Anda di halaman 1dari 7

Journal of Food Engineering 52 (2002) 135–141

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Water sorption, drying and antioxidant properties of


dried tomato products
G. Giovanelli a, B. Zanoni b,*
, V. Lavelli a, R. Nani c

a
diSTAM – Sezione Tecnologie Alimentari, Universit a di Milano, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
b
DI.VA.P.R.A. – Settore Microbiologia e Industrie Agrarie, Via Leonardo da Vinci 44, 10095 Grugliasco, Torino, Italy
c
I.V.T.P.A. – Istituto Sperimentale per la Valorizzazione Tecnologica dei Prodotti Agricoli, Via Venezian 26, 20133 Milano, Italy
Received 19 December 2000; accepted 23 April 2001

Abstract
This work is focused on some properties of various dried tomato products (tomato pulp, tomato halves and insoluble solids-rich
tomato), useful to optimize drying processes. Adsorption and desorption isotherms at 20°C of these products were measured and
modelled by the Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer (GAB) equation. Insoluble solids-rich tomato was the least hygroscopic of all
tomato products. Tomato products were air-dried in a pilot plant and the drying kinetics was modelled. The mass transfer equation
for drying of thin slabs, modified to include shrinkage of samples during drying, was successfully applied to experimental data.
Apparent water diffusivity values ranged from 2:3  109 to 9:1  109 m2 /s as a function of the structure of tomato products. The
lycopene and ascorbic content and the antioxidant activity of hydrophilic and lipophilic extracts were measured both on fresh and
dried tomato products. Interesting properties of insoluble solids-rich tomato were evidenced: it had the highest lycopene content (ca.
12,000 mg/kg dm) and lipophilic antioxidant activity (ca. 400I50 ; lg dm) of all tomato products. Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All
rights reserved.

Keywords: Tomato; Drying; Lycopene; Antioxidant properties

1. Introduction Dried tomato products (i.e., tomato halves, slices,


quarters and powders), being commonly dried at high
Over the last few years fresh tomato and tomato temperatures in the presence of oxygen, show the high-
products, due to their antioxidant activity, have aroused est sensitivity to oxidative damage.
new scientific interest. Tomato components include Air drying of tomato caused a severe oxidative heat
carotenoids (van den Berg et al., 2000); tomato is the damage of product, shown by both a marked loss of
main source of lycopene, which seems to have high ascorbic acid and an increase in the 5-hydroxymethyl-2-
beneficial effects on human health (Rao & Agarwal, furfural (HMF) content, resulting in undesirable colour
1999). Tomato components also include ascorbic acid, and appearance changes of dried tomatoes (Zanoni,
flavonoids and other related compounds with an an- Peri, Nani, & Lavelli, 1999). Conversely, lycopene had a
tioxidant activity (Diplock et al., 1998). high stability during drying. The lycopene content of
The nutritional role of tomato has promoted food tomato halves at 10% final moisture content decreased
technology studies, carried out to determine and to to a maximum of 10% after drying at 110°C for 4 h and
prevent oxidative damage, particularly in terms of ly- did not change during drying at 80°C for 7 h (Zanoni
copene degradation, during processing and storage of et al., 1999). The lycopene content of whole tomatoes at
tomato products (Abushita, Daood, & Biacs, 2000; 3–4% final moisture content decreased to ca. 4% after
Anese, Manzocco, Nicoli, & Lerici, 1999; Shi & Le drying at 95°C for 6–10 h (Shi, Le Maguer, Kakuda,
Maguer, 2000). Liptay, & Niekamp, 1999).
Various studies showed a significant oxidative damage
to dried tomatoes during storage. After either 6 weeks
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39-011-670-8705; fax: +39-011-
light exposure in air at room temperature or storage at
6708549. 6°C in air and in the dark, 30–40% lycopene loss oc-
E-mail address: zanoni@agraria.unito.it (B. Zanoni). curred in spray-dried tomato powders at 1.5–2.0%
0260-8774/02/$ - see front matter Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 2 6 0 - 8 7 7 4 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 9 5 - 4
136 G. Giovanelli et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 52 (2002) 135–141

