45

CHAPTER 3

MICRO GRID

Due to rising concern of climate change and energy security, DG has

gained popularity. Increasing concern of public awareness in reducing the
carbon emission and due to sufficient liberalization of electricity market, there
is the rise in the use of DG Kezunovic et al (2010). The Microgrid concept
involves a small transmission and distribution network that effectively make
use of Distributed Energy Resource. Dicorato et al (2009)

3.1 ARCHITECTURE OF MICROGRID

Figure 3.1 Architecture of Microgrid

The microgrid defined by CERTS (Consortium for Electric Reliability

Technology Solution of the USA) is a micro power system including a cluster
of loads, storage and multiple DGs. It can meet the requirement of power
quality and reliability of power supply. It provides both heat and power to the
 46

local areas (R.H. Lasserter 2007). Figure 3.1 shows the basic microgrid
architecture. In this, the microgrid is assumed to be radial with three feeders
and some loads. Microgrid system is operated at a low voltage and it consists
of several distributed energy resources such as solar panel, wind turbine,
micro turbine and various energy storage devices such as flywheel, battery,
super capacitors etc. Lay out of microgrid is shown in figure 3.2 which
consists of power transmission line, Communication, Protection equipment,
point of coupling (PCC) and storage batteries along with loads.

Figure 3.2 Microgrid Layout

Microgrid can operate in two modes:

1. Grid connected mode
2. Islanded mode
 47

Figure 3.3 Classification of Micro Grid

3.2 TYPES OF MICRO GRID

Micrgrids are classified based on i) Mode of operation ii) Types
iii) Source iv) Scenario and v) size as shown in figure 3.3.

3.2.1 DC Micro Grid

Many new distributed energy resources are direct DC, e.g. photovoltaic
(PV) generation, stationary batteries, mobile batteries, and fuel cells. Also,
many high efficiency loads are also direct DC. Lay out of DC microgrid
system is shown in figure 3.4. Utilizing a DC bus in microgrid may avoid
many of the power conversion steps required when using an AC bus,
potentially leading to higher energy efficiency and improved economic
operation.

Figure 3.4 DC Microgrid System

 48

DC Microgrid having the following benefits,

1. Increase the introduction of distributed PV units.

2. Reduce energy dissipation and facility costs resulting from AC/DC
conversion by integrating the junction between a commercial grid and
DC bus which connects PV units and accumulators.

3. Supply power to loads via regular distribution lines (not exclusive lines
for emergency) even during the blackout of commercial grids. Figure
3.4 shows a schematic view of the DC micro grid system. This system
utilizes a DC bus as its backbone and distributes power to a user end
loads.

3.2.2 AC Micro Grid

In AC microgrid, all DERs and loads are connected to a common AC
bus. Block diagram of AC and DC microgrid is shown in figure 3.5. DC
generating units as well as energy storage will be connected to the AC bus via
DC-to-AC inverters, and further, AC-to-DC rectifiers are used for supplying
DC loads.

Figures 3.5 (a) AC Microgrid (b) DC Microgrid

 49

3.2.3 AC/ DC Microgrid

This idea offers a new paradigm for the definition of the

distributed generation operation. To the utility purpose the microgrid can be
considered as a controlled cell of the power system. To the customer the
microgrid can be planned to meet their special requirements such as,
enhancement of local reliability, reduction of feeder losses, local voltages
support, increased efficiency through waste heat recovery scheme, voltage
sag correction. The microgrid or distribution network subsystem will create
less trouble to the utility network than the conventional micro generation if
there is proper and intelligent coordination of micro generation and loads.

Figure 3.6 Hybrid AC/DC Microgrid System

The configuration of the hybrid system is shown in fig 3.6 where

various AC and DC sources and loads are connected to the corresponding AC
and DC networks. The AC and DC links are linked together through two
transformers and two four quadrant operating three phase converters. The AC
bus of the hybrid grid is tied to the utility grid. Figure 3.6 describes the hybrid
system configuration which consists of AC and DC grid. The AC and DC
 50

grids have their corresponding sources, loads and energy storage elements,
and are interconnected by a three phase converter. The AC bus is connected to
the utility grid through a transformer and circuit breaker. In the proposed
system, PV arrays are connected to the DC bus through boost converter to
simulate DC sources. A DFIG wind generation system is connected to AC bus
to simulate AC sources. A battery with bidirectional DC/DC converter is
connected to DC bus as energy storage.

