CHAPTER-!

THE STUDY
 CHAPTER-I

THE STUDY

1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Concept of Education 2
1.2 Nature and Scope of Philosophy 4
1.3 Philosophical Framework for Education 5
1.4 Mutual Indebtedness of Education and Philosophy 7
1.5 Scope of Philosophical Inquiry in Education 9
1.6 Philosophy as Determinant of Different Aspects of Education 10

1.6.1 Aims of Education 10

1.6.2 Curriculum 12
1.6.3 Method of Teaching 13
1.6.4 Discipline 14
1.6.5 The Teacher 15

1.7 Different Philosophies of Education and their Implications 16

1.7.1 Philosophical Framework in Education in India 17

1.7.1 (a) Vedas/Upanishads and Philosophy 19

1.7.2 Western Philosophies of Education 19

1.7.2.1 Idealism and Education 20

1.7.2.1 (a) Man and his Physical Environment 21

1.7.2.1 (bj Man and his Cultural Environment 22
1.7.2.1 (c) Function of the Educator 22
1.7.2.1 (d) The Individual and the Social Aim of Education 23
1.7.2.1 (e) Scheme of Curriculum 24
1.7.2.2 Naturalism and Education 26

1.7.2.2 (a) Onset of Naturalism in Education 27

1.7.2.2 fb) Naturalism and Aims of Education 29
1.7.2.2 (c) The Scheme of Curriculum 30
1.7.2.2 (d) Hole of the Teacher 31
1.7.2.2 (e) Methods of Teaching 32
1.7.2.2 (f) Concept of School Organization 33
1.7.2.2 (g) Concept of Discipline 34

1.7.2.3 Realism and Education 35

1.7.2.3 (a) Realism and Aims of Education 36

1.7.2.3 (b) Scheme of Curriculum 37
1.7.2.3 (c) Role of the Teacher 38
1.7.2.3 (d) Method of Teaching 39
1.7.2.3 (e) Concept of Discipline 39

1.7.2.4 Pragmatism and Education 39

1.7.2.4 (a) Pragmatism and Aims of Education 41

1.7.2.4 (b) The Scheme of Curriculum 42
1.7.2.4 (c) Methods of Teaching and Role of the Teacher 43

1.7.2.4 (c).i Principles of the Pragmatic Method 44

1.7.2.4 (c). ii The Project Method 45
1.7.2.4 (c). iii Advantages of the Project Method 46

1.7.2.4 (d) Concept of Discipline 46

1.7.2.5 Existentialism and Education 47

 1.7.2.5 (a) Existentialism and Aim of Education 49
1.7.2.5 (b) The Scheme of Curriculum 49
1.7.2.5 (c) Method of Teaching, Role of the Teacher and 50
Concept of Discipline

1.7.2.6 Humanism and Education 52

1.7.2.6 (a) The Task of Education 54

1.7.2.6 (b) Organization of Education 55

1.8 Indigenous Educational Thinking 56

1.9 Geneses of the Study 48
1.10 Statement of the Study 59
1.11 Objectives of the Study 59
1.12 Assumptions of the Study 60
1.13 Nature of the Study and Methodology Employed 60
1.14 Scope of the Study 63
1.15 Significance of the Study 63
1.16 Limitations of the Study 69
 CHAPTER-I

THE STUDY

1.0 Introduction

A renowned Kannada poet of modem times and recipient of the

Jnanapeetha award Kuvempu (1904), once said that every child when bom is a

universal man and after that he is reduced to a mean man and to make him a

universal man again is the duty of education. Education has been the most

significant of the human institutions since the days of yore. It has been seen that

world civilizations from time immemorial have been products of the respective

educational systems. In turn, the efficacy of education is judged from the

civilization it builds. In recent times, in the craze for materialistic achievement

sound human values are put to peril. This kind of erosion of values has its bearing

on the quality of life of the people. In the final analysis, it is education and

education alone that has to take the responsibility for such a state of affairs. The

situation warrants a sustained crusade through education. I quality of life is lost in

any society, it is an indication that the education of the people is lost. Education is

seen as a panacea for all the ills of society. It is common knowledge now-a-days

that education is the most important input for the development of an individual,
society and nation. Education is one of the vehicles of national development. In a

country like India engaged in the colossal task of social regeneration, economic

prosperity, scientific development and technological advancement education is one

of the most vital activities. (The Times of India, 2004)

1.1 Concept of Education

Education is an essential human virtue, without education man is a cute

slave, a reasoning savage. Education is to humanize him. It is through education

that man becomes man. He is what education makes him. Education accelerates

the process of getting man rid of his crude biological nature. Education fashions

and moulds man for society. His life can only be glorified through education and it

is only the cultural and social aspect of human life which signifies man's supreme

position and thus constitutes the noblest work of nature.

Education implies experience, insight and adjustment on the part of man as

he is stimulated towards growth and development. Education is described as a

process of development. Through education man develops his intelligence and

reasoning, receives knowledge and cultivates good habits and skills and essential

human virtues. In sum, education enables a man to realize higher values of life

essential for him to become the crown and glory of creation. This is a process of

behaviour modification.

2
 Etymologically, the tern education assumes various meanings and

interpretations like 'to nourish/ 'to bring up', 'to raise', 'to bring forth', to lead

our, 'the art of teaching and training' etc. Different educationists, thinkers and

philosophers, both Indian and western, have defined education. For

Shankaracharya 'education is the realization of the self. Koutilya defines education

as the 'training for the country and love for the nation'. Vivekananda (1863) views

education as the manifestation of the divine perfection already existing in man',

Gandhi (1869) says: 'By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in

child and man- body, mind and soul'. Going back to the very ancient Indian lore,

the Rigveda defines education as something which makes a man self-reliant and

selfless. According to the Upanishad 'the end product of education is salvation'.

Striking a similar note, the Vishnu Purana spells out the purpose of education in

the following words: Sa Vidya ya vimuktya - education is that which liberates.

Indian education in its wider perspective is more inclined towards spiritual

development, acquiring knowledge and disciplining the mind. (Sharma, 1989).

For its form and content modem education owes much to the west. To

present the views of some of the thinkers of the west, Plato (428 B.C.) says

"Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. It

develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the

perfection which he is capable of. According to Aristotle (384 B.C.) "Education is

the creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It develops man's faculty especially

3
his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth,

goodness and beauty of which perfect happiness essentially consists". (Bremeld,

1971).

All the definitions and meanings discussed above attempt generally to

develop man in terms of his multidimensional personality and are derived from the

corresponding philosophy.

1.2 Nature and Scope of Philosophy

Philosophy is a systematic inquiry about the ultimate realities in the

universe. It is the study of general principles and understanding of all that comes

in the range of human experiences. It is a search for a comprehensive view of

nature. It attempts to answer such questions as" What life is for, what the essence

of the universe is, what the reality is. It seeks to know the real value of things as

distinct from their face value. Etymologically, the term philosophy is derived from

the two Greek words 'Philos' and 'sophia'. Philos means love of and sophia means

wisdom. So the word philosophy means love of wisdom. In the words of Weber

'Philosophy is a search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at

universal explanation of the nature of things". According to Dewey (1859)

philosophy is "critical reviewing of just those familiar things". For Raymont

philosophy is "an increasing effort to discover the general truth that lies behind

the particular facts, to discern also the reality that lies behind appearances. What

4
life is, what man is, what the origin of man is, what man's destiny or goal is some

of the questions of philosophical inquiry. Different philosophers try to answer

these questions according to their own reflections. The different answers lead to

different philosophies. Philosophy results in a certain way of life, in certain beliefs,

values and ideas. (Bremeld, 1971).

1.3 Philosophical Framework for Education

The speculative thesis of a thinker or of a school of thought projects a

philosophy of education. To speak, technically, philosophy of education is the

application of the speculative theses - metaphysical, epistemological axiological -

of the different philosophical schools to derive directives and recommendations on

educational aims, curriculum and methodology/ From this it is clear that a mere

'collection of stray sayings on education does not make an educational philosophy.

It requires a much more sustained, systematic thinking on educational maters, the

firm foundation of a philosophy of life knowledge and value and a conscious

committed articulation of one's position on the means and ends of education. In

other words, 'educational philosophy is a system of beliefs on reality, knowledge,

and their educational implication'. In general terms, philosophy of education is

described as 'philosophy applied in certain real and hypothetical situations'. It is to

be borne in mind that there cannot be a pure philosophy of education. It only

means that the way one thinks and feels about educational matters is determined

5
by the way he thinks and feels about other things in life. Different aspects of

education are determined by the different branches of philosophy correspondingly.

To elaborate the contention, ontology and axiology determine aims of education

and curriculum while epistemology determines methods of educational practice. In

short, philosophy of education provides a frame of reference through which

educational process can be viewed. Philosophy of education comments on the

various issues and problems as and when they arise with the dynamic nature of

society. There is not any aspect of social system or educational system which is

not influenced by philosophy. Philosophy is such a comprehensive concept that it

provides a framework or boundary to society in general and education in particular

within which both of them together perform the destined task and achieve their

objectives. Such a framework is termed as philosophical framework. The

philosophical framework is different for different countries depending upon their

social needs and necessities. It is very much necessary on the part of the teacher

to know about the intenelationship between education and philosophy. The

reason for this necessity is that the life system in general education in particular

have to carry out their functions within a particular philosophical framework of

their country.

6
1.4 Mutual Indebtedness of Education and Philosophy

Education and philosophy are coherently indebted to each other. The

various functions of education like growth, direction which imply guidance and

control continuous reconstruction and reorganization of experiences, emotional

integration, training for leadership, inculcation of civic and social values, national

integration, promotion of social efficiency, fostering national character etc., are all

determined by the particular philosophy. The various aspects of education like

aims and objectives to be realized, curriculum, textbooks, methods of teaching, as

noted earlier, discipline, qualities and functions of teachers, the evaluation

procedures etc., are also influenced by philosophy. According to Fitcher (1834) 'the

art of education will never attain complete clearness in itself without philosophy.

