MATH 1010A/K 2017-18

University Mathematics
Tutorial Notes VIII
Ng Hoi Dong
Taylor’s Theorem

Let 𝑓 be a function which is 𝑛 + 1-times differentiable on some interval 𝐼 with some 𝑐 ∈ 𝐼.

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼, then there exist some 𝜉 between 𝑥 and 𝑐, such that

𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑐) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑐) 𝑓 (𝑛+1) (𝜉)

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑐) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐) + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑐) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑛+1 .
2 3! 𝑛! (𝑛 + 1)!
⏟⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏟⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏟ ⏟⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏟⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏞⏟
𝑛-th Taylor’s Polynomial of 𝑓 centered at 𝑐 Reminder term

Question
1
(Q1a) Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = √ and 𝑝(𝑥) be the Taylor Polynomial of degree 4 centered at 𝑥 = 0.
1−𝑥
(i) Find 𝑝(𝑥).
1
(ii) Show for any|𝑥| ≤ , we have
4

|𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑝(𝑥)| ≤ 7
| | √ .
3456 3

(Q1b) Find Taylor Polynomial of 𝑔(𝑥) = sin−1 𝑥 of degree 9 centered at 𝑥 = 0.

(Q2) Show that for all 𝑥 > 0,

𝑥 𝑥2 √ 𝑥
1+ − ≤ 1+𝑥≤1+ .
2 8 2

(Q3) By considering appropriate Taylor series expansions, evaluate the limits below:
( )
1 1
(a) lim − 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑒 −1
2 sin 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥
(b) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
sin3 𝑥
(c) lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥
( )
ln 1 + 𝑥2
(d) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥
(Q4) Let 𝑓 ∶ ℝ → ℝ be an infinitely differentiable function satisfying
{
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥) + 2𝑒−𝑥
.
𝑓 (0) = 1

(a) Use 𝑓 (𝑛−1)(𝑥) and 𝑒−𝑥 to represent 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥).

(b) Find 𝑓 (𝑛) (0).
(c) Write down the Taylor’s Series of 𝑓 centered at 𝑥 = 0.

1
Answer
(A1a) Note that
1
𝑓 (𝑥) = √ , 𝑓 (0) = 1,
1−𝑥
1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = , 𝑓 ′ (0) = ,
( )3 2
2 1−𝑥 2
3 3
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = ,
( )5 4
4 1−𝑥 2

15 15
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = ,
( )7 8
8 1−𝑥 2
105 105
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = , 𝑓 (4) (0) = ,
( )9 16
16 1 − 𝑥 2
945
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = .
( ) 11
32 1 − 𝑥 2

1 3 5 35 4
Then 𝑝(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥 .
2 8 16 128
1
If|𝑥| ≤ , then by Taylor’s Theorem, there exist some 𝜉 between 𝑥 and 0, such that
4
𝑓 (5) (𝜉) 5
𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 .
5!
( )
1 1
Note that 𝜉 ∈ − , , we have
4 4

| (5) | 945 33 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7 26 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7
|𝑓 (𝜉)| = ≤ = √ .
| | 11 ( )5+ 1
32||1 − 𝑥|| 2 3 2 3 2 3
25
4

Hence, we have
| (5) |
|𝑓 (𝑥)|
|𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑝(𝑥)| = | | |𝑥|5 ≤ 26 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 1 = 7 7
| | √ 10
√ = √ .
5! 3 3
2 ⋅3 ⋅5 3 2 7 3
2 ⋅ 3 3 3456 3

1
(A1b) Note 𝑔(𝑥) = sin−1 𝑥, then 𝑔(0) = 0 and 𝑔 ′ (𝑥) = √ , by (a),
1 − 𝑥2
( )
the Taylor Polynomial of degree 4 of 𝑔 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 𝑥2 centered at 𝑥 = 0 is
( )
1 3 5 35 8
𝑝 𝑥2 = 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥6 + 𝑥 .
2 8 16 128

Then we know 𝑔 ′′ (0) = 𝑔 (4) (0) = 𝑔 (6) (0) = 𝑔 (8) (0) = 0 and
𝑔 ′ (0) = 1, 𝑔 (3) (0) = 1, 𝑔 (5) (0) = 9, 𝑔 (7) (0) = 225, 𝑔 (9) (0) = 11025.

Hence, the required polynomial is

1 1 5 7 35 9
𝑥 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 .
6 15 112 1152

2
 √
(A2) Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥, then 𝑓 is infinitely differentiable, 𝑓 (0) = 1, and
1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3
, 𝑓 ′ (0) = ,
2
2(1 + 𝑥) 2

′′ 3 3
𝑓 (𝑥) = − 5
, 𝑓 ′′ (0) = − ,
4
4(1 + 𝑥) 2
15
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 7
.
8(1 + 𝑥) 2

Hence, the Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 2 of 𝑓 centered at 0 is

𝑥 𝑥2
𝑝2 (𝑥) = 1 + − .
2 8

Hence, the Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 1 of 𝑓 centered at 0 is

𝑥
𝑝1 (𝑥) = 1 + .
2

Let 𝑥 > 0. By Taylor’s Theorem, there exist some 𝜉1 , 𝜉2 ∈ (0, 𝑥), such that

𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑝1 (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝜉1 )𝑥2 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑝2 (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′′′ (𝜉2 )𝑥3

