Environmental Chemistry

Environmental Chemistry
Dr. Yvonne Ligaya F. Musico

It often matters how much given atoms
combine, in what arrangement, with what
others, what impulse they receive, and what
impart. The same ones make up earth, sky,
sea, and streams; the same as the sun, the
animals, grains and trees, but mingling and
moving in every different ways.
- Lucretius (95-52 B.C.) in The Nature of

Things
I. Physical Chemistry
Why is Physical Chemistry important in
the study of Environmental
Engineering?
• Applied physical chemistry

procedures is used to solve common
environmental engineering problems
1. Stoichiometry
• It deals with numerical relationships
between reactants and products in
chemical reactions.
• Stoichiometric analysis can be used
to determine the product yield for a
given amount of reactant converted.
Example of Stochiometric Analysis
• Neutralization of hydrochloric acid
with lime
2HCl + Ca(OH)2  CaCl2 + 2H2O
• Oxidation of acetic acid to carbon
dioxide and water.
CH3COOH + 2O2  2CO2 + 2H2O
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 5

Example of Stochiometric Analysis
• Combustion of Methane
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
• Oxidation of glucose
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

Sample Problem 1
Freight train cars usually carry a maximum
net weight of about 100,000 lbs. I f a train
is carrying three cars of concentrated
sulfuric acid (assume that it is 96% acid),
how much lime [Ca(OH)2] would be
required to neutralize the acid if it is spilled
in a derailment or wreck? The
neutralization reaction is
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2H2O

Sample Problem 2
What mass of carbon dioxide would
be produced if 100 g of butane
(C4H10) is completely oxidized to
carbon dioxide and water?
Theoretical Oxygen Demand
(ThOD)
• It is an environmental engineering
application of stoichiometry.
• The estimation of the amount of oxygen a
known organic chemical will consume as it
is converted to carbon dioxide and water.
• It is simply the amount of oxygen required
to convert the material to carbon dioxide
and water.
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F.

9 MUSICO
Sample Problem 3
Consider a 1.67 x 10-3 M glucose
solution (C6H12O6) that is completely
oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Find the
amount of oxygen required in mg/L to
complete the reaction.
Sample Problem 4
Worldwide combustion of methane, CH4
(natural) gas, provides about 10.9 x 1016
kJ of energy per year. If methane has an
energy content of 39 x 103 kJ/m3 (at STP),
what mass of CO2 is emitted into the
atmosphere each year? Also express that
emission rate as metric ton of carbon (not
CO2) per year. A metric ton, which is 1,000
kg, is usually written as tonne to
distinguish it from the 2,000-lb American,
or short, ton.
2. Equilibrium Chemistry
• It can be used to analyze a variety
of different aqueous reactions of
interest to the environmental
engineer – or the environmental
engineering student.

Equilibrium Chemistry
Example:
1. Determining the amount of base to add to an
acid spill
2. The amount of acid to neutralize a basic
process wastewater
3. The solubility of metal in a chemical waste
stream
4. Estimating the removal of phosphorus in a
wastewater treated with lime
5. Solubility of mercury complexed in seawater.

Chemical Equilibria
• The state in reversible reaction in
which the rates of the forward and
reverse reactions are equal.
• A state achieved when the rates of
the forward and reverse reactions are
equal and the concentrations of the
reactants and products remain
constant.
14
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, Kc
aA + bB  cC + dD
Coefficients in the chemical equation become exponents

in the equilibrium constant expression.
c d
[C ] [ D]
Kc 
[ A]a [ B]b
Include only substances in the gas or aqueous phase.
Solid’s and liquid’s concentrations do not change
during a chemical reaction.
15
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, Kc
Where:
[ ] = concentration M = mol/L
c, d, a, b = are the coefficient in the
balanced equation
16
Using Equilibrium Constant
• The reaction quotient (Qc) is obtained by
substituting initial concentrations into the
equilibrium constant. Predicts reaction direction.
Qc > Kc System proceeds to form reactants.
Qc = Kc System is at equilibrium.
Qc < Kc System proceeds to form products.
17
What Q tells us
• If Q<K
: Not enough products
: Shift to right
• If Q>K
: Too many products
: Shift to left
• If Q=K system is at equilibrium
Acid ionization constant of weak monoprotic acid
HA + H2O  H3O+ + A-
or
HA + H2O  H+ + A-
 
