formations. Before the movement begins, navigational
• Patrol the convoy to maintain formation and instruments must be checked carefully. Prepara-
help craft having difficulties. tions include–
• Swinging the craft to obtain compass
• Establish control vessels ahead of the forma-
deviations.
tion to direct the landing.
• Ensuring that each boat has a current compass-
• Control the movement to the beach and the
landing of craft. deviation table and that the coxswain knows
how to use the table properly.
If the convoy is engaged in shore-to-shore • Calibrating radio direction finders.
operations, one officer should be designated to stay
on the near shore to coordinate boat activities. • Testing and calibrating signaling and lis-
CONVOY CONTROL tening devices and associated equipment.
• Checking timepieces, sextants, and all other
The distance between craft and poor visibility instruments.
may complicate the control of boat units in convoy.
8-3
FM 55-50
8-4
FM 55-50
The salvage boat and at least one landing craft of the landing beach, check the actual conditions
in each wave usually carries towlines. The lines against their plans, and make any necessary changes
should be at least 200 feet long and equipped with or modifications.
bridles and adequate chafing gear. The bridles
should be designed so that they maybe secured to the Two members of the company control boat sec-
mooring bitts of the towed and towing craft. tion land in separate boats of the first wave near the
center of the beach and immediately erect range
At the landing area, salvage boats may cruise markers and other landing aids. When the
around the area, alert to assist where needed, or they remainder of the control boat section lands, it
may anchor at a location to observe all craft. develops the command post and establishes the
necessary radio communications.
APPROACH TO LANDING AREA
The duties of the control boat section on shore
Command and navigation boats and picketboats include –
make up navigational control points and hazards. In • Helping to remove underwater obstacles and
a tactical operation, they also mark the rendezvous other hazards to navigation.
area and the line of departure. Picketboats may
precede the convoy, establishing submerged or • Marking obstacles that cannot be removed.
floating buoys, invisible-light transmitters, and other • Controlling boat traffic during the approach
devices to mark control points, obstructions, and of craft to the beach, while at the beach, and
channels. Aircraft and submarines may also be used during departure from the beach.
for this purpose.
• Making emergency repairs to boats.
An initial point may be designated about 10
miles offshore to guide the boat formations to the • Helping to salvage vehicles that may become
rendezvous area for tactical landings. The position damaged or stalled in the water at the beach.
of the initial point depends on the distance between • Helping to evacuate casualties from the
the near and far shores. It should be far enough beach according to the medical plan (in a
from the landing area to allow the entire convoy to tactical landing).
rearrange time schedules if necessary. The convoy
may be delayed at the initial point if it is ahead of • Helping to keep the beach clear.
schedule or if any rearrangements are needed in the Each control boat section closely inspects the
existing formation. appropriate beach area immediately after landing.
In a tactical landing, when the convoy enters the Section members determine the type of bottom; the
rendezvous area, the designated control boats move depth of water; the location of rocks, boulders,
out to their stations and mark the line of departure. shoals, bars, sunken wrecks, and other obstacles; the
The waves assemble and are ordered to the line of nature of any crosscurrents; and other pertinent
departure according to an approach schedule. information. After the salvage boat arrives, it helps
to reconnoiter the water approaches and to deter-
BOAT CONTROL mine the depth of water offshore.
Personnel normally assigned to unit head- The control boat section or personnel of the
quarters may augment boat control personnel. In a shore party (if the landing is tactical) mark and
concentrated operation, a designated navigation remove all hazards to navigation. Pennants
officer is responsible for the proper functioning of placed on buoys or stakes mark hazards that
the boat control system. He directs the company cannot be removed. The control boat sections of
control boat sections which are responsible for boat the appropriate shore party unit must keep the beach
control on an assigned portion of the beach. clear. Stranded boats, vehicles, supplies, and debris
must not be allowed to block landing points.
Usually, the company boat control officer and
the commander of the terminal unit handling shore To control boat traffic, members of the control
functions go ashore in one of the first boats scheduled boat section signal landing craft to the proper landing
to land. They make a hasty ground reconnaissance place. Coxswains get directions concerning proper
8-5
FM 55-50
angle of approach, speed, beaching lowering of center of the site and guides the beaching craft.
ramp, unloading, and retraction. Since it is often Guidance is particularly necessary for craft that are
difficult for a coxswain to determine the exact loca- transporting vehicles. Range markers help the
tion of a beach landing site, a flagman stands in the coxswain approach the beaching site.
8-6
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 9
MAINTENANCE SUPPORT
9-1
FM 55-50
Supported units may request technical assis- craft are transported on cargo vessels or in landing
tance at any time, but it should be provided on a ships, dock (LSDs), minor repair and maintenance
regular basis. This ensures more effective and effi- may be performed en route. However, maintenance
cient user maintenance, reduces demands on the during movement must not substitute for the time
supporting unit, and increases the unit’s mission reserved for maintenance before embarkation.
efficiency. AR 700-4 gives detailed guidance on Maintenance before embarkation ensures that the
maintenance technical assistance. Technical assis- maximum number of craft will be ready at the start of
tance consists of– the operation. The following conditions may greatly
• Furnishing instruction and technical reduce the number of craft available for employment
guidance to supported units. during an operation:
• Operation in heavy surf or in waters studded
• Providing information on new maintenance
and supply techniques, procedures, and with reefs or full of debris.
publications. • Long delays on a shallow beach.
• Providing guidance to implement main- • Storms.
tenance directives and orders. • Lack of opportunities for preventive
The strength of a boat unit is measured by the maintenance.
number of craft that are fully mission capable not by • Other abnormal conditions.
the number of landing craft assigned to it. Watercraft
are always critical items of equipment. Deadlining CATEGORIES OF WATERCRAFT
(for other than scheduled maintenance) results in a MAINTENANCE
loss of tonnage, a heavy drain on the available stock Maintenance allocation charts are the primary
of repair parts, and a rapid decline in unit efficiency. means to identify the appropriate maintenance level
Supervision of preventive maintenance is a to perform required maintenance. Charts are
major command responsibility. It requires careful developed on a craft-by-craft basis. Authorized crew
planning, periodic technical inspections, and a sys- functions depend on the operating range of the ves-
tematic unit preventive maintenance program. The sel, crew size, and space available for storing tools,
commander should immediately instruct all officers test equipment, and repair parts. Based on this
and NCOs upon their arrival in the unit of the impor- criteria, Army watercraft can be divided into three
tance of a strict preventive maintenance program. maintenance groupings:
Commanders must not tolerate haphazard ser- • Amphibians, small landing craft, and picket-
vicing and operation. Time must be reserved from boats (small crews, short operating range,
operations for unit preventive maintenance which and limited space).
the officers and the NCOs of the watercraft units • Small tugs, large landing craft, and floating
must supervise. During operations, preventive main- cranes (larger crews and greater storage
tenance is performed at every opportunity. space).
Jury-rig equipment for steering and ramp • Large tugs and other coastal vessels
operation is placed aboard vessels for emergency (large crews, greater storage space, and
use. If this equipment must be used, parts must be long operating range under open ocean
requisitioned and replaced on the original equip conditions).
ment as soon as possible. The supply system must
establish demand data and preserve jury-rig The four categories of watercraft maintenance
materials aboard the boat for future use. are unit, direct support (DS), general support (GS),
and depot maintenance.
Normally, depending on the type unit, 25 to 33
percent of the watercraft in a unit are programmed The crew or the crew and a shore-based unit
for unit or higher level maintenance. Accordingly, maintenance section normally perform all marine
plans should be based on a 67 to 75 percent assigned unit maintenance. For landing trail and amphibians,
craft availability for sustained operations. When separate TOE sections provide backup shore-based
9-2
FM 55-50
unit maintenance and direct support maintenance. The appropriate TMs list repair parts and
Watercraft maintenance other than unit level can be special tools for each craft. These manuals list
provided by a watercraft maintenance team (detach- allowances of repair parts the unit may maintain.
ment) or a watercraft maintenance company. The levels prescribed cannot be exceeded unless
When watercraft are grouped (task organized) into properly authorized. If the company commander
company-sized, mission-structure elements, teams determines that certain components suffer a higher
can augment unit level maintenance. A quick turn- mortality rate than the stock level will support, the
around of end items by replacement and minor higher command level is informed so they can
repair characterizes watercraft unit maintenance. authorize remedial action. Remember that excess
Unit maintenance includes preventive maintenance repair parts contribute appreciably to the weight of
checks and services, inspection, cleaning, adjusting, the unit and creates storage and accountability
lubricating, tightening, and other tasks authorized by problems. More importantly, the parts removed
the applicable maintenance allocation chart. Unit from supply channels are denied to units immedi-
level maintenance operations provide for man- ately needing them.
datory parts list stockage in the form of a prescribed Marine intermediate maintenance units are al-
load list (PLL). located functions on a return-to-user basis according
With the exception of those craft that have to the basic Army four-level concept. These func-
engine room personnel assigned as part of the crew, tions vary for each craft as a consequence of the
operator maintenance of watercraft is largely limited crew and unit functions (authorized by range, crew,
to proper operation and before-, during-, and after- or space criteria). Watercraft support maintenance
operation checks to detect initial defects. Therefore, units provide backup supply and maintenance support
the bulk of the unit maintenance work load falls to and perform those functions too time-consuming or
the unit maintenance section. Depending on the type operationally burdensome for the operating unit.
unit and if they are authorized to perform DS level The support maintenance unit provides one-stop
repairs, this section performs all the unit and/or DS support from its base location and forward on-site
maintenance functions indicated in the maintenance service via floating maintenance teams. Its main-
allocation chart. Some units have DS maintenance tenance operations are aboard a floating machine
sections in their TOE. shop. It is located in a harbor or port facility where
there is a high density of watercraft. Marine inter-
Watercraft unit capabilities are based on an mediate maintenance units are assigned to either a
average availability of 67 to 75 percent of the terminal group or a terminal battalion.
assigned craft, depending on the type unit. A con-
stantly supervised operator and unit maintenance Contract personnel normally perform marine
effort is required to sustain this rate. When main- depot maintenance. The depot maintenance activity
tenance at this level is neglected, the nonoperational is responsible for drydocking and associated repairs
rate may become so high that the unit mission can- particularly for larger craft, unless haul-out facilities
not be accomplished. are available at the unit level.