Always there is an interaction between the two and either without the other is

incomplete and unserviceable'. Both education and philosophy are interrelated

and complementary to each other. (Jarrett, 1969).

Education and philosophy are dependent on each other. Both are necessary

for the advancement of life and making it happy. According to many philosophers,

education is the active side of philosophy. To Adams education is the dynamic side

of philosophy. Dewey (1859) has defined philosophy as the theory of education in

its most general phases. According to him, the relation between philosophy and

education is not general but very close because it is education that gives necessary

7
understanding of philosophy. The aim of philosophy is to enrich life. For this it is

necessary that some definite principles are translated into action through

education. If the principles are not practiced, the individual or the society cannot

be benefited. So education should give a practical shape to the aim of philosophy

and help in moulding the attitudes of man towards life according to its aims. This

being the case, education may be considered as a means for achieving the aims of

philosophy. Philosophical knowledge is obtained through education. The

principles of philosophy are, generally the contributions of education. (Jarrett,

1969).

According to Dewey (1859) again, philosophy has originated through

education. Educational process gives rise to ideas in the mind of man and

consideration of the related activities create philosophy. Philosophy as noted

earlier, has been recognized as the theory of education and the educational

process makes theorizing possible. As such, it is needless to remark that the

contribution of education to philosophy is equally important philosophy deals with

the ends and education with the means to achieve those ends. In other words, to

speak, metaphorically, education is a laboratory in which philosophic theories and

speculations are tested and made concrete. Education, may, therefore, be rightly

called applied philosophy. Philosophy is wisdom and education transmits the

wisdom from generation to generation. Philosophy formulates the method, gives

values, ideals and principles. Education works out these ideals, values and

8
principles. By implication, philosophy depends upon education for its propagation.

(Jarrett, 1969).

Philosophy gives purpose and orientation to the educational endeavours of

individuals, although it depends upon education for its formulation and

crystallization. Philosophy bestows the knowledge of values which figure so

prominently in the choice of studies, school discipline, methods and means of

instruction and school organization. It is these values which constitute a

philosophy of education, the values which in the final analysis are reflective of a

philosophy of life.

1.5 Scope of Philosophical Inquiry in Education

The scope of philosophy of education is mainly concerned with the

problems of education. These problems are general in nature such as the

interpretation of nature, the world and the universe, explanation of aims and

ideals, the relationship of the various constituents of the sphere of education. The

main problems of philosophy of education include aims and ideals of education,

analysis of human nature, relationship of education and state, educational values,

theory of knowledge and its relationship to education, economic system and

education, the place of school in the educational system, the curriculum and the

process of education and finally the relationship of education and social progress.

9
 The scope of philosophical inquiry includes a critical evaluation of the

different aims of education held and propagated from time to time such as

character building, man-making, citizenship, utilization of leisure, training for civic

life, training for international living, evaluation of the democratic society,

realization of social change, realization of general aims, adjustment of society and

individual and finally, self realization and spiritual emancipation.

Philosophy of education critically evaluates different aims and ideals of

education to arrive at the most sound and cogent aims of education. It also aims at

presenting a synthesis of various aims and ideals of education.

1.6 Philosophy as Determinant of Different Aspects of Education

Philosophy determines all the broad aspects of education. It has been

already mentioned that all the problems of education are the problems of

philosophy. It is philosophy that provides aims to education. These aims determine

the curriculum, methods of teaching, the problem of school organization and

discipline and also the role of the teacher in the educational processes.

1.6.1 Aims of Education

Every individual and educational system have some goals, aims or

objectives, which act as guides for the educator in educating the child. As a mater

of fact one cannot think of any process of education without specific aims and

10
objectives. Bode (1939) for instance, says, "Unless we have some guiding

philosophy in the determination of the objectives, we get nowhere at all". These

aims of education, in different countries are determined by the aims and ideals of

life which the people of those countries, cherish at a particular period of time. The

aims and ideals of life, in their turn, are determined by the philosophy of the time.

It is the philosophy of the time which determines whether the aims of education

should be moral vocational, intellectual liberal or spiritual. Thus, philosophy also

helps in solving the problem related to determination of goals/objectives of

education and life. Philosophy formulates what should be the end of life, while

education offers suggestions how this end is to be achieved. The philosopher

struggles hard with the mysteries of life and arrives at his own solutions. He then

suggests ways and means of dealing with them. Then he lays down ultimate

values and explains their significance to the community. These ultimate values, as

formulated by the philosopher, become the aims of education for that community.

The training of the younger generation, according to those aims and values, then

lies on the shoulders of the educator in the field. He selects the material for

instruction and determines the methods of procedure for the attainment of those

aims. In this way, the entire educational programme proceeds with its foundations

on sound philosophy.

11
1.6.2 Curriculum

Curriculum is the means through which the aims of education are realized.

Naturally, therefore, educational aims determine the curriculum of studies. But the

aims of education in their own turn, are determined by philosophy. Philosophy

also determines the aims of education and courses of study. Thus they are closely

inter-related. It is philosophy which will decide why a particular subject should be

included in the curriculum and what particular discipline that subject will promote.

Education seriously needs leaders who hold a sound comprehensive philosophy, of

which they can convince others and who can direct its consistent application to

the formulation of appropriate curricula".

Curriculum reflects the curricular and co-curricular activities in educational

institutions and courses of study in different subjects and the values these subjects

set to achieve. Curriculum is a means, as mentioned above, to realize the aims of

education and not an end in itself. Curriculum includes the complete environment

of the educational institution involving all the courses, activities and organizations

provided to the students. The Report of the Secondary Education Commission

(1952-54) clearly points out the nature of the desirable curriculum "Curriculum

does not mean only the academic subjects traditionally taught in the school but

includes totality of experiences that a child receives at school. In this sense the

12
whole life of the school becomes the curriculum which can touch the life of the

students at all points and help in the evolution of a balanced personality".

1.6.3 Method of Teaching

Even the choice of methods is ultimately a question of philosophy. Method

is the procedure through which the aims of education are realized Kilpatrik, (1951)

realizing the ultimate connection between philosophy and method of teaching or

education, introduced the significant term 'Philosophy of Method'. It is through this

method the teacher establishes and maintains contact between the child and the

subject matter. Modem methods are paedocentric. They stress the importance of

the educand in the process of education more than the subject matter or the

educator. This is the direct result of the naturalistic philosophy which lays stress

on the interpretation of human behaviour in the light of natural laws and which

attaches more importance to the natural, innate potentialities of a child than to his

habits acquired through a social medium. Another problem associated with the

methodology is that of the exact place of the teacher in educative process. The

question that is often asked is where the teacher should intervene in the learning

process of the child or keep away. It raises philosophical issues. Rousseau (1712-

1778) and Fitcher go in for non-intervention of the teacher on account of the

child's nature. They contend that the child's nature is essentiality good, and any

intervention is, therefore, harmful. They defend the negative rather than positive

13
education on that account. Montessori (1870-1952), too, does not like the teacher

to intervene in the educational process. She adopts the environmentalist stand

point and argues that since the environment constituted by the didactic

approbatory is perfectly suited to the child and can evoke the right type of

response, the teachers' inference is not only unnecessary but unjustifiable.

Another school of philosophy defends intervention although they would like it to

be prudent, timely and less obtrusive. The followers of this school refuse to ignore

the limitations of the human child and do not agree to a method of trial and error.

(Jarrett, 1969}

1.6.4 Discipline

Discipline is another aspect of the educational process determined by

philosophy of education. Like curriculum, textbooks, and methods of teaching,

discipline too reflects the philosophy of life accepted at a particular period of time.

It even reflects the political philosophy prevalent in the country. Discipline as a

component of the educational process is governed by the aims of education. In

ancient India for instance, when salvation was the chief aim of education, stress

was laid on a strict type of discipline. The student was required to lead a life of

austerity and self-denial. In medieval ages when despotic systems of government

prevailed a very harsh and strict type of discipline was advocated and practised.

"Spare the rod and spoil the child", was the maxim for the guidance of teacher. In

14
the present age of democracy, however, the concept of discipline is totally

different, where as in the past, perfect order and silence prevailed today self-

government of students and free discipline are insisted upon. Discipline from

within is the cry of the day.

1.6.5 The Teacher

Teacher is the back bone of the entire process of education. It is, therefore,

essential that the teacher's philosophy of life should be in perfect consonance with

the philosophy in which the educational system is based. As such, to be a

successful teacher the teacher must know his subject, his pupil, the society and

the philosophy of education. There are divergent views regarding the role of the

teacher in the classroom. The naturalists insist that the teacher should never

interfere with the free activities of children. He simply has to set the educational

environment and that is all he is expected to do. Here his role is negative one. The

idealists advocate that the teacher's role should be that of the head of a family.

Pupils should be inspired by his personality and develop full faith in him.

According to pragmatists, the teacher should never impose anything on the pupil.

He simply should provide opportunity to assist pupils in their learning activities

All said and done, the teacher is the most important agent of realizing the

educational objectives of the society. History provides ample evidences to the fact

that great teachers are the seeds of great civilizations and progress. The future of

15
the country depends on the right kind of teachers. The strength of an educational

system largely depends upon the quality of its teachers. Teacher performance is

the most crucial input in the field of education. However, lofty the aims, however

modem and abundant the equipment, however effective the administration,

whatever policies may be laid down, in the final analysis these have to be

interpreted by teachers, as much through their personal example as through

teaching learning process. When it comes to the point of implementation, the

teacher stands unchallenged. His position is vital and pivotal. Ultimately the

responsibility of making education work lies with the teacher. The teacher holds

the key position in the learning process. Efficiency of an educational system is

determined by the efficiency of teachers.