[ H ][ A ]
Ka 
[ HA]
Base ionization constant of weak base
For the aqueous solution of ammonia,
NH3 + H2O ↔ NH4+ + OH-
 
[ NH 4 ][OH ]
Kb 
[ NH 3 ]
Acid and Base

table_03_05
Sample Problem 5
(Drinking Water Disinfection Using
Chlorine)
Chlorine is the active ingredient in most household bleach and
is one of the most commonly used and inexpensive chemical
disinfectants for water. The chlorine in the hypochlorous acid
form, HOCl, and hypochlorous acid is a much better
disinfectant than hypochlorine, OCl-, its conjugate base. If
bleach is used to disinfect; below what pH should water be
maintained so that at least 95 percent of the chlorine added is
in hypochlorous acid form?
HOCl  OCl- + H+ pKa = 7.60
Sample Problem 6
What percentage of total ammonia (i.e.,
NH3 + NH4+) is present as NH3 at a pH
of 7? The pKa for NH4+ is 9.3
The Carbonate System
• The most important
acid-base system in
natural waters
because it largely
controls pH
• Carbon dioxide and
carbonates are www.whoi.edu
crucial in water
chemistry.

table_03_06
Solubility Product Constant
The solubility product constant, Ksp, is a
measure of the solubility of such
slightly soluble compounds.
For general case, consider the slightly soluble
ionic compound,
AmBn(s) mAn+ + nBm-
And the Ksp expression is
n m m n
K sp  [ A ] [ B ]
Example
For the reaction below, what is the solubility
product expression?
CaCO3(s) Ca2+ + CO32-
The Ksp expression is

Ksp = [Ca2+][CO32-]
Sample Problem 7
• What pH is required to reduce a high
concentration of dissolved Mg2+ to 43
mg/L? Ksp for the following reaction is
10-11.16.
Mg(OH)2(s)  Mg2+ + 2OH-

Sample Problem 8
• Find the equilibrium concentration of
fluoride ions in pure water caused by
the dissociation of CaF2. Express the
answer both in units of mol/L and
mg/L.
Solubility of Gases in Water
Henry’s Law
Cg = KHPg
Where
Cg = concentration of A [mol/L] or [mg/L]
KH = Henry’s Law constant [mol/L.atm] or
[mg/L.atm]
PA = partial pressure of A [atm]
Sample Problem 9
By volume, the concentration of oxygen
in air is about 21 percent. Find the
equilibrium concentration of O2 in water
(in mol/L and mg/L) at 25oC and 1 atm.
The Henry’s Law constant of oxygen in
water at 25oC is is 0.0012630
mol/L.atm.
Air Stripping
• It is a common method of removing
dissolved gases from water and
wastewater. Gases commonly
removed include ammonia, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
Sample Problem 10
Nitrogen in a wastewater treatment plant is in the form of
ammonia and ammonium ion and has a total
concentration of 7.1 x 10-4 M. The Henry’s constant (at
25oC) is 57 mol/L.atm.
(a) Find the fraction of nitrogen that is in the ammonia
form (and hence strippable) as function of pH.
(b) If the wastewater pH is raised to 10 and atmospheric
ammonia concentration is 5.0 x 10-10 atm, what would
be the equilibrium concentration of total nitrogen in
the wastewater after air stripping?
Sample Problem 11
An air-stripping tower is used to remove
dissolved carbon dioxide from a
groundwater supply. If the tower lowers the
level to twice the equilibrium concentration,
what amount of dissolve gas will remain in
the water after treatment? The partial
pressure of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is 1 x 10-3.5 atm. The Henry’s
Law constant is 0.033363 at 25oC.
Adsorption
• It is a surface phenomenon in which a
solute (soluble material) concentrates
or collects at a surface.
• This contrasts with ABSORPTION,
which a substance penetrates the
material.