A system of daily and scheduled preventive RECOVERY AND EVACUATION OF WATERCRAFT
maintenance inspections and services will be estab- The operating unit is responsible for recovery of
lished and performed according to applicable tech- disabled watercraft. It is normally accomplished by
nical manuals. When the manuals are not available sister vessels. The support maintenance unit is
or have not been published TB 55-1900-202-12/1 responsible for recovery requirements beyond the
provides the minimum preventive maintenance operating unit’s capability. Disabled watercraft are
guidance. If scheduled maintenance is performed normally evacuated to the nearest repair facility.
regularly and properly, the percentage of craft down When this is not feasible, watercraft are moved to the
due to equipment or mechanical failure should sel- nearest haven for protection during repair or until
dom exceed the 25 percent rate. When the deadline further recovery or evacuation is completed. Within
rate exceeds 25 percent, the commander should the immediate area of operations, the terminal bat-
ensure that proper watercraft operation and main- talion is responsible for recovery and evacuation.
tenance services are being performed.
9-3
FM 55-50
Outside the immediate operational area, the in- repair parts and other items. This unit also performs
theater controlling authority provides recovery and watercraft and marine salvage operations.
evacuation assistance. The TOE authorizes 207 personnel and about
The operating unit classifies disabled 533,600 pounds (67,000 cubic feet) of equipment
watercraft and coordinates their evacuation to a requiring transportation. Non-TOE equipment and
support maintenance or other facility. The marine supplies make up about 71,400 pounds (2,000 cubic
intermediate maintenance unit also functions as a feet). In one lift using organic assets, the unit can
maintenance collection point. Permanently dis- move about 230 personnel and 1,692,000 pounds
abled watercraft will be cannibalized as much as (136,000 cubic feet) of equipment and supplies. All
possible before final disposition. equipment is transportable by air, except–
TRANSPORTATION COMPANY (WATERCRAFT • Barge, deck cargo.
MAINTENANCE) (GS) • Crane, wheeled, 20-ton.
The transportation company (watercraft main- • Chamber, recompression, 100 pounds per
tenance) (GS) provides direct and general main-
tenance support for US Army watercraft and their square inch (psi).
organic navigational equipment. The unit also • Landing craft, mechanized, 69 feet.
receives, stores, and issues watercraft-peculiar • Landing craft, utility, 115 feet.
repair parts and items.
• Repair shop, floating marine equipment,
The transportation company (watercraft main- nonpropelled.
tenance) (GS) is normally assigned to a transporta-
tion command (TOE 55-601L) or a transportation
terminal group (TOE 55-822L). However it may be NOTE: This unit has a requirement for
attached to a transportation terminal battalion approximately 63,000 annual productive
(TOE 55-816), or it may operate independently manhours of diving support which is
under an appropriate commander’s supervision. provided by an engineer dive detachment
(TOE 0550 LA00). The detachment
At Levels 1, 2, and 3, the unit can provide the provides area support on a required basis
approximate man-hours of production maintenance and can tailor the support package with a
shown in Table 9-1. The unit receives, stores, and number of different types of engineer dive
issues about 9,000 line items of watercraft-peculiar teams.
9-4
FM 55-50
Although shore-based repair facilities may be NOTE: This detachment requires about
established if required, the bulk of the unit’s work is 6,200 annual productive manhours of
done aboard the floating repair shop. This shop diving support for underwater reconnais-
contains all the facilities necessary to support the sance missions, welding, cutting, salvage,
company mission. Three repair sections, a supply hull repair, and structural inspection
platoon, and a repair control section normally func- and/or repair. An engineer dive detach-
tion aboard the floating repair shop. ment (TOE 05530LA00) provides it on an
Because the floating repair shop requires a area support basis. The support can be
protected berth, the company normally operates in tailored with a combination of different
an established port terminal that is centrally located types of dive teams.
to other terminals.
This unit receives, stores, and issues
The transportation company (watercraft main- approximately 2,000 line items for watercraft and
tenance) (GS) requests its repair parts directly from marine related repair and/or replacement parts and
the theater materiel management center, which performs minor marine salvage operations in
directs the field depot that stocks the requested items geographically limited conflicts.
to ship them. Items this company repairs are either
returned to the using unit, to supply stocks within the This unit depends on the unit to which it is
company, or to the appropriate field theater supply attached for food service support and on other
activity that stocks marine and/or watercraft items. appropriate elements of the theater for
TRANSPORTATION FLOATING CRAFT health, religious, legal, finance, and personnel
MAINTENANCE DETACHMENT and administrative services.
The transportation floating craft maintenance STAFF SUPERVISION
detachment (TOE 55550AL00), performs DS/GS
maintenance on Army floating craft and marine A maintenance warrant officer on the terminal
equipment. battalion staff provides staff supervision of unit
and direct support levels of maintenance for
The detachment is normally assigned to a head- watercraft and marine equipment. He conducts
quarters and headquarters company, transportation periodic inspections, prepares reports of inspec-
terminal group, TOE 55822L or to a headquarters tions, disseminates technical information, and
and headquarters company, transportation terminal provides technical guidance and maintenance assis-
battalion, TOE 55816L. It can augment a transpor- tance when required.
tation company floating craft maintenance (GS),
TOE 55613L000 or may operate independently for a A maintenance officer on the terminal group
limited time where needed. staff provides staff supervision over maintenance
functions for the command. The commanders of the
This detachment performs all types of main- attached maintenance units act as special advisors on
tenance on floating craft, including hull and engine floating craft maintenance to the watercraft and/or
repair. It can provide the personnel, skills, and marine maintenance officer and to the terminal
equipment to perform the following annual man- group commander.
hours of productive maintenance:
Hull Repair and/or Inspection 3,100 MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
Hydraulic Repair 3,100 Maintenance management requires the com-
Machining 6,200 bined efforts of all operating and maintenance per-
Marine Engine Repair 27,900 sonnel to ensure an effective and efficient
Metal Work 18,600 program.
Plumber/Pipefitter 3,100
Radio/Radar Repair 3,100 The terminal group and battalion commanders
Refrigeration/AirConditioning/ to which the unit’s operating craft are attached
Heating 3,100
Carpentry/Masonry 3,100
9-5
FM 55-50
are responsible for watercraft maintenance manage- EQUIPMENT RECORDS AND REPORTS
ment. Watercraft maintenance management The maintenance management update contains
includes — DA Pamphlet 738-750 which establishes equipment
• Establishing the requirements and proce- record keeping procedures and describes in detail
dures that allow adequate time to perform the use of forms and equipment records for
operator preventative maintenance checks watercraft and marine equipment maintenance. The
and services and to train personnel to recog- forms are used to record the operation, maintenance,
nize conditions that, if not corrected in a and historical data to manage the Army watercraft
timely manner, will lead to serious main- fleet.
tenance problems and excessive downtime Within the unit itself, the records are a main-
for watercraft and marine equipment.
tenance management tool for the commander. This
• Providing tools, test equipment, facilities, information permits the commander to properly
funds, and repair parts and other main- evaluate–
tenance supplies that are essential to the • Equipment operations.
maintenance mission.
• Modification work orders (MWOs) required
• Planning, programming, and budgeting for
proper use of maintenance resources. and applied.
• Equipment availability.
• Providing technical supervision and manage-
ment control over maintenance programs • Frequency of equipment failure.
and activities. • Repair parts requirements.
• Reviewing accomplishments relative to effec-
• Unit materiel readiness.
tive and economical uses of maintenance
resources. • Equipment shortcomings and deficiencies.
9-6
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 10
INTRODUCTION
Reporting and investigating watercraft acci- • Accidents occurring during amphibious or
dents in a complete and timely manner is extremely on-shore warfare training.
important. This chapter gives procedures to inves- • Fatal or nonfatal injury to military personnel
tigate watercraft accidents and to write reports ac- on or off duty.
cording to AR 385-40. • Fatal or nonfatal injury to on-duty Army
This chapter covers watercraft under DA juris- civilian personnel, including nonap-
diction that are– propriated fund employees and foreign na-
• Used in LOTS operations, CHI waterways, tionals employed by the Army, incurred
and ocean operations. during performance of duties while in a work-
• Identified in AR 56-9, Table 1-1.
compensable status.
• Fatal or nonfatal occupational injury or ill-
• Operated and exclusively controlled or
ness to Army military personnel, Army
directed by the Army. This includes civilian employees, nonappropriated fund
watercraft furnished by a contractor or employees, or foreign nationals employed by
another government agency when operated the Army.
by Army watercraft personnel. • Fatal or nonfatal injury or illness to non-
• Lent or leased to non-Army organizations for Army personnel or damage to non-Army
modification, maintenance, repair, test, con- property.
tractor, research, or development projects
for the Army. Watercraft accidents do not include accidents
that are reportable under other major categories in
• Under test by Army agencies responsible for AR 385-40; for example, aircraft, missile, or chemical
research, development, and testing of equip- agent accidents.
ment.
REASONS TO INVESTIGATE AND REPORT AC-
• Under operational control of a contractor.