1.7 Different Philosophies of Education and their Implications

Several factors influence the educational philosophy of the land - its political

philosophy, religious philosophy, social and cultural factors, historical factors,

geographical conditions are some such elements. These factors determine the

issues of the types of education to be imparted. Some of the conceived types of

education have been education for character, education for citizenship, education

for leadership, education for vocations and so on. While planning to impart

education, some of the issues like who should be educated, what type of education

should be imparted, when, what place and how, what type of teachers are

16
needed, confront one. Philosophies of education comment on these problems and

issues, and suggest ways and means to address them as and when they present

themselves.

1.7.1 Philosophical Framework in Education in India

The acquired meaning of the term philosophy in general terms is outlook of

life. It is a way of looking at things, events, relationships, values etc., from one's

own angle. Broadly speaking, two kinds of philosophies can be conceived-

materialistic and spiritual. When materialistic happiness is assigned a higher

value, one has the materialistic philosophy and when a higher premium is placed

on spiritualistic happiness, one has the spiritualistic philosophy. By and large,

materialism has been the striking feature of the philosophy of the west while

upholding spiritual values, ideals, ideas are closely related to Indian philosophy.

Based on this single difference between Indian and Western philosophy it can be

said that philosophical framework in India is idealistic.

In the Indian view philosophy is known as 'darshana'. The term darshana is

derived from the Sanskrit root drish which means to see. Darshana then means

seeing. This seeing may be either perceptual observation or conceptual knowledge

or intuitional experience. The three put together, darshana means true knowledge

or reliable knowledge. A darshana is a spiritual perception, a whole view of the

reality revealed to the soul sense. This soul sight is the distinguishing mark of a

17
true philosopher. It is the inner source of the philosopher from which he reveals

the truth of life, a truth which mere intellect is unable to discover. Manu has called

philosophy as 'samyak darshana' knowledge leading to salvation, without which

man cannot free himself from earthly bondage.

According to modem Indian philosophers, philosophy or darshana is not

mere study but it also includes thinking, contemplation and logic. According to

Radhakrishnan (1889-1975) darshana is a logical exposition of the nature of

reality. Some others have called darshana as an effort of critical knowledge of

reality. Most of the Indian philosophers have recognized only perceptual or

conceptual knowledge as darshana. According to them the word 'darshana' itself

symbolizes visual knowledge obviously obtained through the eye. Such knowledge

alone can be true or real. But in reality, the scope of philosophy is very wide and it

includes many such abstract elements concerned with physical, spiritual and

mental world which cannot be seen through the ordinary eye. The things which

cannot be seen through the eye, can be seen through intuition. For perception of

abstract things 'intellectual eyes' are used. Scriptures speak of 'spiritual vision' or

'divine eye' which is capable of seeing the most abstract things. Thus in Indian

philosophy, perception of both concrete and abstract has been considered

necessary for comprehending the truth or reality. (Sharma, 1989).

18
1.7.1 (a) Vedas/ Upanishads and Philosophy

The veda is the chief source of Indian philosophy. It is the oldest document

of the world. Most of the hymns in the veda are composed to worship different

deities. In some of the hymns is found a fine explanation of God, soul mythology,

religion etc. The Upanishads constitute the concluding part of the Veda. Upanishad

refers to that knowledge which dispels ignorance and takes the individual

desirous of emancipation near God, that is, away from the bondage of birth and

death. The subject matter of the Upanishad is knowledge of God. By this

knowledge (Brahamajnana) any person can achieve salvation by knowing about

birth and death. The knowledge of Brahman is the knowledge of emancipation. It

has been also called 'Secret knowledge'. The main theme of the Upanishad is to

interpret knowledge (vidya) and ignorance (avidya). Brahma Vidya or spiritual

knowledge alone is the means of salvation. For emancipation, knowledge about

the 'self is necessary. According to the Upanishad Brahman is the ultimate truth

and the beginning and end of the universe, with reference to which everything

else in the universe can be explained logically.

1.7.2 Western Philosophies of Education

It has been already noted that educational movements over the world have

been the working out of various philosophical ideas as education is fundamentally

dependent on philosophy. In the Western tradition idealism, naturalism,

19
pragmatism, existentialism and humanism are some of the main thought currents

that have influenced educational theory. Other schools of philosophy fall

somewhere between these.

Idealism deals with mind and soul and naturalism emphasizes matter and

physical world. Pragmatism refers to speculating and transcending beyond

experience while existentialism holds that man's existence precedes his essence

and lays stress on meaning to life.

1.7.2.1 Idealism and Education

The idealistic school of philosophy in education is presented by Plato (428

B.C.), Comenius (1592), Pestalozzi (1746) , Froebel (1782), T.P. Nun and others

(1870). The fundamental proposition of idealism is that the mental or spiritual is

more real or atleast more important than the material. The world of experience

rather than the physical world is more in tone with ultimate reality. Reality itself is

of a spiritual rather than of a material nature. It the world of experiencer is more

important, more fundamentally real than external nature, then man the experience

is himself more important. Man cannot be explained in terms of his animal origin

as the naturalist would attempt to do. It is spirit rather than animality that is most

truly man. Reality can be found in the spirit of man and not in his animality. Man's

spiritual nature is not something just added to him, but the very essence of his

being. This drives idealism to emphasize the grandeur and worth of human life at

20
its best. Human personality is of supreme value and constitutes the noblest work of

God. Such considerations lead to the idealistic aims of education, viz., the

exaltation of personality or self-realization, the making actual or real the highest

potentialities of the self. According to some idealists there exists a perfect pattern

of each individual his individuality. It is the main task of education to foster the

realization of that perfect pattern in each individual's life. The aim is to enable

each one to become his highest, truest self. This form of idealistic doctrine

constitutes a philosophical character for universal education. (Jarrett, 1969).

1.7.2.1 (a) Man and his Physical Environment

The distinctiveness of man from animals lies in his relation to environment.

Animals must accept the physical environment as given. They must adapt

themselves to it or perish. Man, on the other hand, is not in a helpless position of

having to accept the physical environment as unchangeable. His inventiveness

and his manipulative skill enable him to adapt that environment to his own needs.

He can mould it nearer to his heart's desire. He can create an art factual physical

environment. Hence, education should foster those inventive powers of man that

ensure his mastery over the material given to him.

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1.7.2.1 (b) Man and his Cultural Environment

More remarkable is man's relation to his cultural environment. This spiritual

or cultural environment is man's own making. It is a product of man's creative

activity. Religion, morality, art, literature, mathematics and science are the

products of man's moral, intellectual and aesthetic activity through out the ages.

They am humanities in the truest sense. This cultural environment is the common

heritage of mankind. To be characteristically human, man must enter into this

heritage. He has to reacquire and recreate the common culture himself, and, if

possible add something to the common stock. Education must help each individual,

each generation to do this. Self realization as the aim of education in this context

points to the realization of man's possibilities as a member of the human family -

acquiring, furthering and transmitting the common culture of mankind. As such,

with succeeding generations the task of education becomes greater and complex.

Education must enable mankind through culture to enter more and more fully into

the spiritual realm.

1.7.2.1 (c) Function of the Educator

The rational and teleological view of the universe poses a problem. If a

child has an inherent impulse to achieve his own proper form and attain

perfection, the need for an educator comes to be questioned. Naturalism looks at

the educator with suspicion. It maintains that the child's original glory, as a

22
product of nature, fades into the light of common day because of the well meant

interference of the educator. But idealism does not regard the educator in such an

unfavourable light Both educator and educand are parts of the wider organism the

rational universe. Both are fulfilling their function in the entire scheme of things.

The educator constitutes the special environmental factor. It is his function to lead

the educand nearer reality, to guide him towards his utmost possible perfection.

Froebel's (1782) well known metaphor of the Kindergarten contains the clearest

answer of idealism to the question of the educator's function: The school is a

garden, the educand a tender plant, and the educator the careful gardener.' The

gardener by his art sees to it that the plants achieve the finest form possible. His

efforts produce a finer result than would be achieved by the plant without him. It

is in the nature of the plant to achieve that result 'under suitable conditions'. The

educator by his efforts assists the child, who is developing according to the laws of

his nature to attain levels that would otherwise be denied to him. (Jarrett, 1969).

1.7.2.1 (d) The Individual and the Social Aim of Education

Idealism stresses self-realization as the ultimate goal of life. The individual

can realize his full potentiality only as a member of the human family. He achieves

his goal by participating in and enchanting the cultural values that are the

common possession of all mankind. The society is an expression of man's rational

or spiritual nature. Hence it is universal. This leads to the acceptance of spiritual

23
values, their eternal nature and their universality. On this ground idealism enriches

the social concept of education. The end of life is to acquire an inner relation to

infinity, to get into harmony with the soul of the universe. The function of

education is to help the individual in his exploration of the ultimate, universal

values. Idealism believes that values are inherent in the very design of the

universe. Values are impersonal and objective. Individuals are severally in

harmony with the soul of the universe. The development and the experiences of

the spiritual life unite individuals inwardly. The destinies of individuals receive

their particular nature from such a common life. Thus, it can be seen that

education for self-realization does full justice to a social aim.

