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Counting Algorithms for non-

uniform loading
Johannes Diller, M.Sc.
Munich, 02.05.2019

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Topic 1: Crack Propagation Testing
Conduct crack propagation tests of additive manufactured samples of AlSi10Mg (4046). Compare the results
to wrought 6082 T6 samples

To-Do:
 Conduct tests
 Analyse results
 Compare results to wrought 6082 T6 samples from literature

Sources: Tetelmann, Bruchverhalten technischer Werkstoffe


Mower, Long, Mechanical behavior of additive manufactured, powder-bed laser fused materials

Contact: Johannes Diller (johannes.diller@tum.de)

Fatigue and Fracture 2019| Introduction 2


Topic 2: Fatigue behaviour of additive manufactured AlSi10Mg
Compare Laser Powder Bed Fused AlSi10Mg to conventional manufacturing methods.

To-Do:
 Differences of manufacturing methods regarding material and microstructure
 Closer investigations on porosity effects
 Compare results to wrought 6082 T6 samples
 Find SN Curves for both manufacturing methods
 Compare SN curves

Sources: Iturrioz, Selective laser melting of AlSi10Mg alloy: influence of heat treatment condition of
mechanical properties and microstructure

Contact: Johannes Diller (johannes.diller@tum.de)

Fatigue and Fracture 2019| Introduction 3


Topic 3: Influence of surface treatment on Fatigue behaviour
What kind of surface treatments are available? How do they affect the fatigue behaviour?

To-Do:
 Work out small summaries for several surface treatment methods with focus on their effects
on the material (highlight the effects on fatigue behaviour)
 Analyse these effects
 Compare the different treatments (also regarding fatigue design)

Sources: Haibach, Betriebsfestigkeit

Contact: Johannes Diller (johannes.diller@tum.de)

Fatigue and Fracture 2019| Introduction 4


Agenda

• Introduction
• Load types
• Deterministic
• Stochastic
• Counting Algorithms
• Basics
• One - parametric
• Two – parametric

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Relevance

Source: Scheer, Failed Bridges, Case Studies, Causes and Damages, 2010

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Load Concept, Counting Algorithms

Design against Fatigue

Load history Transfer from load to stress Material law

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Load Concept, Counting Algorithms
Fatigue design according to the Eurocodes is based on the nominal stress approach and the structural
stress approach.

Both concepts are based on S-N-curves (Wöhlerlinie) and the Miner rule.

In order to use this rules, it is necessary to describe load histories with collectives using counting
methods.

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Agenda

• Introduction
• Load types
• Deterministic
• Stochastic
• Types of Counting Algorithms
• One - parametric
• Two – parametric

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Load Types
 Deterministic load
• At any time, the value of the load is defined
• Mathematical functions, describing the load, are available

 Stochastic load
No reliable load prediction is possible
No mathematical functions are available
-> you need statistics and probabilistic cacluclations

Note: Establishing stochastic relevant fatigue loading models was long time part of
research (e.g. wind, explosions, earthquakes)

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Deterministic loads
Uniform loading – constant
amplitude:

Minimum stress su, smin Unterspannung


Maximum stress so , smax Oberspannung
Mean stress sm=(so+su)/2 Mittelspannung
Stress range Ds= so-su Spannungsschwingbreite
Stress amplitude sA=(so-su)/2 Spannungsamplitude
Stress Ratio R=smin/smax Spannungsverhältnis

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Stochastic loads

Source: Hochschule Esslingen, Werkstoff und Fügetechnik

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Load time sequence

Mean Stress
Measured
Variable

Time

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Load Time Sequence with classification
Measured
Variable

Time

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Non Uniform loading: Counting Methods

1. One parametric counting algorithms


a) Peak Counting
b) Level Crossing Counting
c) Range Counting
d) Range Pair Counting

2. Two parametric counting algorithms


a) Reservoir Method
b) Rainflow Method

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1a) Peak Counting
Measured
Variable

Time
→ Count Maxima (or Minima)

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1a) Peak Counting

Stress Collective
Pro:
• Results are on the safe side (maxima)
• Simple, easy to apply
Cumulative Frequency
Contra:
• Different results for maxima and minima counting
• Old, used in times without a computer
• Not recommended for life estimations

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1b) Level Crossing
Measured
Variable