CIDENTS
This chapter does not negate the vessel master’s Watercraft accidents are investigated and
responsibility to report any applicable watercraft ac- reported to save personnel and equipment by iden-
cident, injury, or death involving commercial tifying problem areas (deficiencies) as early as pos-
watercraft or property to the USCG. sible. Thus changes, corrections, and
WATERCRAFT ACCIDENT countermeasures can be developed and imple-
mented before more people are hurt or killed or
A watercraft accident is an unplanned event or equipment is damaged, destroyed, or lost.
series of events that results in one or more of the
following: If accidents are not reported, problems will go
undetected. People will continue to be injured and
Accidents occurring while loading, off-load- equipment damaged.
ing, or receiving services at dockside.
If a problem is never reported, the responsible
Damage to Army property (including person will not know there is a problem. Nothing will
government-furnished material, government be done to fix it, and people will continue to suffer.
property, or government-furnished equip-
ment provided to a contractor).
10-1
FM 55-50
WHAT TO INVESTIGATE AND REPORT For accidents that require a board investigation,
All watercraft accidents must be reported, see AR 385-40. For watercraft accidents that require
regardless of class, to the local activity or installation a DA Form 285, the commander or supervisor direct-
safety office. However, only certain accidents re- ly responsible for the operation, materiel, or people
quire completion and submission of DA Form 285 involved in the accident will make sure that –
(US Army Accident Report). These recordable ac- • An investigation is performed to obtain the
cidents include Classes A, B, C, and D accidents (see facts and circumstances of the accident for
AR 385-40 for details). accident prevention purposes only (AR 385-
The Army classifies accidents by severity of in- 40).
•
jury and property damage. These classes (A through Evidence is preserved per AR 385-40.
D) are used to determine the appropriate investiga- • DA Form 285 is completed according to in-
tive and reporting procedures. structions on the form. The form must be
A Class A accident has a total cost of reportable forwarded through the installation safety of-
damage of $1,000,000 or more; destroys an Army fice to the Army Safety Center for recording
aircraft, watercraft, missile, or spacecraft; or has an in the Army Safety Management Information
occupational illness that results in a fatality or per- System (ASMIS) within 30 days of the acci-
manent total disability. dent. Army national guard reports will be
A Class B accident has a total cost of reportable sent to the state safety office.
property damage of $200,000 or more, but less than ACCIDENT REPORT
$1,000,000; an injury and/or occupational illness that Watercraft accidents must be reported on DA
results in permanent partial disability, or five or more Form 285. The report is prepared according to AR
people hospitalized as inpatients.
385-40.
A Class C accident has a total cost of property NOTE: This report is intended only for ac-
damage of $10,000 or more, but less than $200,000; a cident prevention purposes and will not be
nonfatal injury that causes any loss of time from work used for administrative or disciplinary ac-
beyond the day or shift on which it occurred; or a tions within the DOD.
nonfatal illness or disability that causes loss of time
from work or disability at any time (lost time case). In addition to the DA Form 285 report,
A Class D accident has a cost of property watercraft accidents invoking grounding that creates
damage of $2,000 or more, but less than $10,000; or a hazard to navigation or watercraft safety or any
a nonfatal injury that does not meet the criteria of a occurrence that affects the watercraft’s seaworthi-
Class C accident (no time was lost or time lost was ness or fitness for service (including, but not limited
restricted to the day or shift on which the injury to fire, flooding, or damage to fixed fire extinguishing
occurred). systems, life saving equipment, or bilge pumping sys-
tems) will be reported to the Transportation Branch
NOTE: Property damage is defined as the Marine Safety Office, ATTN: ATZF-CSS, Fort Eus-
cost to repair or replace. Property damage tis, VA 23604-5113 within 24 hours.
costs are separated from personnel in- The following additional information will be in-
jury/illness costs for classifying A through C
accidents. cluded with the DA Form 285 as an enclosure:
• Time and place of commencement of voyage
RESPONSIBILITIES and destination.
If an Army watercraft is involved in an accident, • Direction and force of current.
the vessel master/operator must report the accident
as soon as possible in accordance with AR 385-40. • Direction and force of wind.
This is before and in addition to a later detailed DA • Visibility in yards.
Form 285 report.
• Tide and sea conditions.
10-2
FM 55-50
10-3
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 11
11-1
FM 55-50
beach face becomes steeper and the bar tends to vehicles, tracked (LVTs) and other tracked
disappear or become discontinuous. These vehicles sink into beaches with a soft bottom and
beaches rarely have more than one bar. lose traction. Wheeled vehicles may dig into sand
Beaches of moderate slope are mainly com- or mud and become immobilized.
posed of moderately fine sand. They may have a Mud and sand bottoms may be either firm or
gravel berm at extreme high water. Where a bar soft, depending on the percentage of sand. A mud
exists, currents are always present in the channel bottom over a rock base may be satisfactory if the
shoreward of the bar. With waves parallel to the mud is not more than 1 or 2 feet (.3 or .6 meters) deep.
beach, these currents are low velocity. When Coral heads, rocks, and other underwater obstruc-
breakers are at an angle to the beach, they may reach tions in shallow waters near shore can cause bent
a velocity of 4 knots. This flow normally follows the propellers and shafts, broken skegs, and punctured
channel for some distance, then flows out over the hulls. Rocks covered with algae are extremely dif-
bar at low points 400 to 5,000 feet apart. These ficult for personnel to walk on and may cause
partial channels are called rips, and currents flowing wheeled vehicles to lose traction.
to sea maybe very strong. Where the beach face is
steep, strong currents also exist in the inner surf SANDBARS
zone. Sandbars are likely to develop offshore of long,
Beaches with slopes of 1:30 to 1:300 have gentle, sandy beaches that are exposed to continuous wave
mild, or flat gradients. Plunging breakers are less action. On aerial photographs of quiet sea and clear
common on these beaches; spilling breakers are the water, sandbars appear as a narrow band of light
rule. Plunging breakers are usually the result of a tone against a dark bottom. On photographs of
temporarily steep section of the profile. These rough water, sandbars are detected by a line of
beaches often have several bars. Where long period breakers outside the normal surf zone.
swells and short period waves exist, a certain amount A sandbar indicates a sandy bottom offshore
of spilling takes place on the outer bar. Spilling and unless there are visible rock outcrops, probably
may obliterate the wind waves, and the swell may a smooth, sandy bottom inshore of the bar. These
re-form behind the bar and plunge on one of the characteristics, when accompanied by sand dunes
subsequent bars or the beach face. Unless partly behind the beach, indicate that the beach is mostly
protected, beaches of flat gradient usually have sand. Surf is likely on such beaches. The height of
several offshore bars. These beaches consist of fine the surf can usually be estimated accurately under a
sand. A pea gravel or gravel beach face is sometimes given wind or sea swell condition if the approximate
found at the mouths of small creeks. In channels depth over the sandbar is known.
between bars, currents may be very strong. Sandbars can be a serious menace to landings.
SEA BOTTOM Craft may run hard aground on them while still
Sea bottoms most nearly ideal for landing craft some distance from the beach loading or discharge
point. When this occurs and an appreciable sea is
and amphibian operations have coarse sand, shell, breaking on the bar, the craft may swamp and
and gravel bottoms and similar foreshore beach broach to. If troops debark while the craft is hung
composition. These bottoms are firm and usually on a sandbar, they may be endangered due to depth
smooth; but bank, bar, and shoal formations are of water, strong currents, or a soft bottom between
common. Bottom compositions of soft mud or the bar and the beach. Rather than be endangered,
fine, loose sand can be hazardous to boats, personnel should remain aboard the craft. Succes-
vehicles, and personnel. Soft mud and loose sand sive seas may lift the craft over the bar. Then the
could foul the engine cooling systems. Crews on craft can proceed to the beach.
craft equipped with beaching tanks rely on this
supply of cooling water during beaching opera- If the sea condition permits and the craft is
tions to prevent engine fouling. Crews on vessels unlikely to free itself from the bar, personnel should
not equipped with beaching tanks must clean the be transferred to wheeled amphibians and salvage
sea strainers often to ensure the engine gets an begun to retrieve the craft. Tidal variations influence
adequate supply of cooling water. Landing the times when beachings can be attempted.
11-2
FM 55-50
Even though there are no bars on a beach at the • The second type of bar is crescent-shaped
initial landing, the scouring action of the propellers and extends convexly out from the mouths
of beached landing craft may create them. After of rivers and from the bottleneck entrance
several days, a built-up bar of this type may be large of bays. Such bars are often shallow
enough to prevent the satisfactory beaching of LSTs enough to seriously hinder landing craft.
and similar vessels. Alternating beaching sites While it may be advantageous to use
reduces this hazard. beaches in estuaries and bays where the
Small sandbars may be formed between run- surf is low, access to these areas may be
nels within the tidal range on foreshores having a difficult because of high breakers
slight slope. The height of these bars is seldom associated with the crescent bars charac-
more than 2 feet (.6 meter) from the bottom of the teristic of these locations. Although the
trough to the top of the crest. However, such bars position of the channel may shift, it is likely
are hazardous to operations because landing craft to remain in the same general location and
may ground on the crests and troops and equip- is readily spotted from the air. While no
ment must cross the stream of water to reach the direct evidence proves this fact conclusive-
dry shore. If the bottom of the runnel is silt, ly, this type of bar probably deepens during
vehicles and heavy equipment may bog down. It high surf.
may be necessary to beach the craft at high tide and • The third type of bar is the type which
unload it after the water has receded to a point parallels most sand beaches. In some
where matting can be laid across the troughs. areas, they occur only during the season of
largest waves. Elsewhere, they persist
Whenever bars are present, the wave crests throughout the year. Longitudinally, these
peak up as the waves roll over the bar. The water bars may continue for miles. However, they
depth over the bar and the wave height determine are more likely to develop off some por-
if breaking takes place on or near the bar. If water tions of a beach more often than others.
depth over the bar is more than twice the sig- Breaks in the bars can be detected from the
nificant breaker height, nearly all waves pass over air. The typical depth of the longshore bar
the bar without breaking, but crests peak up dis- ranges from 3 to 15 feet below mean low
tinctly. If the depth is between one and two times water. In some very sandy areas, a series of
the breaker height, waves break near the bar, some bars may extend miles out to sea; the fur-
on the bar itself, and others on the shoreward side. thest ones have a depth too great to inter-
All waves break on the seaward side when the fere with watercraft operations.
water depth over the bar is less than the breaker
height. Frequently, more than one bar exists with High surf greatly modifies bar depth and dis-
waves breaking and re-forming and breaking again tance from shore. There is a rough relationship
on another bar or on the beach. between bar depth and the maximum breaker height
during the preceding one or two weeks. If the
Various types of bars are found off shorelines. breakers remain constant in height long enough, the
However, three common types of submerged bar attains a depth slightly less than the depth of
sandbars exist: breaking at low tide. Large waves do not ordinarily
• The first type is found offshore of many last long enough to cause this adjustment.
large rivers and is often associated with ROCKS
deltas. The multiple bars of this type
cover a large area and have a wide range Rocks on a beach may limit the shore
in depth often extending above sea level. approaches so that only a few craft can land at once.