A variable DC and AC loads are connected to their DC and AC buses

to simulate various loads. PV modules are connected in series and parallel. As
solar radiation level and ambient temperature changes the output power of the
solar panel alters. A capacitor is added to the PV terminal in order to suppress
high frequency ripples of the PV output voltage. The bidirectional DC/DC
converter is designed to maintain the stable DC bus voltage through charging
or discharging the battery when the system operates in the autonomous
operation mode. The three converters (boost converter, main converter, and
bidirectional converter) share a common DC bus. A wind generation system
consists of doubly fed induction.

3.3 DISTRIBUTED ENERGY RESOURCES (DER) INTERFACES

Power converters allow connection of independent equipment and

components on a common system. DGs technologies require specific
converters and power electronic interfaces that are used to convert the
generated energy to suitable power types directly supplied to a grid or to
consumers. Esterfania Planas et al (2013). The development of an advanced
power electronic interface (APEI) helps meet various power demands with
lower cost compared to DER systems since power converters provide similar
functions Sudipta Chakraborty et al (2009).
 51

3.4 FUNCTION OF POWER ELECTRONIC INTERFACE

MODULE

DER refers to both DG (renewable and nonrenewable) and energy

storage technologies as well. Grid tied inverters are required in most of the
emerging DER technologies in order to convert the generated energy into
grid-compatible AC power, capable of controlling the voltage and frequency
of a microgrid through respective control interfaces. Wei Huang et al (2011)
proposed interfacing techniques using power electronics interface modules
such as power converters, power conditioning (PQ) units, interface circuits &
filters, DER and load control, ancillary services, and monitoring and control

Power electronics are used to change the characteristics (voltage and

current magnitude, phase and frequency) of electrical power to suit any
particular application. The bidirectional converters can be assumed with the
most widely used component of a microgrid among various power electronics
interfaces due to their power-flow control ability. On the other hand,
bidirectional converters can handle the generated power in a stable way
during overload or no-load operation modes.

3.5 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Microgrid standards and guidelines can be found in IEEE 1547.4

(Planned Island Systems) with expansion support in IEEE P 1547.8. They are
also governed by IEEE 1547.6 that sets guidelines for Secondary Network
Distributions Systems (SNDS). Microgrid interoperability for central power
grid interaction is covered in IEEE P2030. These standards and guidelines are
focused around areas of power flow, short circuit, power quality, dynamic
stability, and transient stability.
 52

 IEEE Std 1547–2003 , IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed

Resources with Electric Power Systems
 IEEE Std 1547.1–2005, IEEE Standard Conformance Test Procedures
for Equipment Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric
Power Systems
 IEEE Std 1547.2–2008, IEEE Application Guide for IEEE Std 1547,
IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric
Power Systems
 IEEE Std 1547.3–2007, IEEE Guide for Monitoring, Information
Exchange, and Control of Distributed Resources Interconnected with
Electric Power Systems
 IEEE Std 1547.4–2011, Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration
of Distributed Resource Island Systems with Electric Power Systems
 IEEE Std 1547.6–2011, Recommended Practice for Interconnecting
Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems Distribution
Secondary Network.

3.6 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION (DG) SOURCES

Distributed Energy Resources (DER) is smaller power sources that can

be aggregated to provide power necessary to meet regular demand. As the
electricity grid continues to modernize, DER such as storage and advanced
renewable technologies can help facilitate the transition to a smart grid.
Different kinds of sources are being used in CHP systems such as
microturbines (generally driven by natural gas, hydrogen, and biogas),
Stirling engines, and IC engines. CHP system allows optimum usage of
energy by capturing the excess heat, thereby achieving efficient values of
more than 80%, compared to that of about 35% for conventional power plant.
 53