moisture content (Anguelova & Warthesen, 2000). A 2.2. Methods


greater lycopene loss (i.e., 60%) occurred after storage in
the dark at 45°C for 6 weeks. A similar effect of tem- 2.2.1. Drying of tomato products
perature has been observed in other dried tomato Tomato products were dried in a pilot-plant cabinet
products. Baloch, Khan, and Baloch (1997) found that air dryer designed and built by Thermo Lab (Milan,
carotenoid loss was above 50% in tomato powder after Italy). Samples were placed onto a perforated stainless
20 days storage in air and in the dark at 40°C. Zanoni steel tray ð40  60 cm2 Þ connected to a balance to mea-
et al. (1999) measured a lycopene loss >50% in dried sure tomato weight during drying.
tomato halves after 30 days storage in air and in the Two series of drying tests were carried out on tomato
dark at 37°C. pulp. Ca. 800 and 1500 g of drained pulp were placed
Oxidative damage can be avoided by optimizing op- onto the tray in slabs 15 and 20 mm in thickness, re-
erating conditions for both drying and storage of dried spectively. Drying was carried out at 70°C. Air flow rate
tomato products. Zanoni et al. (1999) proposed low was 1.5 m/s in through flow. Tomato pulps were dried to
temperatures for short times treatments to optimize to- approx. 10% final moisture content.
mato drying either by reducing tomato thickness (i.e., Ca. 500 g of insoluble solids-rich tomato was placed
producing dried tomato slices, quarters, cubes) or by onto the tray in a slab 10 mm in thickness. Samples were
partially removing water (i.e., producing intermediate dried at 60°C by 1.5 m/s air flow rate in through flow to
moisture tomatoes). Shi et al. (1999) suggested that approx. 7% final moisture content.
osmotic and vacuum drying be used to obtain both During drying weight loss, moisture loss and drying
intermediate moisture and dried tomatoes, while main- rate were calculated by the measured sample weight and
taining the antioxidant activity of fresh product. Za- by the measured total solids content of fresh samples. At
noni, Pagliarini, and Foschino (2000) found an optimal the end of drying products were immediately chilled to
range of conditions for storage of tomato halves under 3°C, and the total solids content of dried samples was
vacuum in the dark; it was represented by residual measured by gravimetry in a vacuum oven at 70°C
moisture values between 20% and 40% and 6 18°C (Porretta, 1991) to validate the calculated weight losses.
storage temperature. The temperature and relative humidity of fresh air
An understanding of the characteristics of tomato in were obtained from regional weather reports (Direzione
terms of hygroscopicity, drying kinetics and water dif- Generale Regione Lombardia, Milan, Italy).
fusivity is essential for any optimization study. The aim
of this work was to determine the water sorption and
drying properties of dried tomato products. In this work 2.2.2. Lycopene content
well-known models were applied to some tomato The lycopene content was measured on both fresh
products, the properties of which are not available in the and dried tomato samples. Dried tomato samples were
literature. The effect of drying on the antioxidant ac- rehydrated to about 10% solids content under nitrogen
tivity of these products was also studied. at 4°C for approximately 10 h. Samples (1–5 g) were
extracted with tetrahydrofuran (THF) stabilized by
adding 0.1% butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Tomato
2. Materials and methods samples were homogenized in an Ultraturrax at low
speed (for max 60 s) under nitrogen flux using about 30
2.1. Materials ml of the extraction solvent in an ice bath to avoid
overheating. The homogenized mixture was centrifuged
Drying trials were carried out using two types of at 11,000g at 5°C for 10 min. The supernatant was
tomato products: (i) commercial tomato pulp and (ii) collected in a 100 ml flask, and solids were extracted two
insoluble solids-rich tomato. more times in the same way. The supernatants were
Insoluble solids-rich tomato was produced from added to the flask and the final extract was brought to
commercially canned peeled tomatoes. Peeled tomatoes volume, filtered through a 0:22 lm membrane and im-
were drained, chopped and mashed into rough pulp mediately injected into an HPLC system. All operations
using a puree-maker. The rough pulp was centrifuged at were performed avoiding direct light exposure and using
11,000g and 10°C for 30 min, and the separated tomato dark glassware.
serum was removed. The insoluble solids-rich fraction Chromatographic conditions were as follows: Vydac
was resuspended in a volume of washing solution (i.e., 210 TP C18 column ð25  4:6 mm2 Þ, equipped with a
1% citric acid) corresponding to the amount of serum C18 pre-column; isocratic elution with 95:5 methanol:
separated, in order to remove the absorbed soluble THF (0.1% BHT) at 25°C; UV detection at 454 nm.
solids fraction. The suspension was stirred for 30 min Lycopene was identified and quantified by a calibra-
and centrifuged under the same conditions as above to tion curve built with pure standard compound (Sigma
obtain insoluble solids-rich tomato samples. Chemical, Italy).
G. Giovanelli et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 52 (2002) 135–141 137