Charts of these bars are only accurate at the This prevents a large-scale landing and restricts
time they are made since the bars change beach operations. However, one or two rocky
tremendously in size and position during patches fronting a beach do not present a serious
floods and high surf. Generally floods obstacle. There is slight chance that craft will strike
decrease the depth and increase the area of rocky patches that have been properly marked with
the bar. High surf has the opposite effect. buoys.
11-3
FM 55-50
In a heavy sea, waves break over rocky patches water changes color near the island from
on the bottom. A light sea with waves breaking on deep blue to light brown. The chief obstacles
the rocks indicates that the rocks are dangerously on the seaward side of an atoll reef are the
close to the surface. marginal ridge with its consequent surf and
REEFS the scattered boulders of the reef, which are
difficult to spot. The inshore part of the reef
Coral reefs are found in shallow salt water in is usually critical in landing operations.
tropical areas. The three general types of reefs are– Often it is a band from 50 to 100 yards wide
• Fringing reefs that are attached to the land. (45.7 to 91.4 meters) with boulders that may
The reef may be only a few feet wide and is impede vehicular progress. On the whole,
seldom more than a mile wide. Inshore the surface of an atoll reef is more favorable
boat channels are often present on fringing for crossing than the surface of a fringing or
reefs, but they do not occur when the reef barrier reef. On the lagoon side, the beaches
is narrow and exposed to heavy surf action. are apt to be composed of softer sand than
These boat channels are about 1 to 5 feet the seaward beaches. A landing on the
(.3 to 1.5 meters) deeper than the rest of the lagoon side should be undertaken at high
reef surface and may be 10 to 50 yards (9.1 tide, and the numerous coral colums that
to 45.7 meters) wide. These channels run grow in shallow water near the shore must be
parallel and close to the shore, open bypassed.
seaward through breaks in the reef, and SEAWEED
may continue for a nautical mile (1.852
kilometers) or more. The channels trap Seaweed is usually found in calm waters. It
sediment brought down from the land or may interfere with the operation of landing craft
shifted inshore from the seaward side of the and wheeled or tracked amphibians. The marine
reef. This sediment is often quite fine, growth may consist of free-floating minute par-
giving the boat channels a bottom of sand ticles that clog sea strainer intakes for engine cool-
or mud, although clumps of coral may live ing water, or it maybe a thick, heavy type of weed
in them. Generally, they are deep enough that fouls propellers and tracks.
for the smaller landing craft and too deep CURRENTS
for troops to wade.
When visibility is poor, water currents of vari-
• Barrier reefs that lie offshore and are able direction and low, changing velocity may inter-
separated from the land by a lagoon. There fere with or prevent landing at the designated
may be a fringing reef on the land side of point on a beach. When alongshore currents are
the barrier reef. Barrier reefs vary in width anticipated, unmistakable markers or landmarks are
from a few hundred feet (meters) to more needed to identify the beach and the approach lines.
than a nautical mile (1.852 kilometers) and Even though landing craft compasses may be
may have reef islands on them. properly compensated the current and weather may
• Atoll reefs. These barrier reefs enclose prevent boat operators from following the intended
lagoons. They usually have a crescent course. Therefore, all boat operators must be aware
shape with the convex side toward the sea. of natural and artificial ranges that can be used to
They may contain reef islands, or heads, mark beach approaches during day and night opera-
composed of accumulated debris from the tions. Directing individual craft by radio from a
reef. These circular, drumlike islands are radar-equipped command and control boat or from
seldom more than 10 to 15 feet (3.1 to 4.0 the vessel being discharged is a satisfactory method
meters) higher than the reef flat. They during reduced visibility.
may be up to 100 feet (30.5 meters) in A strong alongshore current may contribute to
diameter with a low, swampy interior. the broaching-to of craft. A broached-to condition
The water surrounding a coral island is exists when a craft is cast parallel to the current or
usually smooth, and the island’s presence surf and grounded such that maneuverability is
may not be indicated by surf. However, the greatly reduced. To prevent this condition, boat
11-4
FM 55-50
operators must be extremely careful when breakers. The neck occurs where the feeder currents
approaching, retracting from, or trying to maintain converge and flow through the breakers in a narrow
a position on a beach. Broaching-to is dangerous if band or rip. The head occurs where the current
a surf is running since the craft can be swamped or widens and slackens outside the breaker line. The
driven higher onto the beach. In either case, assis- neck of a rip current is distinguished by a stretch of
tance will probably be needed to recover the boat. unbroken water in the breaker line. The outer line
Unloading broached-to craft is difficult. Injury to of the current in the head is usually marked by
personnel and damage to the craft and its cargo may patches of foam and broken water similar to rip tides.
result from attempts to remove cargo when the craft The head is usually discolored by silt in suspension.
is not perpendicular to the surf or current. If there Troughs cut into the sand by rip currents with a
are very strong alongshore currents, the beach may velocity of more than 2 knots (3.7 kilometers per
become cluttered with broached-to and swamped hour) may form hazards for landing craft. From the
boats unless broaching lines are used or breakwaters air, a rip current appears as a narrow band of agitated
and jetties are constructed. water usually marked by breakers.
Offshore and inshore currents are very impor- Waves piling water against the coast cause rip
tant to watercraft operations. Offshore currents currents. This water flows alongshore until bottom
are found outside the surf zone. Tidal currents irregularities deflect it seaward or until it meets
predominate around the entrances to bays and another current and flows out through the
sounds, in channels between islands, or between an breakers. Once feeder and rip currents form, they
island and the mainland. Tidal currents change cut troughs in the sand and remain in constant
direction every 6 to 12 hours and may reach position until wave conditions change. Rip cur-
velocities of several knots in narrow sounds. On rents are commonly found at the heads of indenta-
the surface, tidal currents may be visible as tide rips tions in the coast. When waves break at an angle
or as areas of broken water and white caps. Tidal on an irregular coast, the rips may be found
currents are predictable; they repeat themselves as opposite small headlands that deflect the currents
regularly as the tides to which they relate. Nontidal seaward. Anytime waves break at an angle to the
currents are related to the distribution of density beach, currents form in the surf zone. If the beach
in the ocean and the effects of wind. Currents of is straight, currents flow along the beach as
this type are constant for long periods and vary in longshore currents. If the beach is irregular, cur-
direction and velocity during different seasons. rents flow along the shore for a short distance and
then flow out to sea as rips.
Breaking waves create shore currents within
the surf zone. Longshore currents flow parallel to SURF
the shoreline inside the breakers, are commonly Ocean waves arise as a result of local and off-
found along straight beaches, and are caused by shore winds on the ocean surface. Two types of
waves breaking at an angle to the beach. Their surface waves are produced: wind waves and swells.
velocity increases with increased breaker height,
increased angle to the beach (waves arriving paral- Wind waves are usually steep with a short time
lel to the beach have an angle of 0 degrees to the between successive crests. Frequently, the crests
beach), and steep beach slopes. Velocity break in deep water. When crests are small, they are
decreases as wave periods increase. Longshore called whitecaps. When crests are large, they are
currents are predictable, but the forecast called combers or breaking seas. In deep water,
accuracy depends on the accuracy of the wave these waves seriously affect the performance of
forecast on which it is based. Where longshore small craft.
currents are common, sandbars are usually Swells result from storms great distances from
present. the coast. They are characterized by a long,
Rip currents flow out from shore through the smooth undulation of the sea surface. These waves
breaker line in narrow rips and are found on almost never break in deep water, and time between suc-
all open coasts. These currents consist of three parts: cessive crests may be very long. Small craft in deep
the feeder current, the neck, and the head. The water are not affected by swell; however, swell does
feeder current flows parallel to the shore inside the cause larger vessels to roll and pitch in deep water.