Common Adsorbents
• Silica gel
• Zeolites
• Activated carbon
Mathematical Models to Predict the Mass of
Solute Removed per Mass of Adsorbent
FREUNDLICH ISOTHERM
qe = _x_ = KCe1/n
m
Where:
qe = mass of solute adsorbed per mass of
adsorbent used [mg adsorbed/mg carbon]
x = mass of solute adsorbed [mg or mol]
m = mass of adsorbent [mg]
K = experimental constant
n = experimental constant
LINEARIZED FREUNDLICH EQUATION
log (x/m) = log K + (1/n) log Ce
If log (x/m) is plotted versus log Ce, the

data should fit a straight line.
Mathematical Models to Predict the Mass of Solute
Removed per Mass of Adsorbent
LANGMUIR ISOTHERM
qe = _x_ = _KQ0Ce__
m 1 + KCe
Where:
qe = mass of solute adsorbed per mass of
adsorbent used [mg adsorbed/mg carbon]
x = mass of solute adsorbed [mg or mol]
m = mass of adsorbent [mg]
K = experimental constant [L/mg]
Q0 = constant representing the mass of solute
adsorbed per mass of adsorbent at saturation
LINEARIZED LANGMUIR ISOTHERM
_1__ = _1_ + _1_ _1_

x/m Q0 KQ0 Ce
If (1/qe) is plotted versus (1/Ce), the data fit a straight line.

3. Chemical Kinetics
• The study of the rates and
mechanisms of chemical reaction.
• Rate of reaction - the amount of

chemical change that takes place in a
given interval of time.
The Rate of Chemical Reaction
• The rate at which reactants are
consumed or products are produced in a
chemical reaction
• Will a reaction occur?
Collision Theory
for a reaction to occur:
-reactant particles must collide
-collision must have a certain minimum
amount of energy: Activation Energy
-reactants may require a specific
orientation
Potential Energy Diagrams
Activation Energy, Avg. Energy of Products,

E Ea PEP
E energy
absorbed during the
reaction
Avg. Energy of Reactants, PER Endothermic Reaction
reaction progress
45
Rate Law
For General Reaction:
aA + bB  cC + dD
The rate law generally has a form

Rate = k[reactant 1]m[reactant 2]n
For the reaction above,

Rate = k[A]a[B]b
where k in the rate law is called the rate constant
46
Order of Reaction
• The sum of all the exponents of the
concentration terms in the rate equation
Sample Problem 12
How long will it take the carbon monoxide
(CO) concentration in room to decrease by
99 percent after the source of carbon
monoxide is removed and the windows are
opened? Assume the first order rate constant
for removal (due to dilution by incoming
clean air) is 1.2/hr. No chemical reaction
occurring.
Half-Life (t½)
• It is defined as the time required for
the concentration of a chemical to
decrease by one-half (for example,
[C] = 0.5[C]0).
Sample Problem 13
• Subsurface half-lives for benzene,
TCE, and toluene are listed as 69,
231, and 12 days, respectively. What
are the first-order rate constant for all
three chemicals.
Sample Problem 14
• After a Chernobyl nuclear accident, the concentration
of 137Cs in milk was proportional to the concentration
of 137Cs in the grass that cows consumed. The
concentration in the grass was, in turn, proportional to
the concentration in the soil. Assume that the only
reaction by which 137Cs was lost by soil was through
radioactive decay and the half-life for this isotope is 30
years. Calculate the concentration of 137Cs in cow’s
milk after 5 years if the concentration shortly after the
accident was 12,000 bequerels (Bq) per liter. (Note: A
bequerel is a measure of radioactivity; 1 bequerel
equals 1 radioactive disintegration per second.)
Effect of Temperature on Rate
Constants
Arrhenius equation
k = Ae –(Ea/RT)
Where:
A – preexponential factor (same as k)
Ea – activation energy (kcal/mole)
R - gas constant
T - temperature (K)
Sample Problem 15
The rate constant for carbonaceous
biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD)
at 20oC is 0.1/day. What is the rate
constant at 30oC? Assume Ea = 1.072.
II. Organic Chemistry
• It is defined as the
study of
hydrocarbons
(compounds of
hydrogen and
carbon) and their
derivatives.
Organic Compounds
Why Study Organic Chemistry in
Environmental Engineering?
• 10 million Organic Compounds
• 1.7 million Inorganic Compounds
• Animal and plant matter, Foods,
Pharmaceuticals, Cosmetics,
Fertilizers, Plastics, Petrochemicals,
Clothing
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA 55