Table 1 pH 3.0; second step: pH 7.4), and the antioxidant ac-


Water activity values for saturated salt solutions (Greenspan, 1977) tivity was determined by the xanthine oxidase (XOD,
Saturated salt solution Water activity (aw ) EC 1.1.3.22)/xanthine model system, which produces
MgCl2 0.3307 hydrogen peroxide and superoxide radical. The lipo-
NaBr 0.5914 philic fraction was extracted by THF, and the antioxi-
NaNO2 a 0.649
dant activity was measured by the linoleicacid=CuSO4
NaCl 0.7547
KCl 0.8511 model system as a model for lipid peroxidation. For
BaCl2 a 0.920 both model systems control reactions were prepared by
a
Reported by Stamp, Linscott, Lomauro, and Labuza (1984). adding the solvent instead of the extract. The antioxi-
dant activity was calculated as percent of inhibition of
the control reaction rate and expressed as I50 , which is
2.2.3. Ascorbic acid content
the amount of extract (lg of dry matter) that causes 50%
The ascorbic acid content was measured on both
inhibition of the model reaction, as interpolated by a
fresh and dried tomato samples. Samples were diluted
dose–response curve.
1:10 with 0.3% meta-phosphoric acid and homogenized
by Ultraturrax. The homogenized mixture was centri-
fuged at 11,000g at 5°C for 10 min, the supernatant was 2.2.5. Water sorption isotherms
filtered through a 0:45 lm membrane, and immediately Adsorption isotherms were determined by a static,
injected into the HPLC system. gravimetric method using air-tight glass jars containing
Chromatographic conditions were as follows: fruit saturated salt solutions (Table 1). About 5 g of freeze-
quality column (BioRad, 100  7:8 mm2 ), equipped with dried samples were placed into Petri dishes and then into
a cation H+ precolumn (BioRad, Milan, Italy); isocratic thermostated jars at 20°C. The equilibrium moisture
elution with 0:002 N H2 SO4 by 0.7 ml/min at room content was reached within 17 days and measured by the
temperature; injection volume 20 ll; detection by an gravimetric method.
electrochemical detector set at þ800 mV. Ascorbic acid The desorption isotherm for tomato pulp was deter-
was identified and quantified by a calibration curve built mined at 20°C on samples removed from the dryer at
with a pure standard (BDH, Italy). different times. Water activity of samples was measured
by a dew point hygrometer (Aqualab, Decagon Devices,
WA, USA), and the relevant moisture content was
2.2.4. Antioxidant activity
measured by the gravimetric method.
The antioxidant activity was measured on both fresh
and dried tomato samples. The antioxidant activity of
hydrophilic and lipophilic extracts of tomato was anal-
3. Results and discussion
ysed as described in Lavelli, Peri, and Rizzolo (2000).
Briefly, the hydrophilic fraction was extracted by a two-
3.1. Water sorption properties
step procedure using 0.1 M phosphate buffer (first step:
Fig. 1 shows the experimental data for water activity
(aw ) as a function of the moisture content (ns ). Data
were fitted with the Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer
(GAB) equation recommended by the European COST
90 project on water activity (Spiess & Wolf, 1987) to
model sorption isotherms
nsm Ckaw
ns ¼ ; ð1Þ
ð1  kaw Þð1  kaw þ Ckaw Þ
where ns is the equilibrium moisture content on dry
basis; nsm is the monolayer moisture content on dry
basis; C is the Guggenheim constant; k is a factor for
multilayer molecules with respect to the bulk liquid.
The same equation was also used to reprocess sorp-
tion experimental data reported for tomato halves by
Fig. 1. Water sorption isotherms for dried tomato products; symbols Zanoni et al. (1999). The relevant desorption isotherm
represent experimental data (N, adsorption data for tomato pulp at at 25°C is shown in Fig. 1.
20°C; r, desorption data for tomato pulp at 20°C; j, adsorption data
GAB parameters of the isotherms for the dried to-
for insoluble solids-rich tomato at 20°C), continuous lines represent
the isotherms modelled by the GAB equation. The dotted line repre- mato products tested were calculated by non-linear re-
sents the desorption isotherm for tomato halves at 25°C modelled by gression (Table 2). The fitting ability of GAB equations
the GAB equation based on data by Zanoni et al. (1999). was fundamentally in agreement with the Lewicki (1997)
138 G. Giovanelli et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 52 (2002) 135–141