1.7.2.1 (e) Scheme of Curriculum

From the discussion made in the preceding paragraphs it is discemable that

for idealism education must be religious, moral, aesthetic and intellectual to form a

harmoniously balanced personality. The physical aspect of the individual's

personality becomes equally important on its own. The physical aspect may be

considered into two aspects. Firstly the health and fitness of the body must receive

due attention. Without health and physical fitness the pursuit of spiritual values is

seriously impeded. Secondly there must be a fostering of the bodily skills that are

the executive instruments of man's invention enabling him to create an arti factual

physical environment more in accordance with his desires and needs than is given

24
to him. Spiritual and physical are the two aspects of man. But spiritual and

physical activities are not entirely separable. They have a common ground in a

certain measure. Moral values which are spiritual can be found in physical

activities. Intellectual values are pursued in the application of skills to the

problems of the physical environment. Aesthetic values are found in the mastery

man acquires over his material in his crafts. Hence drawing a rigid line between

the physical and the spiritual aspects of an individual's personality is not

reasonable.

In the construction of the curriculum idealistic philosophy pays attention to

the entire experience of humanity. Both the present and the accumulated

experiences are important. The main function of education is to acquaint the child

with the environment. In performing this function attention is to be paid to the

needs of the child and society both. The curriculum should be constructed keeping

in view the child's capacity and interest. Fulfilling the needs of the society means

that the child should be familiarized with the whole treasure of civilization and

culture in order that he may understand that he is the inheritor of such great

treasure. This knowledge leads him to self-realization and he is able to enrich this

treasure further. The curriculum should be so construed as to develop the three

sides of the individuals personality - knowledge, feeling and doing. Importance is

given for all subjects in the curriculum equally. Subjects of study are essentially

arts. In the study of these arte the self develops itself creatively. The curriculum

25
should help the child to see that his present experiences are elementary and

superficial in comparison to those that await further exploration.

1.7.2.2 Naturalism and Education

Joice defines naturalism as "a system whose salient characteristic is the

exclusion of whatever is transcendental of experience from our philosophy of

nature and man. In other words, naturalism is an attitude of mind which denies

the existence of an order transcending nature of experience. It believes that nature

i

alone contains the normal and only final answer to all philosophical problems.

Thus it is a type of philosophy to which nature is the whole reality. It is not

prepared to accept the super natural or other worldly things. It regards human life

as a part of the scheme of nature. That which is hidden and is not known as only

a part of nature itself and science has to find it out. Ward says "the naturalism is

the doctrine that separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to matter and sets

up unchangeable laws as supreme".

V

Naturalism as a philosophical doctrine has three forms: naturalism of

physical sciences, mechanicalism and biological naturalism. The naturalism of

physical sciences attempts to explain the facts of experience in the light of natural

laws, the laws of external nature. Mechanicism regards man as a mere machine.

Biological naturalism attempts to explain man as a product of evolution, man being

the highest animals who inherits the racial part consisting of natural impulses or

26
instincts, the primitive emotions. The view relegates the spiritual concept of man

to the background disregarding the existence of any spiritual potentialities in him.

Neither does it offer any explanation nor interpretation of his achievements in the

spiritual realm. This school has given to the realm of thought the doctrine of 'the

natural man'. It prefers instinctive judgements and primitive emotions as the basis

for action to reflection or experience that comes from association with society.

According to naturalist philosophers "moral instinct, innate conscience, other

world miracles, providence, power of prayer, freedom of will are illusions" and

there is absolute good or evil in the world. Aristotle, Comte, Bacon, Hobbes,

Lamarks, Rousseau, Thomas Huxley, Herbert are some of the noted thinkers on

these lines. (Jarrett, 1969},

1.1.22 (a) Onset of Naturalism in Education

Naturalism in education is an expression of protest against the prevailing

system. It came on the scene as a reaction against formalism, sophistication and

pedantry, into which the humanistic movement, influenced by the Renaissance,

had degenerated, with its undue emphasis on the study of books and linguistic

forms. Naturalism depends on the actual life of the educand. It asserts that the

well-established systems of education, with all their complexities and accessories,

are formal, rigid and artificial and hinder the child's natural development.

27
 According to the earliest thinkers of naturalism the proper method of

imparting knowledge is 'to follow nature'. Nature would not lead one astray. The

spirit that is prevalent in various operations of nature ought to be the dominating

principle in the art of teaching. It was Rousseau (1712-1778) who brought the

naturalistic movement in education to its zenith. Rousseau (1712-1778) exalted

natural instincts and desires above reason. He maintained that the removal of all

restriction was necessary for securing the child's development. Natural tendencies

should be allowed to have full sway. The child should be educated in contact with

nature, according to its laws, away from society and its schools. Rousseau was

against forcing upon the child the traditional or customary way of thinking. The

child was to be regarded as a child rather than a miniature adult. As such he was

to receive education which is a natural process - "development from within, not

an accretion from without an expansion of natural powers not an acquisition of

information alone." Before imparting knowledge, such education should be given

that aimed at perfecting the organs that are the instruments of knowledge.

Rousseau brought the child into the foreground of the educational process and

stressed that educational material should be the facts and phenomena of nature.

Pacdocentricism and the scientific tendency in modem education incorporate these

two ideals respectively. (Bremeld, 1971).

28
1.7.2.2 (b) Naturalism and Aims of Education

According to naturalism the purpose of education is to redirect or sublimate

the natural impulses of the child for socially desirable ends. Education being a

process of adjustment to environment the aim of education is to endow the

individual with the ability to adapt himself to his surroundings so that he grows to

be a well-adjusted strong and happy being. According to Rousseau (1712)

education should aim at the development of the child in conformity with his

nature. In other words, the main aim of education is to give full opportunity for the

development of the natural endowments of the child. Nunn regards the

autonomous development of the individual as the central aim of education. He

insists that an education which aims at fostering individuality is the only education

according to nature. Consequently, naturalism bestows regard for individual

differences among children. Naturalism does not believe in specialized education.

It stands for liberal education. Naturalism cuts at the very root of the artificial life of

the upper classes. It criticizes the training of children in artificialities of life. It

stands for encouraging the natural spontaneity of children. The aim of education

should be free cultivation of all human powers in the interest of perfect individual

development. Naturalism wants to preserve the natural goodness and virtue of the

individual by establishing a society in which every individual enjoys rights in all

spheres of life. In this regard naturalism stands for the democratic values of liberty,

equality and fraternity. The nature of the childs is essentially good. Hence, his

29
senses and instincts should not be thwarted. They are sacred and God given. A

child has his own personality. He is not an adult or a grown up and has ways of

perception, thinking and feeling peculiar to his age. “Nature wills that children

should be children before they are men. If we seek to pervert the order, we shall

produce forward fruits without ripeness or flavour, and though not ripe, soon

rotten; we shall soon have young savants and old children". The implications of

the above naturalist statement may be said to be that psychological, scientific and

sociological tendencies in education find their root in naturalism.

1.7.2.2 (c) The Scheme of Curriculum

In the choice of curriculum of school studies, the naturalists hold their own

views. Spencer an extreme naturalist thought that human nature is strictly

individualistic and that self preservation is the first law of life. Accordingly he

advocated the inclusion of those subjects which would subserve self-preservation.

He attaches no importance to cultural subjects or those which enhance the value

of man's social and cultural inheritance. Rousseau's (1712) concept of curriculum is

characterized by the principle of negative education which is typical of the

naturalistic philosophy, the subordination of the child to the natural order and his

freedom from the social order. The doctrine of negative education, as applied to

physical education, insists on the greatest possible freedom for the child in his

movements and exercises, simple diet, loose, seanty and light clothing etc.

30
Intellectual education would amount to absence of verbal lessons, books or any

positive studies. The naturalists contend that the child's present experiences,

interests and activities should determine the choice of studies. The child should be

allowed to grow up in a free atmosphere; his natural inclination should find a

suitable outlet. The curriculum should consist of the phenomena of nature

presented in the natural order before the child. The childs intellectual education is

limited to the informal training of the senses. The child's power of sense

discrimination should be developed by stimulating his natural curiosity and

interests. According to naturalist curriculum knowledge for its own sake is not an

aim worthy of emulation or worth striving after. Hence, as noted earlier, the child

is not to be taught the traditional subjects. As for moral education naturalism

regards it as a matter of experience rather than of instruction. (Bremeld, 1971).

1.7.2.2 (d) Role of the Teacher

In a naturalist scheme of education the teacher has a peculiar place and

duty to perform. Neither is he to interfere with the activities of the children, nor is

he to provide any ideals or ideas in order to form their character. He must not

impose himself on them but must see to it that their education is the free

development of their interests and motives than an artificial effort made by him.

He has to provide them with suitable opportunities and create conditions which

are conducive to their natural development. He is not to expect any undue defence

31
from the pupils he teaches nor does he try to look superior. He stands for

encouraging the natural spontaneity of children. Naturalism is against intellectual

pretentions and autocratic behaviour on the part of the teacher. It rejects all

authority that interferes with the spontaneous development of the child. The

teacher tries to understand the children, loves them and approves of their

behaviour. It is contended that the child's nature is essentially good and any

intervention is, therefore harmful.

1.1.22 (e) Methods of Teaching

As discussed earlier, Naturalism makes the child the supreme center of all

educational procedures. The techniques of education must be determined

according to the child's nature and growth. Great stress is laid on direct

experience of things and on the principle of learning by doing. In this context

Rousseau (1712) has the following piece of advice to make. "Give your scholar no

verbal lessons: he should be taught by experience alone.....Teach by doing

whenever you can: and only fall bade on words when doing is out of question.....