F. MUSICO
Production of Organic Chemicals
The Top Five Organic Chemicals Produced in the
United States in 1990
CHEMICAL PRODUCTION, 1000 MT
Ethylene 17,001
Propylene 10,034
Urea 7,171
Ethylene dichloride 6,033
Benzene 5,380

Properties of Organic Chemicals
1. They are combustible
2. Their melting and boiling points are lower than
those inorganic compounds.
3. Their solubility is limited
4. They undergo molecular reactions as opposed to
ionic reactions.
5. They can have very high molecular weights
6. They are isomers (different compounds with the
same chemical formula but different structural
formula).
7. They form a substrate for microorganism.

Carbon
Why is it the element of life on earth?
Has Four Bonding Electrons
Unique Strong Covalent Bonds
Strong Single, Double and Triple Bonds
Average Bond Energies (KJ mol-1)

C-C 607 Si-Si 230 C-H 416 Si-H 323
C-N 754 Si-N 470 C-O 336 Si-O 368
O-Si-O = Sand and Rocks
– Carbon: normally forms four covalent bonds and has no
unshared pairs of electrons.
C
– Hydrogen: forms one covalent bond and no unshared
pairs of electrons.
H
– Nitrogen: normally forms three covalent bonds and has
one unshared pair of electrons.
N
..
– Oxygen: normally forms two covalent bonds and has two
..
.O. =
– Halogen: normally forms one covalent bond and has three
..
..Cl
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO
.. 59
Hydrocarbons
• Containing only carbon and hydrogen
Saturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Alkanes Alkenes, Alkynes

H & Aromatics
H C H
C C
C-C C=C C
CC C
H C H
H
A Kek ulé structure A Keku lé structu re
show ing all atoms as a line-angle formul

Hydrocarbons

Alkanes
• Hydrocarbons which contain only
single bonds are called alkanes.
• They are called saturated
hydrocarbons because there is a
hydrogen in every possible location.
• This gives them a general formula
CnH2n+2.

Alkanes CnH2n+2
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C H H C C H H C C C H H C C C C H H C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
methane ethane propane butane pentane

CH3 CH3CH3 CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3

Naming Alkanes
Prefix for number of carbons listed below and
suffix – ane are used.
Number of Carbons As Prefix Name
1 Meth - Methane
2 Eth- Ethane
3 Prop- Propane
4 But- Butane
5 Pent- Pentane
6 Hex- Hexane
7 Hept- Heptane
8 Oct- Octane
9 Non- Nonane
10 Dec- Decane

Alkyl Groups
• If a hydrogen is removed from an alkane, it
can be used as a substituent and is called
an alkyl group.
• Alkyl groups are named by dropping the -
ane suffix of the alkanes and adding the
suffix -yl. Methane becomes a methyl
group, ethane an ethyl group, etc.
• Alkane Derivatives - Can be formed by
substituting an alkyl group for one of the
hydrogens.
Naming Substituents
In the IUPAC system:
• Removing a H from an
alkane is called alkyl
group.
-ane -yl
• Halogen atoms are

named as halo.
-ine -O -OH Hydroxyl
-NO2 Nitro
F. MUSICO
Cycloalkanes
• Cyclic alkanes
• Cycloalkanes have higher boiling point/melting point than
straight chain alkanes with the same number of carbon
atoms
Cyclobutane
=
Cyclopentane
Cyclohexane

Properties and Uses of Alkanes
• Gasoline is a mixture of alkanes from pentane up to about
decane.
• Gases with 1-4 carbon atoms. (methane, propane, butane
• Liquids with 5-17 carbon atoms. (kerosene, diesel, and jet
fuels)
• Alkanes with higher values of n are found in diesel fuel, fuel
oil, petroleum jelly, paraffin wax, motor oils, and for the
highest values of n, asphalt.
• Alkane derivatives are used in hundreds of products such as
plastics, paints, drugs, cosmetics, detergents, insecticides,
etc., so the fossil fuel resource from which we obtain the
alkanes is much too valuable to burn it all as a motor fuel.