Table 2
Estimated parameters of the GAB model
Tomato products nsm (g/g dm) C k Correlation coefficient
Freeze-dried tomato pulp (adsorption at 20°C) 0.117 5.86 1.013 0.999
Air-dried tomato pulp (desorption at 20°C) 0.087 9.75 0.995 0.999
Air-dried tomato halves (desorption at 25°C) 0.076 5.73 1.021 0.998
Freeze-dried insoluble solids-rich tomato (adsorption 0.045 26.83 0.942 0.999
at 20°C)

analysis: good description of the isotherms when air temperature and product thickness as variables. The
5:67 6 C 6 1 and 0:24 < k 6 1. drying kinetics reported by Zanoni et al. (1999) was also
Fig. 1 shows a similar desorption behaviour between included. Drying of all tomato samples moved quickly
air-dried tomato pulp and tomato halves at desorption. to a falling rate period, which determined the kinetics
Tomato pulp resulted to be more hygroscopic during of the operation.
adsorption than during desorption. Although the op- In order to explain the role of operating conditions
posite (i.e., moisture sorption hysteresis) is usually on tomato products drying, the drying kinetics was
observed, this phenomenon may be explained by the modelled. The experimental conditions applied allowed
mildest conditions employed to dry samples for ad- us to consider all tomato products tested as thin slabs
sorption isotherm evaluation. Freeze-drying prevented subjected to drying on both sides for a long time in
thermal degradation and changes in the physical struc- the absence of any significant external resistance. The
ture of the material. Hence, storage conditions of air- following equation was then applied to model mass
dried tomatoes, optimized according to adsorption data transfer during the falling rate period of drying (Perry &
obtained from freeze-dried samples, may be inconsis- Green, 1984):
tent; dried samples would thus seem to be more stable  
than they actually are as they would be less sensitive ns  nseq 8 D2
¼ exp p 2t ; ð2Þ
to moisture variations. ns0  nseq p2 L
Insoluble solids-rich tomato was the least hygro-
scopic of all tomato products. This may depend on re- where ns is the mean moisture on dry basis at time t; nseq
moval of soluble solids such as fructose and glucose by and ns0 are the equilibrium and initial moisture contents
centrifugation. As a result, this tomato product requires on dry basis, respectively; L is the thickness of slab and
higher water removal during drying to reduce water D is the effective diffusivity of water.
activity. It is also more sensitive to moisture variations From Eq. (2) the effective diffusivity can be deter-
during storage. mined by the slope of the straight line obtained by
plotting the experimental data from lnfð ns  nseq Þ=
3.2. Drying properties ðns0  nseq Þg as a function of t=L2 . Table 3 shows the
relevant values for variables in Eq. (2) for data pro-
Fig. 2 shows the variation in drying rate as a function cessing. The values for drying air were determined by a
of the moisture content, with type of tomato products, psychrometric chart, and the values for nseq were deter-
mined by the above GAB equations.
All the samples, except for the insoluble solids-rich
tomato samples, showed a non-linear relationship on a
semi-log plot (Fig. 3). Drying moved to a falling rate
period, characterized by a two-stage phenomenon, where
the effective water diffusivity of the second stage was
bigger than that of the first one. This phenomenon does
not usually occur; commonly, diffusivity decreases as
drying proceeds (Brennan, 1994).
Hawlader, Uddin, Ho, and Teng (1991) found a
similar behaviour, when studying the drying kinetics of
sliced tomatoes at different air temperatures and flow
rates. This was ascribed to the shrinkage of samples
during drying and, hence, to a reduction of thickness,
Fig. 2. Drying rate versus moisture content for: N, tomato pulp dried
resulting in faster water removal. Hawlader et al. (1991)
in a slab 20 mm in thickness at 70°C; r, tomato pulp dried in a slab 15
mm in thickness at 70°C; j, insoluble solids-rich tomato dried in a slab proposed that L in Eq. (2) should be replaced with a
10 mm in thickness at 60°C; , tomato halves 16 mm in thickness dried modified thickness L0 , related to the moisture content by
at 80°C; , tomato halves 16 mm in thickness dried at 110°C. the following equation:
G. Giovanelli et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 52 (2002) 135–141 139