Book knowledge should be as little as possible". The pupil is to discover things for

himself in learning science. He would make use of rough experiments performed

with the help of apparatus self-made and self invented. He is to adopt the

heuristic-learning by discovering-attitude and to apply it in the first hand study of

natural phenomena. The same principle is to work in learning mathematics,

32
geography and history. Thus, the direct methods of learning languages, the

heuristic and laboratory methods of learning sciences and mathematics, the

observational method in geography all illustrate naturalistic attitude. Even the

play-way principle in the project-method, the boy-scout and the girl-guide

movement, school excursions and in the schemes of self-government, is essentially

naturalistic. Besides these, the revolt from bookishness in elementary education

emphasis on nature study, out-of-door methods of studying geography, co­

educational institution, open air classes are characteristic of naturalism. The

naturalists believe that every child's ability to acquire knowledge and skills and

benefit thereby is individual. Hence, those classroom practices which assume a

uniform speed of learning are discredited by them. The naturalistic methodology

has been aptly described by Ross: "The naturalist educator rightly thinks less of

his own exposition, much more of the learning experience of the pupil. To

summarize the discussion, naturalists advocate the use of child-centered methods

which stress the importance of the educand in the process of education more than

the subject matter or the educator himself.

1.7.2.2(f) Concept of School Organization

Naturalism as a philosophy of education has contributed a lot to the modem

concept of school organization. The organization of the school under goes a

complete change when the main tenets of the naturalistic philosophy are applied

33
to it. There is no rigidity of organization, no repressive forces in it. The school

ought to provide an environment which is conducive to the free development of

the growing child. For this purpose, the whole school is organized into a free,

natural society where the pupils' learn how to lead and how to follow. This

implies a system of self-government or the organization of the school along the

lines suggested in the Dalton plan which turns the class-rooms into the

laboratories. The naturalistic organization connotes an abhorrence of rigid time­

tables.

1.7.2.2 (g) Concept of Discipline

It is said that if discipline is the cry of the idealist freedom is that of the

naturalist. Naturalists advocate the theory of discipline by natural consequences.

According to this theory, the discipline should be one which is by natural

consequences of one's action. Some naturalists would like the child to suffer the

unavoidable consequences or the inevitable reactions of his conduct. These natural

consequences constitute the punishment. Rousseau (1712) said that children

should never receive punishment as such. It should always come as the natural

consequence of their fault. This doctrine of discipline by natural consequences

enables the child to develop his potentialities in an atmosphere of freedom. It

saves him from the danger of repression which may result from the adult

interference and domination. But the theory of discipline by natural consequences

34
has been severely criticized. The truth is that the consequences of one's action

may not be proportionate to the fault. The consequences may do more harm to the

offender than he deserves. Nature does not distribute her penalties in a fair and

just manner. Nature's ways are arbitrary. In the view of the idealist discipline by

natural consequences is inadequate for moral training because it is not backed by

any notion of absolute morality. For the idealist, the conduct which gives joy and

happiness is regarded as morally good and that which gives pain is morally bad.

To arrive at a compromise between the naturalists and the idealists, it can be said

that the doctrine of discipline by natural consequences can be affected through

methods of self-government and social discipline.

1.7.2.3 Realism and Education

Realism as a school of philosophy regards the word of physical reality as

the fundamental thing in experience. The physical world alone is objective and the

factual world is something which can be easily accepted as it is. The realist

regards the personal wants and feelings subjective, subordinate and secondary.

Realism is quite conscious of facts and realities of actual situations. It gives no

place to sentimentalism and imagination. As such, realism disregards everything

subjective, personal and emotional. It tries to see things as they are and to

understand reality in its own colour without any fear or favour. The attitude of

most scientists closely fits in with the stand point of realism. The content of the

35
physical sciences is the reality for the scientist. So is the case with the modem

realist. Realism starts with undeniable certainties to build up a body of

systematized knowledge which is certain and objective and agrees with the stand

point of physical science. Realism believes that the regularities of the material

environment are the chief sources of all human experience. So the problem of

values should be approached more or less the same way knowledge is

approached. The great contribution of realism is in terms of a world view which is

physical orderly and which can be understood by men. Aristotle (384-322 B.C)

and Aquinas {1224) are the two leading exponents of realism. (Bremeld, 1971).

Realism entered the educational field as a protest against the narrowness of

the bookish and abstruse curricula. Realism holds that education should be closely

related to the actual realities of life in all conceivable aspects. Realism advocates

that education should by to give all those skills and knowledge to the individual

which are necessary for a happy living in the society. Realist philosophers believe

that there are certain eveiy-lasting values, in other words, there are universals

which are permanent or perennial in the midst of change to which man must

return and which must be brought to the attention of the youth in the school.

1.7.2.3 (a) Realism and Aims of Education

The aim of education according to realism is to give to the pupil a complete

knowledge and understanding of human society, human nature, motives and

36
institutions. The realist says that the aim of education is formation of a complete

man, skilled in art and industry, the development of the whole man, physically,

morally intellectually. The learner is expected to actualize his potentiality. The

ability to do so is embedded like a universal in every man in equal proportion, so

that under the proper conditions every one is able to achieve this end. Such a goal

rests fundamentally upon the concept that human nature is universally the same.

The ultimate ends of education are the same for all men at all times and

everywhere. They are absolute and universal principles. According to the realist

education should restore man's appreciation for the permanent moral, intellectual

and human values. Man should return to the more stale type of society. The one

true philosophy of permanent truth amidst changing values should be accepted.

Properly educated leadership must be available in order to avert disaster.

Education should create an intellectually elite class of leaders.

1.7.2.3 (b) Scheme of Curriculum

According to realism the curriculum becomes of a very wide nature. The

actualization of the learner's intellectual potential is attained to a significant

degree when he makes reasoning a habit. This ability to think clearly is necessary

for discovering truth. Education is a preparation for tomorrow through the

acceptance of irrevocable truths, not through adjustment to changing particulars

such as men and society. One must have something to reason about. The perennial

37
problems and questions of the great thinkers of all time provide the necessary

material for this, hi order to study these permanent truths, the tools of learning the

R's, reading and writing should be mastered during the elementary years. Ability

for appreciation of the great classics and the fine arts should also be developed.

Foreign languages, logic, rhetoric, natural sciences and mathematics should be

studied. Philosophy must be taught. Modem languages may find a place in the

curriculum as they enable one to read, write and conduct all type of inter actions

in the society. The true college or university should give a liberal education, not a

vocational one. The curriculum decides right subjects for a pupil depending upon

the utilization of his life.

1.7.2.3 (c) Role of the Teacher

A teacher who practises the principles of realism would play a secondary

and mediatory role. He would not be a well-spring of knowledge, nor the centre of

the educative process transmitting the cultural heritage. He would be like a

physician attempting to heal his patient. The teacher would have a solemn

concern for universal ideas with his challenging questions and demand for

clearness and reason. Religion and the religious institutions should also assume

responsibility along with the teacher in the creation of a new society.

38
1.7.2.3 (d) Method of Teaching

To realism, the method of teaching is too abstract from the personality of

both the teacher and the pupil and allows the facts to speak for themselves. The

method of teaching should be strictly objective. The best method is that which is

not one's own. The realist method of teaching starts with the parts and considers

them real in themselves. It regards the whole as a product of the parts, which

while contributing to build up the whole, retain some how their individual

independence.

1.7.2.3 (e) Concept of Discipline

Realism stresses the place of mental discipline in the educational process

1.1.2 A Pragmatism and Education

Pragmatism is a midway between naturalism and idealism. It criticizes the

impersonal interpretation of existence as put forth by naturalism and rebels

against the academic and orthodox absolutism of idealism. Pragmatism holds that

whatever fulfils one's purpose and develops his life is true. Pragmatism may be

viewed in three forms. Humanistic, experimental and biological. According to

humanistic pragmatism that which fulfils man's purpose is true. Experimental

pragmatism regards that as true which can be experimentally verified. In other

words, whatever works is true. Biological pragmatism has faith in man's capacity

39
for shaping his own destiny in the environment. It believes that man by nature is

potentially strong to make a better environment for himself. This is the kind of

pragmatism which is more dominant and expressive in modem times. According to

pragmatism the self is a kind of facts. It is not a thing, but a function. The self is a

behaviour symbol, an outcome of a social situation. Its permanence or

impermanence depends upon the social situation. Pragmatism believes that mind

is that form of behaviour especially of the social type which has purpose and

direction. The pragmatist insists on mind being behaviour activity, interactivity

with a biological and social environment.

The chief principal of pragmatic philosophy in general is that man creates

his own values. There are no fixed eternal truths. Truths, if any, are man-made

products. Reality is still in the making. It is never complete. Man's judgement

happens to be true if it gives satisfactory results in experience that is, by the way

it works out. A judgement in itself is neither true nor false. There are no

established systems of ideas which will be true for all times. All systems of ideas

are relative to the situation in which they arise and the personalities they satisfy.

Ideas are subject to continuous verification by consequences. The pragmatists lay

emphasis on man's power to shape his environment to his own needs and to

create by the successful solution of the problems, fairer and better environment for

himself.

40
 The chief exponents of the pragmatic philosophy are Schiller and Dewey.

James regards pragmatism as a via media between idealism and naturalism. It is

nearer to idealism of the dynamic type in as much as it holds that there are values

which are man-created and are the result of successful action and

experimentation. It is inclined to naturalism in the sense that it also stresses the

study of the child and his nature. For pragmatism, education is not the pursuit of

knowledge for its own sake. Education may have its intellectual, aesthetic, moral

religious and physical aspects, but they are to be regarded as modes of activities

through which the child has to create values. These activities are to be produced

by the child because they will satisfy and subserve human needs or because they

are useful. According to pragmatists education is not the dynamic side of

philosophy as the general belief goes. Philosophy emerges from educational

practice. Education creates values and formulates ideas that constitute philosophy.

For them philosophy is the theory of education in its most general phases.