Alkenes and Alkynes
Saturated compounds (alkanes):
Have the maximum number of hydrogen
atoms attached to each carbon atom.
Unsaturated compounds:
Have fewer hydrogen atoms attached to
the carbon chain than alkanes.
• Containing double bond are alkenes.

CnH2n
• Containing triple bonds are alkynes.

CnH2n-2

Naming Alkenes & Alkynes
Using the IUPAC alkane names:
Alkene names change the end to -ene.

Alkyne names change the end to -yne

Ethyne
• The simplest of the alkynes series, it
is commonly called acetyline.
• It is often used as a fuel for welding
torches sinces it produces a large
amount of heat upon combustion.
• Oxyacetylene welding uses
compressed acetylene and
compressed oxygen for mixing in the
torch flame.

Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Have ring structure with multiple bonds.
• Benzene (C6H6) is the simplest
aromatic.
H H
Benzene H C H H C H
C C C C
C C C C
H C H H C H
C6H6
H H

Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Many common spices contain aromatic
compounds as their active ingredients.
Examples:
– Cumin contains cumene
– Black pepper contains piperine
– Clove contains eugenol
– Cinnamon contains cinnamaldehyde

Aromatic Compounds
Arene: A compound containing one or more benzene rings.

H
H C H
Aromatic compounds
C C named:
are
C C
H C H Naphthalene
• With benzene as the parent chain.
• H
Name of substituent comes in front of the “benzene”.
A Kek ulé structure A Keku lé structu re
show ing all atoms as a line-angle formula
CH CHCl
CH2 CH3 CH=CHCH CH CH
CH-CH CH=CHC
CH3 2 CH3 3 2 3 2 23 3 2
Eth ylb enzene Eth ylbeenzene

Toluen Toluen
Eth ylb
Styrene e enzene Styrene
Tolu
methylbenzene chlorobenzene ethylbenzene
Biphynels
• Aromatic compounds with two phenyl or benzene
rings attached by a single carbon-carbon bond.
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were used
extensively in industry until 1972.
• Because of their widespread use and release,
they will remain in the environment for years to
come because they degrade slowly.

F. MUSICO
Hydrocarbon Fuels
• Hydrocarbon fuels comprise some
88% of the world’s energy supplies at
present.
• The three major fuels are petroleum
or crude oil, coal and natural gas.

Hydrocarbon Fuels
• Petroleum is a complex mixture of
organic carbons, primarily alkanes. It
also contains small amount of
nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur
compounds.
• Coal is a complex mixture. A large
percentage of the coal is carbon and
contained in linked aromatic rings.

Hydrocarbon Fuels
• Hydrocarbon fuels comprise some
88% of the world’s energy supplies at
present.
• The three major fuels are petroleum
or crude oil, coal and natural gas.

Hydrocarbon Fuels
• Petroleum is a complex mixture of
organic carbons, primarily alkanes. It
also contains small amount of
nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur
compounds.
• Coal is a complex mixture. A large
percentage of the coal is carbon and
contained in linked aromatic rings.

Hydrocarbon Fuels
• Hydrocarbon fuels comprise some 88% of the
world’s energy supplies at present.
• The three major fuels are petroleum or crude oil,
coal and natural gas.
• Petroleum is a complex mixture of organic
carbons, primarily alkanes. It also contains small
amount of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur
compounds.
• Coal is a complex mixture. A large percentage of
the coal is carbon and contained in linked
aromatic rings

Alcohols and Ethers
• Alcohols and Ethers can be regarded
as derivatives of water in which one
or two of the H atoms has been
replaced by an alkyl group.

Alcohols
• Alcohols are found to have much higher boiling
point than those of alkanes or haloalkanes of
comparable size, e.g. Methanol (65 oC),
Chloromethane and Methane are gases ; Ethanol
(78.5 oC), Chloroethane (12 oC) and Ethane is a
gas.
• Methanol and Ethanol are classed as Polar
Molecules (Hydrophilic) – They are Infinitely
Soluble in Water

Alcohols
• Methanol (CH3OH)
– Solvent in varnishes, paint
– Racing Car Fuel (easy to put out flames)
– Highly Toxic – “Blindness” – Formaldehyde
• Ethanol (C2H5OH)
– Drinking alcohol
– 50% ethanol is flammable

Alcohols
Thiols Phenols
• It is also called mercaptans • An aromatic bezene ring with a
• The sulfur analog of alcohols, “- hydroxyl substituted for one
OH” being replaced with “-SH”. hydrogen.
• It has unpleasant odor like the • Widely used as a disinfectant.
‘rotten egg’ • Chlorinated phenols are
• 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, one of important pesticides.
the ‘active ingredients’ used by
skunks for self-defense
• Important in biochemistry and
are present in living organisms
and decaying matter.