Fig. 3. Relationship between lnfðns  nseq Þ=ðns0  nseq Þg and t=L2 for: Fig. 4. Comparison between experimental data (symbols) and pre-
N, tomato pulp in a 20 mm slab; r, tomato pulp in a 15 mm slab; j, dicted data (lines) on drying kinetics for: N, tomato pulp in a 20 mm
insoluble solids-rich tomato; , tomato halves dried at 80°C; , tomato slab;, tomato pulp in a 15 mm slab; r, insoluble solids-rich tomato; ,
halves dried at 110°C. tomato halves dried at 80°C; , tomato halves dried at 110°C.

Table 3
Characteristics of tomato products and air drying for experimental kinetic data processing
Sample L (mm) ns0 Fresh air Fresh air relative Drying air temper- Drying air relative nseq
(g/g dm) temperature (°C) humidity (%) ature (°C) humidity (%) (g/g dm)
Tomato pulp 15 10.36 16 15 70 0.8 0.006
Tomato pulp 20 12.51 13 20 70 1 0.008
Tomato halves 16 16.37 13 80 80 2.8 0.011
Tomato halves 16 17.52 13 80 110 0.9 0.004
Insoluble solids- 10 8.09 20 55 60 6.5 0.031
rich tomato

Table 4
Kinetic characteristics of tomato products
Sample n index Effective water diffusivity, D Correlation coefficient, r
(m2 /s)
Tomato pulp dried in a slab 15 mm in thickness at 70°C 0.08 9:14  109 0.99
Tomato pulp dried in a slab 20 mm in thickness at 70°C 0.14 7:77  109 0.99
Insoluble solids-rich tomato dried in a slab 10 mm in 0 5:48  109 0.99
thickness at 60°C
Tomato halves 16 mm in thickness dried at 110°C 0.14 4:01  109 0.99
Tomato halves 16 mm in thickness dried at 80°C 0.14 2:26  109 0.99

 n In terms of drying properties, tomato products were


L0 mt
¼ ; ð3Þ distinguished as a function of their structure. The highest
L m0
values for water diffusivity were determined for tomato
where L is the thickness of slab; m0 and mt are the pulps as a result of their liquid state and absence of skin,
masses of sample at time zero and at drying time t, re- whereas the lowest values were determined for tomato
spectively; n is an index optimized to obtain a straight halves. The effective water diffusivity values for tomato
line for the experimental data from lnfð ns  nseq Þ= pulps were in agreement with those for products with
ðns0  nseq Þg as a function of t=L02 . similar structure such as fruit purees, as it can be derived
This equation was successfully applied to our exper- by Mittal (1999) review. The values for tomato halves
imental data, and the model was able to predict the were in agreement with those of Hawlader et al. (1991) for
drying kinetics by a single value for effective water dif- slide tomatoes dried under similar operating conditions.
fusivity (Fig. 4). Data for n index, water diffusivity and The insoluble solids-rich tomato samples were placed
the relevant correlation coefficient for straight lines are between pulp and tomato halves; their value for water
reported in Table 4. diffusivity was higher than that of tomato halves,
140 G. Giovanelli et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 52 (2002) 135–141

although the drying air temperature was much lower

extract (I50 , lg dm)


Antioxidant activ-
ity of hydrophilic
(i.e., 60°C compared to 80°C and 110°C).
Table 4 also shows the well-known effects of both

3950 290
1200 50
thickness reduction (see tomato pulps) and temperature
increase (see tomato halves) on the increase of water
diffusivity.