1.7.2.4 (a) Pragmatism and Aims of Education

The pragmatist does not believe in any predetermined goals or aims for

education. He contends that goals towards which educative effort has to be

directed or values which are to be realized are to be created man himself in the

light of his own experience. The pragmatist would like to put the child in such a

position as would enable the child to create values for himself. The solemn

41
purpose of the pragmatist is not to help the child to realize a scheme of readymade

values but simply to fulfill and satisfy his wants in his environment. The

pragmatist wants to achieve through education the cultivation of a dynamic,

adaptable mind which will be resourceful and enterprising in all situations, the

mind which will have powers to create values in an unknown future. It is such

minds that will reconstruct a society in which the human wants will be fully

satisfied through a social medium of co-operative activities.

1.7.2.4 (b| The Scheme of Curriculum

Pragmatism advances several criteria for curriculum construction. The first

criterion is the principle of utility. The school must provide experiences that are

useful to the child. The curriculum is to include subjects that impart knowledge

and skills which the child requires for his present as well as future life. As such,

language, hygiene, physical education, history and geography, mathematics,

science-domestic science for girls and agricultural science for boys should be

included in the curriculum. The 'utility criterion' requires direct training for a

vocation in the later stages. Different studies should be viewed from the stand

point of their usefulness in dealing with life situations rather than as disinterested

pursuit of knowledge. At the same time it cautions that the main aim of knowledge

that is, human progress, should not be overlooked. Secondly, the curriculum should

be governed by the child's interests at the successive stages of his development.

42
Thirdly, the pragmatic curriculum is based on the principle of the child's

occupations and activities, his own experiences. Learning does not merely mean

book learning. It is an active process rather than a passive assimilation of facts.

Besides the school subjects the curriculum includes activities which are socialized,

free and purposive. "If these activities take the character of the community of

which the school is an organ, they will develop moral virtues, result in attitudes in

initiative and independence and will give training in citizenship and promotes

self-discipline." Lastly, the principle of integration should guide curriculum

construction. The principle assumes the unity of knowledge and skill. If the

subjects in the curriculum are presented as modes of activities which are purposive

and connected by a common end integration will not only be possible but

inevitable. The pragmatist does not want the division of the curriculum into

subjects. Subjects are the capitalized experience of the race." But the pragmatist

warns against treating subjects as water-tight compartments.

1.7.2.4 (c) Methods of Teaching and Role of the Teacher

Pragmatism has much to offer in regard to the principles and methods of

teaching. It bids the teacher to be enterprising and experimental rather than

depend on stereotyped practices and established principles. Principles and

methods of teaching should be forged afresh in the light of real life situations.

43
1.7.2.4 (c) i Principles of the Pragmatic Method

The first principle of the pragmatic method is to establish a relation with

the life of the child, his desires and purposes, his interests and inclinations. The

method should make the learning process purposive. The child should be able to

achieve some object or purpose according to his wishes as a result of the learning

process. The most effective learning comes from whole hearted purposeful

activities. The second principle of pragmatism in educational method is Teaming

by doing' or Teaming through one's experience'. The pragmatists lay stress on

action rather than reflection. They cannot approve of a divorce between theory

and practice. The child leams best only through his activities or his experience

and not so much from book. The child has a natural aptitude for doing and making

things. By implication it means putting the child into real situations so that he may

be able to grapple with them and solve problems that arise there from. The third

principle of the pragmatic method is integration of the learning process. One of the

chief characteristic of the learning process is its integration. Although human

knowledge and skill present several aspects, yet it is a unity. The human mind

itself is a unity, there are no water-tight compartments in it. The method of

teaching, therefore, should be such as integrates and correlates the different

subjects and activities in the curriculum. Such integration can be possible if

knowledge and skill are learnt through activities that are purposeful.

44
1.7.2.4 (c|ii The Project Method

A signal contribution of pragmatism is the Project Method which is based on

the principles enumerated above. A project is defined as 'a whole hearted,

purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment'. In this method the school,

the curriculum and the contents of studies are considered from the child's point of

view. It lays emphasis on the purpose of learning and claims that children should

always have a clear idea of what they do and why they do certain things in the

school. Children are presented with real problems and the learning consists in

their solution. They learn several subjects, skills and activities as they feel the

need for them and whatever they learn is assimilated quickly because of its

correlated form.

There are five stages in the application of the Project Method. The teacher

has to provide suitable and interesting situations, preferably social ones. Situations

provided, the pupils choose one or two for their project or planned study. They

plan and carryout their chosen study in the third stage. The planning is done

under the guidance of the teacher. No plan is considered as final. Changes may be

introduced as progress is made in the execution of the project and this forms the

fourth stage. The execution of the project involves several tasks to be performed by

the teacher as well as by the class. Children study several subjects and perform

many activities under the supervision and guidance of the teacher. Proper

45
distribution of work according to the abilities of different groups of children must

be made. The aim or purpose must be kept constantly in view. The project having

been successfully executed, has to be reviewed, judged and evaluated in its final

phase.

1.7.2.4 (c)iii Advantages of the Project Method

The pragmatist asserts that the Project Method is based on the

psychological laws of learning: the law of readiness, the law of exercise and the

law of effect. Education imparted through this method is related to life school

subjects become useful studies. The method encourages a democratic way of

learning. Instead of fostering rivalry and competition it inculcates the attitude of

co-operation, thinking and acting together for a common purpose. The method

upholds the value of dignity of labour and imparts valuable lessons in citizenship

indirectly. There is a correlation of subjects and unity of the curriculum.

Knowledge is gained as a whole. The method stresses problem solving rather than

cramming and memorizing. It makes the pupils discover facts for themselves.

1.7.2.4(d) Concept of Discipline

The pragmatists disapprove of the individual concept of discipline. They

hold that discipline should be social. Social discipline is possible through free,

happy, purposive and co-operative activities of the school. The pursuit of such

46
activities leads to self-discipline. It leads to moral training or character training.

Such activities result in permanent attitudes of initiative and independence

absorption and co-operation, sympathy and consideration for others.

1.7.2.5 Existentialism and Education

Kierkegaard is taken to be the main founder of existentialism. He was

profoundly a religious man holding that man must accept the existence of God by

faith, even if it is difficult to uphold it by reason. Later followers and thinkers did

not consider God to be a necessity. Sarter (1905) leads the secular movement in

existentialism. He argues that human life has no purpose. Existence is ultimate.

Man must choose, by choosing man becomes himself.

The central assumption of existentialism is that the centre of existence is

man rather than truth, laws, principles or essence. Man is characterized by

decisions, will and choice. Man is free to choose the path of his life and by

choosing man attains his essence. There is a certain uniqueness and mystery

about the human person. The mystery is in an awareness of man's deep and

complex meaning. Science and rational thinking cannot grasp it. The uniqueness

of man comes from his emotions, feelings, perceptions and thinking. Existentialism

lays stress on meaning. Only through development of meaning in his life can man

make something of the absurdity which surrounds him. Man is the maker and

master of culture. It is man who imposes meaning on his universe. Therefore, man

47
cannot be taught what the world is about. He must create this knowledge for

himself. Existentialism stresses the social side of man when it perceives that man

is not alone in the world, he is connected to other men, interacts with others. The

real living person is important than any conceptual statements that can be made

about man. Therefore, man's 'existence' is more important than his 'essence'. To

quote Sarte's (1905) expression, 'existence precedes essence.' Man is free to

choose and acquire his essence and by doing so he can transcend both himself

and his culture. In Sarte's view existentialism is humanism.

To Sarte's truth is subjective. For man there is noting to know other than

himself. Sarte rejects all determinism regarding values. For him 'man is

condemned to be free'. 'Freedom is man's greatness and grandeur. Freedom is the

sole foundation of values. He is the unfounded founder of all values. He himself

brings values into the world. Man's problem is his alone, and his solution, only his.

Because of his freedom man is making an upward movement, transcending

towards the world, towards the future. Sarte's ethics lies in the statement that one

should make 'no choices which he does not think appropriate to all other selves,

who are or might be situated in like positions'. Man's situation is largely

dependent on his freedom. Obstacles crop up because man sets up goals by his

freedom. Failures are nothing but the affirmations of transcendence. Failures

indicate that there is a greater thing, 'a sphere higher than that of existence'

48
'Failure makes it possible for one to mount from existence to transcendence.

(Jarrett, 1969)

1.7.2.5 (a) Existentialism and Aim of Education

The most important aim, according to existentialism, in education is the

becoming of a human person as one who lives and makes decisions about what he

will do and be. Knowing in the sense of knowing oneself, social relationship, and

biological development are all parts of this becoming. Human existence and the

value related to it is the primary factor in education. By implication the aim of

existentialist education is to liberate man from all social taboos and cultural norms.

1.7.2.5 (b) The Scheme of Curriculum

The existentialist curriculum includes subject matter which helps in the

development of the student's whole being. Art, literature, music, drams, religion

and philosophy should be included in the curriculum because they are capable of

satisfying existential needs. Due consideration is also to be given to the knowledge

of medicine and pathology because of their importance for the physical and mental

health of the individual. Even co-curricular activities like sports and games can

present existential situations for teaching and the development of human beings.

49
1.7.2.5 (c) Method of Teaching, Hole of the Teacher and Concept of Discipline

In an existentialist system of education, the school should provide an

atmosphere where the individuals develop in a healthy way. Children thrive better

when relieved from intense competition, harsh discipline, and fear of failure. Thus

each child can grow to understand his own needs and values and take charge of

the experiences for. changing them. Self evaluation is the beginning and end of the

learning process. As learning proceeds, children are freely growing, fearless,

understanding individuals. In classrooms with such an atmosphere children

become active, trust worthy, and encouragement by teachers fosters trust

worthiness and sense of security. The existentialists recommend Socratic method

of teaching because it is through indirect method only that a genuine academic

freedom is possible.

