Understanding Data and Ways to

Systematically Collect Data

Chapter 4
Research Design
• Refers to the overall plan and
scheme for conducting the study.
Thus, the researcher may utilize a
historical design, descriptive
design or an experimental design.
Descriptive Research Design
• The purpose of this design is to describe the
status of an identified variable such as events,
people or subjects as they exist. It usually
makes some type of comparison, contrasts,
correlation and sometimes, in carefully
planned and orchestrated descriptive
researches, cause and effect relationships may
be established to some extent.
Experimental Research Design
• They are also known as longitudinal or
repeated-measure studies. They are also
referred to as interventions, because you
do more than just observe the subjects. It
uses the scientific method to establish the
cause and effect among a group of
variables that make up a study.
Historical Research Design
• The purpose of this research is
to collect, verify and synthesize
evidence from the past to
establish facts that defend or
refute your hypothesis.
Sampling
• Is the process of getting information from a proper
subset of population. The fundamental purpose of all
sampling plans is to describe the population
characteristics through the values obtained from a
sample as accurately as possible. It is therefore
evident that if one were to draw conclusions based
on a small sample then the sample must imitate the
behavior or characteristics of the original population
as closely as possible.
Sampling Plan
• Is a detailed outline of which measurements will be
taken at what times, on which material, in what
manner, and by whom that support the purpose of
an analysis. Sampling plans should be designed in
such a way that the resulting data will contain a
representative sample of the parameters of interest
and allow for all questions, as stated in the research
objectives to be answered.
Steps in Developing a Sampling Plan
1. Identify the parameters to be measured, the range of
possible values and the requires solution
2. Design a sampling scheme that details how and when
samples will be taken
3. Select sample sizes
4. Design data storage formats
5. Assign roles and responsibilities
Probability Sampling
• It refers to a sampling technique in which
samples are obtained using some objective
chance mechanism, thus involving
randomization. They require the use of a
sampling frame. The probabilities of selection
are known.
• It is the only approach that makes possible
representative sampling plans.
Non-Probability Sampling
• This is a technique when there is no
way of estimating the probability
that each element has of being
included in the sample and no
assurance that every element has a
chance of being included.
Instruments
• Are the data gathering devices that will
be used in the study. It is a testing
device for measuring a given
phenomenon, such as a paper and
pencil test, questionnaires, interviews,
research tools, or set of guidelines for
observation.
Categories of Instruments
Research Completed Subject Completed
Instruments Instruments
Rating scales Questionnaires

Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists

Tally sheets Attitude scales

Flowcharts Personality inventories

Performance checklists Achievement test/aptitude tests

Time and motion logs Projective devices

Observation forms Sociometric devices

Validity
• Refers to the extent to which the instrument measures what it
intends to measure and performs as it is designed to perform.
Types of Validity:
1. Content Validity – the extent to which a research instrument
accurately measures all aspects of a construct.
2. Construct Validity – the extent to which a research instrument or
tool measures the intended construct.
3. Criterion Validity – the extent to which a research instrument is
related to other instruments that measure the same variables.
Reliability
• Relates to the extent to which the instrument is consistent. The
instrument should be able to obtain approximately the same
response when applied to respondents who are similarly situated.
Attributes of Reliability
1. Internal Consistency/Homogeneity – the extent to which all the
items on a scale measure one construct.
2. Stability or Test-Retest Correlation – the consistency of results
using an instrument with repeated testing.
3. Equivalence – consistency among responses of multiple users of
an instrument, or among alternate forms of an instrument.
Sources of Data
• Primary Sources – known as primary data/raw
data. These are data obtained from your own
researchers, surveys, observations and
interviews.
• Secondary Sources – known as secondary data.
These are data obtained from secondary sources
such as reports, books, journals, documents,
magazines, internet and more.
Data Collection Methods
1. Interviews
Kinds of Interview:
a. Structured Interview – the researcher asks a standard set of
questions and nothing more. The interview follows a specific format
with the same line of questioning. The aim of this approach is to
ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same
questions in the same order.
b. Face to Face Interview – most frequently used. It can be conducted
in the respondent’s home or workplace, halls or even simply in the
street.
Data Collection Methods
Interviews
Kinds of Interview:
c. Telephone Interview – less consuming and less expensive. The
researcher has ready access to anyone who has a telephone.
d. Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing – is a form of
personal interview but instead of completing a questionnaire,
the interviewer brings along a laptop or handheld computer to
enter the information directly into the database.
Data Collection Methods
2. Questionnaires
Five Sections:
a. Respondent’s Identification Data – include respondent’s
name, address, date of the interview and name of the
interviewer.
b. Introduction – is the interviewer’s request for help. It is
normally scripted and lays out the credentials of the market
research company, the purpose of the study and any aspects of
confidentiality.
Data Collection Methods
2. Questionnaires
Five Sections:
c. Instruction – refers to the interviewer and the respondent’s directions on
how to move through the questionnaire such as which questions to skip
and where to move to if certain answers are given.
d. Information – is the main body of the document and is made up of the
many questions and response codes.
e. Classification Data and Information – establish the important
characteristics of the respondent, particularly related to their
demographics which are sometimes at the front of questionnaire or
sometimes at the end.
Data Collection Methods
2. Questionnaires
Types of Questionnaires:
a. Paper-pencil Questionnaire – can be sent to a large number of
people and saves the researcher time and money.
b. Web-based Questionnaire – is a new and inevitably growing
methodology using the internet based research.
c. Self-administered Questionnaire – are general distributed
through mail, filled out and administered by the respondent
themselves which is returned via email to the researcher.
Data Collection Methods
3. Observations – is a way of gathering data by watching
behavior, events, or noting physical characteristics in
their natural setting.
Kinds of Observations:
a. Overt – when everyone knows they are being
observed.
b. Covert – when no one knows they are being
observed and the observes is concealed.
Data Collection Methods
4. Tests – provide a way to assess subject’s knowledge and capacity to
apply this knowledge to new situations.
Kinds of Tests:
a. Norm-referenced tests – provide information on how the target
performs against a reference group or normative population.
b. Criterion-referenced tests – constructed to determine whether or not
the respondents/subjects have attained mastery of a skill or
knowledge area.
c. Proficiency test – provides an assessment against a level of skill
attainment, but includes standards for performance at varying levels
of proficiency.
Data Collection Methods
5. Secondary Data – a type of quantitative data that has already been
collected by someone else for a purpose different from yours. These
data are collected by researchers, government and private agencies,
institutions or organizations or companies that provide important
information for government planning and policy recommendation
and theory generation.
a. Paper-based sources – are those from books, journals,
periodicals, abstracts, indexes, directories, research reports,
conference papers, market reports, annual reports, internal
records of organizations, newspapers and magazines.
b. Electronic sources – are those from CD-ROMs, on-line databases,
internet, videos and broadcasts.
Pointers to Remember in Reporting the
Results:
• Explain the data you have collected, the statistical
treatment and all relevant results in relation to the
research problem that you are investigating.
• Describe unexpected events that occurred during your
data collection. Explain how the actual analysis differs
from the planned analysis. Explain how you handled
the missing data and why any missing data did not
undermine the validity of your analysis.
Pointers to Remember in Reporting the
Results:
• Explain the techniques you used to “clean” your data set.
• Choose a statistical tool and discuss its use and reference a for
it. Specify any computer programs or software used in the
study.
• Describe well the assumptions for each procedure and the
steps you took to ensure that they were not violated.
• Provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals and
sample sizes for each variable.
Pointers to Remember in Reporting the
Results:
• Avoid interfering causality, particularly in non-randomized
designs or without further experimentation.
• Use tables to provide exact values and use figures to
convey global effects. Keep figures small in size ad include
graphic presentations of confidence intervals whenever
possible.
• Inform the reader what to look for in tables and figures.
Writing of Methodology
• Participants – describe the participants in your research study,
including who they are, how many there are, and how they are
selected. Explain how the samples were gathered, any
randomization techniques and how the samples were
prepared.
Example:
The researchers randomly selected 100 children from
elementary schools of Cebu City.
Writing of Methodology
• Materials – describe the materials, measures, equipment,
or stimuli used in your research study. This may include
testing instruments, technical equipment, books, images
or other materials used in the course of your study.
Example:
Two stories from Sullivan et al.’s (1994) second-order false
belief attribution tasks were used to assess children’s
understanding of second-order beliefs.
Writing of Methodology
• Design – describe the research design used in your research study.
Specify the variables as well as the levels and measurement of
these variables. Explain whether your research study uses a within-
groups or between-groups design. Discuss how the measurements
were made and what calculations were performed upon the raw
data. Describe the statistical techniques used upon the data.
Example:
The experiment used a 3x2 between-subjects design. The
independent variables were age and understanding of second-order
beliefs.
Writing of Methodology
• Procedure – the detail of the research procedures used in your
research study should be properly explained. Explain what your
participants/respondents do, how you collected the data, the order
in which steps occurred. Observe some ethical standards in
gathering your data.
Example:
A researcher interviewed children individually in their school in one
session that lasted 20 minutes on average. The researcher explained
to each child that he or she would be told two short stories and that
some questions would be asked after each story. All sessions were
videotaped so the data could later be coded.
Tips in Writing the Methodology
• Always write the method section in the past tense. (Use the
future tense if it is a research design.)
• Provide enough details that another researcher could replicate
your experiment, but focus on brevity. Avoid unnecessary
detail that is not relevant to the outcome of the experiment.
• Remember to use proper APA format.
• Take a rough draft of your method section with your teacher
or research adviser for additional assistance.
Tips in Writing the Methodology
• Proofread your paper for typos, grammar problems, and
spelling errors. Do not just rely on computer spell checkers.
Always read through each section of your paper for agreement
with other sections. If you mention steps and procedures in
the method section, these elements should also be present in
the results and discussion sections.