Ascorbic acid con-
3.3. Antioxidant properties

tent (mg/kg dm)


Table 5 shows the antioxidant properties of the dif-

400 60
ferent types of fresh and dried tomato products. Ex-
perimental data for tomato halves air-dried at 80°C by

nd

Lavelli, Hippeli, Peri, and Elstner (1999) were included.

ity of lipophilic ex-


Antioxidant activ-
Experimental data provided a general survey on the

tract (I50 , lg dm)


beneficial effect of tomato products. This effect is not
exclusively related to either a single component or the

1900 70
1140 70
antioxidant effectiveness in a single model system. Data
on fresh products showed peculiar properties of the in-


soluble solids-rich tomato samples, which had a much
higher lycopene content than tomato halves (ca. 14

Lycopene content
times higher) and tomato pulp (ca. six times higher).
This resulted in a higher antioxidant activity of the lip-

11167 150
(mg/kg dm)

2170 160
ophilic extract, which was ca. five times higher than that

830 50
Dried
of tomato halves and ca. two times higher than that of
tomato pulp. Since data confirmed that lycopene and
lipophilic antioxidant activity had a high stability during

extract (I50 , lg dm)


Antioxidant activ-
ity of hydrophilic
air-drying (Zanoni et al., 1999) for all types of products
tested, insoluble solids-rich dried tomato can be an in-

4620 350
teresting product as a food ingredient, useful for its

625 20
antioxidant and colouring properties.
A different behaviour was observed for the ascorbic


acid content and the antioxidant activity of the hydro-
content (mg/kg

philic extract. Data confirmed that ascorbic acid was very


Ascorbic acid

3300 100

sensitive to oxidative heat damage. Tomato pulp has been


1108 14

found to have a lower ascorbic acid content than tomato


dm)

halves, due to the damage occurring during processing


(Giovanelli et al., 2000). A considerable loss of ascorbic


activity of lipo-

acid has been observed after air-drying of both tomato


philic extract
Antioxidant

(I50 , lg dm)
1900 100

halves and tomato pulp (Zanoni et al., 1999). Ascorbic


920 30
378 38

acid was not determined on the insoluble solids-rich to-


mato, since it was removed together with the serum.
Data on the antioxidant activity of the hydrophilic
extract showed a more complex behaviour. Values for
(mg/kg dm)

12202 24
Lycopene

2186 13

fresh product reflected the differences in ascorbic acid


850 50
Antioxidant properties of tomato products

content

values between samples, but this phenomenon did not


occur after air-drying of tomato pulp. Although no
ascorbic acid was present in dried tomato pulp, the
94.4 0.1
92.6 0.1
89.7 0.4
Moisture

relevant antioxidant activity was not significantly dif-


content
Fresh

ferent from that of fresh samples. We were not able to


(%)

explain this phenomenon clearly; it may be assumed that


other hydrophilic compounds with an antioxidant ac-
Insoluble solids-

nd, not detectable.


Tomato halves

tivity became available during drying of tomato pulp.


Tomato pulp

rich tomato

Some authors (Giovanelli et al., 2000; Stewart et al.,


Samples

2000) noted that heat treatments increased the level of


Table 5

free flavonols, which have a considerable antioxidant


activity.
G. Giovanelli et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 52 (2002) 135–141 141