11-5
FM 55-50
In shallow water, swells increase in height. Upon NOTE: The relationship between beach
reaching a sufficiently shallow depth, swells may give slope and the ratio of deepwater wave
rise to an immense surf that may damage shore instal- height to deepwater wave period is shown
lations or make harbor entrances impassable. in Figure 11-1. This figure is an ideal
Wind waves and swell usually coexist in open presentation and does not consider such
water. Wind waves may completely obscure swell influences as offshore bars and wind chop.
until near the shore where the swell peaks to a greater Plunging breakers usually occur on steep
height. This may be the first time the small craft beaches rather than flat ones. The disturbing condi-
operator becomes aware of the swell. Swell arising tions, irregular profile, and bottom irregularities of a
from distant storms approaches the coast at high flat beach make it more suitable to spilling breakers.
speeds. In the case of a large offshore disturbance, However, when plunging breakers do occur on flat
the swell usually arrives at the shoreline ahead of the beaches, the beach is unusually regular, or has a
storm. For this reason, vessels trying to reach har- temporarily steep section of beach in the breaker
bors ahead of a storm may find the entrance impass- zone. Beaches in protected bays and estuaries sub-
able due to breaking swell. ject only to waves that have undergone considerable
The most important difference between refraction or diffraction almost always produce
breakers of similar height is whether the breakers plunging breakers. Under these conditions, the
are the plunging, spilling, or intermediate surging beach profile is normally very regular, disturbing
type. Because of the force of energy exerted in a influences are minimal, and short period wind waves
plunging breaker, its impact on watercraft is have been screened out.
greater than that of a spilling breaker. The angle at which waves break in respect to
In a plunging breaker, the energy of the wave is shoreline contours generates a number of com-
released in a sudden downwardly directed mass of plications to landcraft operations. Short-period
water. The wave peaks up until it is an advancing waves, wind waves, and chop do not undergo any
vertical wall of water. The crest then curls over and great change of direction when approaching a
drops violently into the preceding trough where the beach. If their deepwater angle of approach is not
water surface is essentially horizontal. During this normal to the beach, they will break at an angle.
process, much air is trapped in the waves. This air Long-period waves reaching a beach with steep
escapes explosively behind the waves throwing water offshore slopes may not undergo sufficient refrac-
high above the surface. The loud explosive sound of tion to eliminate the effects of direction on the
the plunging breaker easily identifies it during dark- breaker angle. These conditions cause the wave to
ness or fog. first strike the beach at one end or the other. The
breaking process continues down the beach in the
In a spilling breaker, energy is not released at direction the waves were traveling. This action sets
once, and the breaking process occurs over a large up a current in the surf zone traveling parallel to
distance as the breaker travels toward the beach. the shore and in the same direction as the wave.
The wave peaks up until it is very steep, but not For high waves of great angle, this current maybe
vertical. Only the topmost portion of the crest as great as 3 or 4 knots and imposes difficulty on
curls over and descends on the forward slope of landing craft traversing the surf zone. These
the advancing wave where it slides down into the currents have a much greater velocity in certain
trough. This process starts at scattered points that parts of the surf zone. To successfully traverse
converge until the wave becomes an advancing line the surf zone, landing craft must first estimate the
of foam. direction and total distance of drift and then direct
A surging breaker is seen less often than a a course so that the craft meets the breaker’s crest
plunging or spilling breaker. In a surging breaker, head on or directly astern.
the wave crest advances faster than the base of the The breaker or wave period affects the speed
wave looking like a plunging breaker. The base of the at which the craft encounters breaking waves.
wave then advances faster than the crest. The Short period storm waves from local sources may
plunging is arrested and the breaker surges up the occur every 6 to 12 seconds. At this frequency, a
beach face. craft does not have the opportunity to pass the
11-6
FM 55-50
breaking wave. Such continuous impact may cause As a deepwater wave approaches a beach, it
an operator to lose his bearing and become dis- begins to peak up as it feels bottom and continues
oriented. Long period waves may occur every 10 to to increase in height until it breaks. Breakers are
20 seconds. On steepbeaches, landing craft can pass normally larger than they appear from the beach.
through the breaker zone between waves. Figure 11-2 shows a method to visually estimate
Generally, breakers occurring farthest from breaker height.
shore are the highest. This results from an offshore
bottom configuration equivalent in effect to a sub- NOTE: The observer on the beach adjusts
marine ridge. This configuration leads waves to con- his position vertically so his line of sight
verge immediately toward shore. Conversely, areas corresponds with an imaginary line from
in the surf zone where outer breakers persistently the top of the breaker to the horizon. The
break closer to shore than elsewhere generally have vertical distance from this line to the lower
lower breakers caused by divergence over a small limit of the backwash is the approximate
channel. Rip currents in small channels complicate height of the breaker. The lower limit of
the refraction pattern in these areas. Normally, two the backwash is the lower limit of the
opposing situations are present: currents that make trough between breakers close to the
the waves converge and the partial channel that beach. This system is less accurate as the
makes the waves diverge. If the first condition distance between the observer and the
prevails, the waves may completely converge and wave increases.
break in the middle of the channel. These waves
almost invariably are spilling breakers.
11-7
FM 55-50
Surf characteristics can vary considerably Swell from a distant wind area causes surf
with respect to time and location. The degree — of zones with regular crests, plunging breakers, and
variability is difficult to determine. A sequence long lines of foam. Breaker or wave period ranges
of waves often seems to have regular charac- from 8 to 15 seconds, and the crest length at break-
teristics, but surf characteristics are as irregular ing is usually greater than 150 feet. Offshore waves
as the ocean bottom topography over which the appear low and rounded. Immediately before
swell travels en route to the beach. Any wave breaking they peak up sharply, sometimes doubling
system can develop an exceptionally high wave. their deepwater height.
Its exact time and location can never be The importance of beach slope to surf is in its
predicted. Because of breaker variations, surf
observers should record at least 100 breakers to effect on the width of the surf zone. The breaker
obtain representative values. Under combat line that represents the seaward border of the surf
conditions, a sample of 50 breaker heights is zone is found where the depth to the bottom is
acceptable. about 1.3 times the significant breaker height.
With 6-foot breakers, the breaker line is located
The speed of a breaker depends on the depth where the depth to the bottom is about 8 feet,
of breaking. For a 6-foot breaker, the depth of regardless of slope. On a beach with a slope of
breaking is 8 feet, and the breaker advances with a 1:10, the breaker line for 6-foot breakers would be
speed of about 10 knots. The relationship of about 80 feet from the shoreline; with a slope of
breaker height to breaker speed of advance is 1:50, about 400 feet (Figure 11-3).
shown in Table 11-1.
Off a very steep beach, there are no lines of
The surf zone may be divided into two foam inside the breaker line. After breaking, each
categories: that caused by local winds and that wave rushes violently up the shore face and hits any
caused by swell from a distant wind area or fetch. A beached craft with great force. On a flat beach,
combination of these categories may cause the surf there are numerous lines of advancing foam. The
zone to assume a mixed and irregular character. energy of the waves is expended during the ad-
Local wind waves cause a surf zone with short, vance through the surf zone, and there is only a
irregular crests, spilling breakers, and a generally gentle uprush and backrush on the beach.
confused aspect. The steep offshore waves have When a wave approaches a straight coast at an
many white caps. The crests do not increase in angle, the part of the wave first reaching shallow
height before they break. The wave period is water slows down, while the part still in deep water
usually every 5 or 6 seconds. Surf zones of this speeds on. The slowing wave crest then swings
category are found along the continental coasts around and parallels the coastline. This bending of
outside the tropics and in confined waters. the crests is called refraction. Refraction also occurs
when waves travel over an irregular bottom.
11-8
FM 55-50
11-9
FM 55-50
The portion of a wave over a submarine ridge Tidal range also varies with coastal configura-
slows down, while the portion on either side swings tion and barometric pressure.
in toward the ridge. When the waves swing together, The stage of the tide affects the width of the
each crest is squeezed and the wave height increases. beach and, accordingly, the type of surf, the depth
Heavy surf is found wherever a submarine ridge runs
out from a coast. of water over sandbars and reefs, the width of
exposed beach that must be traversed, and the
A submarine canyon has the opposite effect. requirements for special equipment to facilitate
The portion of the wave over the canyon travels debarkation. Extreme tidal ranges may restrict
faster than the portions on either side and fans out. unloading to the period of high tide. This requires
When the wave fans out, the crest is stretched and maximum speed of operation and a rapid, heavy
wave height decreases. Refraction also causes buildup of supplies in the early stages of a landing.
waves to swing in behind islands and peninsulas
where they would not normally reach if they If there is a relatively large tidal range on a
continued in their original direction. The gently sloping beach, water may rise or descend on
amount of protection afforded by headlands, the beach so rapidly that craft are stranded on a
peninsulas, islands, and other obstructions dry bottom before they can retract. This may put
depends as much on underwater topography as on a critical number of craft out of action until the next
the coastline’s shape. rise of tide. If, in addition to a flat gradient, the
bottom has many irregularities, a fall in the tide
may ground craft far from the beach proper. Per-
TIDE sonnel will have to debark and wade ashore
Tide is the periodic rise and fall of water through these pools. If the pools are deep, a con-
siderable loss of equipment can be expected.
caused mainly by the gravitational effect of the
moon and the sun on the rotating earth. In addi- In some cases the effect of the tide may require
tion to the rise and fall in a vertical plane, there is that craft be held at the beach as the tide recedes,
horizontal movement called tidal current. When discharging their cargo while resting high and dry on
the tidal current flows shoreward, it is called flood the exposed beach. The craft then retracts on the
current; when it flows seaward, it is ebb current. following tide.
High tide, or high water, is the rising tide’s The force of an unusually strong wind exerted
maximum height. Low tide, or low water, is the on the tide at the landing area may greatly alter the
falling tide’s minimum height. The difference width of beach available for operations. Along
between the level of water at high and low tides is with an ebbing tide, a strong offshore wind may
the range of tide. blow all the water off the beach and, on a gentle
The period of tide is the time interval from gradient, the water level may recede to an extreme
distance from the beach proper. Personnel and
one low tide to the following low tide or from one material must then pass over a wide exposed beach.
high tide to the next high tide. These intervals On the other hand, a powerful onshore wind can
average 12 hours and 25 minutes at most places. increase the advance of high tide to such an
About every 2 weeks, during the new moon and extent that beach installations and activities
the full moon, the highest high water and the are endangered or flooded.
lowest low water occur. The combined attractive
influences of the sun and moon on the water at Where obstacles do not exist, a landing on a
these times cause this unusually large range of flood tide is generally preferred so that craft may be
tide. These tides are spring tides. When the beached and retracted readily. Normally, it is
moon is in its first and third quarters, the attrac- desirable to set the time for landing 2 or 3 hours
tive influences of the sun and the moon oppose before high tide.
each other and the range of tide is unusual1y WIND
small. Tides during these times are neap tides.