Time
→ Count the number of level crossings

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1b) Level Crossing

Stress Collective:
Pro:
• Good for comparison to other load time sequences
• Number of maximum and minium values can be
estimated easily
Frequency of crossings
Contra:
 No information about amplitude
 Not recommended for life estimations

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1c) Range Counting
Measured
Variable

Time

→ Count classes between two extrema (either positive or negative slope)

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1c) Range Counting

Stress Collective:
Contra:
 Different results for positive and negative slopes
 Procedure not recommended

Cumulative Frequency

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1d) Range Pair Counting
Measured
Variable

Time
→ Chose Max/Min and start counting classes until next Min/Max
→ Continue counting until next Max/Min
→ Classes with same number (size and mean stress) from postive and negative slope form a pair

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1d) Range Pair Counting

Stress Collective:
Pro: No Residuum
• Recommended for Life estimations
• Amplitudes and cumulative frequency are
considered the most important factors
Contra: Cumulative Frequency
• Absolute value (max., min., mean) is not
taken into account

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Non Uniform loading: Counting Methods

1. One parametric counting algorithms


a) Peak Counting
b) Level Crossing Counting
c) Range Counting
d) Range Pair Counting

2. Two parametric counting algorithms


a) Reservoir Method
b) Rainflow Method

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2a) Reservoir Counting

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2a) Reservoir Counting

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Non Uniform loading: Counting Methods

1. One parametric counting algorithms


a) Peak Counting
b) Level Crossing Counting
c) Range Counting
d) Range Pair Counting

2. Two parametric counting algorithms


a) Reservoir Method
b) Rainflow Method

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Load Time Sequence – Stress Strain Hysteresis

Initial Loading Reloading

Source: Einbock Akademie


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Universal Material Law (UML)
1ൗ
𝜎 𝜎 𝑛′
Ramberg-Osgood: 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑒𝑙 + 𝜖𝑝𝑙 = + ′
𝐸 𝐾
𝜎𝑓′ 𝑏
Where 𝐾′ = 𝑛′
𝑛′ =
𝜀𝑓 𝑐

Un-and low alloyed steels Aluminium- and Titanium


alloys
𝜎𝑓′ 1.5 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚 1.67 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚
𝑏 −0.087 −0.095
𝜀𝑓 0.59 ⋅ 𝜓 0.35
𝑐 −0.58 −0.69
𝐾 ′ /𝑀𝑃𝑎 1.65 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚 1.61 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚
𝑛′ 0.15 0.11
Source: Bäumel & Seeger

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Masing Behaviour
1ൗ
Δ𝜎 Δ𝜎 𝑛′
Δ𝜀 = 2 ⋅ 𝜀 Δ𝜀 = +2⋅
𝐸 2 ⋅ 𝐾′

Initial Loading

Reloading

Source: Einbock Akademie


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Memory Effect
Memory 1:

Load
• After closing the hysteresis, which started Initial loading
on the initial loading curve (Path 1-2-1),
the stress strain path follows the initial time

loading curve
Memory 2: reloading
• After closing path 4-5-4, the stress strain
path follows the reloading curve
Memory 3:
• The stress strain path is continued on the Initial loading
initial or reloading curve (path 6-7)

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2b) Rainflow Counting

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2b) Rainflow Counting Rules
1. Rotate the loading history by 90°
2. Imagine a flow of rain starting at each successive extremum point
3. Define a loading reversal (half cycle) by allowing each rainflow to continue to drip down
these roofs until:
a. It falls opposite a larger maximum (or smaller mininum)
b. It meets a previous flow falling from above
c. It falls below the roof
4. Identifiy each hysteresis loop (cycle) by pairing up the same counted reversals

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Literature
• Matshuishi – Fatigue of Metals subjected to varying stresses
• Downing – Simple rainflow counting algorithms
• Haibach – Betriebsfestigkeit
• FKM – Guideline
• Köhler – Zählverfahren und Lastannahme in der Betriebsfestigkeit
• IIW – Guideline
• Wind Energy Systems - Rainflow Counting – A Guideline

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• Show closed cycles
1. a-d-a
2. b-c-b
3. e-f-e
4. f-g-f
D

• Calculate like Algorithm


• Count half cycles (reversal)
• Add half cycles together in the end
• Put letters on it
• A-D <-> D-A
• B-C <-> C-B
• …

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