3𝑥2 15𝑥3
=− 5
= 7
4(1 + 𝜉) 2 8(1 + 𝜉2 ) 2
≤0 ≥0

𝑥 𝑥2 √ 𝑥
That is, 𝑝2 (𝑥) ≤ 𝑓 (𝑥) ≤ 𝑝1 (𝑥), i.e. 1 + − ≤ 1+𝑥≤1+ .
2 8 2
(A3) Remark: Try to compute the Taylor’s Polynomial and I will skip it.
1 1 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1
(a) Note that − 𝑥 = ( ) , by your exercise,
𝑥 𝑒 − 1 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − 1
𝑥2
the Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 2 of 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 centered at 0 is ,
2
( )
and the Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 2 of 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − 1 centered at 0 is 𝑥2 .
Let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. By Taylor’s Theorem, there exist some 𝜉, 𝜂 between 0 and 𝑥, such that

𝑥2 𝑒𝜉 3 ( ) 𝑒𝜂 (𝜂 + 3) 3
𝑒𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 = + 𝑥 , 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥 .
2 6 6
Then we have
( ) 𝑥
+ 𝑒6 𝑥3
2 𝜉1
+ 𝑒6 𝑥
𝜉
1 1 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 2 2 1
lim − = lim ( ) = lim 𝜂 = lim 𝜂 = .
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − 1 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − 1 𝑥→0 𝑥2 + 𝑒 (𝜂+3) 𝑥3 𝑥→0 1 + 𝑒 (𝜂+3) 𝑥 2
6 6

(b) The Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 3 of 2 sin 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 centered at 0 is 𝑥3 ,

𝑥3
and the Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 3 of 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 centered at 0 is .
6
Let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. By Taylor’s Theorem, there exist some number 𝐶, 𝐷,
note that 𝐶, 𝐷 depends on 𝑥 and bounded near 0, such that

𝑥3
2 sin 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 = 𝑥3 + 𝐶𝑥4 , 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = + 𝐷𝑥4 .
6
Then we have
2 sin 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 𝑥3 + 𝐶𝑥4 1 + 𝐶𝑥
lim = lim 3 = lim =6
𝑥→0 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 4 𝑥→0 1 + 𝐷𝑥
6
+ 𝐷𝑥 6

3
 (c) The Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 1 of sin 𝑥 centered at 0 is 𝑥 and
𝑥2
The Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 2 of 1 − cos 𝑥 centered at 0 is and
2
Let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. By Taylor’s Theorem, there exist some number 𝐶, 𝐷,
note that 𝐶, 𝐷 depends on 𝑥 and bounded near 0, such that
𝑥2
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥2 , 1 − cos 𝑥 = + 𝐷𝑥3 .
2
Then we have
(
)3
3 𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥2 (1 + 𝐶𝑥)3
sin 𝑥
lim ( ) = lim ( 2 ) = lim 1 = 2.
𝑥→0 𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑥 𝑥2 + 𝐷𝑥3 2
+ 𝐷𝑥
( )
(d) The Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 2 of ln 1 + 𝑥2 centered at 0 is 2𝑥2 and
the Taylor’s Polynomial of degree 1 of sin 𝑥 centered at 0 is 𝑥.
Let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. By Taylor’s Theorem, there exist some number 𝐶, 𝐷,
note that 𝐶, 𝐷 depends on 𝑥 and bounded near 0, such that
( )
ln 1 + 𝑥2 = 2𝑥2 + 𝐶𝑥3 , sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥2 .

Then we have
2𝑥2 + 𝐶𝑥3 2 + 𝐶𝑥
lim ( ) = lim = 2.
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥2 𝑥→0 1 + 𝐷𝑥

{
𝑑𝑛 𝑒−𝑥 , if 𝑛 is even
(A4) Note that 𝑛 𝑒−𝑥 = .
𝑑 𝑥 −𝑒−𝑥 , if 𝑛 is odd
{
𝑑 𝑛−1 −𝑥 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑥) − 2𝑒−𝑥 , if 𝑛 is even
Hence, 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥)
= 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑥) + 2 𝑒 = .
𝑛−1
𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑥) + 2𝑒−𝑥 , if 𝑛 is odd
{
1, if 𝑛 is even
Let 𝑃 (𝑛) be the statement that 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) = .
3, if 𝑛 is odd

By assumption, 𝑃 (0) is true.

Assume 𝑃 (𝑘) is true for some 𝑘 ∈ ℕ,
(Case 1) Suppose 𝑘 is even, that is 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) = 1, hence 𝑓 (𝑘+1) (0) = 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) + 2𝑒−0 = 1 + 2 = 3.
(Case 2) Suppose 𝑘 is odd, that is 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) = 3, hence 𝑓 (𝑘+1) (0) = 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) − 2𝑒−0 = 3 − 2 = 1.
So 𝑃 (𝑘 + 1) is true.
{
1, if 𝑛 is even
By First Principal of Mathematical Induction, we know 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) = .
3, if 𝑛 is odd

The Taylor’s Series of 𝑓 centered at 𝑥 = 0 is

1 3 1 1 2𝑛 3
1 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + ... + 𝑥 + 𝑥2𝑛+1 + ...
2 3! 4! (2𝑛)! (2𝑛 + 1)!

OR
( )
∑
∞
1 2𝑛 3
𝑥 + 𝑥2𝑛+1
𝑛=0
(2𝑛)! (2𝑛 + 1)!

OR
∑
∞
1 + (−1)𝑛+1
𝑥𝑛
𝑛=0
𝑛!