Table 3.1 Characteristics of Different DG Sources

Characteristic Solar Wind Micro hydro Diesel CHP

s
Availability Geographical Geographical Geographical Any Time Dependent
location location location on source
dependent dependent dependent
Output Power DC AC AC AC AC
Control Uncontrollabl Uncontrollabl Uncontrollab Controllabl Dependent
e e le e on source
Typical Power Power Synchronous None Synchrono
interface electronic electronic or Induction us
converter converter generator generator
(DC-DC-AC) (AC-DC-AC)
Power flow MPPT & DC MPPT, Controllable Controllabl AVR and
control link voltage pitch& torque e governer
control control

3.7 POWER QUALITY ISSUE RELATED TO DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEMS

Voltage, Frequency and power quality are three main parameters that
must be considered and controlled to acceptable standards. Microgrid can
operate in both mode of operation that is grid connected and islanded mode.
The increased penetration of DG in microgrid system posses several technical
problems in the operation of grid such as steady state and transient over and
under voltage at point of connection, protection malfunctioning, increase in
power quality problems. Characteristics of different DG sources are
summarized in table 3.1.
The table 3.2 shows most common power quality problems in DG such
as voltage sag / swell, over / under voltage, voltage and current harmonics,
and flicker. Because of the varying nature of wind and sun, the abrupt
changes in wind condition (velocity, direction, turbulence, etc.), and solar
radiation (due to cloud cover), the electrical output voltage can have a direct
impact if not conditioned through the integration devices properly and thus
causes PQ problem. Comparing to this, small/micro-hydro has lesser PQ
problems. Main advantage of these RESs is they are pollution free.
Conventional source diesel also has lesser power quality problems such as
 54

voltage sag/swell, over/under voltage and flicker. Main disadvantage of this

source is PQ problem related to DG.
Table 3.2 PQ Problem Related to DG
Wind Solar Micro /
PQ problems Diesel
Energy Energy Small hydro
Voltage sag / swell   
Over / under voltage  
Voltage unbalance 
Voltage transient 
Voltage harmonics   
Flicker  
Current harmonics   
Interruption  

3.8 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

For power control and protection, communication systems are very
important. The basic communication methods so far used in the existing
microgrid test beds are i) Power-line carrier ii) Broadband over power line iii)
Leased telephone line iv) Global system for mobile (GSM) communication,
LAN/WAN/Internet (TCP/IP), Wireless radio communication v) Optic fiber,
WiMAX 802.16 (range 10–30 miles; speed 75  Mbps), and ZigBee/IEEE
802.15.4 (for automated metering system) .

3.9 ECONOMIC ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN DEPLOYMENT

OF MICRO-GRIDS

There are many challenges involved in the implementation of solar

minigrids in India, at each phase of the project deployment process. An
assessment of the macro-environment elements, including political, economic,
environmental, social, and technological (PEEST) factors, can yield factors
that may impact India’s energy development initiatives. Thirumurthy et al
(2013) A quick overview of these challenges by phase is presented in the
PEEST analysis in table 3.3.
 55

Table 3.3 PEEST Factor

Phase 3:
Pest Phase 2:
Phase 1:Project Planning Operation and
Factors Implementation
Maintenance
 Clarity on government politics  Institutional  Uniformity of
 Land acquisition process and readiness design
Political

ownership  Reliable power  Maintenance

 Procurement process  Safety Inspection  Project
 Cooperative societies role evaluation
 Penalities
 Funding Process  Local employment
Economic

 Financial Viable impacts

 Off-take agreement  Theft of power
 Consumer subsidies
 Cost to user over time
 Project locations Disturbed habitat  Monitoring of
Environmental

 Permitting process effects to

 Water allocation effects environment
 Accurate solar data  Water churpon
 Varying resource profile system
 (Solar, biomass, and hydro) monitoring
 Metering  Unbalanced  Training
 Technologies implementation distribution  Supply demand
Technological

 System must be modular and systems position

flexible  Load sharing with
 Role of hydro, geo, biomass adding
 Integration with
grid
 Hybrid
technologies

Distributed energy resources are considered as the building blocks for

the existence of a sustainable Microgrid. Economics of Micro Grids are
mainly dependent on the regulatory and the economic frameworks of
DGs/DERs in the respective countries.
 56