Tides occurring when the moon is at its maximum Wind velocity, the distance spanned by the
semimonthly decline are called tropic tides. wind, the duration of the wind, and decay distance
During tropic tides, the daily range increases. influence swell and surf functions on the beach.
11-10
FM 55-50
Winds at or near the surface of the earth have been must consider beaching conditions, unloading
classified, and their characteristics are known and conditions, speed of vessels, the effect of wind
predictable. Some surface winds are very deep and and sea on the tides, and the physical condition
extend for miles into the air. Some are shallow, such of the troops.
as the land breeze, and extend only a few hundred Alternate plans for a waterborne movement
feet (meters) above the surface. Winds aloft may must consider possible variations from average
blow in a direction opposite to surface winds. weather. Weather conditions en route to the area
Velocity and direction may vary with different must also be considered. In a tactical operation,
elevations. maximum advantage must be taken of weather con-
The velocity and duration of the wind and the ditions that might conceal an approach to the objec-
size of the water area over which the wind has acted tive area.
to produce waves govern the growth of waves. If the approach is made in calm, clear weather,
Swells are waves that have progressed beyond the the enemy can locate the attack force and the
area of influence of the generating winds. landing area more easily, and his air attacks will
A very rough sea disrupts landing schedules not be impeded. Bad weather, storms, fog, and
and formations by restricting the speed and winds affect the movement, but they also force the
maneuverability of craft. Normal control and enemy to rely on more indirect and less depend-
coordination problems become more complex. able means of attack and of determining the target
Planners must consider the effects of heavy seas area.
on landing craft when establishing timetables, Weather information is a communications
distances to be traveled on the water, and loads priority so that plans may be made or altered
to be carried. With an excessive or poorly dis- without delay, especially if unusual weather condi-
tributed load, boats may list severely or tions are anticipated. In estimating the effects of
even sink. Extremely rough conditions may weather on an operation, planners must consider
necessitate removing loads from the craft and the –
placing the craft aboard another vessel or in a
safe haven. • Direction and speed of winds at the surface
When a rough sea is anticipated, craft carry and in the upper air, the likelihood of storms,
smaller loads and proceed cautiously. Ship-to-shore and the nature of storms typical to the target
distances are reduced as much as feasible. Since the area.
unloading of equipment and supplies may be • Distance at which objects can be seen
restricted by heavy seas, priorities must be estab- horizontally at the surface and both horizon-
lished for critical items so that the most essential tally and vertically in the upper air.
shore requirements are met as quickly as possible. • Restrictions imposed on visibility by fog,
WEATHER INFORMATION haze, rain, sleet, or snow.
Weather information about the area of opera- • Effect of extreme temperatures on personnel
tions must be analyzed carefully to determine the and materiel.
probable effect of weather on craft operations and • Effect of excessive rain or snow on personnel
working conditions. Early in the planning stage, the and materiel.
battalion commander must find out what source will
furnish weather information and in what manner. WEATHER FORECASTS
The success of a tactical operation may depend Weather prediction is based on an under-
on a sequence of several favorable days after the standing of weather processes and observations of
initial landing has been made. The most important present conditions. Weather forecasts are based
consideration is the sea and swell caused by high on past changes and present trends. In areas
winds and storms. Excessive sea and swell may end where certain sequences follow with great
the movement of later serials, thus placing the assault regularity, the probability of an accurate forecast
troops in a precarious position ashore. P1anners is very high. In transitional areas (or areas where
11-11
FM 55-50
11-12
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 12
TOWING OPERATIONS
12-1
FM 55-50
12-2
FM 55-50
general characteristics of the tow, type of cargo, riding crew. However, there are exceptions. It is far
towing gear, lights, and emergency gear aboard the better to secure the tow properly than to provide a
tow. riding crew as a substitute security.
Hulls not considered seaworthy for open UNMANNED TOWS
ocean should be transported as deck cargo on
heavy-lift, SEABEE, or float-on/float-off ships. Barges, floating cranes, dredges, pontoons, pile
Only under extreme emergency situations should drivers, dry docks, and ships can be towed without
open ocean towing be attempted when the tow is riding crews. Any hull considered seaworthy can be
not considered seaworthy. towed unmanned. A seaworthy hull has watertight
integrity, structural soundness, proper position of
TOWING SHIPS the centers of gravity and buoyancy, and good
All ships can tow in an emergency; however, stability characteristics. All cargo and equipment is
only properly designed and outfitted tugs make secured.
good towing ships. Characteristically, a tug’s Long-distance and valuable tows without a
superstructure is set forward, allowing the towing riding crew should be periodically boarded and
point to be close to the ship’s pivot point. The inspected. Since the operation is often difficult and
towing point is located far from the rudder and hampered by weather and sea condition, the inspec-
screws so that it allows the towline to sweep the tion should be well planned and executed promptly
stern rail. High horsepower, slow speed, large rud- and efficiently.
der, towing machine, power capstans, towing
points, and a clear fantail characterize a good tug. Using an inflatable boat to transport the
inspecting party to and from the tow is recom-
All ships can tow and be towed in an emergency. mended. This boat should be equipped with an
Ships not equipped for towing can use the anchor outboard engine whether or not it is veered aft on
chain, wire straps, nylon lines, or any combination a line. This greatly enhances its maneuverability
necessary. A good catenary ensures spring in the and permits its recovery if the veering line parts.
towline. S1ow speed transfers the lowest dynamic When preparing a crane, dredge, pile driver, or
load from the towing ship to the tow. Large ships
can easily overpower the tow and excessively strain other floating equipment designed for operation in
the towline. The towing ship should keep engine sheltered waters, it may be necessary to remove high
revolutions low for the highest torque and lowest weights; to secure booms, ladders, deck structures,
strain and surging. ballast, and trim; and to perform other unique func-
tions due to the hull’s design.
ROUTINE AND RESCUE TOWING
Senior marine deck and engineering officers
Administrative point-to-point towing is routine (MOS 880A2/881A2) should thoroughly analyze
and ensures that both the tug and tow are seaworthy the configuration and modifications to the hull and
and prepared for the transit. recommend it for open ocean towing. Nothing is
Rescue towing requires prompt action, often derived from taking a marginal tow to sea only to
under pressing circumstances of a war zone, salvage lose it.
operation, or inclement weather. INSPECTION OF TOWS
MANNED TOWS Inspection must be complete and comprehen-
If a continuous watch is required on the tow, a sive. Tows should be properly trimmed, not over-
riding crew is placed aboard the tow. The riding loaded, and secured for sea. Deficiencies must be
identified and corrected before acceptance.
crew provides security, fire watch, damage control,
line handling, communication, flooding watch, and All secured gear is inspected to ensure it is
defense. It provides the nucleus for fire fighting, properly tied down. Turnbuckles with wire rope
damage control, and defensive actions. tie-downs are used with good holding results.
Manila line lashings effectively hold light gear.
Under normal conditions, and after proper After all gear is secured, tie-downs and lashings
securing for sea, most tows can be done without a are inspected to ensure all are taut and holding.
12-3
FM 55-50
Retightening of turnbuckles and lashings may be riding crew is aboard, shafts may be allowed to
necessary during long-range tows or prolonged freewheel. The craft’s rudder must be locked mid-
periods of time. This requires the tug’s crew to ships to prevent erratic behavior of the tow.
board the tow at sea, an inherently dangerous task. CATEGORIES OF RISK
When large units of high weight must be Commanding officers of the towing ship and
secured for sea, it is advantageous to weld them to the towed craft should agree to the conditions of
the deck. Welding requires extra time and effort, risk in towing the craft. Risk conditions are based
but the additional safety and security justifies it. on the seaworthiness and structural condition of
Tows are generally not dry-docked for inspec- the tow, expected sea and weather conditions for
tion before being accepted. Suitable hull inspec- the route, and the specifications of the towing ship.
tion consists of divers and internal observation and In acceptable risk, the hull, equipment, towing
measurements. If a number of checks along the gear, and towing ship are seaworthy and structurally
sides, between light and full load waterlines, show sound.
adequate thickness of the original hull side plating,
the bottom of the craft to be towed is assumed to In calculated risk, tow deficiencies are accepted.
be sound. A thorough internal inspection should The probability of tow safely reaching destination
be made. Note the bottom framing, plating, and varies with deficiencies.
welds in the forward one-fifth of the craft’s overall ADMINISTRATION
length. If no evidence of serious deterioration or
displacement of hull plating exists, the craft is con- The commanding officer of the towing ship
sidered structurally sound. administers the tow, even when the tow has a riding
If the inspection uncovers serious rusting or crew with an officer in charge. In assuming this
responsibility, the commanding officer of the
displacement of the frames, plating, bottom, or towing ship inspects administrative conditions on
weld seams (particularly in the forward one-fifth of the tow, with particular attention to–
the craft’s length), the craft should be dry-docked
and necessary repairs made. While in dry dock, • Personnel accounting.
magnetic particle checks (or their equivalent) of • Sanitation facilities.
bottom, side, butts, joints, decks, and inner bottom
should be made. All defective welds and plating • Safety, security, and lifesaving equipment on
should be repaired or replaced. Structural rein- board.
forcing and load distribution may be accomplished • General stores, provisions, equipment, and
with wood timbers. gear.
Craft should be examined thoroughly before • Communications.
towing to avoid special dry-docking of craft.
Thickness and magnetic particle checks made • Defensive capability.
during cyclic maintenance and resulting repairs If the tow is not satisfactorily prepared, the
should provide suitable supporting data to avoid commanding officer of the towing ship will so
special dry-docking. inform the tow’s command to correct deficiencies.