The teacher is in a position to foster individual growth of children. He can

facilitate development and creativity by providing a climate as well as basic skills

and tools which make exploration possible. School grades or rewards and

punishments do not foster growth. The aim of school tasks should be to nurture

self-discipline and self-evaluation. Mass teaching and mass testing are not

advisable. Primary emphasis must always be on the person as learner and not on

the learning programmes. The work schedule must be flexible and open. The

teacher must build positive relationships between himself and his students.

50
Humanness determines the relationship between teacher and student. It is this

humanness that indicates the teacher's role and his activities, the subject-matter

to be studied, and the way the subject-matter is to be approached by the students

and the reason for this approach. Humanness is opposed to programmes that

depend on mechanical teaching.

Existentialist scheme of education puts the teacher at the foreground and

makes him the centre of attention. The teacher initiates the act of education

through his person and influences the lives of his students through his own life.

His relationship with his students is not permissive, but disciplined and often

opposing, student resistance is often manifested during the process of instruction,

but this resistance is viewed as natural and necessary in order that the student

may retain his own being. The teacher welcomes challenges to his ideas from the

students.

According to existential philosophy of education democratic ideals need to

pervade the school. Democracy must be the soil in which the individuals grow. It

should be the democracy of unique individuals who value differences and respect

one another. Children and young people come to value difference and change and

also to share in the mutual respect for the value of work and the creativity of man.

Self-government, pupil participation in planning and the encouragement of free

atmosphere characterize the school. Moral judgements are made, not according to

51
traditional standards, but according to fitness of individuals. Teachers should avoid

applying labels to children, such as, lazy, slow learner etc., for individuals may

come to think of themselves this way. Children need positive evaluation, not

labels. Good concepts cause worthwhile behaviour.

Existential philosophy is opposed to mechanization and impersonalisation of

methods of instruction. The tendency in contemporary society, particularly in the

west, is towards the anonymity of collectivism, information about individuals is

recorded by data processing, on computerized cards. Students may be represented

by cards, numbers and symbols. As a result, the relationship between the

individual students and the school programme becomes an impersonal one. The

use of programmed instruction, teaching machines and other equipment tend to

decrease the personal contact between teachers and pupils. This impersonization

proves to be a hazard to the individual development and growth of the child's

personality. Concern and respect for the individual student should be a feature of

the school.

1.7.2.6 Humanism and Education

Humanism is a very old philosophy. Humanism has been interpreted in

various ways such as a reasonable balance in life, interest in all dimensions of life,

responsiveness to all human passions. It is a philosophy which holds that man is

the centre and measure of all activities. The term humanism is used to convey a

52
philosophical belief which has faith in rendering service for the greater good of all

humanity. It follows then that the ethics of humanism is to serve one's fellow men.

It believes in the interest of human beings. It does not tolerate any kind of

discrimination against any race or community.

The following are the principle postulates of humanism:

i. Humanism does not believe in supematuralism.

ii. Humanism believes in science and thinks that man is a product of

nature.

iii. Humanism considers that human thinking is a result of interaction

between living organism and environment.

iv. Humanism is assured that man is competent to solve all his problems.

v. Humanism believes that man is the maker and master of his own

destiny.

vi. Humanism wants to make man free to have the highest aesthetic

experience of art and beauty.

Humanism cherishes the following convictions:

When a people's values are of the highest quality, benefits ensue;

decadence, violence and barbarism are checked. Historically there is an inevitable

conflict between civilized man and barbaric man. Whether civilization falls or rises

depends upon how the wisdom of the past is used, and how the moral values of a

53
civilized life are put into practice. The fall of a particular civilization is the result of

a decline in moral and aesthetic standards and values.

Values are not mere intellectual abstractions but are eternal and

unchanging. They are fundamental measures of human experience.

Human problems are problems of values. Wise men of the past are the best

sources for seeking solutions for the contemporary problems. It is upto the modem

man to use the lessons of history if he is to overcome the conflicts of his own time.

Literature focuses on pertinent values in a concrete manner. The great

writings in literature portray man in historical circumstances, reaping the

consequences of moral decisions and civilized or barbaric behaviour. Values, being

absolute and eternal, prevalent in history, are wholly reasonable in accordance

with nature. By studying the history of literary writings it is possible to identify

some of the related factors in these values.

1.7.2.6 (a) The Task of Education

Humanism advocates that children must be taught to respect language not

the careless speech habits in common usage, but the fixed language of correct

forms and absolute order which comes from the classical languages. Civilized man

has developed a sense of language perfection and this sense should not be made

vulgar by cmde usage. Children must be trained to be mindful of the importance of

54
the modem literaiy standards of academics. The literary scholars of the day must

be respected. The wisdom of scholars must be upheld in music, literature,

education literature and other subjects.

From the above discussion it is clear that in the educational practices of

humanism, the central concern is respect for intellectual values and traditions. The

teaching of literature is upheld. The teacher is expected to be well-read, well-

trained in humanities subjects and superior in attainments.

1.7.2.6 (b) Organization of Education

From the humanistic point of view schools colleges and universities are

regarded as centres from which flows all that is good and needed for the good of

mankind. All facilities are to be made available for the advancement of all

individuals irrespective of caste, sex, rich and poor, high and low. The curriculum

is so constructed as to help the youth to imbibe broad humanist attitudes which

implies loyalty to the social group and to mankind. The organization hopes to

achieve spread of awareness in the people. Schools, colleges and other institutions

are governed according to democratic principles to provide academic freedom to

teachers.

55
1.8 Indigenous Educational Thinking

In the previous sections of the present thesis, an attempt was made to

acquaint oneself with the different philosophies of education, with there origin

strikingly in the west and their impact on the theory and practice of education in

modem times. It is now advisible to make an assessment of the indigenous

educational thought. Indigenous education thinkers have bestowed their serious

attention on the philosophy of education and all related aspects like knowledge,

intelligence, mind and the functions of teaching and learning to which there are

ample references in the literature and to the illustrious teachers of yore

exemplifying the characteristics of an ideal teacher and an ideal student. The

quality of Indian discourse since the days of the Upanishads has been widely

acknowledged. During the medieval times, one comes across many more examples

of effective teachers, both of the religious and vocational kinds which may be

taken as the main foundations of educational thoughts of the present day.

In the modem India too there have been many original thinkers on

education. Till modem times idealism, more or less, dominated the Indian

educational scene. In modem times, by the influence of the western thought

currents, educational ideals have come to be branded after a particular school of

educational thought. Rooted in the hoary tradition with rich educational legacy,

Indian educational thinkers, by and large, do not allow themselves to be

56
exclusively classified under a rigid school of thought. This is because almost all of

them obviously receive their inspiration from idealism and are not at the same

time, averse to problems of life and existence, perennial and contemporary. One

thing, however, is clearly visible that western educational thinkers in the person

of one or another have had their impact on the modem Indian educational

philosophers in deciding educational aims and methods, organization and

administration of education. Whatever their philosophical inclinations regarding

education, modem Indian thinkers on education had felt the need for a review of

the educational system introduced by the British rulers, producing loyal servants of

the government. There was a search for a better system of education in the

country among the reformers and intellectuals. In this process, a good deal of

thinking, combined with actual experimentation on different alternative patterns of

education had taken place.

The freedom struggle of India exposed numerous glittering spots of

intellectual excellence and embracing perceptions of various issues concerning

quality of life in the country. Leaders of freedom struggle evolved an image of

prosperous India that would abound in practice of social justice, equity, equality,

respect for others and concern for others and concern for fellow-beings. The vision

of these personalities was to build an Indian nation integrated into a compact

whole having a sense of pride in its learning values, endeavours and

achievements. Education, the sole means of realizing such a vision, occupied a

57
major chunk of their time and thinking. Zakir Husain, a product of the freedom

struggle has been one of such modem Indian educational thinkers who have

thrived to bring about a radical reform in the educational system for independent

India. As the preface to the monograph on Zakir Husain and his educational ideals

brought out by the National Council for Teacher Education (1999) mentions,

"Contributions of Dr. Zakir Husain in giving a practical shape to the 'Buiniyadi

Taleem' (basic education) in the country and particularly at the Jamia Millia Islamia

still provide an enlightening experience to those who would like to understand

these through his writings and writings about him". Hence there is a need to make

an enquiry into Zakir Husain's contributions to Indian Education.

1.9 Geneses of the Study

The researcher has been working for the last few years in a college of

education. In the course of his task of teaching, the concepts of education for

democratic ideals, national goals, human resource development, cultural

transmission as a function of education and such others impressed upon him.

Philosophical ideas in education such as combining spiritual and religious goals

with the goals of economic efficiency, democratic citizenship, nationalism and

internationalism caught his imagination. The researcher sensitized the problems

linked with the issues of universalization of primary education in the country with

all its magnitude and the impediments in its implementation. The subtle issue of

58
imparting religious education in a country like India with its age long social system

characterized by its unique composite culture drove the researcher to ponder over.

On reading some of the ideas of Zakir Husain on education the researcher was

prompted to feel that Zakir Husain's educational ideals have a lot to offer for the

solution of some of the problems afflicting the educational system in independent

India. In these days witnessing unprecedented crisis of character, Zakir Husain's

vision of education with its emphasis on character building the principle aim of

education appeared to be of significant relevance. These and similar reflections

prompted the researcher to take up the present study to make an enquiry into the

educational philosophy of Zakir Husain.

1.$0 Statement of the Study

The research study at hand is worded as under:

"AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF DR. ZAKIR

HUSAIN"

1.11 Objectives of the Study

hi conducting the research study at hand the researcher has the following

specific objectives:

1. To make an analytical study of the evolution of Zakir Husain's thought

process on education.

59
 2. To make an assessment of Zakir Husain's contribution to the theory of

Indian education.

3. To make an appraisal of Zakir Husain's contribution to the practice of Indian

education.