Table 3.4 Microgrid Economics

Main Issues Emerging Issues
Optimal technological investment  Joint optimization of demand and
 Optimal mix of renewables supply
Utilisation of some unique aspects  Joint optimization of heat and
 Local control of power quality electric supply
and reliability  Focus on quality and reliability
 Social perspective  Metering arrangement
 Connection charges
 Tariff mechanism

3.10 FUTURE SMART GRID

Pei Zhang et al (2010) proposed unique vision of the next generation
monitoring, analysis and control functions to achieve future smart grid
technologies which are presented in table 3.5. It aims at promoting technology
innovation to achieve a reliable, economical, and sustainable delivery of
electricity. This vision has the following five key characteristics: i) Human-
centered ii) Comprehensive iii) Proactive iv) Co-ordination v) Self-healing.

Table 3.5 Future Smartgrid Technologies

1 Geographic Information System (GIS) for Transmission System
The present energy management system (EMS) uses one-line diagram to
display the power system configuration. However, it does not provide the
geographic location information. The GIS shall be implemented at
transmission level in order to help system operators monitor the wide area
system condition, quickly identify the fault location and coordinate with the
field team to clear the faults. Given the fact that the GIS has been
implemented at the distribution level, we envision that it may take 3-4 years
to implement GIS at the transmission level.
 57

2 Advanced Visualization with Customization Capabilities

Advanced visualization techniques need to be developed so system
operators can quickly digest the information. The advanced visualization
techniques shall also allow system operators to customize the GUI display
based on individual preferences,
In recent years, a lot of research and development efforts have been made
devoted to advanced visualization techniques. A number of commercial
visualization software packages have been developed. Further research is
still needed to investigate how human factors affect system operator’s
capabilities of digesting the information. A customization module needs to
be developed in the visualization package. Base on the current status. The
implementation of advanced visualization with customization capabilities
requires at least 5-7 years.
3 Advanced Alarm Management
The current alarm management system uses technology developed in the
late 60’s, In normal condition there are no alarm messages. During
disturbances, existing alarm management system is not effective and
become overloaded with useless information. The advanced alarm
management shall track ongoing root cause and present only the
information critical to grid operators. This can help operators
Understand the current and developing abnormal operating condition and
increase their situational awareness, enabling them to avoid large blackouts
by allowing them quick action in short time period during which the
problem escalate. The implementation of advanced alarm management may
take 8-10 years.

4 State Measurement
The present monitoring system in a control center depends on state
estimation. With the implementation of sufficient synchrophasor
measurement, state measurement will eventually replace the current state
 58

estimation. The state measurement will be more efficient and robust than
the present state estimation. State estimation is the foundation to enable
real-time stability assessment.
To accomplish state measurement, the transmission system needs to install
adequate number of synchrophasor measurement and set up the
communication infrastructure, which may take about 10-15 years, Recently,
relay manufacturer released new products equipped with synchrophasor
capabilities. This may accelerate transferring from state estimation to state
measurement.

3.11 MICROGRID PROTECTION

The main scope of this section is to provide an overview of different

solutions proposed to address the most common issues related to microgrid
protection, either in grid-connected or in islanded mode of operation.

3.11.1 Adaptive Protection Systems

Adaptive protection is an online activity that modifies the preferred

protective response to a change in system conditions or requirements in a timely
manner by means of externally generated signals or control action" . Technical
requirements and suggestions for a practical implementation of an adaptive
microgrid protection system are as follow.

Use of numerical directional OC relays because fuses or electromechanical

and standard solid state relays are (especially for selectivity holding) inapplicable -
they do not provide the flexibility for changing the settings of tripping
characteristics and they have no current direction sensitivity feature. Numerical
directional OC relays must dispose of possibility for using different tripping
characteristics (several settings groups) that can be parameterized locally or
remotely automatically or manually. Use of new/existing communication
infrastructure (e.g. twisted pair, power line) and standard communication protocols
(Modbus, IEC61850) such that individual relays can communicate and exchange
 59

information with a central computer or between different individual relays fast 1 and
reliably to guarantee a required application performance.