F. MUSICO
Ethers
• They have two hydrocarbon groups bound
by an interior oxygen molecule.
• They have solubilities similar to alcohol in
water.
• Ethers are used as gasoline additives to
reduce carbon monoxide emissions. One
such additives is tert-butyl ether (MTBE).

F. MUSICO
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Contain carbonyl functional group.
• An aldehyde’s functional group is at one end of
the hydrocarbon chain, bonded to a carbon and a
hydrogen.
• In ketones, the functional group is located
internally with hydrocarbon chains at each end.
• Aldehydes and ketones are both important in the
synthesis of other chemical compounds
• Ketones are also used as industrial solvents.

Carboxylic Acids
• They are important chemical
intermediaries in the preparation of
several chemicals, including acetic
acid (household vinegar), and they
help in biological degradation.
• They contain acryl group, which is a
carbon double bonded to oxygen.

Amines
• Amines contain and “-NH2-” group or
compounds in which the “N” is
contained within the carbon chain.

Amides ------------- Not acids or bases
R' N R' N
C R C R
O O
Features of a Peptide Bond;

1. Usually inert
2. Planar to allow delocalisation
3. Restricted Rotation about the amide bond
4. Rotation of Groups (R and R’) attached to the amide
bond is relatively free

R
H2N C COOH
H
AMINO ACIDS
O O
O
C
H NH2 C
H3C NH2 NH2
formamide
acetamide benzamide
O
C
H2N NH2
urea
All are high melting point solids, only

benzamide not soluble in water
CHEMICALS OF LIFE
"You are chemistry" - all life develops

from and consists of (bio)chemical
processes. Chemistry constitutes the
basis for life. From the first moment and
in every second of our life complex bio-
chemical reactions go on in our body.

F. MUSICO
Monomer - building blocks of larger
molecules
Polymers - repeating subunits (monomers)
bonded together

Monomer - building blocks of larger
molecules
Polymers - repeating subunits (monomers)
bonded together

Dehydration Synthesis - Reactions to
form most large organic molecules.
Molecule of water removed from bond
area as monomers are linked.
Hydrolysis (Digestion) - Large organic
molecules are broken up. Molecule of
water added to help remove the
monomers.

Organic Molecules Found in Living
Organisms
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Nucleic Acid

F. MUSICO
Carbohydrates
• Carbos = Sugars: C, H, O in 1:2:1
ratio (roughly CH2O).
– Monosaccharides
– Disaccharides
– Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides
• simple sugars (The building block of all larger
sugars.)
Examples of Monosaccharides:
a) Glucose - Form of simple sugar used by all
cells. From grapes & honey. (sweet!)
b) Fructose - Fruit sugar (sweet!)

Disaccharides
• Double sugar
• Formed by dehydration synthesis (removal
of water as the 2 monosaccharides bond)
Examples of Disaccharides:
a) Maltose = glucose + glucose
b) Sucrose (table sugar) = glucose + fructose
c) Lactose (milk sugar) = glucose +
galactose

Polysaccharides
• starches, chains of sugars
• Formed by dehydration synthesis (removal of
water as all the monosaccharides bond)
Examples of Polysaccharides:
a) Amylose: simple plant starch
b) Pectins: branched plant starch
c) Glycogen: branched animal starch
d) Cellulose: component of plant cell walls,
undigestible by most organisms, human dietary
fiber