All flooding alarm systems should be inspected WEATHER
for proper installation and operations. Navigational
lights should be tested. Batteries, including Whenever possible, towing operations should
hydrometer reading, should be inspected and tested. be planned to take advantage of the best weather
There must be sufficient battery capacity to support conditions. Appropriate weather activities
the systems for the duration of the mission. All should be requested to provide 24-hour forecasts
flooding alarms and navigation lights should have every 12 hours along the intended route, commenc-
automatic lamp changers. ing 24 to 36 hours before departure and continuing
until arrival. Requests for special weather
Packing glands in the stern tube should be forecasts should include the intended route and
checked. The shafts should be properly locked. If a estimated speed.
12-4
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 13
BATTLE/CREW DRILLS
13-1
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 14
COMMUNICATIONS
14-1
FM 55-50
14-2
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 15
15-1
FM 55-50
They may range from a single logistics support To a lesser degree, strategic planners may consider
vessel (LSV) to a battalion-size watercraft unit. using Army vessels with ocean-going capabilities
Whatever the requirement, these units must during predeployment to transport limited cargo
deploy early, establish communication with from CONUS. During redeployment, Army water
echelon above corps (EAC) units, and rapidly transport units maybe tasked to support retrograde
engage in cargo movement to support LIC. operations.
Basic missions and tasks are still key require- Force Buildup
ments in LIC. Forces must be deployed sustained,
and redeployed. Army watercraft operations plan- During force buildup, Army water transport
ners must anticipate and be flexible and innovative. units have vital responsibilities. They transport
Without effective control of watercraft move- supplies and equipment from the seaport of
ments, the sustained synchronization of logistical debarkation (SPOD) and support COSCOM mis-
support to the military forces could severely limit sion objectives. Contingency operations planners
an operation’s success. and terminal commanders must plan for Army
watercraft use to relieve terminal congestion and
CORPS CONTINGENCY OPERATIONS shorten LOCs along coastal areas and the host
Planning for corps contingency operations nation inland waterway system.
consists of planning for predeployment, deploy- Employment
ment, buildup, employment, and redeployment The only difference between the employment
phases of a low- or mid-intensity conflict. Contin- and buildup phases is the attainment of military
gency operations planners normally plan Army objectives. Army water transport missions in the
water transport operations to support contingency area of operation remain the same.
forces during the buildup and employment phases.
15-2
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 16
RISK MANAGEMENT
16-1
FM 55-50
16-2
FM 55-50
Measure mission environment risk by compar- trols to reduce risks to an acceptable level. Control
ing the level of supervision to the task location. examples may include more planning; changes in
EXAMPLE: You are operating a causeway location, supervision, personnel, or equipment; or
ferry (CF) during a LOTS operation off the waiting for better weather.
coast. Severe weather is moving in. Safe DECISION LEVEL
haven is four hours away, but you have been The level of the decision maker should cor-
released only two hours before the weather respond to the level of the risk. The greater the risk,
hits. This places your vessel at high risk. the more senior the final decision maker should be.
Measure equipment risk by comparing the Medium risk training warrants complete unit
availability of mission essential equipment with the command involvement. If the risk level cannot be
readiness of that equipment. reduced, the company commander should decide to
EXAMPLE: You are an operator of a train or defer the mission.
LARC-60 carrying very important persons Operations with a high risk value warrant bat-
during a LOTS operation. You do not have talion involvement. If the risk level cannot be
an enough life jackets for personnel on reduced, the battalion commander should decide to
board. This places the crew and passengers train or defer the mission.
at high risk.
However, vessel masters aboard Army
After assessing all the risks, the overall risk value watercraft that are under way must make high risk
equals the highest risk identfied for anyone element. decisions based on their judgment of the situation.
Next, focus on high risk elements and develop con-
16-3
FM 55-50
16-4
FM 55-50
APPENDIX A
A-1
FM 55-50
would normally be delivered only to contaminated donning of protective clothing and gear, and operat-
areas for decontamination or disposal. ing in MOPP 1 through MOPP 4 modes for given
Personnel remain in MOPP 4 until the craft or periods to acclimate personnel to the rigors and
vessel and the personnel are completely decon- difficulties of sustained operations in this gear. Unit,
taminated at a designated area or decontamination watercraft, and vessel NBC equipment must be main-
site. tained in a high state of readiness at all times, and
personnel must be familiar with its operation.
STANDING NBC OPERATIONS PROCEDURES NBC SOP checklists should be used on the
Watercraft unit commanders should incor- watercraft and vessels. As a minimum they should
porate NBC SOPs in their unit SOPs. Unit and crew contain those crew tasks and actions to be taken
preparedness should include exercises and drills that before, during, and after an NBC attack.
require recognition and knowledge of NBC alarms,
A-2
FM 55-50
APPENDIX B
CAUSEWAY SYSTEMS
B-1
FM 55-50
APPENDIX C
BEACH RECONNAISSANCE
Selecting the beach site is an initial step in plan- If a ground reconnaissance cannot be made,
ning offshore discharge operations. The head- maps, aerial photographs, and information gathered
quarters of the terminal command must select the from intelligence sources form the basis for a careful
site in coordination with personnel of the Navy and study of the operational area. If possible, the com-
the Military Sealift Command. A reconnaissance manders and staff officers responsible for planning
party consisting of representatives of the terminal should perform an air reconnaissance of the area.
command, the commander of the terminal battalion Commanders and staffs of boat units must make
that will operate the site and his S3, the commanders a detailed study of the terrain, hydrographic condi-
of the terminal service companies, and repre- tions, enemy capabilities and dispositions, civil
sentatives of the units that will provide lighterage population and attitude, and similarities between
support usually selects the exact site. During the factors affecting boat movements and approaches to
reconnaissance, the commander of the terminal bat- the beach. They must also analyze the lighterage
talion assigns company areas and beach frontages, requirements and the tonnages to be handled by their
indicates areas of defense responsibility, locates his craft.
temporary command post, and tentatively organizes
the area for operational use.
C-1
FM 55-50
APPENDIX D
The critical items of information or intelligence operations. The checklists give an idea of what infor-
required to plan and execute an operation are the mation is required to plan marine and terminal
essential elements of information. These elements operations.
are developed at the battalion and higher echelons NOTE: Port or beach EEI is used depend-
based on mission and situation. EEI are classified ing on the specific operation. All operations
according to classification guidance for the opera- require the use of lines of communication
tion, and priorities are designated for each item of (LOC) EEI and threat EEI. Town EEI is
information. The EEI are then forwarded through used for all villages, towns, or cities at or
intelligence charnels for fulfillment. near the area of operations.
The following EEI lists serve as a reminder of
critical items to consider for terminal and beach
PORT EEI CHECKLIST
GENERAL Depth, length and width in the fairway.
•
• Map sheet number (series, sheet, edition, and • Current speed and direction in the fairway.
date). • Size and depth of the turning basin.
• Nautical chart number.
• Location and description of navigational
• Grid coordinates and longitude/latitude. aids.
• Military port capacity and method of capacity • Pilotage procedures required.
estimation. • Location and degree of silting.
• Dangerous or endangered marine or land
• Size, frequency, and effectiveness of dredg-
animals in the area. ing operations.
• Names, titles, and addresses of port authority • Description of the port’s dredger.
and agent personnel.
• Description of sandbars or reefs in the area.
• Nearest US consul.
• Identity of any marine plants that could
• Port regulations.
inhibit movement of ships or lighterage.
• Current tariffs. • Composition of the harbor bottom (percentage).
• Frequencies, channels, and call signs of the
WEATHER AND HYDROGRAPHY
port’s harbor control.
• Types of weather conditions encountered in
• Complete description of the terrain within 25
the area.
miles of the port.
• Times when these conditions occur.
• Location of nearest towns (see town EEI),
airports, and military installations. • Prevailing wind direction per calendar
quarter.
HARBOR
• Per calendar quarter, percentage of time for
• Types of harbor.
wind speed within 1 to 6 knots, 7 to 16 knots,
• Lengths and location of breakwaters. and over 17 knots.
D-1
FM 55-50
D-2
FM 55-50
D-3
FM 55-50
D-4
FM 55-50
D-5
FM 55-50
D-6
FM 55-50
D-7
FM 55-50
POL COMMUNICATIONS
• Location and size of wholesale fuel dis- • Location and size (kilowatts) of local radio
tributors in the area (including type of and television stations.
fuel). • Address of telephone and/or telex offices.
• Location and size of POL storage areas • Description of domestic telephone service
and/or tanks in the area (including type of in the area (type, condition, number of
fuel). lines, switching equipment, and use of
landlines or microwave).
D-8
FM 55-50
APPENDIX E
E-1
APPENDIX F
DETAILS OF AGREEMENT
assist t h e ~ o v e n e n ~~ s~ r s o ~ z e i
in selecting t5e nc2e of i
transportation.
i
~ . - m h a r
ef v e h i c l cs/t2~1-Ls
to be noved v z i g h t in t c x s
(see note at J u l i e t above) for
each, military lotld cl3ss.i-
f i c a t i o n in accoriance ~ 5 t h
SPAnJAG 202; ( ~ c z d )a d skof ch
number 3 t h c unifFe2. ccntours
booklet ( ~ c1). f
Unifo m
Priorities
Rernarke
I
r
Enter a s s i g n e d priority.
E n t e r any i n f o m a t i o r vhich w i l
aesist in p l m n i n g t h e move,
0.g. heavy lifts, d ~ l n g ~ r o u s
mterial., syecial h a 6 1 i n g
data on vllee1cd. vehicles a d
passenger requirements.
APPENDIX 2 ANNEX A
TO QSTAG 592
MBSSAGE ( ~ ~ e c i n r n l
GOLP RAIL
HOTEL NIL
INDIA NIL
JULIET AMPIUNITION
KILO 5000
Lrn 1500 CU EETRES
l-IIgE NIL
NOVXMBER NIL
OSCAR NIL
PAPA NIL
QrnBEC 1000 tE/PER DAY
n
nu i T ~ u 12 JAN
SIERRA 16 JAN REQUIRED
TAX0 TWO
UNIFQ-w WTT.