These proposals are mainly based on the use of adaptive relays, which
can have their settings, characteristics or logic functions changed on-line, in a
timely manner, by means of externally generated signals or control action.
Khadem et al (2010)
Plet et al (2010) present a system that is aimed at maintaining settings
of each relay updated with regard to the current state of the microgrid. This is
achieved in two main steps, off-line analysis and online operation. Similarly,
zhang et al (2010) describe a scheme and the algorithm of an adaptive
protection relay, which comprises a real-time block and a non-real time block,
both implemented in software and hardware. At the same time, choudrry et al
(2009) proposes that, comparing the system’s impedance and the microgrid’s
impedance, overcurrent instantaneous protections can be automatically
adjusted to the new situation.

Vaccaro et al (2011) propose to use a way of comparison between the

zero sequence current and a threshold. Celli et al (2005) present an adaptive
protection system based on an extensive communication system that monitors
the microgrid by means of a Central Protection Unit (CPU). Finally,
Mashhour et al (2010) provides an algorithm to coordinate different
relays in a specific microgrid. As a result of the different proposals, it can be
concluded that the main problems with regard to a possible implementation of
an adaptive protection system may be:
 The need for prior knowledge of all possible microgrid configurations.

 The requirement of running extensive power flows or short circuit

calculations when a topology change is detected.

 The need for communication infrastructure may be high.

 60

 The necessity to update or upgrade many protection devices (fuses,

etc.) that are currently used in the existing power system.

3.11.2 Voltage Based Methodologies

The following proposals mainly use voltage measurements in order to

provide an adequate protection system in microgrid. The main work in this
field was conducted by a research group at the University of Bath, mainly
formed by Pedrasa, M.A and Spooner.T (2006), after different stages of
development, the main problems that may be faced when dealing with
voltage-based methodologies are:

 Minor differences in voltage drop among the relays located at both ends of
short lines lead to protection operation failures, due to reduction of the
voltage gradient

 Relatively high calculation complexity when it comes to Park’s

transformation application

 Problems in detection of high impedance faults

 Problems with practical application of some of these methodologies, as

well as with communication infrastructure, when high number of DG
units are present

 Methods may be strongly dependent on the network architecture and on

the definition of “protection zone” for the relay associated with each
generator

3.11.3 Differential Protection

The approaches outlined below base their performance on some kind

of comparison between measurements in different parts of the microgrid.
 61

R.H. Lasseter et al (2002) propose a combined methodology for microgrid

protection based on differential protection and analysis of symmetrical
components. Based on a network zoning approach, the relay dividing each
zone uses differential protection to detect single line-to-ground (SLG) faults
that occur in its down-stream zone.
(Camacho, E.F.2003) addresses two main challenges of future microgrids:
voltage/frequency control and protection. Each line is equipped with two
current transformers (at opposite ends of the line), and once a previously
specified threshold is exceeded, the differential relays are designed to operate
in 50 ms. The protection is additionally coordinated with the islanding
detection algorithm. Then, Cecati et al (2011) presents a protection scheme
for multi-phase faults in micro-grids with inverter interfaced generators,
considering both amplitude and direction of the measured currents.
Lee et al(2012) proposed a protection scheme based on relays with a
communication overlay, considering both radial and meshed microgrid
architectures, and also addressing the problem of high impedance faults.
Inspired by the previous methodology.

Bollen et al (2009) proposes a PLC communication-based

methodology aimed at meshed microgrids, whose protection is substantially
different to radial-configured ones. Apart from analyzing the differential
protection in all the elements involved in the microgrid, the authors propose
three different levels of protection: primary, secondary and tertiary/backup
protection.

Colson et al (2010) proposed a new differential approach to improve

protection in meshed inverter interfaced microgrids, as well as those with
radial configuration. Not only do they focus on feeder protection, but they
also offer solutions to protect other subgroups (buses, DG sources, etc.).
Finally, a new approach to a differential protection for microgrids is presented
by Nikos et al (2003)
 62

The authors propose a differential energy based protection scheme,

which is argued to be less sensitive to synchronization errors than the
conventional approach used on differential current. These methodologies also
have some implementation problems or difficulties which can be summarized
as follows:
 Need for communication infrastructure that may fail at some point,
leaving the microgrid unprotected. For this reason, some authors
provide different levels of backup protection;