Importance of Carbohydrates
a) Glucose - key metabolic fuel (energy source) of all
cells.
b) Animal Starch (Glycogen)- long term energy storage
for animal cells (stores the glucose molecules in a
form not easily used!).
c) Plant Starch (Amylose) - long term energy storage for
plant cells (stores the glucose molecules in a form that
is not easily used!)
d) Cellulose - Structural polysaccharide of cell walls.
e) Chitin - Structural polysaccharide of exoskeletons of
insects and crustaceans.
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA100

F. MUSICO
Proteins
• They are organic molecules consisting of
many amino acids bonded together.
• Amino Acids – monomers or building
blocks of all proteins

Nitrogenous Oxygen
Denaturation
Demand (NOD)
• protein shape altered with
changes in pH, • The amount of oxygen
temperature. required to convert
• Change in shape alters ammonia or organic
activity of enzyme. nitrogen forms into nitrate
[NO3-]
• Enzymes function within
a narrow range of these
factors.
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA102

F. MUSICO
Functions of Proteins & Named Examples
1) Enzyme catalysis: Enzymes help reactions occur
more easily. Example- Amylase (Converts starch
to simple sugar.)
2) Defense: Antibodies - Globular proteins that
"recognize" foreign microbes.
3) Transport- Hemoglobin (red blood cell protein).
4) Structure / Support- Collagen, which forms the
matrix of skin, ligaments, tendons and bones.
5) Motion- Actin, a muscle protein responsible for
muscle contraction.
6) Regulation- Hormones which serve as
intercellular messengers. Example - Insulin (blood
sugar regulation).

Lipids
• Organic molecules insoluble in water due
to numerous non-polar C-H bonds.
• Fats, oils, & waxes

Types of Lipids
• Triglycerides (fats)
• Phospholipids
• Steroids
• Terpenes
• Prostaglandins

NUCLEIC ACID
• Hereditary material
– Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA, master
molecule, stores hereditary information
– Ribonucleic acid: RNA, template copy
Nucleotides - monomers of nucleic acids.

DNA Nucleotide RNA Nucleotide
a) Sugar = deoxyribose a) Sugar = ribose
b) Double helix form: two b) Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T)
intertwined chains (double in RNA
stranded) Uracil (U) - Adenine (A)
Guanine (G) - Cytosine (C)
Specific base pairing, c) Single stranded helix
complementary
• Guanine (G) - Cytosine (C)
• Adenine(A) - Thymine (T)
Reference:
Mihelcic, J. and Zimmerman, J. (2012).
Chemistry. Environmental Engineering:
Fundamentals, Sustainability, Design.
John Wiley & Sons, Singapore. pp. 52-
104.
Masters, G.M., and Ela, W. P. (2008).
Environmental Chemistry. Environmental
Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall.
Pp. 47-86.
DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO

108
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Environmental Chemistry

Dr. Yvonne Ligaya F. Musico

- Lucretius (95-52 B.C.) in The Nature of

• Applied physical chemistry

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H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2H2O

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F.

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Coefficients in the chemical equation become exponents

Qc > Kc System proceeds to form reactants.

Qc < Kc System proceeds to form products.

NH3 + H2O ↔ NH4+ + OH-

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AmBn(s) mAn+ + nBm-

And the Ksp expression is

CaCO3(s) Ca2+ + CO32-

The Ksp expression is

Mg(OH)2(s)  Mg2+ + 2OH-

DR. YVONNE LIGAYA F. MUSICO 37

log (x/m) = log K + (1/n) log Ce

If log (x/m) is plotted versus log Ce, the

_1__ = _1_ + _1_ _1_

If (1/qe) is plotted versus (1/Ce), the data fit a straight line.

• Rate of reaction - the amount of

Activation Energy, Avg. Energy of Products,

Avg. Energy of Reactants, PER Endothermic Reaction

The rate law generally has a form

For the reaction above,

where k in the rate law is called the rate constant

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Has Four Bonding Electrons

Unique Strong Covalent Bonds

Strong Single, Double and Triple Bonds

Average Bond Energies (KJ mol-1)

Saturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated hydrocarbons

Alkanes Alkenes, Alkynes

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methane ethane propane butane pentane

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• Halogen atoms are

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• Containing double bond are alkenes.

• Containing triple bonds are alkynes.

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Alkene names change the end to -ene.

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Arene: A compound containing one or more benzene rings.

Eth ylb enzene Eth ylbeenzene

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