References Mittal, G. S. (1999). Mass diffusivity of food products. Food Reviews


International, 15(1), 19–66.
Abushita, A. A., Daood, H. G., & Biacs, P. A. (2000). Change in Perry, R. H., & Green, D. W. (1984). Perry’s chemical engineer’s
carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins in tomato as a function of handbook. London: McGraw-Hill.
varietal and technological factors. Journal of Agricultural and Food Porretta, S. (1991). Il controllo della qualita nei derivati del pomodoro.
Chemistry, 48, 2075–2081. Parma, Italy: Stazione Sperimentale per l’Industria delle Conserve
Anese, M., Manzocco, L., Nicoli, M. C., & Lerici, C. R. (1999). Alimentari in Parma.
Antioxidant properties of tomato juice as affected by heating. Rao, A. V., & Agarwal, S. (1999). Role of lycopene as antioxidant
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 79, 750–754. carotenoid in the prevention of chronic diseases: a review. Nutrition
Anguelova, T., & Warthesen, J. (2000). Lycopene stability in tomato research, 19(2), 305–323.
powders. Journal of Food Science, 65(1), 67–70. Shi, J., Le Maguer, M., Kakuda, Y., Liptay, A., & Niekamp, F. (1999).
Baloch, W. A., Khan, S., & Baloch, A. K. (1997). Influence of chemical Lycopene degradation and isomerization in tomato dehydration.
additives on the stability of dried tomato powder. International Food Research International, 32, 15–21.
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 32, 117–120. Shi, J., & Le Maguer, M. (2000). Lycopene in tomatoes: chemical and
Brennan, J. C. (1994). Food dehydration. A dictionary and guide. physical properties affected by food processing. Critical Reviews
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. in Food Science and Nutrition, 40(1), 1–42.
Diplock, A. T., Charleux, J. L., Crozier-Willi, G., Kok, F. J., Rice- Spiess, W. E. L., & Wolf, W. (1987). Critical evaluation of methods
Evans, C., Roberfroid, M., Stahl, W., & Vina-Ribes, J. (1998). to determine moisture sorption isotherms. In L. B. Rockland &
Functional food science and defence against reactive oxidative L. R. Beuchat (Eds.), Water activity: theory and applications to food
species. British Journal of Nutrition, 80(Suppl. 1), S77–S112. (pp. 215–233). New York: Marcel Dekker.
Giovanelli, G., Lavelli, V., Peri, C., Pagliarini, E., Zanoni, B., & Spigno, Stamp, J. A., Linscott, S., Lomauro, C., & Labuza, T. P. (1984).
P. (2000). The antioxidant activity of tomato III. Effects of process- Measurement of water activity of salt solutions and foods by
ing technologies on oxidative and heat damage. In Proceedings of several electronic method as compared to direct vapor pressure
the VII ISHS Symposium on the Processing Tomato (p. 50). measurement. Journal of Food Science, 49, 1139–1142.
Greenspan, L. (1977). Humidity fixed points of binary saturated Stewart, A. J., Bozonnet, S., Mullen, W., Jenkins, G. I., Lean, M. E. J.,
aqueous solutions. Journal of Research of the National Bureau of & Crozier, A. (2000). Occurence of flavonols in tomatoes and
Standards A, 81, 89–96. tomato-based products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemis-
Hawlader, M. N. A., Uddin, M. S., Ho, J. C., & Teng, A. B. W. (1991). try, 48, 2663–2669.
Drying characteristics of tomatoes. Journal of Food Engineering, van den Berg, H., Faulks, R., Fernando Granado, H., Hirschberg, J.,
14, 259–268. Olmedilla, B., Sandmann, G., Southon, S., & Stahl, W. (2000). The
Lavelli, V., Hippeli, S., Peri, C., & Elstner, E. (1999). Evaluation of potential for the improvement of carotenoid levels in foods and
radical scavenging activity of fresh and air-dried tomatoes by three the likely systemic effects. Journal of the Science of Food and Agri-
model reactions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 47, culture, 80, 880–912.
3826–3831. Zanoni, B., Peri, C., Nani, R., & Lavelli, V. (1999). Oxidative heat
Lavelli, V., Peri, C., & Rizzolo, A. (2000). Antioxidant activity of damage of tomato halves as affected by drying. Food Research
tomato products as studied by model reactions using xanthine International, 31(5), 395–401.
oxidase, myeloperoxidase and copper-induced lipid peroxidation. Zanoni, B., Pagliarini, E., & Foschino, R. (2000). Study of the
Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 48, 1442–1448. stability of dried tomato halves during shelf-life to minimise
Lewicki, P. P. (1997). The applicability of the GAB model to food oxidative damage. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture,
water sorption isotherms. International Journal of Food Science 80, 1–6.
and Technology, 32, 553–557.

Anda mungkin juga menyukai