 Need for synchronized measurements

 Problems due to transients when connecting and disconnecting DG

sources

 Problems due to unbalanced systems or loads

 Relatively high cost

3.11.4 Distance Protection

The techniques in this field use admittance or impedance

measurements in order to detect the fault and trip adequately. The main
methodology in this group is the one developed by yazdani et al (2010). The
authors propose a new admittance relay with inverse time tripping
characteristics (Inverse Time Admittance, ITA), capable of detecting faults in
both grid-connected and islanded operation modes. Apart from adding inverse
time characteristics to each zone of protection, it also has the ability to isolate
the faults occurring at either side of the protected circuit, since it can also
operate for reverse faults. However, the reach settings should be different for
forward and reverse faults. Nevertheless, there are a number of shortcomings
when it comes to an accurate performance of the inverse time current relay,
which are listed below:

 Limited fault resistance that can be reliably detected.

 63

 Errors in the measured admittance because of the fault resistance.

 Loss of accuracy due to problems in fundamental extraction, caused by
harmonics.
 Current transients and decaying DC magnitude and time constant.

3.11.5 Overcurrent Protection and Symmetrical Compose NTS

Lasseter et al (2000) proposedt a possible solution for fault detection in

islanded microgrids based on the measurements of current symmetrical
components. To be precise, the authors propose to use zero-sequence current
detection in the event of an upstream SLG fault (coordinated with unbalanced
loads) and negative sequence current for line-to-line (LL) faults.,. Li et al
(2009) briefly describe a novel pilot instantaneous overcurrent protection
scheme, based on two routines, which can perform instantaneous protection
for local line and remote bus-bar, regardless of the DGs location, vaccaro et al
(2011) proposed a communication assisted protection selectivity strategy
with three structural levels, to be applied with voltage-restrained directional
overcurrent protection. Continuing their previous work for coordination of
protection devices in conventional distribution networks. Lopes et al (2006)
propose a strategy for protection in LV microgrids based on microprocessor-
based overcurrent relays and directional elements. Adequate for both modes
of operation (grid-connected and islanded), it does not require
communications and it is independent of the fault current magnitude.

Use of symmetrical components for all types of faults (asymmetrical

and symmetrical) in microgrids, along with a communication channel with a
narrow bandwidth (only to exchange the status information, not electrical
measurements). It needs to be noted that the main problem in these kinds of
protection systems is usually related to the necessity of an extensive
deployment of communication system.
 64

3.11.6 Use of External Devices for Protection Improvement

In situations when fault current levels are drastically different between

the grid-connected and the islanded operation (typically with inverter-
interfaced DG), the design of an adequate protection system, which performs
properly in both situations, can be a real challenge. In this regard, there is a
possibility of applying a different approach which actively modifies the fault
current level when the microgrid changes from grid-connected to islanded
operation and vice versa, by means of certain externally installed devices.
These devices can either increase or decrease the fault level.

The main options are as follows: To reduce the aggregated

contribution of many DG sources, which can alter the fault current level
enough to exceed the design limit of various equipment components, as well
as to guarantee an adequate coordination despite the feeding effect of DG to
fault current, fault current limiters (FCL) can be used. This effect is
particularly evident with synchronous machine based DG. To equalize the
fault current level in both grid connected and islanded operation, due to the
reduced fault contribution by inverter-interfaced DG sources. This can be
achieved in two different ways:

1) By incorporating energy storage devices (flywheels, batteries, etc.) into

the microgrid in order to increase the fault current to a desired level,
allowing overcurrent protection to operate in a traditional way

2) By installing certain devices between the main grid and the microgrid,
to alleviate the contribution of fault current from the utility grid
 65

The main problems associated with the use of these types of devices
embedded in the microgrid are as follows:

i) Storage devices require large investment and need to match the

main grid’s short circuit level so as to guarantee that faults are
cleared in a timely manner.

ii) The application of schemes based on a FCL technology is only

possible up to certain amount of DGs connected. For very high
levels of DGs, it can be difficult to determine the impedance
value of the FCL, due to the mutual influence of the DGs.

iii) Sources with high short circuit capability (flywheels, etc.)

require significant investments and their safe operation depends
on the correct maintenance of the unit.

iv) The methods based on an additional current source are highly

dependent on the technology of islanding detection and the
correct operation of the current source.