4. To identify the areas where Zakir Husain's view points on education may

be found relevant for the modem Indian setting.

5. To make suggestions for the improvement of the contemporary Indian

educational system.

1.12* Assumptions of the Study

The present research study has been undertaken with the following

assumptions:

1. Zakir Husain's educational vision offers significant insights for educational

planning and execution contemporary in India in the context of human

resource development.

2. Zakir Husain's educational ideals are significantly relevant to modem Indian

education.

1.13. Nature of the Study and Methodology Employed

The present research study is of the nature of philosophical and historical

study. As such, the study employs a combination of the philosophical and the

60
historical methods of research. It is an arm-chair study in the sense the data

necessary for the study are collected from sources preserved in written form such

as books, journals chronicles, magazines etc.

A subject of a philosophical nature deals with fundamental problems, which

occupy a very abstract level of inquiry. In such subjects, the method has

necessarily to rely on a type of reflection which is far removed from laboratory and

field work. The use of philosophical method in the field of research in education is

made with reference to the study of educational thoughts and ideas of great

thinkers. Educational reforms always take place by the intuitive insights of great

philosophers in the world. Educational programmes become effective if they are

based on sound philosophy as philosophy gives a synoptic vision and an

integrated view. The rationale of philosophical method is that the fundamental

principles and thoughts of great minds can be analysed and synthesized with a

view to making them relevant to the contemporary practices and procedures. It is

the most effective operation in the sense that it explicates the meaning, drains the

implications and explains the ideological controversies.

The present study largely makes use of the philosophical method because

the study is a theoretical research in which the conceptual positions of various

schools of educational philosophy and Zakir Husain's thoughts on education are

analyzed and synthesized. The philosophical method lays stress on the logical

61
analysis of educational concepts, adequacy of the methodology of educational

research, and integration of concepts into a system. It also studies the application

of an educational theory to educational practice.

The present research study is historical in that Zakir Husain's contributions

to Indian education and the accounts of different schools of educational philosophy

are traced from various primary and secondary sources. The primary sources

consist of the works written by the exponents themselves of the different schools

of educational philosophy and works written by Zakir Husain himself -books,

articles, speeches, pamphlets etc. while books, articles, criticisms, monographs,

biographies, etc., written by various authors, on different schools of educational

philosophy and on Zakir Husain and his educational ideals constitute the

secondary sources. The researcher conducted visitations to concerned institutions

and had discussions with eminent persons like Khurshid Alam Khan, son-in-law of

Zakir Husain, on the problem at hand. He also made use of the Internet.

The data are collected from different sources as mentioned above by the

method of documentary survey and processed and content analysis is made to

arrive at conclusions.

62
1.14 Scope of the Study

The present research study deals with Zakir Husain's educational thought

and practice his conception of man; his views on functions and aims of education,

different stages of education, different kinds of education, ideal teacher,

community and parents; methods of teaching he advocated and put into practice,

institutions he organized for putting his educational ideals to practice, his views on

evaluation in education etc., The study includes the discussion of the relationship

between philosophy and education and different schools of educational

philosophy. The study also includes a biographical sketch of Zakir Husain tracing

the development of his thought process, influences that shaped and crystallized

his educational vision, and his national services. The study also includes the task

of pointing out the implications of Zakir Husain's educational ideals for modem

Indian education. Finally, the study attempts to make suggestions for improvement

of Indian education and for further research on problems emerging out of the

study.

1.15 Significance of the Study

The research study at hand proves to be significant looked at from different

angles. Education system needs to be so geared up as to realize a country's

national goals. In the Indian context, the National Policy on Education (1986) has

formulated the following as the National goals.

63
 i) a unified secular India,

ii) modernization,

iii) productive people, and

iv) a humane and caring society.

It is upto the educational system to see that the country is developed into a

strong integrated nation through the process of materializing the national goals

enumerated above. The world today is passing through a revolution. The aim of

this global revolution is development rather than mere change. Most nations today

are committed to growth. Their aspirations are no longer bound to terrestrial

concerns but extend to the exploration of outer space and possibly to other planets

as well. This kind of universal quest for forward movement is fired by soaring

aspirations for economic, social and political progress. This quest is based on the

philosophical vision that man can transcend himself and his environment. This

vision has led to the optimistic conviction that man in this age of science and

technology can move forward with astounding unprecedented pace. As an

aspiring and developing nation, India can ill afford to lag behind in this onward

march. Development is not mere economic growth; it is also a quest for status,

prestige, recognition and social and political modernization. It has, therefore, a

close link with development of human resources in the country.

64
 Human resource development is a concept of rather recent origin. Herbison

and Myers (1968) have made an attempt to elucidate the concept of human

resource development in all its comprehensiveness. Human resource development

is the process of increasing the knowledge, the capacities of all the people in a

society. In economic terms it could be described as the accumulation of human

capital and its effective investment in the development of an economy. In political

terms, human resource development prepares people for adult participation in

political processes. From the social and cultural point of view, the development of

human resources helps people to lead fuller and richer lives, less bound by

tradition. Concisely, the process of human resource development unlocks the door

to modernization.

A nation's assets can be divided into two aspects: natural resources and

human resources. A country requires human beings to mobilize capital, to exploit

natural resources, to create markets and to carry on trade. If a country is unable to

develop its human resources it cannot develop anything else like a modem socio­

political structure, a sense of national unity and integration or higher standards of

material welfare. Hence, human resource development is a necessary condition for

achieving the political, cultural and social as well as economic goals of a nation. In

other words, human resource development is the most effective single means to

accelerate national growth. In turn, education is the sole means to achieve human

resource development. A country needs, in addition to educated persons

65
specialized in different fields of life, the educated populace to join hands in the

task of nation building.

Education is a social process on the foundation of which can be built a

strong nation self-sufficient in economy, non-corrupt in character and scientific in

thinking. Education aims at refining one's sensitivities and perceptions that

contribute to national solidarity, scientific attitudes and independent thinking and

also help one hold a firm belief in achieving the chosen goals. As such, education

has for its aim human resource development. Human resource development

recognizes the paramount need to utilize fully the human resources and relate

education to the needs and aspirations of the people. It strives to bring the

benefits of education to the disadvantaged classes of people to create a climate of

discipline and hard work and to assist the demand for educational expansion and

improvement of quality. If a country is to advance, the capacities of men and

women, the human resources, physical, mental, and spiritual are to be developed

extensively.

The National Policy on Education (1986) along with its Programme of Action

lays its main emphasis on the key role of education in human resource

development. The document states: "It should now be possible to further intensify

the nation wide effort in Human Resource Development with education playing its

multifaced role". In the policy the human beings are described as assets. "In the

66
Indian way of thinking, a human being is a positive asset and a precious national

resource which needs to be cherished, nurtured and developed with tenderness

and care, coupled with dynamism." In the complex and dynamic human resource

development process the catalytic action of education needs to be planned

meticulously and executed with great sensitivity. Education, thus, has been

entrusted with great responsibility. Expenditure in education has been viewed as

an investment and as such, education is a unique investment in the present and

future. The document Challenge of Education - A Policy Perspective visualizes that

in the history of mankind, education has formed a continuum and a basis for the

development of human society. Through development of attitudes, values,

capabilities both of knowledge and skills, education provides strength and

resilience to people to respond to changing situation and enables them to cause

and contribute to societal development. The teacher as the main agent of‘social

change and development is the principle means of implementation of educational

programmes and organization of education. The teacher's effective and efficient

role can be the tool for ushering a new order of society which is just and

equitable. Sykes and Vance (1983) observe "Pedagoggues can, inevitably, bring

about any change, required by the society. They can destroy or make the country

and its people capable of contributing more to increase human resources."

(Sharma, 1989). In this context, the present research study 'An Enquiry into

Educational Philosophy of Dr. Zakir Husain' carries with it considerable

67
significance. An educator with great faith in humanism, Zakir Husain's educational

philosophy regarding functions and aims of education, his ideals emphasizing the

value and importance of relating education with community, creative work,

learning by doing, ideal teacher and such others are likely to offer insights for

realizing the national goals, enlisted earlier, by brining about human resource

development through education.

In the filed of education, the end is more important than the means. All

educational provisions and programmes should be organized according to the end

in view. But it is observed that in the field of education, several projects running

today in the name of development of education, are developing the means and the

end is gradually becoming, secondary. More importance is being attached to

school building, equipment, teaching methods and lesson planning. Most of the

time, the energy is being spent on discovering new teaching methods with the

help of science and technology. An appraisal of Zakir Husain's contributions to the

theory and practice of Indian education may suggest measures to overcome this

shortcoming in today's educational practices. Hence the significance of the study

at hand.

One of the main functions of educational philosophy is to harmonize the old

and the new education. In every period of time, there is a function of

reconstruction between the old and the new. The old and the new have a primary

68
and permanent relationship. The old serves the root of the new. For the expansion

of the new, a permanent and stable base is required. According to Radhakrishnan

(1888-1975), today man is lonely and restless in the absence of proper support

with the old and he has lost all contact with the absolute reality, the nature and

even man. Because of this, his loneliness finds expression in violent and arrogant

behaviour. Human problems are problems of values. Wise men of the past are the

best sources for teaching the solutions to modem problems (Sharma, 1989). It is

upto modem man to use the lessons of history if he is to overcome the conflicts of

his time. The research study at hand proves significant from these angles also. The

present study is significant from the technical point of view too. There is a need for

good historical studies such as this one.

1.16 Limitations of the Study

The study is limited purely to theoretical discussion of Zakir Husain's

educational ideals and practices. Apart from the primary sources of data for the

investigation, the secondary sources constitute a formidable range of literature. An

exhaustive tapping of this wide range of sources is difficult to claim. As such, the

present research study cannot be claimed to be exhaustive.

69