I
. AU
THREE ALFA v
415
BRAVO DEPOT 605
CHARLIE GEEL FS (6 figures)
DELTA SP 505
ECHO RHEmbEILm (6 figures)
FOXTROT BE/NL/GE
GOLF U L
HOTEL NIL
INDIA NIL
m r r-
J ULlEL NIL
KILO NIL
LIMA BIL
MIgE 10
NOv'EMBEE 60 MT
OSCAR 40
PAPA 3145
QUEBEC 2
GLOSSARY
amphibious operations - an attack launched from the sea by naval and landing forces embarked in ships or craft in-
volving a landing on a hostile shore. Its purpose is to establish a landing force on shore to facilitate further combat
U
,
p,
,
C,
J..,illlVIW, L U 5GLW
,,:c 4.- . .:be $-.
...-.-..-...
G Q 5ALG lU1
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n.. ,.
-,
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.-
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n..
U U V a l b G U l l Q V c l l U1
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1 Qll
,,:,.Ua3L., u,-,*r
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u3b
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Ubuy
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ur
.,,.a,,
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~ L L
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c u ba u r r a b u u b o r u
+hmf*
LUU
enemy. Tactical withdrawal of troops from land involving Navy ships may also be termed an amphibious opera-
tion. Army landing craft may participate in joint amphibious operations.
bare beach operations -operations on a beach which is essentially as nature made it. Considerable engineer sup-
port is needed to provide a facility suitable for cargo operations, but engineer support can be greatly reduced with
the use of amphibians. These types of facilities are inefficient and only used when fured or unimproved facilities
are unavailable or inadequate. There are no preexisting facilities, but LOTS site location should be in proximity to
highway and rail facilities. All other capabilities, MHE, hardstand, communications, and support facilities would
have to be provided.
deployment - a voyage that will place the vessel more than 24 hours from a safe haven during the transit. This is
not a cargo mission but a mission to relocate or deliver the vessel to a new operating location.
depth of breaking- the still water depth at the point where a wave breaks. On an evenly sloping beach, this depth
is approxbately 1.3 times the height of breaking. A sandbar may cause waves to break in water 1.7 times the
breaker height.
fued-port facility- a facility specificallydesigned to accommodate cargo discharge or backload operations. Such
facilities are characterized by sophisticated equipment and procedures. They are frequently oriented toward a
specific type of w g o such as container, RO/RO, hazardous, and general cargo, &hough there is a recent trend
toward combination facilities. Fixed piers normally have extensive hardstands areas, transit sheds, shore cranes,
and access to wzU established and well defined rail and road nets.
harbor -a partly enclosed body of water that provides safe and suitable anchorage for ships. Harbors are either
natural, seminaturd, or manmade.
jetty harbor - a harbor that depends largely or entirely on jetties or breakwaters for the protection they offer.
lagoon harbor - a shallow lake separated from the sea by a narrow island built up from soil, sand deposits, or coral
growth. A lagoon is much more sheltered than a roadstead.
logistics over-the-shore (LOTS) operations- ship discharge operations that use Army watercraft units and teams
to provide lighterage to transport cargo from oceangoing ships. Traditionally, LOTS has meant operations
wherein a vessel anchored in open water, was discharged into Lighterage, and the lighterage was subsequently dis-
charged over a bare beach. The current defmition of LOTS includes any vessel discharge operation where the ves-
sel is directly discharged to other than land or land transportation. LOTS includes any vessel discharge over the
shore.
refraction- the bending of a wave crest caused by one portion of the wave reaching shallow water while the
remainder of the wave, still in deep water, speeds on. As a result, the wave crest swings around and parallels the
coastline.
roadstead- one of the simplest forms of natural harbors. It is a sheltered anchorage parallel to or along the
seacoast and flanked on its seaward side by a chain of islands or reefs.
river harbor - a harbor situated on a river at some distance from its mouth.
significant wave height -the average height of the highest one-third of all observed waves.
surf zone - the area extending from the outer breaker line to the limit of the wave uprush on the beach. Other fac-
tors being equal, a wide surf zone offers less hazard to landing craft than a narrow surf zone.
unimproved facility- a fvred facility not specifically designed for cargo operations. An example of this type facility
would be a pier facility frequented by fishing vessels; it would have a hardstand or hard surface alongside a shallow
body of water and perhaps some type of simple shore crane used to load and discharge fishing boats. A noted lack
of sophisticated facilities and equipment characterizes the facility. Water depth and pier length would be inade-
quate for oceangoing vessels. Road nets would be sparse and rail probably nonexistent. Existing facilities might
be adapted for use in cargo operations, but MHE, transit sheds, marshaling area, and communications would have
to be provided to support operations.
wave height - the difference in elevation between the trough and crest of a wave.
wavelength- the distance between successive wave crests.
wave period- the time between the passage of two consecutive crests past a fixed point.
wave steepness- the ratio of wave height to wavelength.
wave velocity - the rate of travel of an individual crest.
FM 55-50
REFERENCES
SOURCES USED
These are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication.
Army Regulations (ARs)
AR 15-6. Procedures for Investigating Officers and Boards of Officers. 11 May 1988.
AR 55-19. Marine Casualties. 12 October 1970.
AR 56-9. Watercraft. 30 March 1988.
AR 385-40. Accident Reporting and Records. 1 April 1987.
AR 310-25. Dictionary of United States Army Terms (Short Title: AD). 15 October 1983.
AR 310-50. Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity Codes. 15 November 1985.
AR 700-4. Logistic Assistance Program. 31 December 1984.
Department of the Army Forms (DA Forms)
DA Form 1208. Report of Claims Officer. January 1955.
DA Form 285. US Army Accident Investigation Report. August 1990.
Department of the Army Pamphlets (DA Pams)
DA Pam 385-95. Aircraft Accident Investigation and Reporting. 15 June 1983.
DA Pam 738-750. Functional Users Manual for The Army Maintenance Management System (TAMMS).
31 October 1989.
Department of Defense Forms (DD Forms)
DD Form 1384. Transportation Control and Movement Document (TCMD). April 1966.
Department of Defense Regulations (DOD Regs)
DOD Reg 4500.32-R, Volume 2. Military Standard Transportation and Movement Procedures
(MILSTAMP): Transportation Account Codes (TACS). 15 February 1987.
Field Manuals (FMs)
FM 24-1. Signal Support in the AirLand Battle. 15 October 1990.
FM 31-12. Army Forces in Amphibious Operations (The Army Landing Forces). 28 March 1961.
FM 55-15. Transportation Reference Data. 9 June 1986.
FM 55-17. Terminal Operations Coordinator’s Handbook. 18 July 1979.
FM 55-60. Army Terminal Operations. 18 May 1987.
FM 55-501. Marine Crewman’s Handbook. 15 March 1983.
FM 55-501-1. Landing Craft Operator’s Handbook. 13 May 1985.
FM 55-501-2. Harbor Craft Crewman’s Handbook. 21 December 1984.
FM 100-2-1. Soviet Army Operations and Tactics. 16 July 1984.
FM 100-2-2. Soviet Army Specialized Warfare and Rear Area Support. 16 July 1984.
FM 100-2-3. The Soviet Army Troops Organization and Equipment. 16 July 1984.
FM 100-37. Terrorism Counteraction. 24 July 1987.
References-1
FM 55-50
FM 101-10-1/1. Staff Officers’ Field Manual - Organizational, Technical, and Logistical Data (Volume 1).
7 October 1987.
FM 101-10-1/2. Staff Officers’ Field Manual - Organizational, Technical, and Logistical Data Planning
Factors (Volume 2). 7 October 1987.
International Standardization Agreements
QSTAG 592. Forecast Movement Requirements - Rail, Road and Inland Waterways. 1979.
Joint/Multiservice Publications
FM 20-12/FMFM 4-22/NWIP 22-6/AFR 75-6/LFM 03/NWP 22-6. Amphibious Embarkation. 11 June 1987.
FM 31-11/NWP 22(B)/AFM 2-53/LFM-01. Doctrine for Amphibious Operations. 1 August 1967.
Miscellaneous Publications
Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ).
TechnicaI Bulletins (TBs)
TB 55-1900-202-12/1. Watercraft Preventive Maintenance. 28 August 1988.
READINGS RECOMMENDED
These sources contain relevant supplemental information.
Army Regulations (ARs)
AR 570-2. Manpower Requirements Criteria (MARC) - Tables of Organization and Equipment.
22 May 1987.
AR 710-2. Supply Policy Below the Wholesale Level. 13 January 1988.
AR 750-1. Army Materiel Maintenance Policy and Retail Maintenance Operations. 30 October 1989.
Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs)
Title 33. Navigation and Navigable Waters.
Title 46. Shipping.
Title 49. Transportation.
Department of the Army Pamphlets (DA Pams)
DA Pam 25-30. Consolidated Index of Army Publications and Blank Forms. 30 September 1990.
Field Manuals (FMs)
FM 8-35. Evacuation of the Sick and Wounded. 22 December 1983.
FM 19-30. Physical Security. 1 March 1979.
FM 55-1. Army Transportation Services in a Theater of Operations. 30 November 1984.
FM 55-509. Marine Engineman’s Handbook. 3 October 1986.
FM 55-511. Operation of Floating Cranes. 12 December 1985.
FM 90-13 (HTF). River Crossing Operations (How to Fight). 1 November 1978.
FM 90-14. Rear Battle. 10 June 1985.
References-2
FM 55-50
References-3
INDEX
GORDON R. SULLIVAN
General, United States Army
Official: Chief of Staff
*4-
MILTON H. HAMILTON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
04033
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, USAR and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11E, requirements for
FM 55-50, Army Water Transport Operations (Qty rqr block no. 0394).